ZOO 3731 Exam 3 Ch 16-22

ciliary muscle

The muscle responsible for altering the shape of the lens.

retina

The sensory layer of the eye.

between ventricular contractions the blood pressure will

• between ventricular contractions the blood pressure will therefore drop because the heart's not pumping anymore and so the elastic walls of the elastic arteries will recoil, you know decrease in diameter to maintain blood pressure. continuing to move blood along even when the ventricles are relaxed.

sounds waves are going to come in where and make what move?

• but you're going to have a sound wave that's going to come in here it's going to bump into your tympanic membrane. your tympanic membrane is going to vibrate and it's going to make your auditory ossicles move. now we didn't talk about the auditory ossicles yet but you do have three auditory ossicles: 1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes

by doing this either stimulating one and inhibiting the others it's sort of going to give you

• by doing this either stimulating one and inhibiting the others it's sort of going to give you your equilibrium because it's going to give you where you are at that specific time and this is what gives you your equilibrium.

caval system

• caval system is draining blood from the lower limb the pelvis the kidneys and the liver.

right coronary artery

• coming off the aorta passes in the coronary sulcus and it divides the right atrium and right ventricle

sphincter function

• contraction of the sphincter is going to narrow the diameter of the capillary entrance and therefore it will reduce or maybe even stop the flow of blood to the capillary bed • so these pre capillary sphincters have a direct influence on exactly how much blood will pass through the capillary and therefore how much blood is available for gas exchange.

deep brachial artery

• deep brachial artery which supplies deeper tissues in the arm and that is this one right here.

rectum

• ends at the rectum which would be responsible for expelling the feces out of the body

What are the two pathways of blood circulation?

There are two pathways or circuits that begin and end at the heart these circuits are divided: - based on whether or not the blood is traveling to and from the lungs which is referred to as the *pulmonary circuit* - or is traveling to and from all of the other tissues in the body that are not the lungs and this is referred to as the *systemic circuit*.

genicular arteries

• genicular arteries they supply tissues in the knee region

_______________ junctions connect cardiac muscle cells that allow the passage of ion and small molecules

• in addition there are *gap junctions* that connect cardiac muscle cells that allow the passage of ions and small molecules quickly between adjacent cells. this creates a direct electrical connection between the muscle cells so when there's a stimulus for a contraction or an action potential influencing the heart it can move quickly from one cardiac muscle cell to another as if the membranes were continuous with each other.

The two sets of veins of the abdomen and pelvis is

• in terms of the veins of the abdomen and pelvis there are actually two sets of veins two groupings or systems there's the caval system which is on this slide and the portal system.

superior vena cava

• in this view you can see the superior vena cava that would be draining deoxygenated blood from above the heart. • Superior vena cava is also part of the systemic circuit

Nociceptors 3 types aka

aka: pain receptors Three types: 1)Receptors sensitive to extreme temperatures 2)Receptors sensitive to mechanical damage 3)Receptors sensitive to chemicals

why is it called arachnoid?

arachnoid is called arachnoid because it does look like a spider web.

Thermoreceptors are (book)

are phasic receptors. They are very active when the temperature is changing, but quickly adapt to a stable temperature. When you enter an air-conditioned classroom on a hot summer day, the temperature change seems extreme at first, but you quickly become comfortable as adaptation occurs.

so how did they initially number them?

basically on how they appear on the base of the brain so you can see right over here at the tip of the base of the brain so more frontal or anterior that's your cranial nerve number one

Why is blood considered a fluid connective tissue?

blood is considered a fluid connective tissue because it contains *specialized cells, extracellular protein fibers, and ground substances* all of the characteristics of connective tissue. It also happens to be fluid.

Which of the following separates the motor information from sensory information?

central sulcus

olfactory nerves are going to pass through those little holes that are present in your _____

cribriform plate.

when we need to plan complex movements and elaboration of thoughts it's going to go all the way to the

front of the cerebral cortex.

Function of the limbic system

functions of the limbic system basically it's there to establish emotional states it's going to link your cautious functions with the unconscious autonomic functions and it's also going to facilitate memory storage and retrieval

the lobes are going to be localized in the same places where your bones were localized with the exception of the..........

occipital lobe because the occipital bone would sort of enclose the cerebellum also but when we're talking about the cerebrum your occipital lobe is just going to be this part up here.

plasma proteins

our proteins that assist with the transportation of ions, hormones , and lipids and include some enzymes.

• majority of blood is composed of a fluid called

plasma.

Baroreceptors of Carotid sinus and Aortic Sinus

provide information on blood pressure to cardiovascular and respiratory

Baroreceptors of Lung

provide information on lung stretching to respiratory rhythmicity centers for control of respiratory rate.

baroreceptors of colon

provide information on volume of fecal material in colon, trigger defecation reflex

Baroreceptors of bladder wall

provide information on volume of urinary bladder, trigger urinary reflex

Which structure prevents backflow into the right ventricle?

pulmonary valve

aqueous humor is going to be produced by?

so the aqueous humor is going to be produced by the cells present here in the ciliary body

Secondary Brain Vesicles

(6 week embryo) then around six weeks we see over here that the: 1)prosencephalon is going to divide into two main: Telecephalon and Diencephalon. -The Telemcephalon forms the cerebrum -the diencephalon it forms the diencephalon -but the diencephalon is comprised of the epithalamus and the hypothalamus. -the mesencephalon does not subdivide and it becomes the midbrain so once you are borned mesencephalon becomes what we call the midbrain. -Rhombencephalon is going to subdivide into two parts: 1) metencephalon:is going to give rise to the cerebellum and the pons. 2)myelencephalon:is going to give rise to the medulla oblongata.

hepatic veins

the hepatic veins we already identified are the ones that are attached to the inferior vena cava and they're draining the liver

• in the lower limb are branches off of

the iliac arteries

The purkinje cell layer is going to contain

the middle layer which is the Purkinje cell layer is going to contain this *cell body of the Purkinje cells*,

why is it called tricuspid valve and bicuspid?

the tricuspid valve is called that because it has three cusps or three individual segments to the valve itself • two cusps hence bicuspid

what structures are in the middle of the brain or cerebrum?

- diencephalon -mesencephalon -pons -medulla oblongata

name the lobes that divide the cerebrum

- frontal lobe -parietal lobe -occipital lobe -temporal lobe

what forms the sensory nerve?

- hair cell - kinocilium -stereocilia

mamillary bodies

-hypothalamus - control feeding reflexes (licking , swallowing)

preoptic area

-hypothalamus -regulates body temperature via control of autonomic centers in the medulla oblongata

Gustatory epithelial cells

-or taste receptors are found in taste buds that are distributed over the tongue surface and adjacent portions of the pharynx and larynx -Each gustatory cell extends microvilli, sometimes called taste hairs, into the surrounding fluids through a narrow opening, the taste pore.

The heart major vessels?

-superior vena cava -ascending aorta -pulmonary trunk

Heart: Conduction Step 1

1. step one the SA node depolarizes and initiates an electrical impulse (node activity begins)

Tactile Receptors in the Skin' how many different types of tactile receptors?

8

two major compartments of the eye

we have what we call an anterior cavity then we have on the back a posterior cavity.

referred pain has to do with

with spinal nerves that innervate the viscera and surfaces of your skin.

within the ampullae we have the _______ which contain?

within the ampullae we have the *cupola* like I said is going to contain hair cells.

Broca's area

word formation

so right at the beginning of these semicicurlar ducts structure we have these structures that are called

• *ampullae* so it's just an enlargement of the ducts and these ampullae are going to contain what we call *cristae*

both coronary arteries sit inside of what's referred to as the

• *coronary sulcus* and that's this depression here all around the heart that separates the atria from the ventricles

The two major arteries in the coronary circuit

• *left coronary artery and a right coronary artery* both of these originate at the base of the acsending aorta and *form the first branches coming off of the aorta.*

on the tip of the olfactory receptor we're going to have what we called your ________

• *olfactory cilia* so little hairs that receive the protein that's going to be smelled

Elastic Artery

• *the largest arteries in the body* are called elastic arteries and these are large vessels with *diameters of up to an inch*. so they obviously transport large volumes of blood away from the heart -so examples of these would be the *pulmonary trunk the aorta and there are major branches*. • so common carotid, subclavian, common iliac arteries are all examples that we're going to discuss later and identify these are elastic arteries. • in these vessels the *tunica media has a higher density of elastic fibers than it does smooth muscle fibers and this allows the walls of these arteries to stretch to accommodate the surge of blood that passes* through them when the heart contracts and ejects blood into these arteries. -when this happens it creates hydrostatic pressure in the arteries caused by the ventricles contracting and that's referred to as the systolic blood pressure

What is close to the vestibulocochlear nerve?

• I want you to notice how your cranial nerve number seven which is your facial nerve is going to be very close to your vestibulocochlear nerve right over here

falx cerebelli (textbook description)

The falx cerebelli divides the two cerebellar hemispheres. It extends midsagitally, inferior to the tentorium cerebelli.

Falx cerebri (textbook description)

The falx cerebri (falks ser-Ē-brē; falx, curving or sickle-shaped) is a fold of dura mater found between the cerebral hemispheres in the longitudinal fissure. The falx cerebri attaches to the crista galli (anteriorly) and the internal occipital crest and tentorium cerebelli (posteriorly). Two large venous sinuses, the superior sagittal sinus and the inferior sagittal sinus, lie within this dural fold.

Primary Brain Vesicles

(3 week embryo) So if you look over here the cephalic area is going to be divided into three parts: 1) the prosencephalon 2)the mesencephalon 3)rhombencephalon.( this occurs around the third to fourth week of development)

the serous layer

• of the parietal pericardium is what secretes the pericardial fluid.

off of the posterior tibial artery is a branch called

• off of the posterior tibial artery is a branch called the fibular artery

right atrioventricular valve

• right atrioventricular valve or the tricuspid valve so you can see that this is the passageway from the right atrium down into the right ventricle

What dictates how quickly the blood is pumped?

• so as a reminder the heart regulates blood flow in that *it's rate of contraction* dictates how quickly the blood is pumped

semicircular ducts are going to contain

• so if you notice over here the semicircular ducts are going to contain the *ampullae*

Example of fast and slow pain

• so like when you poke your finger on a pin then that's a fast type of sensation. when you burn your hand that's a slow type of pain because it lasts a very long time even after the fire goes out you can still feel pain in your hand for example for a few days okay so that's the that one of the differences between the fast and slow type of pain.

the cephalic drains the

• so the cephalic drains the back of the hand and this is because if you look at how the cephalic is running it's coming from the back of the hand and then it twists and comes to the front of the upper limb and then up into the shoulder so you can see that here so it's at the back and then it comes around to the front

what are the two sections of the descending aorta and what divides them?

• so the entire aorta that exists past the arch is called the descending aorta because it's headed inferiorly but the section of it that's in the thoracic cavity is called the *thoracic aorta* • actually passed through into the abdomen is called the *abdominal aorta* and where that distinction is made is the *diaphragm* because remember the diaphragm is a landmark that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.

blood reservoir

• so the structure of veins helps explain how there is more blood in the vein of system it doesn't explain why there's more blood there. • the venous system acts as a blood reservoir* if they're serious hemorrhaging the medulla oblongata will stimulate sympathetic nerves that are innervating those smooth muscle cells in the walls of medium-sized veins and when these sympathetic nerves stimulate the muscle cells it's going to cause the veins to constrict. so this vasoconstriction is going to reduce the volume of the venous system because it's going to push blood out into the arterial system.* • so reducing the amount of blood in the vainest system and pushing it on through into the arterial system will help maintain roughly normal blood volume levels in the arterial system even though there's significant blood loss in the individual • *this will allow oxygen and nutrients to reach tissues within the body until the individual can recover* until they can get to the hospital or some sort of medical intervention can occur

• systolic blood pressure

• systolic blood pressure is the top number in someone's blood pressure reading

the aortic valve

• the aorticvalve regulates blood coming from the left ventricle being pumped into the aorta.

the cardiovascular system can be divided into three main parts:

• the heart • the blood vessels • the blood

inferior vena cava

• the inferior vena cavas draining blood back to the heart from below the heart

the largest artery in the lower limb

• the largest artery in the lower limb is the femoral artery and this comes from the external iliac artery so the external iliac artery turns into the femoral it's another one of those name changers are not a branching pattern

The lumen is where

• the lumen is where the blood passes

major blood vessels would ?

• the major blood vessels these would of course divide and branch into smaller and smaller blood vessels and eventually there would be microscopic capillaries where the gas exchange would occur with the heart wall tissue

the median cubital vein is where blood is

• the median cubital vein is where blood is drawn if it's drawn from the upper limb

portal system

• the portal system on the other hand is draining a lot of the other organs. these organs have a high level of toxins that need to be filtered by the liver and so they're gonna go directly to the liver first to be filtered before that Blood returns to the heart through the caval system.

the pulmonary valve

• the pulmonary valve regulates blood flowing from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk

semilunar valve

• the semilunar valves regulate the flow of blood between a ventricle and a major vessel

What regulates the speed of contraction?

• the speed of contraction is of course regulated by the nervous system

obturator artery

• there is also an artery called the obturator artery which is named that because it passes through the obturator foramen and this supplies the thigh as well and it comes off of the internal iliac artery • so back when I said the internal iliac artery supplies structures in the pelvis I was generalizing it also has the obturator artery which supplies the thigh as well

coordinated contraction is controlled by ?

• this coordinated contraction is controlled by specialized cardiac muscle cells that are part of the conduction system

What type of receptor is thermoreceptor? Give an example

• this is a type of what we call a phasic receptor: so this is why when you are outside let's say here in Florida and it's very hot and humid and you walk into our classroom on some days and it's very very cold and as soon as you walk in you feel the coldness but after a while your body sort of adjusts to the temperature and you don't feel as cold. so this is your typical example of a phasic receptor

if you're moving your head in the no position so from one side to the other

• you're gonna be stimulating your lateral semicircular duct.

white blood cells

•are specialized cells of the immune system which we're not going to talk about specifically but just know that they are responsible for defending the body against pathogens.

optic chiasm

•part of the innervation that is on your right eye is going to maintain on the same side of the brain and the other half is actually going to start over here but it's going to cross over to the other side of the brain same thing with your left eye so part of it stays on the same side of the brain and the other part crosses over to the other side. -so this area where they cross over is called optic chiasm. (* crossing point of the optic nerves*)

Retinal Organization

•this is just showing you how the retina is going to be organized so the light is going to come through here once it comes through here it goes all the way back to the rods and cones. the rods are going to be detecting black and white and the cones is going to be detecting colored structure. from here it's going to • synapse with a few cells we have that bipolar cells and the amacrine cells • but the one that I want you to know and remember is the last cell which is your *ganglion cells which is actually the one that's going to come together and exit to form your optic nerve .*

Otolith positions when head in neutral and titled posteriorly position

•this structure on the bottom so if your head is in neutral position basically the statoconia is going to be on top and nothing is going to be moving •but if you tilt your head posteriorly then the statoconia sort of moves moving your gelatin and therefore moving the hair cells and this in return stimulates the hair receptors

Receptors

•we know that receptors we have several different types of receptors these receptors are going to be responsible for characteristic sensitivity and this all has to do with where the information is going to arrive in your central nervous system. -we have a variety of different types of receptors the most simplest one is what we see over here on this figure it's called the *free nerve ending* and it's going to respond to a variety of stimuli •and again the reason we're able to differentiate this variety of stimuli is where the end point of the stimuli is going to be. we can have more complex types of receptors like the ones we have on the retina that are going to be very specific and will only respond to light.

when you're tilting your head to one side or to the other side what's going to be moving the cupola is going to be the

•when you're tilting your head to one side or to the other side what's going to be moving the cupola is going to be the *endolymph that's inside of your semicircular ducts *so it's either going to cause the kinocilium to bend on top of the stereocilia and if this happens then you're inhibiting the signal or it's going to cause the stereocilia to bend on top of the kinocilium and if that happens then you're going to be stimulating the transmission of the signal.

cornea

•which is a continuation of the sclera

tympanic membrane

•which is this membrane that's made up of a very thin connective tissue and it's very sensitive

vestibulocochlear nerve

•which is your cranial nerve number eight which is what's going to detect the sound right. have a part that's going to be connected to the vestibule and a part that's going to be connected to the cochlea so that's why we call it the vestibulocochlear nerve.

The Hypoglossal Nerve Primary function Innervation foramen

(CN XII) Primary function: -motor Innervation -Tongue musculature (allow tongue to move) • Pass through the hypoglossal canal.it's going to pass right below the tongue

Peripheral (sensory) adaptation

(PNS) -Phasic receptors - Fast-adapting receptors -Tonic receptors - slow-adapting receptors (they usually show very little peripheral adaptation) When a receptor or sensory neuron alters its level of activity, peripheral (sensory) adaptation occurs

Blood Flow (left side) Step 1

(blood flowed through the left side of the heart is very similar to that of the right side except that at this point it's oxygenated and if the blood is being pumped not to the lungs through the pulmonary circuit but to the peripheral tissues through the systemic circuit.) 1. oxygenated blood would be returning from the lungs to the left atrium entering through the pulmonary veins which you can see two of them here the other two are shown by these arrows so shows all four pulmonary veins draining blood into the left atrium

Mechanoreceptors

*Sensitive to stimuli that stretch, compress, twist, or distort their plasmalemma.* •are the ones that are going to be sensitive to any type of distortion that occurs on your usually on your skin but it can also occur in certain type of organs and also on joints and muscles and basically they're examples of these distortions are things like when you're stretching your skin or you're stretching your muscle you're compressing also your skin you can be twisting certain types of body parts and anything that will distort the membrane of a cell or of your receptor is going to cause this type of sensation.

ciliary body

*The ciliary body consists of the ciliary muscle, a muscular ring projecting into the anterior of the eye.* At its periphery, the iris attaches to the anterior portion of the ciliary body. The ciliary body begins at the junction of the cornea and sclera and extends posteriorly to the ora serrata

Inner is going to be constituted of the

*oval window* , •cochlea which is the c-shell structure •round window -vestibulocochlear nerve

Medulla Oblongata:

- *relay sensory information to the thalamus and to other portions of the brain stem.* (when we're talking about brain stem we're talking about mesencephalon and pons together) -*Autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function (cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive system activities).* (now the main function of the medulla oblongata is to regulate heart rate, regulate blood pressure and also to help with digestion. so very diverse types of functions.)

Pons

- *relays sensory information to cerebellum and thalamus.* what type of information are we going to have from the pons ? basically it's going to regulate somatic and visceral motor centers. So somatic we know that it's skeletal muscle and visceral motor we know it's smooth muscle. for example so it has to do with organs right so that's the function of the pons so you can see that it's going to be located right over here on the brainstem so the base of the brain. so things like control of visceral motor centers are things that we don't have to think about right so it doesn't have to go all the way up to your cerebrum it stays at the level of the pons. - *subconscious somatic and visceral motor centers*

Right Hemispheric Specialization

- Analysis by touch -spatial visualization and analysis (more central than general interpretive center)

The Optic Nerve primary function Innervation foramen

- CN II Primary function: -Special sensory (sight) Innervation -Retina of eye (originates on the retina and the retina is going to be located on the back of the eye.) - optic canal

Classification of Receptors

- Tonic receptors -Phasic receptors -combine both

Hypothalamus:

- is going to be right below the thalamus. the hypothalamus is very important it's going to be involved in *emotions because that's where you're going to have your part of your limbic system* it's going to be involved with *thirst and some of your habitual activities* also have to do with the hypothalamus.

tentorium cerebelli

- is going to be this part right over here that's going to *cover your cerebellum and basically it's going to separate your cerebrallur hemisphere from your cerebral hemisphere*. this one also has a sinus which is called a *transverse sinus* (within the tentorium cerebella).

Hypothalamus: importance? formes what? infundibulum pituitary gland mammillary body

- it's going to have certain structures that are going to be important for *production of different types of hormones* -important for a lot of the main functions like control *blood pressure, control heart rate, sort of tells you if you're hungry if you're thirsty your sexual desire* -is going to *form the floor of the third ventricle*. so on top of the thalamus you're going to have your epi thalamus and therefore your hypothalamus is going to be right over here below the thalamus. - *infundibulum* -which basically is going to connect the hypothalamus to your pituitary gland. -*pituitary gland* is going to be important for lots of different hormonal secretions too. -* mammillary body* is going to be located on the posterior wall of the hypothalamus.

Thalamus formed by what? divided by what? what are the compartments?

- it's goingto be *formed by the walls also of the third ventricle* and there is going to be a right and left what we call right and left thalamus and they're going to be the divided by the *interthalamic adhesion.* -so there's going to be like a l little dot that we call interthalamic adhesion and therefore on one side of the hemisphere you're going to have the *right thalamus on the other side of the hemisphere you're going to have the left thalamus*. - as you can see it has sort of this egg-shaped structure right over here and it has *several different compartments and if you can look over here we're going to have what we call anterior group, a medial group ,a ventral group, a posterior group that's subdivided into three other groups and the lateral group*. - but you should know that in the thalamus that's where about *95% of your sensory information is going to be passing through the thalamus* and we did talk about this previously and from here you should know where it goes to okay so you should know that it's going to go to structures that are going to be located posterior to the central sulcus.

Lateral Ventricles:

- left and right lateral ventricles(they look like little horns) -They are seperated by the *septum pellucidum* -so *there really isn't any communication between your lateral ventricles* so if you have a fluid that's passing through your right lateral ventricle over here and through your left lateral ventricle over here. they're not going to be able to communicate with each other because they have a septum right here down the middle that separates the two lateral ventricles.

molecular layer is going to contain

- now the outermost the molecular layer is going to contain the *dendrites of the Purkinje cells.*

The central sulcus divides

- primary motor cortex and somatic motor association area from the primary sensory cortex and the somatic sensory association area

Tuberal nuclei

- produces inhibitory and releasing hormones that control endocrine cells of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland -hypothalamus

Baroreceptors

-*Detect pressure changes in walls of blood vessels and in portions of digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts* -going to be very important because basically they're going to detect the differences in pressure and that's going to be important because it's going to work together with your blood vessels to either increase the influx or decrease that influx the sortof control your blood pressure and it's also going to work together with your digestive system ,reproductive, and urinary. so bare receptors are very very important.

Phasic receptors

-*Provide information on the intensity and rate of change of a stimulus* -basically they're usually inactive and when it needs to be stimulated they're going to be active for usually short periods of time. so they're not always active like the tonic receptors. so phasic for phase so that means that they're going to be active for a short period of time.

Chemoreceptors function respond only too? can be found in

-*Specialized neurons that can detect small changes in concentration of specific chemicals or compounds* In general: -*Respond only to water-soluble and lipid soluble substances dissolved in surrounding fluid* • they're going to detect small changes in the concentration of certain chemicals that are present in our body they are going to be responsible to responding to water soluble and lipid soluble substances and they're going to be found in *respiratory centers of the medulla oblongata the carotid arteries and the aortic arch.*

Cerebrum:

-*conscious thought processes, intellectual functions* - *memory storage and processing* -*conscious and subconscious regulation of skeletal muscle contractions*

cerebellum

-*coordinates complex somatic motor patterns* -*adjusts output of others somatic motor centers in brain and spinal cord*

Tonic receptors

-Always active -now the tonic receptor it says receptor that's always going to be active. so for example the *photoreceptors of your eyes are always going to be active receptors that are constantly monitoring our body position always going to be active.*

The Olfactory Nerve Primary Function Innervation

-CN I Primary function: -Special sensory (smell) Innervation -olfactory epithelium (originate on the olfactory epithelium)

The Oculomotor Nerve Primary Function Innervation going to pass through

-CN III Primary function: -Motor (eye movement) Innervation -Inferior, medial, superior rectus, inferior oblique, and levator palpebrae muscles, intrinsic muscles of eye -so it's going to pass through your *superior orbital fissure*

The Trochlear Nerve Primary Function Innervation going to pass through

-CN IV Primary function: -Motor (eye movement) Innervation -Superior oblique muscle • going to pass through your superior orbital fissure.

The Glossopharyngeal Nerve primary function innervation foramen

-CN IX Primary function: -Mixed Innervation -Sensory from tongue, pharynx and palate -Motor to pharyngeal muscles, parotid salivary gland -jugular foramen

The Trigeminal Nerve

-CN V o *ophthalmic branch*: meaning that it's going to innervate your eye. o *maxillary branch* like the name says it's going to innervate your maxilla o *mandibular branch* so like the name says it's going to innervate your mandible. (mixed)

The Abducens Nerve primary function innervation going to pass through

-CN VI Primary function: -Motor (eye movement) Innervation: -Lateral rectus muscle (elevate) -going to pass through the superior orbital fissure.

The Facial Nerve primary function innervation going to pass through

-CN VII Primary function: -Mixed Innervation -Sensory to taste receptors on tongue (origin: tastebuds) -Motor to muscles of facial expression, lacrimal gland, submandibular and sublingual salivary glands (origin:pons so right above the medulla oblongata ) o in terms of foramen it's going to pass through your *internal acoustic meatus.*

The Vestibulocochlear Nerve primary function innervation going to pass through

-CN VIII Primary function: -Special sensory - balance and equilibrium (vestibular branch) and hearing (cochlear branch) Innervation -Cochlea and vestibule -pass right over here through your internal acoustic meatus.

The Vagus Nerve Primary function Innervation foramen

-CN X Primary function: -Mixed Innervation -Sensory from pharynx; auricle and external acoustic meatus; diaphragm; visceral organs in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities -Motor to palatal and pharyngeal muscles, and visceral organs in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities - jugular foramen

The Accessory Nerve

-CN XI Primary function: -Motor (internal branch and external branch) Innervation -olfactory epithelium of palate, pharynx and larynx (internal branch) -Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles (external branch) -jugular foramen

Perception

-Conscious awareness of a sensation -But when you actually feel the sensation so you're aware of the sensation then it's called perception just because you haven't sensation doesn't mean that you're conscious about it doesn't mean that you're aware of this sensation only when it's perception that's when it means that you're conscious of this sensation so you're aware that it exists.

Thermoreceptors location (4)

-Dermis of skin -Skeletal muscles -Liver -Hypothalamus

The diencephalon consists of:

-Epithalamus:where the pineal gland is going to be located -Thalamus -Hypothalamus

Sensory Coding The identity of the active neuron indicates:

-Location of the stimulus -Nature of the stimulus (this sensory coding is basically going to Provide information about the strength, duration, variation, and movement of the stimulus) -so it all depends on location and nature of stimulus where the information is going to be received and where the information is going to go to.

Proprioceptors

-Monitor positions of joints and muscles -Most complex of the general sensory receptors (going to monitor the position of joints and muscles and therefore it's going to give us our position and this is basically the most complex of the general sensory receptors and remember that it combines the tonic and the phasic receptors. so it combines both of them so that's why it's a little bit complicated.)

Cold and warm receptors

-No structural differences -Cold 3X more numerous than warm -*Conducted along the same pathways that carry pain sensations* -Are phasic receptors (really two different types of receptors we have the cold and the warm receptors and a combination of them will give you every temperature in between.•they do use the same type of receptors.) -The receptors are free nerve endings that detect changes in temperature.

Tactile receptors

-Provide sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration

Sensation

-Sensory information arriving at the CNS -initially we have information is going to be received or pick up by sensory receptors and these sensory receptors are going to take this information to the central nervous system so the fact that they're taking the information to the central nervous system is called a sensation.

Special Senses

-Smell, taste, balance, hearing, vision -Sensations provided by specialized receptor cells

The Trigeminal Nerve

-So trigeminal is very important it gives several innervations to your face you can see that it goes basically after it leaves these main branches it goes everywhere into your face, into your nose, into your mouth. so because it's a big nerve it's going to give you two functions: -so you're going to have a sensory and a motor function for this muscle or for this nerve .

General senses

-Temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception -Sensations arrive at the primary sensory cortex

The anterior cavity it's filled with a liquid that's called ___________ and the posterior cavity is filled with a liquid that's called ___________

-The anterior cavity it's filled with a liquid that's called *aqueous humor* and the posterior cavity is filled with a liquid that's called *vitreous body*

What constitutes the dura mater?

-The dura mater has these invaginations or folds we that are going to form specific structures in your brain so they're going to be made up of this collagens thick fiber that's what's constitutes the dura mater. so they're basically four of them

Combine Both

-Very complicated - proprioceptors -when you combine both the tonic and phasic receptors this is gives you a very complicated type of input and stimulus and basically this is done by your proprioceptors which is telling you where you are in space and time.

Mesencephalon: AKA

-also called the midbrain -*processing of visual and auditory data* - it's also going to be helpful for maintaining your consciousness and your alertness and it's going to be involved with reflexive somatic motor responses to stimuli. so even though it's somatic motor so it's skeletal muscle but it's reflexive type of response. so yeah things again that you don't have to think about so stays at the level of the mesencephalon. down here and it doesn't have to go all the way to the cerebrum so things that you don't really have to think about. -*generation of reflexive somatic motor responses* -* maintenance of consciousness*

Posterior chamber and anterior chamber is going to be divided by ?

-and the posterior chamber and anterior chamber is going to be divided over here by the *ciliary body and the iris* - but for both of these compartments we're going to have aqueous humor circulating through it.

We have three semicircular ducts

-anterior -lateral -posterior • and if you notice these ducts they're all positioned differently and this is what's going to give us a sensation of equilibrium

Name the four valves

-aortic (semilunar) valve -pulmonary (semilunar) valve -Right atrioventricular/ tricuspid valve -Left atrioventricular/ Bicuspid valve

how do we detect different smells?

-basically these epithelial receptors they're going to have different sensitivities and according to the *different sensitivities were able to detect different smells* so it all has to do with the sensitivity some people are able to be more sensible to certain types of smells and other people are going to prefer different smells and that's all has to do with the sensitivity of each individual.

Cerebellum:

-cerebellum basically means a small brain so it does look actually like a little tiny brain and even the histology of it and we're going to see later on so it has different layers like the cerebral and the way the the cells are are layered it's going to be very similar to the cerebrum. so that's why it's called a little cerebrum. - it's going to coordinate somatic motor function so all somatic again has to do with muscles so it's going to be able to coordinate. -*when you're walking if cerebellum is going to make sure that your muscles are moving in a certain way in a certain pattern so you're not tumbling down* and falling over things. okay *so it's going to make sure that it coordinates this function and it's also going to adjust this output basically resulting in what we call a smooth operation*. okay so when you're trying to do things that have to do with a lot of muscle control it all has to do with your cerebellum because cerebellum is sort of controlling all these muscle movements.

Cerebellum what divides the right and left hemisphere? 3 main cell types

-cerebellum means that it's a small brain therefore it does look like a little tiny brain on the back of your skull. - you're going to have a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere but we are going to have a structure right *down the middle that divides the right and left hemisphere that's called a vermis* - we have three main cell types or three main layers of the cerebellum: 1) so if you look over here the outer layer is what we call *molecular layer.* 2)then we have this layer right over here that contains these cell bodies and these are the *Purkinje cells* so this layer is called the Purkinje cell layer. 3)and then the last layer which is this internal layer right over here is what we call the *granule cell layer.* -*in terms of function it's basically going to control a lot of the motor activities especially things that we don't have to think much about or your subconscious coordination of movements like walking jogging *

Systole (Contraction)

-chamber ejects blood -increased chamber pressure o at any point during the cardiac cycle a heart chamber is either going to be contracted which is referred to as systole

Diastole (Relaxation)

-chamber fills w/ blood -reduced chamber pressure it's going to be relaxed which is referred to as diastole

structures that are a apart of the limbic system

-cingulate gyrus - parahippocampal gyrus (limbic lobe) - hippocampus ( within dentate gyrus) -mamillary body

Taste 3 different forms of papillae

-circumvallate papilla (contians taste buds) -fungiform papilla (contains taste buds) -filiform papillae

External Ear Parts

-external acoustic meatus -tympanic membrane -auricle -ceruminous gland

Falx cerebelli what sinus is located in here?

-going to be located posterior right over here and basically it's going to extend from your tentorium cerebelli right over here and *it's going to separate your cerebral hemispheres*. -so the same way that you have a longitudinal fissure here that separates your cerebrum you're going to have in your cerebellum you're going to have different hemispheres. so that's what the falx cerebri is going to do is *sort of going to come right in here and separate your cerebellum*. and we do have a sinus on this falx cerebelli and it's it's called the occipital sinus. so itsort of makes sense that because your falx cerebri is located right here in the back that this sinus would be called your *occipital sinus*.

suprachiasmatic nucleus

-hypothalamus -regulates daily (circadian )rhythms

supraoptic nucles

-hypothalamus -secretes antidiuertics hormone, restricting water loss at the kidneys

Autonomic centers

-hypothalmus -sympathetic and parasympathetic -control heart and blood pressure via regulation of autonomic centers in the medulla oblongata

choroid plexus

-if you notice over here in this area where we have the choroid plexus right over here that *endothelial cells are actually going to have spaces between them so that we call them fenestrated*. okay so there aren't going to be spaces between these endothelial cells. -if you look over here these spaces are going to allow way more things to pass through compared to when you have the tight junction of the endothelial cells so *there's a lot more influx and efflux of nutrients and waste products in the choroid plexus.* -*within the areas where we have the endothelial cells being present or forming these tight junctions.the ependymal cells are going to have spaces between* them where things can actually enter from the interstitial fluid in the thalamus to the cerebral -however the *choroid plexus where your endothelial cells are very spaced out and you have way more products going in and out these ependymal cells are going to be way tighter* right over here. okay *so very few things that are actually entering and exiting from your capillaries are going to be able to come into your third ventricle okay so it's sort of a protective mechanism.*

choroid

-inner structure -The choroid (KOR-oyd) is a vascular layer that separates the fibrous layer and the inner layer posterior to the ora serrata. (vascular coat of the eyeball; deeply pigented)

fornix

-is going to *connect the white matter of the hippocampus to the hypothalamus*. -now not only the fibers that extend all the way to the fornix from the hippocampus but they can also extend all the way to your mamillary body -so the fibers that are going to *communicate the hippocampus and the hypothalamus can also extend to the mamillary bodies*

central sulcus

-is going to be important because it's going to divide the hemisphere into anterior and posterior. - it varies from person to person it even varies from hemisphere to hemisphere within the same person. - so the central sulcus basically it's going to define not only anterior and posterior but it's also going to divide motor information from sensory information. (frontal lobe from parietal lobe)

third ventricle is going to be in the ?

-is going to be in the diencephalon (then further down you're going to have your fourth ventricle.)

falx cerebri extends into what? and contains what?

-is the one that's going to *extend into what we call the longitudinal fissure*. when you have your brain if you go back to the previous slide you're going to see that there is going to be sort of a little line that goes down a little bit right down the middle and this is what we call your longitudinal fissure. okay *so right within the longitudinal fissure you're going to have the falx cerebri.* - falx cerebri is going to contain what we call these *sinuses that are going to supply blood to the brain or actually the structures within this area.* - falx cerebri has two sinuses it has what we call a *superior sagittal sinus* which is the structure right over here on down the middle - we also have what we call an *inferior sagittal* sinus and it's going to be right over here. so *these blood vessels that are supplying blood to this area is going to be called the inferior and superior sagittal sinus* and they're going to be within your falx cerebri so that's why they're both colored in blue.

Epithalamus

-like the name says epi on top of the thalamus and -epithalamus is going to be where your *3rd ventricle is going to be located* -other structure that we can find on the epithalamus that's important is going to be your pineal gland. *so your pineal gland is important especiallybecause it produces melatonin, melatonin and therefore it also regulates your day and night cycle*

What forms the brain stem?

-medulla oblongata - mesencephalon -pons

Semicircular Canals and Ducts: membranous labyrinth bony labyrinth

-membranous labyrinth so it's a membranous or a membrane that's going to be filled with a liquid that's called endolymph -bony labyrinth which is going to be filled with perilymph so it's a liquid on the outside.

Interventricular foramen

-now there is an *opening at the end or at the bottom part of your lateral ventricles that's going to be called this* - so your interventricular foramen is going to be a structure right down here that's where your right or your *left and right lateral ventricles are going to release the contents into the third ventricle*. so *how the third ventricle connects with your lateral ventricles through this interventricular foramen so it makes sense.*

Inner Ear

-oval window -cochlea -round window -vestibulocochlear nerve -facial nerve - membranous labyrinth -semicircular canals -vestibule -utricle -saccule

Tactile receptors: Free nerve ending

-pain ( so nociceptors) - thermal so controlling temperature but it also controls touch.

paraventricular nucleus

-part of the hypothalamus -secretes oxytocin, stimulating smooth muscle contractions in uterus and mammary glands

lamellated corpuscle

-pressure -Lamellar corpuscles are most sensitive to pulsing or vibrating stimuli, but they also respond to deep pressure.

diaphragma sellae

-so folds of your dura mater that are sort of penetrating into your brain or into your cerebellum or in the case of your *diaphragm sellae over here it's going to penetrate inside the sella turcica of the sphenoid.* -you're going to have an in fold of dura that's *going to line the sella turcica and inside here we're going to have the pituitary gland* -the pituitary gland is a very important gland for releasing several different hormones so it needs to be very protected - okay so the diaphragma sellae does not have a sinus but I did color-coded in green the pituitary gland because basically that's what's important about the diaphragm sellae. where you have the pituitary gland sitting right in there.

Special Senses

-so special senses has to do with things like smell, taste, balance, hearing, and vision and these are going to involve special sensory receptors that are going to be located in these complex senses organs like your eyes, your ears, and your taste buds. and in the case of smell it's going to be located in your nose. okay so these are special senses and everything else is what we call general senses. - when we're talking about special senses we're talking about them for example if we're talking about visual we're talking about information that's going to arrive specifically in your either called visual cortex or your occipital lobe. if you're talking about taste that we're talking about your information that's going to be arrived in specific areas of your brain . the smell right because we know the smell will be right over here in the front of your cerebrum.

capillaries

-so the capillaries are the smallest vessels capillaries connect the *smallest veins to the smallest arteries and it's where gas exchange occurs*. -so there are capillaries in the lungs and there are capillaries in the peripheral tissues it's the thin walls of the capillaries that permit the exchange of nutrients dissolved gases and waste products between blood and the surrounding tissue

venules characteristic and function

-so venules are the smallest veins and they function to collect blood from the capillaries -the smallest venules pretty much resemble capillaries and they lack a tunica media altogether and that's what's depicted here in this image

Step 2 of the blood circulation

-so we have to pump it towards the lungs so that we can pick up oxygen so the right ventricle is going to pump up through into the pulmonary arteries which will carry the blood away from the heart to the lungs drop off co2 pick up oxygen . -the blood vessels that carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs after the gas exchange has occurred and goes back to the heart those blood vessels are called *pulmonary veins.* (pulmonary circuit)

blood brain barrier

-so we know that the blood brain barrier basically you're going to have *endothelial cells that are going to be covering the blood vessels they're going to have very tight junctions.* and when they do have tight junctions then you have *very few things that can pass through these endothelial cells* right so maybe you can have a few nutrients and oxygen passing through these endothelial cells and you can have co2 and waste products that might pass to leave through your blood vessels right.

Corpus callosum

-structure where all the fibers are going to pass from one side to the other side of the brain so when their fibers cross to one side then if you're going to form this structure that's called corpus callosum and it's homologous to your commissure right so your Commissioner on your spinal cord -here we have the corpus callosum filled with fibers. (* bundle of axons linking centers in the left and right cerebral hemispheres*)

Thalamus

-thalamus is like you guys know it's basically where almost all of the information is going to arrive so it's going to *relay information to the cerebrum.* so once the information comes up through the spinal cord it passes through the medulla oblongata, the pons, the mesencephalon ends here in the thalamus and by now you guys should be thinking what type of neuron is this right so is it sensory or is it motor so if it's sensory what type of sensory is it. okay so if you guys said it's a second order neuron you guys are in good shape. right and then from here it's going to send the information to the sensory centers so we know that sensory centers are going to be right behind your central sulcus so we're going to talk more about this later on.so that's your thalamus so again it's *going to process sensory information and taking this information to your cerebrum.*

blood

-the blood is a fluid connective tissue. -it's responsible for transporting substances from one part of the body to the other so it is connecting up separate parts of the body in that way.

intercalated disc

-the first structure is the intercalated disc this is an area on the cell membrane that helps connect two cardiocytes together. -down here you can really get a sense of what it looks like it's like these *finger-like projections that would weave together with the intercalated disk of another cell*. - this is a type of *Desmesome* which is a special type of cell junction that knit cells together and helps maintain the three-dimensional structure of the tissue.

The inferior border of the heart rest on the ? and the heart is surrounded by?

-the inferior border of the heart rests and is connected to the diaphragm as I mentioned previously the heart is surrounded by connected tissue layers called the pericardium there are two pericardial layers of visceral pericardium and a parietal pericardium. • the parietal pericardium consists also of two separate layers

retina

-the most internal structure -The inner layer, or retina, consists of two distinct layers: an outer thin lining called the pigmented layer and a thicker inner neural layer, which contains the visual receptors and associated neurons

the third and the fourth ventricle are going to be separated by a canal that's called?

-the third and the fourth ventricle are going to be separated by a canal that's called *aqueduct of midbrain.* - this connects the third and fourth ventricle

Middle ear consist of

-tympanic cavity - auditory tube - auditory ossicles

four different main types of gustatory sensations or four primary taste sensations

-we have what we call the sour ,the bitter, the salty ,and the sweet. -these are the most common ones that were discovered a while ago initially they thought that specific areas of your tongue were able to feel a little bit more of each of these specific gustatory sensations but actually now they think that your whole tongue is able to feel all of these different types of tastes.

Receptive Fields

-when we're talking about receptive fields we're talking about *how we're able to differentiate sensation that's coming from a similar location.* •so again the larger the receptive field so the further apart the receptors are and are able to spread apart from each other it's more *difficult for you to localize the same stimulus.* the smaller the receptive fields they're going to have receptors that are going to be closer to each other this is going to make it easier for you to *localize the stimulus.*

suspensory ligaments

-which are present they basically going to and *hold the lens*. -is the ring of fibers that attaches the lens to the ciliary processes. These connective tissue fibers hold the lens in place—posterior to the iris and in the center of the pupil. As a result, any light passing through the pupil also passes through the lens.

cerebrum

-which originated from your *telencephalon* - is basically where you're going to have your cautious thought process so things that you have to do about it's going to be important for memory so there are certain compartments of your cerebrum that are going to *store memory it's going to be important for intellectual functions*. so how intelligent you are how you process the information is all done in the cerebrum. - is going to help with controlling your conscious regulation of skeletal muscle contraction so things that you now they're you're an adult you don't really think about it because you've done it so many times that you don't have to think about but think of a baby. when the baby is starting to have to walk they actually take a long time to give their first steps because they have to send this information to the cerebrum for this information to be able to be processed and even sometimes when they're taking their first steps instead of moving forward they move backwards. why is this because it's sort of a new process that they have to think about and they're not sure how to move the muscles exactly the way they're supposed to so you can move forward and that's why sometimes they move backwards in the beginning because they're still trying and after you become adult you've done it so many different times that even though it's a conscious regulation of the skeletal muscle contraction because you have to think that you want to start to the procedure of walking of giving the first step so you can relocate from one place to the other and all this is going to be done by the cerebrum.

When both valves are closed, that is when we can hear the specific heart sounds through auscultation. In which part of the cardiac cycle is the "Dupp" sound occuring and which valves close?

. early ventricular diastole; closure of semilunar valves

The larger the receptive field, the __________ it is to localize the stimulus.

. more dificult

firbous layer

. the fibrous layer is the *outermost layer that we can see here. it's dense irregular connective tissue.one of the functions of the fibrous layer of the parietal pericardium is that it stabilizes the heart and it does that because it reaches the base of the heart here and the very inferior portion of the heart.* • at the base of the heart the collagen fibers stabilized the position of the heart and the associated blood vessels coming off of the heart at the inferior portion those same collagen fibers attached to the *diaphragm andhelp stabilize the bottom part of the heart.* • so one way to think about this is the heart is simply not dangling there in the space between your lungs it's it's attached superiorly and inferiorly and this limits its movement during contraction.

the walls of all arteries and veins contain three distinct layers:

1) Tunica intima 2) Tunica media 3)tunica adventitia

Vessels that come off the aorta

1) brachiocephalic artery 2) Left subclavian artery 3) Left common carotid artery • on both the right and left sides of the body there is a major artery that supplies blood to the head and neck and a major artery that supplies blood to the upper limb.

Three classes of mechanoreceptors

1) tactile receptors 2) Baroreceptors 3) proprioceptors

Olfactory pathway

1) you're going to see that we're going to have the *epithelium* right over here 2) from the epithelium we're going to have your *olfactory nerve fibers* 3) from the fibers like I said it passes through the *bulb* 4) from the bulb through the *track* 5) from the track to the *central nervous* system (so this is the route that the odor takes once you've smelled it through your nasal cavity)

General Senses Simple classification

1)Exteroceptors 2)Proprioceptors 3)Interoceptors

Three important functional patterns for blood vessel distribution:

1)Peripheral distribution of vessels on right and left sides is identical except on the heart 2)Some vessels change name as they cross anatomical boundaries 3)Arteries and veins anastomose

FUNCTIONS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

1)Transportation of O2, nutrients, & hormones to peripheral tissues 2)Transportation of CO2 & metabolic wastes away from peripheral tissues 3)Defense against toxins and pathogens 4)Stabilization of body temperature and pH

2 Pericardial Layers:

1)Visceral Pericardium 2)Parietal Pericardium -Fibrous layer -Serous layer

Speaking a written word

1)now speaking something that's written you're going to have to be able to read it right so you have to look at it so it starts back here on your *visual cortex* 2)from your visual cortex it goes to your *Wernicke's area* 3)from your Wernicke's area it goes to your *Broca's area* 4) and then again to your *motor cortex* to be able to pronounce the word. •okay so depending on what kind of activity you're doing you're going to be moving or exciting neurons in different areas of your cerebrum.

What happens after your tympanic membrane vibrates?

1)once your tympanic membrane vibrates it causes your auditory ossicles to move 2) once they move the stapes is going to hit the oval window 3) once it hits the oval window 4)it's going to circulate into your cochlea 5)once it circulates into your cochlea we're gonna see later on that it's going to *stimulate what we call the basilar membrane* which is a membrane that's located internally inside the cochlea 6)then the sound will come out through the round window and basically 7)when it does this it's going to stimulate your vestibulocochlear nerve.

speaking a heard word

1)so when you're speaking something that you hear it's going to be starting right over here in your *auditory area* 2)it's going to go to your *Wernicke's area* 3)from here it's going to go to your *Broca's area* which is where you speak 4)it sends to the *motor cortex* so you can do the movement of speaking the word that you heard.

three auditory ossicles:

1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes (look like a little bell)

Blood Flow (right side) Step 1

1. So remember the superior vena cavas draining things above the heart. Inferior vena cavas draining things from below the heart generally and the opening of the coronary sinus is where deoxygenated blood is coming back from the myocardium of the heart itself all that blood will meet in the right atrium.

what happens after the ventricle had contracted?

1. after the ventricle has contracted there's a period of ventricular diastole where it's relaxed and there are events happening in the atria and then it repeats that cycle (how blood flows through the heart this video builds on what you already know about blood flow through the heart by adding what's causing the blood to flow which is the contractionsof the atria and ventricles)

Peripheral distribution of vessels on right and left sides is identical except on the heart

1. but there are three basic patterns that come about from this one is that the distribution of vessels on the right and left sides is usually identical so if you have a right brachial artery you have a left brachial artery if you have a right common carotid artery you have a left common carotid artery there is an exception however near the heart there are some differences and we've already gone over those when we talked about the anatomy of the heart there are a few differences and they're not identical on left and right sides.

The remainder of blood consists of formed elements which is another way of saying the cellular structures that are suspended in that plasma there are three types of formed elements:

1. platelets 2. white blood cells 3. red blood cells

Veins of the thorax

1. the blood that was headed up to the head and neck from the common carotid artery is going to be drained back to the heart through the jugular veins and there are two 2. there's a internal jugular vein which is deep you can't get that sense here but it's it's much deeper in the neck and a external jugular vein which is very close to the skin and may even be visible through the skin 3. so again these are draining deoxygenated blood from the head and neck 4. the vein that is draining deoxygenated blood from the upper limb is called the subclavian so it's named the same thing as artery 5. these will merge together and form the brachiocephalic now you might be saying to yourself we already had an artery named the brachiocephalic so why is this an orange and the reason is because you can simply say brachiocephalic artery because there's only one remember and it's on the right side but there are two brachiocephalic veins one on the left and one on the right. 6. The brachiocephalic vein will be connected to vessels in the head and neck and a vessel that is associated with the upper limb • from the brachiocephalic veins both the right one and the left one they will merge together and form the *superior vena cava* and that's how blood from both sides of the body upper part of the body will be drained back toward the heart • we can see that the inferior vena cava we only saw the piece that was hanging off the bottom of the heart when you cut it just a small segment but this vein actually runs all the way from down in your abdomen up to the heart

Step 1: Cardiac cycle

1. we typically start the cardiac cycle during *atrial systole* so this step right here if you remember from the video would be when the atria contract to push that remaining 30 percent of blood from the atria down into the ventricles and this is happening on both sides of the heart simultaneously. notice that the diagram highlights the chambers that are contracting with pink. if the chamber is not highlighted it's not contracting it's in diastole. a. so at this phase the ventricles are in diastole and that's because they need to be relaxed because they're filling with blood.

so how is the light going to pass through?

1.it's going to pass initially through the cornea 2.and through your anterior chamber passes through the pupil through the lens 3. then it goes all the way to the back on the retina 4.onceit reaches the retina it activates your nerve which is your yellow part 5. it leaves through your optic nerve over here. -and now you guys should be thinking where does it go to so it goes all the way to your occipital lobe where your visual cortex is it goes all the way to the back where the information is going to be processed.

Step 2: Cardiac cycle

2. after atrial systole comes *atrial diastole* and the ventricles will start to contract so ventricular systole will follow shortly thereafter. so atrial diastole they start to relax

Blood Flow (left side) Step 2

2. from the left atrium the blood passes into the left ventricle through the left atrial ventricular valve or bicuspid

Blood Flow (right side) step 2

2. it will then pass through the right atrioventricular valve or tricuspid valve into the right ventricle

Heart: Conduction Step 2

2. that electrical impulse will travel down those fibers that we saw connecting the SA node to the AV node that's going to influence because they're inside the atria it's gonna influence atria and cause them to contract contraction of the atria is going to help push some not all but some of the blood that's contained inside the atria down into the ventricles. and I'm going to explain that when we go over the cardiac cycle

Step 3: Cardiac cycle

3. *Ventricular systole*: next the ventricles will start contracting the first thing that happens and this is not indicated necessarily on this diagram but the first thing to happen is that the atrioventricular valves will be forced closed and this is very important the pressure of the blood is what closes the AV valves not the contraction of the papillary muscles a. okay that's a common misconception. the contraction of the papillary muscles simply prevents the valve from being pushed backward up into the atria so it holds it down preventing it from being ejected upwards into the atrium. (the later part of ventricular systole involves the opening of the semilunar valves and that occurs because of the force of blood the blood is ejected up through those cusps )

Heart: Conduction Step 3

3. from the AV node the contraction will continue down into the bundle of hiss now notice that on this slide the elapsed time is listed I don't want you to memorize these numbers what I want you to understand is that this is happening incredibly rapidly. so we've gone through these three steps the atria are contracting in a matter of 150 milliseconds so almost instantaneously.

Blood Flow (right side) step 3

3. from the right ventricle it will be pushed up into the pulmonary trunk

Blood Flow (left side) Step 3

3. the blood then would be pumped through the aortic semilunar valve into the ascending aorta which is only one part of the entire aorta the aorta would arch over that's called the arch of the aorta

*tunica adventitia*

3. the outermost layer is called the *tunica adventitia* this layer forms a *connective tissue sheath around the vessel*. this layer is *very thick and is composed mostly of collagen fibers and some scattered bands of elastic fibers*. so it's *very stretchy and the fibers of this layer typically kind of blend in with the tissues outside of it* so the tissues that are adjacent to the blood vessels and what that does is it stabilizes and anchors the blood vessel.

Arteries and veins anastomose

3. third functional pattern we've sort of already discussed and that's the arteries and veins often make anastomosis. an artery will anastomosis with another artery or a vein will anastomosis with another vein and this reduces the impact of any temporary or even permanent blockage of a single vessel

Structure of Hemoglobin

4 polypeptide chains 4 Heme groups

Step 4: Cardiac cycle

4. *ventricular diastole the early phase* because the ventricles are no longer contracting the blood is going to fall by gravity back down it's going to want to fall back down into the ventricles as we mentioned before that's going to fall into the cusps of the semilunar valves and close them preventing the backflow of blood into the ventricles. while this is happening the atria begin to fill back up with blood from all of the vessels that return blood to the heart

Blood Flow (left side) Step 4

4. and then it would continue down which you can't see here because it's cut through the descending aorta which goes down inferior to the heart.

Heart: Conduction Step 4

4. once the impulse reaches the bundle of hiss it will travel down the left and the right branches in the interventricular septum

Blood Flow (right side) step 4

4. through the pulmonary semilunar valve it will then pass through the branches of the pulmonary trunk referred to as the pulmonary arteries and headed towards the lungs for a gas exchange.

Heart: Conduction Step 5

5. then pass to the Purkinje fibers which are inside of the ventricular walls it's important that the Purkinje fibers are in the inferior portion of the ventricles because that means that the contraction starts here and will travel up superiorly to the more superior parts of the ventricle and as I stated before that's important because what that's going to do is apply pressure to the contents of the ventricle the blood inside of the ventricle in a direction superiorly into which you can't see here but into those major vessels either the pulmonary trunk or the aorta.

Step 5: Cardiac cycle

7. during the *late phase of ventricular diastole* the blood that's returning to the atria is allowed to fall down passively into the ventricles remember 70% of that blood will fall passivelyand when and by passively I mean that it's not being forced through contraction to do so 8. and this brings us back to the beginning of the cycle where that 30% that's left that can't fall in passively on its own has to be forced into the ventricles through atrial systole.

Central adaptation (book explaination)

A few seconds after exposure to a new smell, conscious awareness of the stimulus virtually disappears, although the sensory neurons within the nose are still quite active. This is central adaptation, a process involving nuclei along the sensory pathways within the CNS. At the subconscious level, central adaptation restricts the amount of information arriving at the cerebral cortex. As we discussed in Chapter 15, most of the incoming sensory information is processed in centers along the spinal cord or brainstem. This processing triggers involuntary reflexes. Because of central adaptation, only about 1 percent of the information traveling over afferent fibers reaches the cerebral cortex and our conscious awareness.

select the correct statement about the heart valves. A. The AV valves are supported by chordae tendineae so that they do not blow back up into the atria during ventricular contraction B. Aortic and pulmonary valves control the flow of blood into the heart. C. The mitral valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle D. The tricuspid valve divides the left atrium from the left ventricle.

A. The AV valves are supported by chordae tendineae so that they do not blow back up into the atria during ventricular contraction

All ventricles contain? what does it contain?

All the ventricles contain a *choroid plexus* (choroid, vascular coat; plexus, network), which is a combination of specialized ependymal cells and highly permeable capillaries (Figure 16.6a). Two choroid plexuses are found in the roof of the third ventricle and extend through the interventricular foramina into the lateral ventricles. These plexuses cover the floors of the lateral ventricles. In the lower brainstem, a region of the choroid plexus in the roof of the fourth ventricle projects between the cerebellum and the pons.

Helps maintain the intraocular pressure: located in the anterior part of the eye.

Aqueous Humor

The abducens nerve A. relays sensory information from taste buds on the tongue B. supplies innervation to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye C. exits from the medulla D. is a branch of the trigeminal nerve

B. supplies innervation to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye

baroreceptors (book)

Baroreceptors are stretch receptors that monitor changes in the stretch of organ walls and, therefore, the pressure within that organ (Figure 18.4). Each receptor consists of free nerve endings that branch within the elastic tissues in the walls of distensible organs, such as a blood vessel, or portions of the respiratory, digestive, or urinary tracts. When the pressure changes, the elastic walls of these blood vessels or organs stretch or recoil. This movement distorts the dendritic branches and alters the rate of action potential generation. Baroreceptors respond immediately to a change in pressure.

Limbic association Area

Behavior, emotions, motivation

The Olfactory Nerve is part of the

But this is the example where they classify this nerve as a peripheral nerve because it does look typically like a peripheral nerve but this nerve is actually part of the cerebrum.

hich of the following is NOT part of the conduction system of the heart? A. bundle of His B. AV node C. AV valve D. SA node

C. AV valve

ependymal cells are in the choroid plexus to produce

CSF

Which of the following houses the spinal OrgAn of corti

Cochlear duct

The Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves are components of the peripheral nervous system that connect to the brain rather than to the spinal cord.

Which of the following is in the correct order of the olfactory pathway? A. olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerve, central nervous system, olfactory bulb, thalamus B. olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerve, olfactory tract, cerebral cortex, thalamus C. olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerve, central nervous system, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus D. olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerve, olfactory tract, cerebral cortex, hypothalamus

D. olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerve, olfactory tract, cerebral cortex, hypothalamus

Which structure prevents backflow into the left ventricle?

D. aortic valve

Each cranial nerve attaches to the

Each cranial nerve attaches to the brain near the associated sensory or motor nuclei.

What part of the dura enters right into the longitudinal fissure?

Falx cerebri

a condition often leading to blindness due to increased intraocular pressure

Glaucoma

The receptor membranes of gustatory cells are

Gustatory hairs

Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid

I just want you to be aware of where your cerebral spinal fluid is going to circulate . so it's always here on this structure here these little red things here are going to be your *choroid plexus and you can see how from here where the CSF is going to be produced you're going to have the circulation of CSF all around your brain* it comes down through your spinal cord comes up this way maybe not in this direction but basically it's going to *circulate and it even passes through your central canal* right over here of your spinal cord okay so this is just for you guys have an idea of how this is done.

Taste buds are not found

In filiform papillae

Wernicke's Area

Language comprehension intelligence

Clicker: What connects the left and right lateral ventricles?

Lateral ventricles are not connected

The structure most responsible for focusing light rays that enter the eye.

Lens

Does the olfactory nerve have to pass through the thalamus?

No. 95% of the information passes through the thalamus before it arrives this into the cerebrum well here is your exception so this five percent of this information goes directly to your cerebrum. it doesn't have to pass through your thalamus like most of the information does.

Classification according to nature of stimulus

Nociceptors Thermoreceptors Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors

Which of the following types of neurons are replaced throughout adult life

Olfactory receptor cells

An essential part of the maculae involved in static equilibrium is the

Otoliths

referred pain (book)

Pain sensations from visceral organs reach the spinal cord *through visceral sensory nerves.* These nerves enter the spinal cord through the dorsal roots of spinal nerves. Visceral pain sensations are perceived as originating in more superficial regions that are innervated by these same spinal nerves. The precise mechanism responsible for this referred pain remains to be determined, but several clinical examples are shown in

What lobe is going to have spatial coordination of body and surroundings?

Parietal lobe

connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx

Pharyngotympanic tube

The cell body of the Purkinje cells are located in the:

Purkinje cell layer

why are vein walls thinner?

Remember that the walls of veins are thinner and contain fewer elastic fibers than those of the corresponding arteries of the same size because the blood pressure in veins is lower than that of arteries

Fast pain (book)

Sensations of fast pain, or pricking pain, are produced by deep cuts or similar injuries. Painful sensations cease only after tissue damage has ended. However, central adaptation may reduce pain perception while the pain receptors are still stimulated.

Skeletal VS. Cardiac Muscle

Skeletal Muscle -*Large muscle cells*:skeletal muscle fibers are really large in fact most of them run the entire length of the muscle itself -*Cylindrical*: so if you isolated a single muscle fiber it would be long and rounded or cylindrical. -*Multinucleated*: -*Striated voluntary muscle*: they have that banded appearance.• you have conscious control over whether or not that muscle fiber contracts. The contraction of the muscle fiber is controlled by the nervous system however it says part of the nervous system that you have conscious control over. cardiac muscle -*Smaller muscle cells* -*Branched * -*One centrally placed nucleus* -*Striated involuntary muscle*: they're striated just like skeletal muscle cells however they are involuntarily controlled by the nervous system so in other words if I told you to consciously slow down or speed up the contraction of your heart you couldn't do it. -*Cells interconnected by intercalated discs*

slow pain (book)

Slow pain (burning pain) sensations result from the same types of injuries as fast pain. However, sensations of slow pain begin later and persist longer. For example, a cut on the hand produces an immediate awareness of fast pain, followed somewhat later by the ache of slow pain. Slow pain sensations activate the reticular formation and thalamus. You become aware of the pain but only have a general idea of the area affected.

Diencephalon : divisions

Thalamus: * relay and processing centers for sensory information* Hypothalamus: * centers controlling emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production.*

During atrial systole,

The atrioventricular valves are open.

Systolic blood pressure refers to:

The blood pressure in elastic arteries when the ventricles are contracting.

choroid plexus characteristics

The choroid plexus *produces cerebrospinal fluid.* *The capillaries are fenestrated and highly permeable, but large, highly specialized ependymal cells cover the capillaries.* The ependymal cells use both active and passive transport mechanisms to secrete CSF into the ventricles. The choroid plexus also removes wastes from the CSF and fine-tunes its composition over time. There are many differences in composition between CSF and blood plasma (blood with the cellular elements removed). For example, blood plasma contains high concentrations of suspended proteins, but CSF does not. There are also differences in the concentrations of individual ions and in the levels of amino acids, lipids, and wastes

diaphragma sellae (textbook description)

The diaphragma sellae is a small segment of the dura mater lining the sella turcica of the sphenoid (Figure 16.3b). The diaphragma sellae anchors the dura mater to the sphenoid and surrounds the base of the pituitary gland.

macula are

The hair cells of the utricle and saccule are clustered in the oval maculae (so the hair cells that are present in tthese structures that utricle and the saccule they're going to be present in clusters so you can see these hair cells right over here. these clusters they're going to be called macula.)

diastolic

The hydrostatic pressure in the arteries between contractions is called diastolic blood pressure. this constitutes the bottom number in the blood pressure reading.

endocardium

The innermost or deepest layer of the heart wall is called the endocardium this is a *simple squamous epithelium that forms the inside of the heart wall as well as the valves of the heart.*

Posterior cavity

The large posterior cavity (also called the vitreous chamber) contains the gelatinous vitreous body. • Now the vitreous body is more viscous than the aqueous humor so it's thicker

Olfactory pathway (book)

The olfactory system is very sensitive. As few as four molecules of an odor- producing substance can activate an olfactory sensory neuron. However, the activation of an afferent fiber does not guarantee conscious awareness of the substance. Considerable convergence occurs along the olfactory pathway, and inhibition at one or more synapses can prevent an olfactory sensation from reaching the olfactory cortex. The olfactory pathway is a two-neuron system. The first-order neuron is composed of axons leaving the olfactory epithelium, forming the first cranial nerve (I). These axons form 20 or more bundles that penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. The first-order neuron synapses with the second-order neurons within the olfactory bulbs (Figure 18.6b). The axons of the second-order neurons travel within the olfactory tract to reach the olfactory cortex, the hypothalamus, and portions of the limbic system. Olfactory stimulation reaches the cerebral cortex directly. Certain smells trigger profound emotional and behavioral responses, such as memories, because olfactory information is also distributed to the limbic system and hypothalamus.

sclera

The sclera or "white of the eye," covers most of the ocular surface. -outside (the white, outer tough connective tissue covering eyeball).

Anterior cavity

The smaller anterior cavity has two chambers, the anterior chamber (between the cornea and the iris) and the posterior chamber (between the iris and the lens). -The shape of the eye is stabilized by the vitreous body and the clear aqueous humor filling the anterior cavity

tentorium cerebelli (textbook description)

The tentorium cerebelli (ten-TŌ-rē-um ser-e-BEL-ē; tentorium, covering) supports and protects the two occipital lobes of the cerebrum. It also separates the cerebellar hemispheres from the cerebrum. The tentorium cerebelli extends across the cranium at right angles to the falx cerebri. The transverse sinus lies within the tentorium cerebelli.

1. so the dural venous sinuses would drain blood from the brain itself 2. the dural venous sinuses lead into the internal jugular vein which is this vein here in the neck 3. the internal jugular meets up along with the external jugular they both merge together and become the right brachiocephalic vein 4. then we can see the right brachiocephalic vein would drain into the superior vena cava and we remember that the superior vena cava entered the right atrium so we already know just even from this image that that would bring it back to the heart. • we know that the external jugular cannot drain the dural sinuses because it doesn't connect up to the dural sinuses. so that gives you a sense of how you would do this again it's not learning more information it's just understanding what vessels connect to what vessels and then understanding the difference between an artery and a vein in terms of direction of blood flow

Veins of head and neck

When is the atrial and ventricle relaxed at the same time in the cardiac cycle?

Ventricular diastole early and late a. so if you refer to this colored wheel here you'll see that for the majority of the cardiac cycle the atria are in diastole and there's only a small period of time when the atria are in systole b. also notice that ventricular systole occurs over here but then this entire segment on this side is showing both atrial and ventricular diastole. why you have thi situation is that during this part of the cardiac cycle the Chamber's are filling back up with blood right

Contain utricle and saccule

Vestibule

The central part of the bony labyrinth

Vestibule

what are some of the characteristics that the odor has to have for you to be able to smell it ?

Volatile materials vaporise and dissolve into the air. These can come either from nature, as most living organisms produce volatile compounds, or from man-made substances.When we breathe, the air containing these molecules pass through our nose. our nose contains mucus thats made up of lipid-souble and water soluble materials. Without this, the volatile materials would not be able to stick to the mucus. once they have diffused with the mucus they can stimulate the olfactory sensory neurons. There, smell receptors detect the odorous molecules present in the air. When air enters through the nose, the nasal conchae produce turbulent airflow. This brings airborne compounds into contact with the mucus produced by the olfactory glands. Once compounds have reached the olfactory mucus, water-soluble and lipid-soluble materials must diffuse into the mucus before they can stimulate the olfactory sensory neurons. *(volatile substances, lipid souluble and water soluble)*

Peripheral (sensory) adaptation (book explaination)

When a receptor or sensory neuron alters its level of activity, peripheral (sensory) adaptation occurs. The receptor responds strongly at first, but then the activity along the afferent fiber gradually declines because of synaptic fatigue. This response is characteristic of phasic receptors, which are also called fast-adapting receptors. Tonic receptors show little or no peripheral adaptation, so they are called slow-adapting receptors.

a small branch of the right coronary artery will penetrate the atrial wall and reach the

a small branch of the right coronary artery will penetrate the atrial wall and reach the *sinoatrial node or SA node* also known as the cardiac pacemaker another small branch will go to the atrioventricular node or AV node another part of the conduction system

Autorhythmicity

a. one thing I haven't mentioned about the conduction system is that the nervous system and hormonal stimuli can alter the basic rhythm of contraction or the rate of contraction but even a heart removed for say a heart transplant for example will continue to beat unless steps are taken to prevent it cardiac muscle tissue will contract on its own it doesn't need neural or hormonal stimulation to do so this property of cardiac muscle is referred to as *Autorhythmicity* or the ability to control your own rhythm the heart's capacity to generate and conduct its own impulses is important because the proper timing of atrial and ventricular contraction is critical.

The cranial nerve with a dual origin (brain and spinal cord) is the

accessory

Which cranial nerve innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid?

accessory

auditory cortex and auditory association area

again information arrived first in the auditory cortex and then it goes to your auditory association.

Proprioceptors

again is going to provide information about position of the body

Transportation of O2, nutrients, & hormones to peripheral tissues

all living tissues in the body require oxygen to perform their basic functions and so they will receive this oxygen through oxygenated blood. which will also include other things other than gases this would be basic nutrients that the cell needs to perform, its metabolism, and hormones that cause changes in cellular mechanisms.

purkinje fibers

all of these little branches here that end up in the ventricular walls are called Purkinje fibers. the Purkinje fibers convey the impulse to the myocardium of the ventricles causing them to contract.

What are the main components that detect smell?

and from the *cilia and the olfactory receptor we go to your olfactory nerve from your factory nerve you go to your olfactory bulb* which is this large area right over here so these are the main components that detect the smell.

Aqueous humor circulates where?

anterior cavity we have two chambers the anterior chamber and the posterior chamber the fluid which is the aqueous humor it has to circulate through these cavities.

any change in the vessel diameter is going to affect?

any change in the vessel diameter is going to affect both blood pressure and the amount of blood flow through the vessel and therefore to the target tissue.

Which of the following structures separates the third and fourth ventricles from one another?

aqueduct of the midbrain

Chemoreceptors in Cartoid bodies and aortic bodies

are going to be exactly where we have the sinuses so that's why it's important for these receptors because they were talking about carotid bodies and aortic bodies both of them are going to *measure pH changes partial pressure of carbon dioxide and partial pressure of oxygen* so you can see how both of them are going to measure all three and both of them are going to be important *because they're going to via your cranial nerve number 9 (glosspharyngeal) and your cranial nerve number 10 (vagus) they're going to trigger not only adjustments in your respiratory system but also adjustments in your cardiovascular activity.*

red blood cells

are the cells that are responsible for transporting carbon dioxide and oxygen

there are two types of blood vessels:

arteries and veins.

arterioles

arterioles are much smaller than muscular arteries and these are not given particular names because there are so many of them. o arterioles are responsible for *delivering blood to capillaries they have a poorly defined tunica adventitia and they're tunica media as mostly scattered smooth muscle fibers that do not form a complete layer *

what happens at the end of ventricular systole or contraction ?

at the end of ventricular systole or contraction well you will hear the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves because that prevents backflow of blood into the ventricle from the circuits .

why is it the valve called atrioventricular?

atrioventricular valves that separate the atria from the ventricles

Visual cortex and visual association area

back here on the visual cortex which is represented here in green we're also going to have a primary area which is called a visual cortex and then in the light green we're going to have the visual Association area so all that's visual it's always going to come from your eye which is located you guys know up here and then it goes all the way back here to the occipital lobe in your visual cortex and from here it goes back to your visual Association area.

• Central adaptation

basically this is when your central nervous system adapts to the stimulus so you're going to have the *consciously aware of the stimulus but then it sort of quickly disappears because your brain doesn't really want to be being stimulated by an information that it's not very important*. okay so remember when we talk about the movie Lucie where we only use about 1% of our brain capacity that's because we sort of erase stimulus that are not important for us at that particular time. and so this is what we call the central adaptation and central like the name says it's done at the level of the central nervous system and peripheral is done at the level of the peripheral nervous system.

because the heart is more to the left side of the body the left lung is?

because the heart is more to the left side of the body the left lung is actually smaller than the right lung here.

Circumvallate papilla:

biggest one.( you can see how these little yellow things that stick out we're going to form what we call the taste buds)

both of coronary arteries begin where and go where?

both of the coronary arteries begin in the anterior portion of the heart and wrap around to the posterior portion : o you'll see that the right coronary artery comes off the aorta and goes in the coronary sulcus and continues to the posterior aspect of the heart o the left coronary artery however comes off the aorta and quickly divides into two branches the first branch here running down between the two ventricles is called the *anterior interventricular artery* the other branch that continues in the coronary sulcus and wraps around to the posterior part of the heart is called the *circumflex artery.*

What are the areas of the brain where the tight junction is not so tight (4)? what structures do they have?

but there are three probably four areas of your brain where this tight Junction is actually not so tight okay the three areas it's going *to be portions of your hypothalamus,your pineal gland, and the third and fourth ventricles.* -in these areas we're going to have structures that we call choroid plexus

cochlear duct

but your *cochlear duct* which is the inside of your cochlea is going to be responsible for hearing

by doing this and tilting your head to one side or to the other side you're going to either

by doing this and tilting your head to one side or to the other side you're going to either be stimulating the anterior ampulla or you're going to be on the opposite inhibiting maybe the posterior and the lateral or if you maybe stimulate your posterior then you're going to be inhibiting your anterior and lateral

what collects the aqueous humor?

canal of schlemm

cardiac muscle cells AKA?

cardiac muscle cells or *cardiocytes* have histological structure which dictates their function it's the cardiocytes which are found in the *myocardium that allow the heart to contract and pump blood*. cardiac muscle cells are similar in structure somewhat to skeletal muscle cells but there are some distinct differences.

arteries

carry blood away from the heart.

veins

carry blood back toward the heart

so the central nervous system is going to develop from what we call a neural tube this neural tube is going to form not only your ___________ area but also the.....

cephalic;spinal cord right because that's what comprises your central nervous system.

The vascular coat o the eyeball; deeply pigmented is called:

choroid

• around the iris we're going to have this continuation of muscles here that's called

ciliary body

coming off of these arches are then little branches that go to the digits or fingers and of course those are called ?

coming off of these arches are then little branches that go to the digits or fingers and of course those are called digital arteries

Vasoconstriction

constriction of smooth muscle • vasoconstriction is when the smooth muscle of the tunica media contracts. this will act to reduce the diameter of the lumen.

Hypothalmus in general:

controls autonomic functions; sets appetitive drives(thirst, hunger,sexual desire) and behaviors; sets emotional states(limbic system); intergrates with endocrine system

light passes through in what order

cornea, aqueous humor, lens , vitreous humor

• goes down through the

descending colon

left coronary artery

does the same but on the left side and comes right in that area between the left atrium and the left ventricle.

during systole or contraction the chamber pressure will ?

during systole or contraction the chamber pressure will increase in other words the contraction of the myocardium is going to cause pressure on the blood contained within that chamber

each hair cell contains what

each of these hair cells are going to contain what we call kinocilium and stereocilia

Why is ear wax important ?

earwax is going to be important because it's going to help to protect the tympanic membrane which like I said is a very sensitive membrane and not only the cerumen protects the tympanic membrane but also there are certain hair cells that are present here in your external acoustic meatus which is also important for protection of your tympanic membrane now this is it for your external acoustic meatus

so common iliac divides into

external iliac and internal iliac.

we can also divide the nociceptors into the type of pain sensation that we feel. So we have two different pathways we have what we call a _________ and a __________.

fast pain slow pain

Fast pain

fast pain means that it's going to go really fast so it's a sensation that you're going to feel really fast it goes directly to your central nervous system and you can feel the sensation of pain really fast and it's usually going to be associated with what we call a pricking pain or when you have cuts that's what's the type of fast pain (CNS)

• In the interatrial septum is this depression called the

fossa ovalis

from the AV node the impulse will travel to the?

from the AV node the impulse will travel to the AV bundle also known as the *bundle of his* this is a collection of cells in the interventricular septum or this part of the myocardium here that separates the right and left ventricles.

transverse colon

going side to side is called the transverse colon

Occipitoparietal sulcus:

going to divide the occipital region from your parietal region visual cortex form sensory cortex

Interoceptors

going to provide information that's going to be inside of the body. so intero for inside of the body.

Exteroceptors

going to provide information that's going to come from the external environment.

The axon of the Purkinje cells are located in the:

granular cell layer

aorta

here we can only see a segment the aorta referred to as the ascending aorta because going upward and that's the *largest artery in your body* and it's part of the systemic circuit.

Action of the Pupillary muscles

here's there's just to show you the action of the pupillary muscles where if they are going to contract they're going to constrict the opening if they're going to relax and dilate you're going to make the opening bigger. so this is when you're in the dark and this is where you're in the light or bright just to show you,

Why is bitter sensitive to everybody?

however bitter is always sensitive to everybody basically because a lot of the poisons that are ingested they have a bitter taste and this is just a protective tool that our body uses especially for other types of animals when they eat something that is very bitter they want to get away from it so you don't need a lot of the bitter taste to actually feel that sensation and not want to have it again.

if a chamber is contracting that is contracting in order to _________ ___________ from the chamber

if a chamber is contracting that is contracting in order to eject blood from the chamber I already mentioned that the atria contract to push some of the blood into the ventricles and the ventricles will contract to push blood through the circuits.

Defense against toxins and pathogens

in addition to transportation of substances to and from peripheral tissues the cardiovascular system also provides a way for cells the immune system to reach tissues in the body quickly. this allows for defense against toxins and pathogens.

in general all of the veins contain the same three layers in their walls as arteries with one exception and that's the ____________ ________________

in general all of the veins contain the same three layers in their walls as arteries with one exception and that's the *smallest venules*.

neck and limbs

in general within the body the arteries are found relatively deep so further away from the surface of the skin. • in the neck of the limbs though there are two sets of veins there is a set of veins that is deep so they will run alongside the arteries in the same area there's also in addition another set of veins that are superficial and these are right underneath the skin depending on the thickness of your skin and the tone or color of your skin you may be able to see them through the skin. • this difference in anatomy is going to dictate the ability of the body to thermoregulate.

central retinal artery and vein

in the middle you're going to have central retinal artery and vein that's going to sort of take all the blood vessels that supply oxygen and remove wastes from your eye through the central structure of your optic nerve

Transportation of CO2 & metabolic wastes away from peripheral tissues

in the process of performing these basic cellular functions waste products will be created including carbon dioxide. in addition, there are also other non-gaseous by products that we just refer to in general. here is metabolic wastes these substances need to be consistently removed from the tissue so they don't build up within the cells.

what's inside the neural tube and what does it create?

inside this neural tube it's going to be filled with a liquid and basically if it's filled with a liquid it means that it's going to contain spaces and these spaces are going to form what we call the ventricles of the brain.

interatrial septum

interatrial septum which just means that it's the septum that divides the two atria.

what structure regulates the amount of light passing to the visual receptors of the eye?

iris

Chemoreceptors in Medulla Oblongata:

is a little bit different because it only checks your* pH and your partial pressure of carbon dioxide it does not check the partial pressure of oxygen* and in this case it only adjusts the depth and the rate of *respiration so it has nothing to do with your cardiovascular activity.*

The kinocilium

is going to be this large hair cell which is always the first hair cell. so it's the bigger one of them . I always think of kilo for kilogram so means big so that's what reminds me of kinocilium so it's a big structure a big cell.

Cerebral aqueduct

is just a space that's going to be filled with CSF that connects the third and fourth ventricles

right below the kidneys are two rather small arteries both are right on the left and these are called

left and right gonadal arteries and they go to the gonads now if you don't know the sex of the individual you can just be general and say that they're going to the gonads but if you know that it's a male for example you would say if you want to be specific you'd say that this is the left or the right testicular artery and same for the female it would be the left and right ovarian artery

left colic flexure really divides what? left colic flexure is supplied by ?

left colic flexure really divides the transverse colon from the descending colon. everything passed the left colic flexure is supplied by a different artery and which is the inferior mesenteric artery so not the superior mesenteric artery

the middle branch of the celiac trunk is called the

left gastric artery

What two arteries come directly off the aorta?

left subclavian artery and the left common carotid artery • so blood passing through the aorta simply have to go through these arteries to get to the left side of the head and neck and the left upper limb

the cerebral hemispheres are going to be divided by this _________________

longitudinal fissure

Which type of general sense receptor detects pressure changes in walls of blood vessels and in portions of the digestive, reproductive and urinary tracts?

mechanoreceptors

Meninges are located ?

meninges that are located in your spinal cord basically they continue to line the brains so we're going to have the dura mater which is going to be the outermost, the middle one is what we call the an arachnoid mater, and the most inner one is going to be the PIA mater.

Which structure prevents backflow into the left atrium?

mitral valve

1. The dendrites of the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum are located in the:

molecular layer

Anterior to the central sulcus is

motor

The cardiac muscle has _________ just like a skeletal muscle cell does

myofibrils

• basically our central nervous system is going to be developed from what we call a ________.

neural tube

Which of these types of receptors responds to pain stimuli?

nociceptors

When viewing a dissected heart, it is easy to visually discern the right and left ventricles by:

noticing the thickness of the ventricle walls

What happens when you tilt your head from left to right?

now if the movement goes on the opposite direction so if it's going in this direction the big cilia which is the kinocilium is going to crush the stereocilia and by crushing the stereocilia it's *going to inhibit the signal so if it inhibits the signal then you sort of block the signal from going through.*

Smaller receptive fields example

now the smaller the receptive fields so the closer they are to each other it's going to make it easier for you to localize the stimulus. so if you had one little stimulus like we have for example this one right over here so this one your receptive field is very small and you're able to pinpoint exactly where the stimulus is coming from.

The Macula of Vestibule Structure

now these hair cells the interesting thing about these hair cells is that they're actually going to be embedded in this *gelatinous material* right over here on top that's going to be consisting on top of it you're gonna have these structures that are called *statoconia * •the hair cells which are called macula they contain a gelatinous material on top of them so gelatinous material on top of the hair cells and on top of this gelatinous material we're going to have these structures that are called statoconia; calcium carbonate crystals.

now within your optic nerve we're going to have a structure here that's called an

now within your optic nerve we're going to have a structure here that's called an *optic disc*where all your optic nerves sort of merge together and it's sort of *forms like a little depression*. -*There are no photoreceptors *or other retinal structures at the optic disc. Because light striking this area goes unnoticed, it is commonly called the *blind spot*.

The internal iliac artery

o The internal iliac artery however will have branches that go down into the pelvis area and supplies the tissues of the pelvis which would include things like the bladder and the reproductive organs as well as the surrounding tissues

what happens during relaxation?

o during relaxation which occurs after it's contracted the chamber will be relaxed that will no longer be blood in it which allows for the chamber to fill with new blood coming from the opposite direction and of course relaxation would be associated with reduced chamber because the cardiac cells are not contracting.

The Facial Nerve

o the sensory is basically sensations from the face and also taste so it's going to go to your tongue. o motor basically it's going to control the muscles of your face so things like facial expression lacrimal gland, submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.

bundle of his

o you can see that the bundle of his has a right branch and a left branch both of these branches extend toward the apex and then once they get near the apex they branch off and go deep into the ventricle wall.

visual is going to be on your _______ lobe.

occipital

Conscious perception of vision probably reflects activity in the:

occipital lobe of the cortex

what happens when you chew something?

okay so each of these tastebuds are going to have a taste pore which is an opening so when you chew on something then this opening sort of receives whatever substance it is that you chewed on and these microvilli are here to *increase the surface area and by increasing the surface area it allows the substance to be detected by your gustatory cells.*

• you're going to have your nerve fibers they are going to come together to form what we call your _________________

olfactory bulb.

The receptors of olfaction are found in the:

olfactory epithelium

brachiocephalic artery branches into

on the right side there's the brachiocephalic artery which branches into the common carotid on the right side so the *right common carotid* and then the other branch is the *right subclavian* because it eventually goes below the clavicle

optic disc has no?

optic disc has no cones or rods and it's known as your blind spot

Blood is pushed out from the right atrium into the right ventricle (every last drop of it) by this muscle. Can you name the structure?

pectinate muscles

he receptors that provide information on the intensity and rate of change of a stimulus are termed:

phasic receptors

somatosensory is going to be _________ to the central sulcus

posterior

• what I think is really cool about capillary beds is that the entrance to each capillary is guarded by this band of smooth muscle cells called the

pre capillary sphincter

what would happen if you had this canal of schlemm blocked

pressure would build up

primary motor cortex and somatic motor association area

primary motor cortex then right next to it we have a lighter red color and this is what we call the somatic motor Association area and so how this happens is like the name says primary means that the information is going to arrive to this area first so within the motor information the initial information is going to arrive here in this darker red area and then the second information from here it can go to your association area which is also a motor area but we call it somatic motor Association area

Baroreceptors of digestive tract

provide information on volume of tract segments, trigger reflex movement of materials along tract

• you'll see that the majority of formed elements 99.9 percent of them are

red blood cells.

what comes directly off the aorta arch?

remember that there is a left common carotid artery and a left subclavian artery but because there's no left brachiocephalic artery these two arteries come directly off of the arch of the aorta.

What happens in your semicircle ducts when your head is positioned in different angles?

remember that this ampulla is going to be located at the beginning of every semicircular duct so depending on how you move your head because your semicircle ducts they're gonna be positioned in different angles. so you're gonna have an anterior, posterior, and a lateral semicircular duct and depending on how you tilt your head.basically if you tilt your head from right to left what's gonna happen to the stereocilia basically they're going to be going on top of the kinocilium.

Step 3 of the blood circulation

return to the heart through the pulmonary veins those veins will meet up into the left atrium now that our blood is oxygenated we want to pump it to the remainder of the peripheral tissues

What is inside the corti?

right over here now this is how it's going to happen so within the organ of Corti you're going to have what we call a *basilar membrane* down here and on top we're going to have another membrane which is called *tectorial membrane.*

intercostals veins

running along with the intercostals arteries and they drain the intercostals spaces.

Olfactory glands function to:

secrete mucus

semicircular ducts and canal are a part of

semicircular canals and ducts so this is what's going to be part of this main structure that we call the vestibule this is what's going to give us an equilibrium.

several of these sensory nerve endings are going to form your

several of these sensory nerve endings are going to form your *sensory nerve*

what happens at the beginning of ventricular contraction

so at the beginning of ventricular contraction the AV valves are going to shut remember because that's going to prevent blood from flowing back in the atria that's the LUP sound

Phasic receptor example

so for example if you have touch and pressure receptors that we use a lot of the times as example these are going to be a phasic receptor. so when you touch something it stimulates and you can feel it but I don't know if you notice this but sometimes when you touch somebody and the initial fact that you're touching somebody or let's do it the other way around if somebody's touches you for the first time you sort of feel that touch right away but if the person maintains their hand on top of yours without moving or doing any other stimulus you sort of forget that that stimulus is there. so that's what the phasic type of receptor that it's active for a short period of time.

comparing the fovea to the optic disc

so if we compare the fovea to your optic disk which is back here your optic disc is going to have 0%, so no cones; which detect color or rods which detect blackand white. so this is also known as your blind spot.

Large receptive field example

so if we have a very large receptive field so for example you can see how this free nerve endings receptor field number one and in a receptive field number two and this receptive field I would say that it's pretty broad right so it's pretty large. so the larger the receptive fields so the further apart they are it's going to *make it more difficult for you to localize a stimulus* because if it's you have a receptive field or a stimulus occurring over here and since this receptor localizes all of this field you're not sure if the stimulus is coming from this point or if it's coming from this point.

venules are larger in diameter than __________ medium-sized veins are larger in diameter than _______________

so just like arteries veins are classified based on their size and in general veins are actually larger in diameter than their corresponding arteries so for example venules are larger in diameter than *arterioles*. medium-sized veins are larger in diameter than muscular arteries and etc.

How will the image pass through?

so the image has to pass through all these structures of the eye before it can hit the retina and then be processed and sent through your optic nerve and it's going to pass through your optic canal so if you guys remember from lab where we were seeing the optic canal that's where the optic nerve is going to pass through and it's going to go all the way to the back of your brain right over here to your visual cortex (occipital lobe)

Left Hemispheric Specialization

so the left hemisphere basically is going to have: -speech center -a Writing Center right down the middle . - General interpretive center (language and mathematical caluclation)

What is the main reason wy the heart is not at the center of the chest?

so the main reason that the heart is not at the center of the chest is that it sits at an oblique angle and what this means is instead of being perfectly upright

external iliac stays outside and actually becomes the.....

so the names make complete sense external iliac stays outside and actually becomes the *femoral artery* in the lower limb so it does not go into the pelvic outlet here it doesn't give rise to any arteries that supply the pelvic organs so it remains outside of the pelvis for the most part

Ventricles of the brain are filled with what? and the importance of it?

so the ventricles which we mentioned on the first slide are going to be these cavities that are going to be filled with fluid again what's going to be the fluid it's going to be your CSF ,so your cerebral spinal fluid: •this fluid is going to be there to transport nutrients to the central nervous system and it's also going to be there to transport waste products away from the central nervous system besides our transport of nutrients and waste •it's also important because it provides a cushion for the central nervous system so a form of protection .

Cardiac Cycle: Ventricular Diastole

so this has ventricular diastole the ventricles are relaxed meaning that they have to be filling with blood so if they're filling with blood both the tricuspid and bicuspid valve must be open to allow passage of blood from the atria to the ventricles and also because the ventricles are relaxed that means that blood is not being pushed up through the pulmonary trunk or the aorta so that means the semilunar valves will be closed • ventricular diastole blood is coming in to the left atrium this is just the left side as an example blood can passively be passing into the ventricle because it's relaxed that means that the bicuspid valve is open and the aortic valve is shut because blood is not being ejected up through the aorta

primary sensory cortex and the somatic sensory association area

so this means that the information that's arriving at the brain will arrive first at the dark blue area and then from here it can go to Association area at the light blue area

why does fricition need to be reduced around the heart?

so why do you think we need to reduce friction here well if you said it's because when the heart beats there's a lot of friction between the heart and surrounding structures you're absolutely right.

The ear is subdivided into three regions:

subdivided into three regions: 1. External ear 2. Middle ear 3. Inner ear

Superior vena cava inferior vena cava

that deoxygenated blood has to go back to the heart to be reoxygenate it again that blood will return to the heart through a series of veins the ones that are directly attached to the heart are called the superior vena cava which is draining blood from above the heart and the inferior vena cava which is a vein that drains all the blood from below the heart (systemic circuit)

• systemic circuit vessels all come off of one major vessel and that's

the aorta

the atrioventricular node

the atrioventricular node or AV node *lies in the floor of the right atrium near the opening of the coronary sinus.*

the atrioventricular valves fucntion

the atrioventricular valves are open when blood is passing from the atrium down into the ventricle and of course this would happen on both sides both for the left atrioventricular valve and the right atrioventricular valve. •unlike the semilunar valves the atrioventricular valves are tethered to papillary muscles by those collagen fibers called chordae tendineae •as I said previously these valves will be open when blood needs to pass through but they closed during the contraction of the ventricles and it does this to prevent the blood from going backward from the ventricle back up into the atrium how this works is that when the ventricle contracts *when the myocardium of the ventricle exerts pressure on the contents of the chamber on the blood the pressure rises and pushes up onto the cusps of the atrioventricular valve forcing them shut.*

a vein more medial running along the inside of the upper limb and that's called

the basilic vein

sinoatrial node (SA node)

the beginning of the conduction system is called the sinoatrial node or SA node for short the SA node is considered the *cardiac pacemaker because it's nodal cells have a lower threshold and therefore they contract first because they rapidly depolarize and contract* first they set the normal rate of contraction. o the SA node can be located in the posterior wall of the *right atrium* o the average adult heart rate is about *80 to 100 beats per minute* any factor that changes either the resting potential or the rate of depolarization at this SA node will alter the heart rate so let's say for example that you've just finished working out and you're going through your cool-down exercises because you're no longer is active your heart doesn't have to work as much to supply your tissues with oxygen when this happens parasympathetic neurons slow the rate of depolarization and thus lower the heart rate o likewise in the opposite scenario if you go from a resting state to increasing your activity level sympathetic neurons will increase the rate of depolarization and thus increase heart rate.

blood vessels

the blood vessels are like one-way streets to peripheral tissues. any tissue in the body that contains living cells will require a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients and will be creating waste products or chemicals that need to be removed from these tissues and this would include carbon dioxide.

pupil,

the central opening of the iris. through which light enters the eye

subclavian becomes the axillary after it passes

the clavicle.

the artery that supplies blood to the head and neck is called

the common carotid artery on this is the left common carotid artery that you can see on the left side

Step 5 of blood circulation

the deoxygenated blood will then return back to the heart through the systemic veins. in this example it's inferior vena cava because we're coming up from the inferior part of the body and that will return to the right atrium and now we've made a full circuit

What makes the Lupp sound?

the first part of the sound or the LuPP takes about a second and it's produced by the closure of the AV valves or atrioventricular valves. what you're hearing is the actual disturbance in the flow of blood. so when they close off they stop the flow of blood causing that sound.

Stabilization of body temperature and pH

the fourth is actually quite important and not as easily recognized. The cardiovascular system *regulates body temperature* in many ways but we're gonna focus on how it does this through regulating the amount of blood flow to a particular region in the body. we're gonna see many examples of this and the remaining chapters however for our purposes now I'll just state that *blood is a very good conductor of heat.* so in general *increasing blood flow to particular part of the body would increase the temperature of that region.* the cardiovascular system also constantly monitors fluid pH levels in the body and influences pH homeostasis.

lateral sulcus

the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe or motor cortex from auditory cortex

Tunica intima

the internal layer is called the *Tunica intima* (this is not specified in this particular image but these layers each term starts with the word Tunica) the internal layer of vessels is called the Tunica intima this layer includes an innermost *endothelial lining*, so this dark purple that would be touching the blood directly inside the lumen and it also includes a slightly deeper layer of underlying connective tissue which contains a variable *amount of elastic fibers*. the Tunica intima is responsible for *preventing adhesion of blood cells to the wall of the vessel.*

the left and right internal carotid arteries anter the cranium through?

the left and right internal carotid arteries will meet up they are coming in not through the foramen magnum but through the carotid canal which is why we learn that term and why it's called the *carotid canal*

left artery supplies to what?

the left coronary artery supplies mainly the left atrium and the left ventricle also because these inferior branches here meet up with the right coronary artery it can supply blood to the right ventricle if necessary say for example if the right coronary artery were blocked where the small branches of the two arteries meet is referred to as an *anastomosis*

granuel cell layer is going to cintain

the most internal layer which is your granule cell layer is going to contain like the name says *granule cells* but it's also going to contain the *axons of the Purkinje cells.*

tunica media

the next layer that's more superficial to the Tunica intima is the *tunica media* this middle contains *concentric sheets of smooth muscle tissue in a framework of loose connective tissue.* the smooth muscle in this layer allows the vessel to *increase and decrease in size or diameter* which is going to help regulate blood pressure within the vessel.

Vasodilation

the opposite action is called vasodilation this is when the smooth muscle relaxes which increases the diameter of the lumen -relaxation of smooth muscle

What is a single cardiac cycle?

the period between the start of one heartbeat and the beginning of the next is a single cardiac cycle therefore the cardiac cycle includes alternating periods of contraction and relaxation so for any one chamber in the heart the cardiac cycle is divided into systole and diastole again

the pulmonary trunk carries? the pulmonary veins would carry?

the pulmonary trunk carries deoxygenated blood. • The pulmonary veins on the other hand would be red because they're carrying oxygenated blood

the radial and ulnar arteries meet up and form these arches in the palm

the radial and ulnar arteries meet up and form these arches in the palm and those are named very intuitively superficial palmar arch and deep palmar arch so there's two of them one is superficial and one is deep.

right coronary artery supplies blood to what?

the right coronary artery also supplies blood to the *conduction system* which functions to carry an electrical impulse throughout the heart to allow it to contract we will cover the conduction system next.

What makes the Dupp sound?

the second heart sound or dupp occurs when the semilunar valves closed there is technically a third and fourth sound but even with the stethoscope they're usually very faint and very difficult to detect in adults at least healthy adults

Some vessels change name as they cross anatomical boundaries

the second pattern to come about is that some vessels will actually change names when they cross particular anatomical boundaries and what this means is well to back up a moment most vessels change names when they split into something else so here's a vessel and then it splits off and becomes two new things so this will get a name like brachial artery here this one will have a name radial artery and the other one will have a name ulnar artery .so this is the case for most situations if it branches into something it gets a new name but as this says some vessels will change name where when they cross anatomical boundry it sort of in the way that a street name will change suddenly as soon as you pass some particular region. nothing has changed you're on the same Road but now the road has a different name

• there are three areas where deoxygenated blood will be drained into the right ventricle those are ?

the three areas are the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava, and the opening of the coronary sinus.

then there is a connection point between those two veins between the basilic and the cephalic right around in the region of the elbow that region the anterior part of the elbow a little crevice is called the cubital region and so this vein is called ?

then there is a connection point between those two veins between the basilic and the cephalic right around in the region of the elbow that region the anterior part of the elbow a little crevice is called the cubital region and so this vein is called the median cubital vein

Vestibular complex

then we have this other structure that we call the vestibular complex which is the one that's going to give you *information and function of equilibrium* and within the vestibular complex we have these ducts that we call the *semicircular ducts and also these two other structures that are called the utricle and the saccule* which are going to be important for gravity and linear acceleration

there are two specific circuits that are part of the systemic circuit what are they?

there are two specific circuits that are part of the systemic circuit so it's kind of like a circuit within a circuit and we're going to talk about these individually but just to let you know now there's a *coronary circuit* which is a series of arteries and veins that supplied the heart tissue itself for the myocardium itself and there's a special vena system in the abdomen called the *portal system*

vertebral artery

there is a artery that comes off of the subclavian so it's a branch off the subclavian called the *vertebral artery* and this is that artery that we spoke about a long long long time ago when we learned the *transverse foramen* you remember that on the cervical vertebra and those foramen exist because it's a nice bony passageway for the vertebral artery to get from the neck to the head.

femoral artery bracnhes into

there is a deep femoral artery which branches off of the femoral artery and supplies deep structures in the thigh so similar

Water receptors

there was a lot of controversy initially because lots of people think that water doesn't have taste but recently they found that there are specific receptors for water that are located especially behind your tongue down on your pharynx .

The nerve fibers are going to pass through the

these nerve fibers they're the ones that are going to pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone •those little holes that we had on the cribriform plate so these little holes are for your olfactory nerve to pass through that.

how are the SA node and AV node connected?

these two nodes are connected to one another by *conducting fibers* so once the impulse begins in the sinoatrial node it will continue and pass along to the atrioventricular node.

mamillary bodies

they're basically going to control the reflex movements that are going to be associated with eating.

step 4 of the blood circulation

this blood will pass from the left atrium into the left ventricle the left ventricle will then pump it through the aorta into the systemic circuit and the peripheral tissues will have another gas exchange where the oxygen will be dropped off and co2 will be picked up

auditory tube

this is going to *connect to your nasal pharynx*. so when kids usually kids before the age of two they get a lot of middle ear infection and that's because of this connection of your *nasal pharynx to your middle ear* right over here and so when they drink the milk and usually they drink it laying down and so the milk comes in here and sort of accumulates in the middle ear and that's what causes middle ear infection.

pulmonary vessels

this slide you can see that the pulmonary arteries divide many times it's not just one single left pulmonary artery in one single right pulmonary artery that ends up in the lungs they divide and get smaller and smaller and smaller and perfuse through the tissue of the lungs this slide doesn't show the capillaries but there would of course be microscopic capillary beds inside the lungs where the gas exchange would occur and again once gas exchange occurs that newly oxygenated blood will be returned to the heart through the pulmonary veins

In cardiac muscle cells what does the myofibril do?

those myofibrils are directly anchored to the intercalated disk. so you can say that the *intercalated disc ties together the myofibrils of adjacent muscle cells*. so what this does is it helps the cells *pull together with maximum efficiency when they're contracting.*

Gustatory Discrimination

those of you that always thought that water has a taste you're probably right of course taste preference varies from individual to individual is the same thing as smell. so it's hard for you to sort of have a specific pattern of taste one thing that I think it's important to phrase is that the amount of these sources so a sour taste or bitter taste or salty or sweet it's sort of varies for person to person so some individuals might be more sensitive to sweet or some individuals might be more sensitive to sour.

There are _______ pairs of cranial nerves.

twelve

Which structure separates the external auditory canal form the middle ear?

tympanic membrane

a membrane that transmits sound vibrations to the auditory ossicles.

tympanic membrane

The longest nerve that innervates the digestive system is the:

vagus

Which blood vessels has a larger lumen?

veins

• 92% of plasma is what ? why is this important?

water and this is important because it's what transports organic and inorganic moleculesformed ,elements or the cells and heat. so this is the component of blood that allows the cardiovascular system to regulate body temperature.

Plasma composed of three components:

water, plasma proteins, and other solutes.

T wave

wave corresponds to the ventricles repolarizing or relaxing

What happens to the basal cells when we age

we do have these stem cells over here that are going to replace our receptor cells but these sort of *become less productive as time goes by* and that's why we sort of as older you get your sense of smell sort of goes away and fades out so that's why usually when you see an elderly person they usually have a very strong smell of perfume it's basically because when they're putting their perfume on they can't really differentiate or detect the smell and therefore they put too much perfume but basically because even though they do have these stem cells they are *unable to replace all your olfactory receptor cells that die as you age.*

Why should you not use a q-tip?

we have a lot of wax that accumulates over here so cerumen accumulates over here and we have a tendency of wanting to clean our ear up and use a q-tip and what happens is when you use a q-tip which is fairly big like this you're just pushing the wax towards the tympanic membrane and it accumulates right over here. so then your *tympanic membrane can't vibrate during the hearing and so it sort of interferes with your hearing.* so they say that you shouldn't use anything smaller than an elbow to insert into your ear therefore you guys should not use a q-tip to clean your ear the best thing to do is just let some water fall into your ear when you're showering and then you can drain your ear out a little bit by tilting your head but try not to use q-tips I know it's hard and everybody does it but the best thing to do is that.

Peripheral (sensory) adaptation example

we're also talking about an adaptation to the stimulus but basically because your axons become tired of firing that same signal so we call it as *synaptic fatigue* so after a while your body stops responding to that stimulus that's coming from the periphery basically because your axons become very fatigued and tired and therefore they stop sending that type of stimulus now this response is usually very characteristic of the *phasic receptors*

How does the semilunar valve work?

when the ventricles contract blood is ejected up into the main vessels if were talking about the right ventricle the right ventricle will contract and blood will be ejected up into the pulmonary trunk through this valve. when the ventricles relax there's nothing other than the semilunar valves to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles. • in this example if there were no pulmonary semilunar valve when the right ventricle is done contracting when it relaxes there would be nothing continuing to push the blood toward the lungs and that blood would fall back down into the ventricle. this does happen the blood does fall by gravity back down it wants to fall back down in the right ventricle but what happens is this valve prevents the blood from doing that.

• superior mesenteric comes off right around

where the kidneys are -the term mesenteric refers to the bowel there is a type of tissue called mesentery on the bowel and that's where this artery gets its name

The blindspot of the eye is

where the optic nerve leaves the eye

collateral circulation

where there are multiple pathways by which blood can get to and from a particular location. (now when we're talking about collateral circulation we're going to focus on the arteries although there are collateral veins we aren't interested in them for the purposes of this course we're going to be covering particular examples of collateral circulation in fact we've already covered one in the heart between the right and the left coronary artery so keep an eye out for these as we go through the arteries and veins for the remainder of the lecture.)

basal cells

which basically are your stem cells and these stem cells are going to sort of divide to replace olfactory receptor cells that died after a while so you do have olfactory receptors that are replaced as you sort of lose them.

Umami

which means delicious in Japanese. basically is going to be located in this area back here and it actually detects things like your chicken broth and yourbeef broth, it's made up of glutamate especially your monosodium glutamate . (MSG) (amino acid glutamate) * is a pleasant taste imparted by the amino acid glutamate.*

Pathway after CNS

with regards to the pathway so here from olfactory tract it goes to your central nervous system and actually passes through your cerebral cortex. -*cerebral cortex ,hypothalamus, and your limbic system.* so this is the exception of the pathway that does not pass through your thalamus first. - so it does not pass through your thalamus so it goes directly to the central cortex and can go through the hypothalamus and you can go through the limbic system but at the end it will have its own place on the *cerebral cortex* where it's going to be detected.

differ3nce betwen arteries and veins

you can see here that the walls of arteries are thicker than those of veins. In particular the *tunica media of an artery contains more smooth muscle and elastic fibers* than does a vein therefore if you look at the distribution of layers between arteries and veins. in veins the *tunica adventitia is actually relatively thicker than the tunica media because the tunica media is so thin*.

Why dont you see any indication of repolarization of the atria?

you don't see any indication ofrepolarization or relaxation of the atria because it's occurring while the ventricles are depolarizing and contracting and so the QRS complex the erratic here masks the electrical signal you would get from the atria relaxing and

Olfactory cortex: location

you're going to have to sort of open it up to be able to see inside and that's where your olfactory cortex is going to be located so right next to your *primary auditory* you're going to have this lightest pink color which is your olfactory cortex.

membranous labyrinth

you're going to have your *membranous labyrinth* which is going to contain your *basilar membrane* on this inner structure is going to be filled with a fluid that's called an *endolymph* and membranous labyrinth is gonna be surrounded by *preilymph*.

so if you're moving your head and the yes direction so up and down

you're gonna be stimulating your anterior semicircular duct.

coronary sinus

• *the coronary sinus is the vein that brings deoxygenated blood from the myocardium into the right atrium* so that it can go through the cycle of being oxygenated again remember in the last video that we identified that opening inside of the right atrium called the opening of the coronary sinus and that's where the blood is entering into the right atrium • so again just to reiterate blood would be coming from the great cardiac vein the middle cardiac vein and the small cardiac vein all this deoxygenated blood would meet up in the coronary sinus and that blood would be emptied into the right atrium.

Fenestrated capillaries

• Fenestrated capillaries however there are *pores* or windows which is what fenestrated means it means window, in the walls of the capillaries and this gives it kind of a Swiss cheese appearance to it and that's important because these capillaries are *found in areas where there needs to be transport of large molecules such as peptides and small proteins so it allows for the passage of larger molecules and it also allows for very rapid exchange of fluids and solutes.* o so examples of where you might find these are the *choroid plexus of the brain and filtration sites within the kidneys.*

General senses

• General Senses: so these are going to detect things like temperature, pain, touch, pressure , vibration and proprioception and these are going to therefore arrive in the primary sensory cortex (your primary sensory cortex is posterior to your central sulcus) so when we're talking about general senses we're talking about information that's arriving right over here at the primary sensory cortex

How blood is supplied and removed to the heart tissue itself is part of the

• How blood is supplied and removed to the heart tissue itself is part of the *coronary circuit* that will be discussing for the next lecture but for our purposes now we just need to understand that there is deoxygenated blood returning from the heart tissue itself and that blood will enter into the right atrium because it also needs to be reoxygenate at some point it'll enter the right atrium through this hole right here called the* opening of the coronary sinus which is actually the coronary sinus is a vein so that vein will drain into this opening which opens up into the right atrium.* (but there's also blood that it's coming from the heart itself because the myocardium like any tissue in your body needs nutrients and needs waste products to be removed)

What would the heart look like if you were cutting it ?

• I included this image just so you could get a sense of what it would look like if you were dissecting this so if you opened up the thoracic cavity and you looked at the heart the dense fibrous tissue on the outside would be the parietal pericardium which is cut here open and then the visceral pericardium would be a very thin glossy Sheen layer to the heart itself.

What happens when you tilt your head from right to left?

• I'm thinking about the stereocilia is going to be stimulating or tickling the kinocilium so this means that we're going to stimulate the hair cell if we stimulate the hair cell by stimulating the kinocilium through the stereocilia then we're going to *activate the sensory nerve ending and we're going to be able to send the impulse.*

Parietal pericardium

• Parietal pericardium on the other hand is what we can see in this image because we're looking at the most outer layer. • parietal pericardium has two layers of fibrous pericardium and a serous pericardium

QRS complex

• QRS complex here so this depression and then rise and then depression is associated with depolarization of the ventricles • Notice how much more intense the ventricular contraction is relative to the atrial contraction

slow pain

• Slow pain: when we're talking about slow painit also reaches the central nervous system but it reaches it slowly and this is usually for burns and aching pains

what situation do you think has to occur for the pre capillary sphincters to open and what situation would need to occur for the pre capillaries sphincter to close?

• So based on what you understand about the role in the function of capillaries what situation do you think has to occur for the pre capillary sphincters to open and what situation would need to occur for the pre capillaries fingers to close? If you said that the *pre capillary sphincter is open when there's a need for the tissue to have more oxygen and nutrients* you're absolutely right. So when *carbon dioxide levels rise in the area that indicates the tissue is in need of oxygen and the pre capillary sphincters will open.*

Capillaries

• So capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. they're important functionally because of the only blood vessels whose walls are thin enough to permit exchange of substances between the blood and and surrounding interstitial fluids • at this point blood flow is pretty slow and so that allows diffusion across the capillary walls. • a typical capillary is simply a tube of endothelium with an external basal lamina • and the average diameter of a capillary is about the width of a single red blood cell

capillary bed

• So capillaries don't just exist by themselves each capillary is part of an interconnected network called a capillary bed or a capillary plexus • One single arterial will usually give rise to about a dozen or so capillaries that empty into several venules

Referred Pain

• So referred pain has to do with the typical example of this is when individuals that have *for example a heart attack they usually report that they feel pain on their left arm and this has to do with the nerves that are going to innervate not only your heart but your arm in this specific case. so the same nerve that will be innervating your heart is the nerve that will be innervating your left arm* so that's why sometimes it's hard for you to pinpoint exactly where the pain is coming from* because the same nerve is going to be carrying pain information from different locations* and therefore you can think that it's detecting pain for example in your left arm but it's actually supposed to be detecting pain in your heart. -• you can see other examples for example your liver and your gallbladder it's going to be innervated by the same nerve that innervates your right shoulder so sometimes if you have a problem in your liver or your gallbladder you might be feeling pain on top of your right shoulder. so that's all you need to know

The heart is suspened in what?

• So the heart doesn't just simply sit between the lungs by itself it's suspended in this connective tissue sac. that sac contains pericardial fluid that lubricates the heart we already discussed the difference between the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium but it's good to go over it.

What happens if the basilar membrane is moving -->

• So what happens is you're the same thing is gonna happen in terms of moving the hair cells but if your basilar membrane is moving in this direction --> this means that the tectorial membrane is going to be moving in this direction <-- • so if that the *tectorial membrane is moving from right to left* and you can see how these cells are going to be these hair cells are going to be larger therefore they're the kinocilium that means *the stereocilia is going to be stimulating the kinocilium and therefore you're going to have activation of these receptors.*

utricle and saccule

• The cavity within the vestibule contains a pair of membranous sacs, the utricle and the saccule .Hair cells in the utricle and saccule provide *position and linear movement sensations.* - Those in the semicircular canals are stimulated by rotation of the head. -the *saccule* if you notice over here this actually is going to contain the *maculae*. • the cristae within the ampullae which is the initial part of the semicircular ducts.

• The common carotid is branch into

• The common carotid is branch into external and internal carotid arteries. • when a vessel is named common something artery or vein that means it's going to branch into two things and those two things are named after the preceding branch so in other words the common carotid is called common because it branches into internal and external carotid.

The sounds you hear in the stehoscope is generated by?

• a stethoscope is typically used to listen to the heart sounds and these sounds are generated by the actions of the individual valves that familiar lope de loop de loop doe that the heart makes accompanies each heartbeat.

all blood vessels have

• all blood vessels have a *tube-like structure* regardless of whether they're an artery or a vein there is a series of *layers of tissue surrounding an opening in the middle and that opening is called the lumen*

Ruffini corpuscle:

• and basically these are going to be located in *muscle fibers* and you can see them right over here okay so any distortion of these nerves will give you the sensation of tactile. -*are located in the dermis and are sensitive to pressure and distortion of the skin* -Any tension or distortion of the dermis tugs or twists the fibers within the capsule, and this change stretches or compresses the dendrites and alters the activity in the myelinated afferent fiber.

olfactory gland

• and this gland it's going to secrete mucus into your nasal cavity

renal veins

• another set of veins that drain into the inferior vena cava are the renal veins so they're draining deoxygenated blood from the kidneys

coronary circuit

• as I stated previously the coronary circuit is a series of arteries and veins that supply and drain the myocardium of the heart

How does the coronary arteries supply the heart?

• as the *left ventricle pumps blood up into the aorta some of that blood will come out into the coronary arteries to supply the heart myocardium therefore blood pressure here is the highest* found anywhere and this circuit and this pressure ensures a continuous flow of blood to meet the demands of active cardiac muscle tissue

Characteristics of venules near the heart

• as you move closer to the heart there are some venules that are slightly larger these will have a tunica media but it's thin and it's dominated by more connective tissue and it has few smooth muscle fibers.

atrioventricular valves prevent?

• atrioventricular valves prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles back into the atria where they came from. these valves will remain open when blood is passing from the atrium down into the ventricle but when the ventricle contracts the only thing preventing the blood from being pushed back up into the atrium is this valve closing.

Adaptation:

• basically is going to be a reduction in the sensitivity due to a constant stimulus. so if you're stimulating something for several periods of time then basically you are adapt to that stimulus and you stop responding to that stimulus.

why do arteries and veins have a significant influence over thermo regulation

• because arteries and veins can control the blood pressure within them by vasoconstriction and vasodilation • and because blood as we mentioned before is a good conductor of heat • arteries and veins have a significant influence over thermo regulation or the ability of the body to regulate temperature

inferior mesenteric artery branch

• below where the superior mesenteric artery comes off the aorta is an inferior mesenteric artery branch • the inferior mesenteric artery supplies blood to the branches of the large intestine on the *left side this would include the parts of the large intestine that come after the left colic flexure.* • *so this is the descending colon and the sigmoid colon and rectum* • so you'll notice that where we have not gone over the specific branch name so we're not identifying the superior rectal artery or the left colic artery we're just talking about what exactly the main artery inferior mesenteric supplies.

between the parietal pericardium and the visceral pericardium and contains what?

• between these two layers of connective tissue is the *pericardial cavity* this space contains pericardial fluid which reduces friction at the heart and we'll talk about that more here in a few slides.

HEART: Superficial Structures

• but remember that the atria and the ventricles are inside their chambers inside the heart but you can also refer to the general region from the outside as the atria and ventricles. you can see the ascending aorta in the middle

common carotid artery where does the internal carotid and external carotid go?

• but there's another pathway by which blood can reach the brain and this is through the *common carotid artery* so the common carotid divides as we talked about before into the internal carotid and the external carotid this is important so this is how you're going to distinguish between these two because they're easily confused o the internal carotid goes to the brain because your brain is inside your head. the external carotid pretty much stays on the outside of the head more superficial. so it supplies the tissues near the face and around the scalp on the outside of the cranium .

continuous capillaries

• continuous capillaries are *found in most regions of the body* and in these capillaries the endothelium is a complete lining that wraps around the entire diameter of the capillary o in this type of capillary the *endothelial cells are connected by tight junctions and desmosomes so there's no space between them.*

• down into the lower limb right around the location of the sacrum at the very top of the sacrum the abdominal aorta will divide into ?

• down into the lower limb right around the location of the sacrum at the very top of the sacrum the abdominal aorta will divide into right and left common iliac. • at this point we're now technically no longer in the abdomen were in the pelvis so it makes sense that this would be named after the ilium which it's running alongside and because it's named common we know that it's going to divide into two things that both have iliac in the name

what drains into the internal jugular?

• dural sinuses would drain into the internal jugular of both the right and left and you can see here the very beginning of the internal jugular veins and the remainder would pass into the neck

dural venous sinuses are responsible for

• dural venous sinuses are responsible for draining deoxygenated blood from the brain and taking it down into the neck

external ear is going to be constituted of

• external ear is going to be constituted of what we call the *auricle* or your earlobe it's going to be constituted of your *external acoustic meatus.*

In the posterior view where are the veins located? and where do the 3 veins meet up?

• from a posterior view we can see where these veins end up the great cardiac vein is coming around from the left side around where the circumflex artery is • the small cardiac vein does the same coming from the right side of the heart to the back then • there's also an additional vein right here near the posterior interventricular artery that vein is called the middle cardiac vein because it's in the middle of the heart • all three of these veins ( great cardiac vein, small cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein) meet together in this one large vein called the *coronary sinus*

Heart: coronary circuit (posterior view)

• from the posterior perspective we can see where these arteries end up on the left side here you can see the circumflex artery and how it continues in the coronary sulcus and ends up somewhere along the left ventricle • the right coronary artery wrapping around from the right side ofthe heart comes and continues down into this area between the two ventricles on the backside of the heart and that is referred to as the *posterior interventricular artery.* • *so there's an anterior interventricular artery that's a branch off the left coronary artery and there's a posterior interventricular artery and that's a branch off of the right coronary artery*

common hepatic artery

• hepatic means liver the liver is on the right side of the body so the common hepatic artery is going to be headed to the right towards the liver

superior mesenteric artery

• here we can see the superior mesenteric artery coming off aorta and the branches that actually supply the intestines • so there are branches that go to the *large intestines on the right side and there are branches that go to the inferior portion of the small intestines*

great saphenous

• in addition to these there is also a great saphenous vein this vein is a superficial vein just like there are superficial veins in your upper limb it drains superficial structures in the lower limb • the great saphenous vein runs on the medial side of the lower limb it comes all the way from the bottom of the foot so it drains the toes and the foot and comes up on the medial side of the leg and thigh and then it drains into the femoral vein

When one single cell in the heart contracts what will happen? and how does this happen?

• in fact if one single cell in the heart contracts this will trigger the contraction of several others in the same region and that contraction will quickly spread throughout the entire myocardium. so one cell contracts the entire heart contracts. • how does this happen because the cardiac muscle cells are essentially *mechanically chemically and electrically connected to one another through these intercalated discs and gap junctions* so another way of saying this is that the cardiac muscle tissue basically functions like a single enormous muscle cell.

What does the circumflex artery supply on the posterior view? what does the right coronary artery supply on the posterior view?

• in terms of what these arteries continue to supply we already discussed what they supply on the front but I want to reiterate that it's not just supplying the anterior portion of the heart it's also supplying the posterior portion so you can see here that the circumflex artery does have branches that go up to* the left atrium and it has branches that go to the left ventricle these are the same areas that were supplied on the anterior side* the • same can be said of the right coronary artery although you can't see the branches necessarily in this image it does supply blood to the *right atrium on the back side and the right ventricle you can see multiple branches going to the right ventricle however you'll see these branches here also going to the left ventricle*.

otolith

• in this gelatinous material together with the statoconia they received the name of otolith

Other solutes

• include electrolytes which are ions that contribute to osmotic pressure of body fluids, organic nutrients that assist with basic cellular functions like growth, ATP production, maintenance of cells and organic wastes or byproducts of cellular metabolism.

semicircular ducts are going to be located so right next to your

• internal acoustic meatus.

which of these two arteries do you think supplies more blood to the brain that's

• internal carotid does. there are two pathways by which oxygenated blood can reach the brain what does that remind you of we talked about it before it's collateral circulation so if either one of these becomes blocked there is still a way for blood to reach the brain.

so what defines an artery versus a vein

• is not what type of blood is in it not whether it's oxygenated or deoxygenated but the direction that the blood is headed in reference to the heart

the cephalic vein

• is this one right here on the lateral side of the upper limb and you'll notice that the color distinction the superficial veins are a lighter blue and the deep veins are a darker blue. so these deep veins are draining deep structures in the upper limb and the superficial veins are draining mostly superficial structures like the skin there's a vein more medial running along the inside of the upper limb and that's called the basilic vein

sigmoid colon

• lastly it does this kind of snaky thing here these that where it bends around a great deal and that's referred to as the sigmoid colon sigmoid needs s-shaped

gonadal veins and where do they drain?

• lastly just like there are gonadal arteries there's a left and right gonadal vein • and the branching pattern here is a little bit different than the arteries previously we saw that the gonadal arteries came off of the aorta .so you would think okay they're gonna drain into the correlative that which would be the inferior vena cava o well the right gonadal does the* right gonadal goes into the inferior vena cava but the left gonadal actually drains into the left renal vein*. o first before it goes into the inferior vena cava now I'm telling you that not because I can ask a question about it but so that you don't get confused when you're identifying them because you might identify the gonadal is based on what they branch off of or what they're coming off of o so that is the gonadal it does go down into where the gonads would be eventually let's cut here you can't see that but it does drain into the left renal vein.

P wave

• letter the P wave or first wave here shows the depolarization or contraction of the atria the

muscular arteries

• muscular arteries these are medium-sized arteries that *transport blood to particular regions of the body*. examples of these are the *external carotid artery in the neck ,brachial arteries of the arms, the femoral arteries in the thighs and the mesenteric arteries in the abdomen*. o muscular arteries have a *thicker tunica media with a greater percentage of smooth muscle fibers than you would find in an elastic artery* o this high amount of smooth muscle allows these arteries to vasodilate or vasoconstrict to change the amount of blood that's delivered to these tissues.

cranial nerves are located

• nerves they're going to be located on the base of the brain so they're going to emerge right from the base of the brain so if you're wanting to locate them you just get a brain and you turn it upside down and your cranial nerves should be located right at the base.

why are nodal cells unusual? what are they called and why?

• nodal cells are unusual because their cell membranes will spontaneously *depolarize the remaining cells of the conduction system*. are called *conducting fibers* because they connect into these pathways that help conduct the signal throughout the heart.

ascending portion of the aorta descending part of aorta

• now the aorta there's the ascending portion of the aorta then it arches over so that's the aortic arch • then there's a descending aorta that goes down through the thorax and the abdomen

why is the cerebral arterial circle important?

• now the cerebral arterial circle is actually made up of a whole bunch of other arteries and we are not concerned with memorizing their names we're only talking about them as a group because they form a circle that circle is important because its existence in its connections allow the collateral circulation so in other words one of these becomes blocked one of these main pathways either the vertebral or the internal carotid blood can still get to every part of the brain because of all this extra connection between arteries

Thermoreceptor free-nerve endings

• now the receptor that's going to be receiving this difference in temperature is a free nerve ending and as we know from the previous slides the free nerve ending is also the type of receptor that's going to be taking pain information right so that's why sometimes if you go to extreme temperatures you can actually feel a lot of pain.

Olfactory nerve path

• olfactory nerve now this nerve is also going to be attached directly to the cerebrum so the information once it's slipped over here through your nose it arrives here in your *olfactory nerve fibers then it's sent through this structure that's called an olfactory bulb then it's passed on through the olfactory tract and from here it goes straight to your cerebrum.*

great cardiac vein

• on the left side is the great cardiac vein part of the great cardiac vein runs along with the anterior interventricular artery and that was one of the branches of the left coronary artery here this vein then continues into the coronary sulcus right where the circumflex branch of the leftcoronary artery is the great cardiac vein will therefore drain structures on the left side of the heart

Cardiac Cycle: Ventricular Systole

• on the opposite side of the spectrum if the ventricle is contracting so ventricular systole the tricuspid and bicuspid valve have to be closed so that blood doesn't go back up into the atria but the aortic valve and the pulmonary valve the two semilunar valves are going to open up because we want blood to be pushed up through the pulmonary and systemic circuits • how you'll also notice how the chamber is smaller because there's pressure being exerted on the blood the pressure of the blood will push up on and on the left side it would be the bicuspid valve closing the cusps this is the papillary muscle and the chordae tendineae if you remember and that's going to be tethering the valve down so that it doesn't blow up into the atria the force of the blood will then push this direction because this direction is closed push it up through they or take valve and you'll see the cusps are blown upward allowing it to be open

what vein is located on the right side of the heart?

• on the right side of the heart is the *small cardiac vein* which is here in the coronary sulcus around where the anterior part of the right coronary artery is this vein is draining structures in the right side of the heart and it wraps around to the posterior part

important aspect of the red cells

• one important aspect of red blood cells is their shape *their shape dictates their function. *erythrocytes kind of look like doughnuts where the whole didn't go all the way through. a more anatomically correct way to say this is they are biconcave discs. in other words disk and they're concave on both sides • *this unique shape gives them a lot of flexibility so they can bend and pass through capillaries which are very very thin blood vessels*. • the average capillary is only about the same thickness as a red blood cell itself. • what ends up happening is that a bunch of red blood cells they'll get all stacked together in these groups and be pushed along through the capillary.

ECG

• one really cool thing about heart conduction is that the electrical events associated with depolarization of the heart and repolarization of the heart are so powerful that they can be detected by electrodes placed on the surface of the body this recording of the electrical activities is called an electrocardiogram or ECG it was previously called an EKG the ECG creates a tracing with waves that correspond to certain depolarizations and repolarization and this pattern shows you the alternating patterns of systole and diastole therefore the analysis of an ECG is especially helpful in detecting and diagnosing certain cardiac arrhythmias or abnormal patterns of cardiac activity

one thing you notice about the rught atrium is ?

• one thing you'll notice about the right atrium is that its walls have this strange striated appearance these prominent muscular ridges are called *pectinate muscles* they extend all along the inner surface of the right atrium on the lateral side of the atrial wall. These muscles are responsible for squeezing every last drop of blood out of the right atrium and into the right ventricle. * only on the right atrium not left*

where is the optic chiasm located?

• optic chiasm is located right anterior to your pituitary gland that sits right over here.

Structure of Hemoglobin (Explanation )

• oxygen is not soluble in water therefore a molecule has to exist to transport it through blood. • each hemoglobin molecule contains four polypeptide chains you can see them here labeled chain one through four. • so this would just be a peptide chain all bunched up on itself so here's four. each of these polypeptide chains has a heme group in the center represented here by this orange and red disc. • Each heme protein has in its center and *iron molecule and this is where the oxygen and carbon dioxide bind to the heme protein*. therefore every molecule of hemoglobin can bind 4 oxygen or 4 carbon dioxide molecules. • so just to clarify every hemoglobin can carry four oxygen or four carbon dioxide molecules that doesn't mean that every erythrocyte carries that much because there are 280 million hemoglobins per red blood cell. • okay so if that's how many hemoglobin there are and each one carries four gas molecules that means that every red blood cell can carry over a trillion of those gas molecules. •* so this is a very efficient system erythrocytes are very competent and carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.*

what are the two layers of the parietal pericardium?

• parietal pericardium has two layers of fibrous pericardium and a serous pericardium

pulmonary trunk

• pulmonary trunk divides into the pulmonary arteries eventually so this is taking deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

blood vessels are like

• remember from our introduction to the cardiovascular system that the blood vessels are like one-way streets that carry blood to and from tissues within the body.

abdominal aorta

• remember that that division is not a branching pattern it's simply that the aorta has now passed the diaphragm and if it's passed the diaphragm that same vessel nothing's changed about it it's just in the abdomen now

visceral pericardium AKA

• remember that the visceral pericardium or epicardium was that inner layer lining the outside of the heart wall •so if you were to take the heart out that glossy film covering the outside of the heart would be the visceral pericardium so it's a loose connective tissue that's bound to the cardiac muscle tissue.

vein collect blood from where

• remember that veins collect blood from tissues and organs and return it to the heart

Gustatory Pathways

• so at the end is going to go to what we call *gustatory cortex* 1) but you can see that it leaves your tongue it's going to go through your *glossopharyngeal nerve* CN 9 it's also going to go through your *vagus nerve* CN 10 and through your *facial nerve* CN7. 2)all of them are going to come together to this nucleus with which we call a *nucleus solitarius* which you don't have to know but at the end it's going to come to your *thalamic nucleus* in your thalamus and then 4) from here go to your gustatory cortex. • so like I said on the previous part that we were talking about in terms of olfactory the olfactory does not pass through the thalamus and it's the only one but now that we're talking about taste you can see how it will *pass through your thalamus before it reaches your cerebral cortex* okay so you should know the nerves that are stimulated when you have the sensation of taste and you should know that it passes through your thalamus before it reaches the cortex

left gastric artery

• so gastric means stomach so the left gastric artery is one of several that go to the stomach and supply it with oxygenated blood so that tells you the stomach is probably somewhere around here in the middle because this branch is in the middle

why is it called fibula artery?

• so here is a division where the popliteal is dividing and becoming two new things okay the fibular artery however is a branch off of the posterior tibial artery and it's called fibula because it's more lateral and it ends up supplying structures more on the lateral side of the leg

at the aorta we can see

• so here we can see oxygenated blood leaving the heart and it would either go up above the heart towards the head or it can go below the heart down to the inferior parts of the body •so that would be one of the main blood vessels as part of the systemic circuit. •once the oxygen-rich blood reaches the peripheral tissues they'll be gas exchange those tissues will pick up oxygen the waste product carbon dioxide will be picked up by the blood and now we have deoxygenated blood this would either occur above the heart or below the heart. so both of these are showing gas exchange. (systemic circuit) • so there's the aorta which is an artery but the aorta get smaller and smaller and smaller and becomes large arteries that eventually become medium-sized arteries it eventually becomes small arteries that are have names and those names are not listed on this diagram this is just showing you the blood vessels directly off of the heart.

location of splenic artery and superior mesenteric ?

• so here you can see the middle branch of the celiac trunk going to the stomach so as a visual you can see what's supplying and then the splenic artery going to the left side of the body and supplying the spleen. • inferior to all this are the superior mesenteric vessels so spoiler alert there's also a superior mesenteric vein that runs along with the artery this is headed towards the intestine.

skeletal muscle pump

• so how exactly these work is that as long as the valve is functioning normally any movement in that region that distorts or compresses on a vein is going to push the blood back up toward the heart. any movement in the surrounding skeletal muscles will squeeze the blood up toward the heart this is sometimes referred to as a skeletal muscle pump.

In discussing what portions of the heart the coronary artery supply you can actually visualize what they supply by tracing out their branches and their pathways

• so if you look here the right coronary artery supplies blood to the right atrium the right ventricle and a portion of the left ventricle here see how the branches are meeting up on the left side however that's a minor amount of blood we're going to talk about that later on it's an example of collateral blood flow.

What arteries go up to the brain and where do they meet?

• so just based on the size of these arteries the vertebral which eventually goes up to the brain and the internal carotid which also goes up to the brain and meets up at the Circle of Willis

once the popliteal artery passes the knee it divides into

• so now we're more passed the knee were near the tibia once it gets there it divides into the anterior tibial artery and the posterior tibial artery the anterior tibial artery branches off and then it immediately see how it ends it immediately goes to the front so this is going between the tibia and fibula and heading towards the anterior part of the leg and that's why we can't see it anymore • the posterior tibial artery continues the same path as the popliteal and so it would go down the posterior side of the leg.

why don't the large veins have valves

• so one of your questions might be well why don't the large veins have valves don't they also have a similar issue as small veins and yes they do however changes in the pressure of the thoracic cavity will actually assist in moving blood towards the heart so they don't need valves.

how mant liters of blood does a person have?

• so one really cool thing about red blood cells is how many of them there are in your body so the average person has about anywhere from *four to six liters of blood.* one drop of that blood has 260 million red blood cells in it that means that the average adult has 25 trillion red blood cells in their body. by the way when I provide numbers I really don't expect you to memorize the actual numbers I just want you to understand the concept that it's a lot.

How does the light and dark enviroment effect the pupil?

• so that lighter the environment is the smaller the pupil will be and the darker the larger the pupil.

Apex of the heart

• so the apex is this pointed part here on the inferior portion of the heart the apex actually points laterally and Falls here on the left side of the body and is roughly in the area between the fifth and six costal cartilages.

Circulation of Aqueous Humor

• so the aqueous humor is going to be produced by the cells present here in the ciliary body then travel to the anterior chamber • anterior chamber once it travels to the anterior chamber and gets collected over here through this little hole which is your canal of schlemm and it enters the canal of schlemm and comes back to the posterior chamber. • so again the aqueous humor is produced by the cells of your ciliary body it's going to move to your anterior chamber over here through this opening of the pupil and then it comes back to the posterior chamber through the canal of schlemm.

• so the femoral artery is already passed to the adductor hiatus so now this is all popliteal coming off of or branching off of the popliteal are these four little arteries here that wrap around to the front of the knee these are called the

• so the femoral artery is already passed to the adductor hiatus so now this is all popliteal • coming off of or branching off of the popliteal are these four little arteries here that wrap around to the front of the knee these are called the genicular arteries

what is the function of the four chambers?

• so the function of these four chambers is that they work together to pump blood through the network of blood vessels between the heart and the peripheral tissues.

Where is the limbic system going to be located?

• so the limbic system is going to be located between the cerbrum and the diencephalon and it's going to be located just *superior to the structure that's called the corpus callosum*.

Venous Valves

• so these veins have these one-way valves that are formed inside of the veins due to folds of the Tunica intima • so you can see here in these images here is the Tunica intima on the inside and here's a little flap series of flaps on both sides that form this valve. • These valves act similar to the valves inside of the heart by preventing the backflow of blood and again these valves are necessary *because the blood pressure is so low and it needs to move in this direction superiorly to get back to the heart* and the only way that it can do that is by having something that prevents it from falling back down do gravity

Auditory Sensation Pathways

• so this is the pathway for auditory sensation so basically if you have the stereocilia stimulating the kinocilium it's going to travel through your vestibular cochlear nerve which is going to go through all these steps which we don't have to know - but at the end it goes through your *thalamus* and -from your thalamus is going to go through specific areas of your brain for detection of sound now we're going to see a recording or an animation in nature that's going to show you how we're able to differentiate low-frequency sounds from see sounds.

olfactory cell receptor: several receptors form?

• so this is the receptor that's going to detect the smell you can see how this receptor is going to come together with other receptors so you have like one two three receptors over here that are going to form your *nerve fibers*.

Thermoregulation examples

• so when the body *temperature is too low* this doesn't happen in South Florida but let's say for the sake of argument you are in New Hampshire and you walk outside without the proper jacket .your body's goal in that situation is to retain heat therefore the if we're talking in terms of *arteries there's going to be a reduced arterial blood supply and this should say to the skin what this does is limit the amount of heat that evaporates off the skin* so if you have a lot of blood going to the skin that blood is going to release heat and the temperature of the body will continue to decrease and that's the opposite of what we want to happen • likewise if the body temperature is low there will be bypassing of blood into the superficial veins so *so the blood instead of returning to the heart through the superficial veins will only go through the deep veins* o why might that help well the superficial veins remember are close to the skin so in the same way if the blood is returning through the deeper veins rather than the ones closer to the skin that's going to help retain heat and prevent heat from being released off the surface of the skin. o let's look at the opposite situation so body temperature is too high this is a frequent occurrence and Florida to the opposite situation increasing *blood supply to the skin to help release heat and in terms of veins the superficial veins will dilate*

HEART: Superficial Structures (posterior view)

• so you can see the arch of the aorta so there's an ascending aorta that then arches over and then you can't see it but the aorta continue to go down into the thoracic cavity and that would be called the descending aorta because it's going inferiorly • here you get a better appreciation of how the superior and inferior vena cava merge into the right atrium and empty their contents into the right atrium • from the posterior side you can see the *pulmonary arteries there's a left pulmonary artery and a right pulmonary artery* and these are branches off of the pulmonary trunk which we can't see here because it's more anterior so again this would be carrying deoxygenated blood on the way to the lungs to pick up oxygen once the blood has picked up oxygen it's going to return to the heart through the pulmonary veins and there are usually about four of these there's variation but there usually is *two on the left side and two on the right and remember that these drain into the left atrium*

how does the vertebral artery gets to the brain?

• so you can see the vertebral artery of the right side coming up entering through the *foramen magnum* okay so that's how it gets to the brain • going into the foramen Magnum they merged together to form one artery called the basilar artery

• superficial to the heart wall which is indicated here you can see what can constitutes all the heart wall superficial to this is the ________

• superficial to the heart wall which is indicated here you can see what can constitutes all the heart wall superficial to this is the *parietal pericardium.*

supporting cells

• supporting cells: it's going to support your receptor cells.

What happens during systole and diastole?

• systole is where the chamber is ejecting blood either into another chamber or into an arterial trunk systole is then followed by diastole which is relaxation during diastole a chamber is filling with blood and preparing for the next start of the next cardiac cycle

*basilar artery*

• the *basilar artery* which is at the base of the brain inside of the cranium that is formed by both the *right and left vertebral* o the basilar artery merges with this circle right at the base of the brain called the cerebral arterial circle this is also referred to as the *Circle of Willis*

what is an important landmark for dividing the femoral artery from the popliteal artery ?

• the adductor Magnus muscle is an important landmark for dividing the femoral artery from the popliteal artery

the artery that connects the anterior tibial to the dorsal arterial arch is called

• the artery that connects the anterior tibial to the dorsal arterial arch is called the dorsalis pedis so this is one particular artery on the top of the foot it's called dorsalis pedis because it's dorsal and PE d like podiatrist means foot

what is the base of the heart?

• the base of the heart is this broad superior portion here where the heart is attached to a series of major arteries and veins of both the systemic and pulmonary circuits. so the base of the heart is actually the superior portion of the two atria. •the base is posterior to the sternum here right around the level of the third costal cartilage

• the basilar artery then connects up to the

• the basilar artery then connects up to the cerebral arterial circle

the basilic drains the

• the basilic drains the front of the hand mostly so you can see how it connects here here's the front of the hand and the palm and then it would drain up into the this part here arteries

the brachial artery runs the length of the arm and then right around the elbow it splits

• the brachial artery runs the length of the arm and then right around the elbow it splits into *radial and ulnar arteries *

splenic artery

• the branch on the far left is headed towards this side which is where the spleen is and that's referred to as the splenic artery

common carotid arteries

• the common carotid arteries supply blood to the head and neck they're called common carotid and you have to make sure that you always specify common carotid you can't simply say carotid artery because there are three carotid arteries in the body.

cristae

• the cristae they are going to be structures that are going to contain hair cells

the duodenum which is the superior portion is not supplied by

• the duodenum which is the superior portion is not supplied by the superior mesenteric artery

the first arterial branches off of the abdominal aorta once it passes the diaphragm is the..... what does it branch into ? (3 things)

• the first arterial branches off of the abdominal aorta once it passes the diaphragm is the *celiac trunk* it's this very very short artery here and it's short-lived because as soon as it comes off the aorta it almost immediately branches into three things and those three branches will go to different organs. each one goes to a different organ luckily the name of the artery tells you what organ it goes to - branches into common hepatic artery -splenic artery -left gastric artery

Distribution of blood

• the heart ,arteries ,and capillaries normally contain anywhere from 30 to 35% of the total blood volume. this works out to be roughly 1.5 liters based on the average individual's blood volume • the vainest system contains the rest so 65 to 70 percent are around 3.5 liters this is because *vein walls are thinner and contain a lower proportion of that smooth muscle so veins are actually much more distensible than arteries. *distensible meaning when the blood is passing through they expand at a greater rate than arteries do.

where is the heart located?

• the heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs it rests on top of or superior to the diaphragm. so the diaphragm remembers that muscle that serves as a landmark between the thoracic cavity above it and the abdominal cavity below it • from a clinical perspective it's important to appreciate that the heart is not directly in the center of the chest if you look at this image the majority of the heart is to the left of the midline of the body see where the spine is this would dictate the midline or the mid sagittal section.

the inferior portions of these cusps or the free edges are attached to bundle bundle of collagen fibers called ___________ these strings here these bundles attached to these cone-shaped muscular projections from the ventricular wall called _______________.

• the inferior portions of these cusps or the free edges are attached to bundle bundle of collagen fibers called *chordate tendineae* these strings here these bundles attached to these cone-shaped muscular projections from the ventricular wall called *papillary muscles*.

inguinal ligament

• the inguinal ligament is this ligament here on the pelvis and there are structures that pass through between the ligament and the pelvis so there's a space there and that is the division mark between what's considered the pelvis and what's considered the lower limb

the intercostal arteries

• the intercostal arteries so at the level of each rib will be a small artery that comes off of the thoracic aorta and goes underneath each rib.

function of the internal jugular and external juglar vein

• the internal jugular and external jugular have a similar function as the arteries but in Reverse o so the internal jugular is draining the blood from inside the cranium internally o and in general the external jugular drains blood from outside of the scalp and the face

• just as review because we've been through this already remember that the internal jugular is meet up with ________ so this is coming draining blood from the head and neck and from the upper limb or the arm region the vein that would be draining the upper limb would be called ________ and then the blood from the right brachiocephalic would enter into the _______________________.

• the internal jugular is meet up with brachiocephalic we're on the right side so this would be the right brachiocephalic vein and remember that we broke down brachiocephalic at the beginning part means arm the last part cephalic means head and so this is coming draining blood from the head and neck and from the upper limb or the arm region the vein that would be draining the upper limb would be called subclavian and then the blood from the right brachiocephalic would enter into the superior vena cava.

the largest vessels are always closest to what?

• the largest vessels are always closest to the heart and then they gradually decrease in size until they get to the level of the capillary where their microscopic

large veins

• the last grouping is the large veins which includes the superior and inferior vena cava o the three layers in these veins are the thickest relative to the smaller veins

lateral circumflex femoral artery

• the lateral circumflex femoral has two branches an ascending branch which were not interested in we're gonna focus on the one that's descending the one that goes inferiorly the only reason that we're talking about this is because it's important for collateral circulation • it's the collateral artery to the femoral artery so you see they're both going inferiorly so the femoral obviously is the main one it's larger but the lateral circumflex femoral is an alternative route

the left ventricle is actually?

• the left ventricle is actually thicker compared to the myocardium of the right ventricle. This is because the left ventricle has to pump blood all the way around the body, but the right ventricle only has to pump it to the lungs.

Epicardium AKA

• the most external layer is the epicardium or *visceral pericardium*. This is a layer of connective tissue that forms the external surface of the heart.

The Vagus Nerve

• the most important of the nerves basically because you can see how it starts right over here at the base of your brain and then it goes down all the way to yourstomach and your digestive tract so it innervates several different organs and of course the bigger it is the more complex it is so it's going to have mixed function. • I just want you to know *that this is the more most complex of the nerves basically because it just goes all the way down to your digestive tract.*

if there is no blood in the veins what would happen?

• the much thinner walls of the veins will actually collapse if there's no blood helping to hold the wall open

medium-sized veins

• the next largest group are the medium-sized veins which correspond to muscular arteries compared to the larger veins. o medium-sized veins have a *thinner tunica media and that tunica media contains relatively few smooth muscle fibers.* All of the examples of muscular arteries that were named in the previous slide also have veins of the same name so these could be given as examples of medium sized veins

the specialized cardiac muscle cells that regulate heart rate is called?

• the ones that regulate heart rate and are found in the *sinoatrial node* are called nodal cells

the other artery that supplies blood to the shoulder and upper limb is called

• the other artery that supplies blood to the shoulder and upper limb is called the subclavian artery because it passes below the clavicle and that you can see the left subclavian artery here coming directly off the aorta

What are the layers that cover the heart and what do they form?

• the parietal pericardium as we mentioned was the outermost layer of the pericardium • the visceral pericardium directly attached to the heart • and between them is the pericardial cavity which contains a pericardial fluid

ascending colon

• the part on the right side that's going upward this would be the path the way that feces would pass through the large intestine this one here is called the ascending colon because it's going up it's acsending the feces would then go this way

pericardium

• the pericardium is connective tissue that surrounds the heart and there are two layers to it the parietal pericardium is the one on the outside and as we mentioned the visceral pericardium or the endocardium is the one that is strongly invested or directly attached to the myocardium.

popliteal artery location femoral location

• the popliteal artery goes back behind the femur to around the knee region and we talked about that as being the popliteal region • so you can see here the external iliac artery there's the inguinal ligament so all this would be femoral and the femoral artery is in the anterior part of the thigh.

Portal system

• the portal system of veins is a separate circuit which is separate from the caval system it eventually drains into the caval system because that's the only way that blood can return to the heart right it has to go through the inferior vena cava eventually but this is a separate circuit that is draining these organs here • the reason that this separate system exists is that these organs that are associated with the digestive system will have a high level of toxins and pathogens that need to be removed first before that deoxygenated blood can reach the heart again so all of this blood instead of going directly into the inferior vena cava and pulling all of those toxins and pathogens back to the heart which would be very bad it has to go first through the liver • so this what the system is the veins that drain *these organs all connected to a vein called the hepatic portal vein that shunts it to the liver *so that the liver can filter that blood filter out the toxins break down the toxins and the pathogens and then that blood would be drained into the inferior vena cava and back to the heart to be oxygenated.

abdominal aorta is ?

• the previous image all of the organs were removed so that you could see the arteries and this is because the abdominal aorta is rather posterior it's right up against the spine so in order to see it and all of its branches you have to remove the organ

why do arteries have thicker walls?

• the reason that arteries have thicker walls is that when blood is pumped through the cardiovascular system the heart pumps the blood through* the arteries first therefore the arteries have to endure the highest blood pressure* by the time the blood gets through the capillaries and then back to the veins, the blood pressure has dropped significantly so veins don't have to endure such high blood pressure as arteries do because of this arteries will retain their *circular tubular shape even if there's not any blood in them.*

renal arteries

• the renal arteries that come off the aorta and go to the kidneys and supply them with blood because you have a left and right kidney there's a left renal artery and a right renal artery

axillary artery

• the right subclavian which passes underneath the clavicle and then becomes the axillary remember that • axillary means armpit so this is in the region of the shoulder or armpit the. axillary artery becomes the brachial artery and that distinction where it becomes a brachial artery is technically another one of those arbitrary name changes where it passes an area and then it becomes a new named structure and that border that division is actually where the teres minor is so once it passes the teres minor muscle which you can't see in this image but once it passes that it becomes the brachial artery brachial because it is near the humerus and it supplies tissues in the arm

the second type of valve is inside the major arteries of the systemic and pulmonary circuits are called

• the second type of valve is inside the major arteries of the systemic and pulmonary circuits these are called semilunar valves so there is a *semilunar valve* in the aorta and there's a semilunar valve in the pulmonary trunk • the one in the aorta is obviously called the aortic semilunar valve • the one in the pulmonary trunk is called the pulmonary semilunar valve • so it's called semilunar because that's the shape of the cusps they take on a Halfmoon appearance. so semi meaning half and lunar meaning moon

small saphenous vein

• the small saphenous vein is a superficial vein that runs along the posterior part of the leg it drains into the popliteal vein so this would be draining superficial structures all the way from the foot and the leg and then up and draining into the popliteal vein and that deeper vein would be what takes it back to the heart to be reoxygenated.

How vessels regulate Blood Flow and Thermoregulation?

• the smooth muscle within the tunica media will contract or relax in response to either local stimuli or the control of a *sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system* • remember that the autonomic nervous system regulates functions of internal organs such as the heart, stomach, and intestines. so it controls things like blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, digestion, metabolism etc.

conduction of the heart where does the stimulus for contraction starts and whats the anatomical relationships ?

• the stimulus for contraction starts at the SA node and it's the anatomical relationships among all of these conduction cells or nodal cells that allow the impulse to do two things one cause the atria to contract together before the ventricles and to allow the ventricles to contract together *in a wave that begins at the apex* and then spreads up superiorly toward the base. the ventricles contract in this way because it pushes the blood from the inferior part up into the aortic and pulmonary trunks

systemic circuit

• the systemic circuit transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body cells everything else and returns the deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

sinusoid

• the third type of capillary or sinusoid is very similar to a fenestrated capillaries except it has *larger pores in a thinner basal lamina* o they also have an irregular shape to them and they follow the contours of complex organs. o so based on their structure you could probably guess that they also permit an extensive exchange of fluids including large solutes and proteins. o sinusoids can be found in the *liver bone marrow and adrenal glands.*

where does femoral artery becomes popliteal artery?

• then it dips back and goes to the back of the leg so it's headed toward the back of the leg and the only way it can get there is through this hole in the adductor Magnus called the adductor hiatus.

the four veins that are going to drain into the hepatic portal vein

• there are four veins that are going to drain into this hepatic portal vein that takes the deoxygenated blood to the liver: 1. there's the *left gastric vein* which is draining part of the stomach 2. the *splenic vein* which is draining the spleen 3. the *inferior mesenteric vein* which drains the just like the artery it's draining the left side of the colon 4. the *superior mesenteric vein *which is draining the right side of the colon or large intestine and the inferior portion of the small intestine • all of this deoxygenated blood merges and meets into this vein called the hepatic portal vein.

three types of capillaries

• there are three types of capillaries continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries ,and sinusoids.

name the two arches the arteries in the foot form?

• there's a dorsal arch in the foot and a plantar arch • the dorsal arterial arch is obviously on the dorsal side so closer to the top of the foot whereas the plantar arterial arch is more on the bottom of the foot

hepatic veins

• there's also a series of hepatic veins and we've already determined that hepatic means liver so these would be draining the liver which would sit right here in front of this kidney

pudendal artery

• there's another branch off the internal iliac this is called the internal pudendal and we're going to talk about this again when we do the reproductive system the internal pudendal supplies the the genitals pudendal actually means unmentionable in Latin Greek I can't remember but anyway it's unmentionable so the the parts that you don't want to talk about.

what is the right border? the inferior border sits on top of the and is formed by the ? what forms the left border?

• therefore the right border of the heart or the right side is made up mostly of the *right atrium* so this is the right atrium right here. • The inferior border this part that sits on top of the diaphragm is formed by the *right ventricle* so the right ventricle would be here -the left border which is a little bit longer than the right border is formed by the entire left side of the heart the both the *atrium and the ventricle* on that side

anastomosis

• these arteries or collateral arteries enter the region and fuse togetherrather than ending in their own arterial this interconnection between the two arteries is called an anastomosis. • anastomosis are important for providing more than one way that blood can reach a particular region so anastomosis are critical in situations where blood flow is restricted for some reason there's a blockage in the vessel or the vessel has been cut and the individual is hemorrhaging out if the other artery is perfectly functional blood can still get to that region and the tissues have a better chance of surviving because they're still getting oxygen and nutrients. o examples of anastomosis can be found in the heart brain and stomach and we'll be discussing some of these in the next lecture.

Lupp-Dupp sound is associated with ?

• these sounds are not related to the actions of the valves but they're associated with blood flowing into the ventricles and the sound of atrial contraction.

Valves of the heart are actually

• these valves are connective tissue that are actually *continuous with the endocardium* so they're projections of the endocardium and they help regulate the flow of blood within the heart and between the heart and the two major vessels of the systemic and pulmonary circuits.

how does the skeletal muscle pump work ?

• these valves have a very similar function as the semilunar valves. so the skeletal muscle *contracts compressing on the vein pushing the blood superiorly. the action of the blood and the pressure of the blood going up will blow up through opening the cuffs like in the situation here and blood can pass through.* • when blood is not passing through the valve it will be closed the cusps will be touching you can see that in this valve here that's inferior to where the skeletal muscle is compressing and pushing the blood up. so this will prevent blood from falling back down due to gravity and going more inferiorly the direction opposite of where we want it to go.

the tricuspid valve has

• three fibrous flaps or cusps.

utricle and sacculae they're going to be connected to ?

• utricle and sacculae they're going to be connected to the *ampulla* and they're also going to be connected to each other and to the fluid within the cochlea.

Heart: Left Atrium

• veins now we will go through the structures on the left side of the heart in order of blood flow coming back from the lungs we get to the heart from the pulmonary veins those were the four blood vessels that drain into the left atrium.

myocardium

• wall *deep to the epicardium* is the myocardium which is this thickest layer here. the *myocardium contains the cardiac muscle cells so this is actually cardiac muscle tissue* this layer consists of several interlocking layers of cardiac muscle tissue associated connective tissues blood, vessels, and nerves.

• so one question that students often ask me is how are the tissues that form the blood vessels supplied and drained of blood because the blood vessels are formed by living tissue as well as any other part of the body so they will need a steady supply of oxygen and will have waste products that need to be removed. so how are the tissues of the blood vessels supplied and drained of blood?

• well the answer is not that those substances diffuse between the lumen and the walls of the blood vessel. the vessel walls are actually too thick to allow diffusion between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues or even between the blood and the tissues of the vessel itself now when I say this you know I'm not talking about capillaries because that's the whole function of capillaries is to be thin enough to allow diffusion between the bloodstream and surrounding tissues. I'm talking specifically about arteries and veins. •so how are the tissues of the blood vessels supplied and drained of blood? one way is that there are small arteries and veins that actually supply and drain the blood vessels themselves and they're inside of the blood vessel these blood vessels are called the *vasa vasorum*.

what is the function of the papillary muscles on the chordae tendineae?

• what is the function of the papillary muscles on the chordae tendineae? it's a common misconception that the papillary muscles are what caused the valve to shut but that's not the case *the papillary muscles when they contract because they contract along with the myocardium of the ventricle they're going to pull on the chordae tendineae tethering down the cusps of the valve.* • why this is necessary is because ventricular contraction causes such a rise in pressure that if the valve was not tethered down here into the ventricle it would blow up backward and the cusps would go upward into the atria and it would be open and blood would backflow. so again the papillary muscles don't close the valve *it's the force of blood and the increased pressure of the blood that closes the atrioventricular valves* the papillary muscles along with the chordae tendineae simply prevent the valve from prolapsing or blowing up into the atrium.

when the heart contracts the contraction of the atria and ventricles must be ?

• when the heart contracts the contraction of the atria and ventricles must be *coordinated* the atria must contract first to push blood into the ventricles and then the ventricles must contract to push blood through the either the pulmonary or the systemic circuits.

function of the semilunar valve

• when the ventricle is relaxed in other words the blood is not being pumped into the vessel the valve will be closed these semilunar cusps are touching each other and there's no passageway. however when the ventricle contracts and the blood is pushed up into the vessel it pulls the cusps away from each other and the blood can pass through and the ventricle stops contracting and blood is no longer being pumped through the vessel by gravity it falls back down towards the ventricle. because these cusps have depressions on the top you can see those here they fill with blood and demonstrate that which actually pushes the cusps together and closes the semilunar valve this draws the cusps back together closing the valve and preventing the blood from flowing back into the ventricle. • remember that there's also a semilunar valve in the aorta it has the same function it's just in a different blood vessel.

Sinuses on the aorta and carotid artery

• when we're talking about the sinuses that are going to be present here in aorta and on your carotid artery basically it's going to be an enlargement that we see and we'll be able to see this when we talk aboutthe cardiovascular system so there's going to be an enlargement of these areas and that's why we call it the carotid sinus and aortic sinus.

platelets

• which are cells that circulate in the blood and assist with blood clotting for example these cells prevent you from bleeding to death from a minor injury.

within the lining of the external acoustic meatus you're gonna have a gland that's called a *ceruminous gland*, is going to produce ?

• within the lining of the external acoustic meatus you're gonna have a gland that's called a *ceruminous gland*, is going to produce what we called *cerumen* which is your earwax.

Where is it located?

• you can see how it's going to pass inferior to your facial nerve which is vestibular cochlear nerve is going to be very close to your facial nerve.

and if you're tilting your head backwards

• you're gonna be stimulating your posterior semicircular duct.

baroreceptors

• your baroreceptors they're *going to be stretch receptors that are going to monitor the changes in the stretch of organs* and they're going to be located in your *stomach* they're also going to belocated in your *small intestine* it's going to be located in your *urinary bladder* it's going to be located in your *carotid artery* up here it's going to be located in your *lungs *and it's also going to be located in your *large intestine*

where does the caval system drain?

•(iliac veins) but all of these drain into the inferior vena cava so you can see the inferior vena cava is quite long so this would be correlated with the abdominal aorta they run side by side

red blood cells AKA?

•AKA erythrocytes •* are to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.*

What type of receptor is the nociceptors?

•Basically the type of receptor is the *free nerve endings* that we actually saw when we were talking about the receptive field. so it's going to have a large receptive field so that's why when you go to the doctor and they ask you oh where do you feel the pain you can't really pinpoint where the pain is just because you have a very large receptive field right because the free nerve ending has a large range of receptive field.

Cerebrum AKA its going to have two _______?

•Cerebrum or cerebral cortex it's the same - it's going to have two hemispheres -right cerebral hemisphere and left cerebral hemisphere

PERICARDIUM & PERICARDIAL CAVITY example

•That these two pericardial are actually *one continuous structure* the way the book describes this is it's like a fist which represents the heart punching into a deflated balloon and the balloon represents the pericardium the outer part of the deflated balloon would be considered the parietal pericardium and the inner part that's actually touching the fist or the heart is the visceral pericardium but notice that it's not like these are two separate layers they connect up with each other so they're all part of the same structure or balloon and likewise the air space inside the balloon would represent the space between the two pericardial layers or the pericardial cavity would that would have the fluid in it.

what role do the chambers have in blood circulation

•Well the atria both receive blood from these circuits •the right atrium receives blood that's coming back from the systemic circuit •the left atrium is going to be receiving blood that's coming back from the pulmonary circuit this blood then passes into the ventricle chambers which are going to pump the blood through these circuits. •so the right ventricle will pump blood into the pulmonary circuit through the pulmonary arteries and •the left ventricle will pump blood through the systemic circuit through the systemic arteries.

difference between fast and slow pain

•another difference about the slow and fast pain is that with fast pain the painful sensation is going to go away only after the tissue damage has ended. so after the tissue damage has been recovered. however with the slow pain the sensation like I said it takes longer for it to reach the central nervous system the sensation of slow pain it actually begins later and it persists longer than the sensation of fast pain so it lasts a long time.

what is a common misconception about arteries and veins

•arteries are oxygenated and veins are deoxygenated which is a very common misconception. •well if you've been paying attention it's because in the pulmonary circuit it's the opposite of that so the arteries actually carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart so if you were only considering the systemic circuit and you were ignoring the pulmonary circuit entirely, yes arteries carry oxygenated blood veins carry deoxygenated blood but this rule does not apply to the pulmonary circuit . •now the pulmonary arteries and veins form a very very small percentage of all of the blood vessels in your body okay so technically the majority of veins in your body carry deoxygenated blood the majority of arteries and your body carry oxygenated blood because they're part of the systemic system and there's many many arteries and veins that are part of the systemic system because they're going to all the tissues in your body except the lungs. however because there are arteries and veins that go to and from the lungs and I have the opposite pattern you cannot say that hard fast rule based on the type of blood right.

superior mesenteric supplies the

•arteries supply which parts we said that the superior mesenteric supplies the *right side of the large intestine and the inferior portions of the small intestine* •*ascending colon, transverse, and small intestine* (right colic artery, ileocolic artery,appendicular artery) • this would be the superior mesenteric and it's branches to the acsending colon and the transverse colon so it supplies the colon up until this important clinical landmark which is called the *left colic flexure* • here also you can see the parts of the small intestine that the superior mesenteric artery would be supplying and you don't know these yet but the jejunum and the ileum are the two inferior or lower portions of the small intestine

fossa ovalis

•from about the fifth week of embryonic development up until about birth this depression was actually *a hole between the right atrium and the left atrium* at that point it's not called the fossa ovalis it's called the foramen ovalis. this foramen allows blood flow between the right and left atrium while the lungs are still developing and non-functional in the womb. at Birth the lungs begin to function as the infant is exposed to air and the and the foramen ovale is closes about 48 hours after birth. what remains is the fossa ovalis which is this depression almost like a scar showing where the foramen used to be and this fossa remains in the individual throughout life. • occasionally the foramen ovale doesn't close all the way and it remains partially open in an individual that has this condition deoxygenated and oxygenated blood from the two halves of the heart will actually mix. depending on the severity of the condition this may require surgical intervention.

iris

•going to be made up of a muscle that's going to contract and control the amount of light that goes in and then light goes in through this other structure that's called the pupil. -iris is most of the controls the amount of light that goes in.

How are the hair cells stimulated ? (changes in otolith position)

•how are we going to be able to stimulate these hair cells so basically because the statoconia is made of sort of heavy material so called calcium carbonate crystals when you tilt your head from one side to the other you're going to be sort of moving the statoconia which moves the gelatinous material which then moves your hair cells and by moving your hair cells it's going to stimulate your nerve which is the yellow structure.

the main function of the heart:

•is to pump blood through the blood vessels. •one of the main functions of the cardiovascular system is to provide these nutrients and remove these waste products.

The Glossopharyngeal Nerve

•it's going to be a mixed nerve and if it's going to go to your tongue that means it's for sensory. • So sensory to detect taste and it also goes all the way to your pharynx and your palate •motor has to do with the pharyngeal muscles, parotid salivary gland (which is this huge gland that's going to be located right over here on the side close to your temporal bone)

What happens if the basilar membrane is moving <--

•now if the basilar membrane is going to be moving in the opposite direction if the basal membrane is going to be moving in this direction <--this means that the tectorial membrane is going to be moving in this direction --> and if the tectorial membrane is moving from left to right it means the kinocilium is going to be flattening the stereocilia and therefore you have inhibition of the signal

why is blood pressure within arteries is higher?

•remember that the blood pressure within arteries is higher than that of veins and that's because the pressure coming directly from the heart as the ventricles contract is highest this means that the blood pressure within some of the smaller veins like venules and medium-sized veins is too low to oppose the force of gravity.

sensory coding

•sensory coding basically we're talking about *interpretation of sensory information so how we're able to decodify the information that's going to be coming in* so as we know the information is going to be relayed from a specific receptor to a specific neuron on the central nervous system. -now each pathway is going to carry information that's going to be concerning a specific sensation right so remember pathway carries information to a specific area and therefore it's going to create a specific sensation.

Why do you need glasses as you get older?

•so the lens it's what's going to be shaped through the suspensory ligaments to focus objects that are either close or far away and the older you get the *less flexible these suspensory ligaments are* so that's why after a while you need glasses because you're suspensory ligaments can stretch enough your lens to adjust to the different depths that you have to see.

Sound detection structure

•so you can see over here this is how you're going to detect sound so basically this is part of your cochlea right over here within the cochlea you're going to have these structures here that are called organ of Corti and if we amplifying these structures you're gonna see that you're going to have an outer hair cell right over here and then inner hair cell.

Strcutural differences between the atria and ventricles

•the atria have relatively thin muscular walls • The ventricles on the other hand have quite *thick myocardium* surrounding them this structural difference is caused by the functional differences between the atria and the ventricles. •so the atria receive venous blood that has to continue down into the ventricles •the ventricles are responsible for pumping that blood through the systemic and pulmonary circuits right. so if it's in the right ventricle it's going to be pumped to the pulmonary circuit and if it's in the left ventricle it's going to get pumped through the systemic circuit. • so thinking of it this way when the myocardium of the atria contract they don't have to push blood very far they're simply pushing the blood down a level into these chambers within the heart still within the heart however the ventricles have to push and that pressure that's created by the ventricles has to be strong enough for the blood to go all the way through an entire circuit all through both the arteries and the veins of that circuit because arteries and veins don't pump blood only the heart pumps blood therefore the ventricular walls have to be quite thick

fovea

•the fovea is the area where you're going to have a concentration of most of your cones and cones we're going to see later on other structures that allow us to see things in color.okay so your fovea has the *highest concentration of cones*.

What is the purpose of the pulmonary circuit?

•the purpose of the pulmonary circuit is to take deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen and drop off co2 and then bring back oxygenated blood to the heart.

Step 1 of blood circulation

•the right atrium is going to receive blood deoxygenated blood that's returning from the systemic circuit so from the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava and there's another place where deoxygenated blood is coming in but we're going to talk about that when we get to the structures of the heart. •so this deoxygenated blood will enter the right atrium it will pass down into the right ventricle at this point it's still deoxygenated •deoxygenated blood which is colored blue here usually that's what color is used to indicate that it's carbon dioxide rich and not oxygen rich (•so this deoxygenated blood going from the heart to the lungs. oxygen is picked up co2 is dropped off and then that oxygenated blood comes back to the heart. •the blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood away from the heart and toward the lungs are referred to as the *pulmonary arteries.* ) (pulmonary circuit)

gustatory cells they have what?

•these pink cells which would call them gustatory cells these are going to be your receptors. so each of these gustatory cells they're going to have a slender microvilli at the end and you can see it right over -• these micro villi are going to be present on an opening which we call a taste pore.