11b Chapter 6

Bandura Bobo doll

- Children mimicked aggressive behavior without instruction to do so - Regardless of personality type, all children in the study mimicked aggressive behavior modeled by the adult

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

- physiologist - discovered classical conditioning during research on digestive systems of dogs

instinctive drift examples

- pig dropping coins and pushing them on groups rather than dropping them in a piggy bank -dog holding onto a frisbee rather than dropping it on command -raccoon rubbing two coins together rather than placing them on a tray

Watson (Little Albert)

-Little Albert was an infant in their research - By the end of experiment, Little Albert reportedly feared rabbits- through the process of generalization Little Albert came to fear fluffy white stimuli similar to the lab rat. - The unconditioned in their experiment was a loud noise- This unconditioned resulted in the infant being scared

cultural learning

-Passing down information form one generation to the next illustrates cultural transmission - Religious practices can be seen as an example of cumulative cultural evolution - Other species like whales, monkeys, and apes demonstrate cultural transmission

superstitious conditioning

A behavior that was developed after coincidental reinforcement began and increased during the intervals between reinforcement

Blocking

A classical conditioning phenomenon whereby a prior association with a conditioned stimulus prevents learning of an association with another stimulus because the second one adds no further predictive value

Shoes

A new athletic shoe company, Mercury, is attempting to generate a lot of favorable buzz for their shoes. To accomplish this, their advertising agency includes photos of attractive models wearing the Mercury brand. Conditioned Stimulus

Photos of attractive models

A new athletic shoe company, Mercury, is attempting to generate a lot of favorable buzz for their shoes. To accomplish this, their advertising agency includes photos of attractive models wearing the Mercury brand. Unconditioned stimulus

good reaction

A new athletic shoe company, Mercury, is attempting to generate a lot of favorable buzz for their shoes. To accomplish this, their advertising agency includes photos of attractive models wearing the Mercury brand. Conditioned response

contingency

A possible future event that must be prepared for or guarded against; possibility

Little Albert Experiment

A study in which a white rat was paired with a loud sudden noise in order to condition a fear response in an infant.

social learning theory

A theory stating that learning is a cognitive process derived from social observation, rather than direct reinforcement of motor actions

A way to easily remember insight learning is to think of ___________.

Aha Moments

Fourth Fundamental Processes of Underlying Learning: Extinction

An active learning process the conditioned response is weakened in response to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, because the conditioned stimulus is no longer associated with the unconditioned stimulus Pavlov discovered that extinction does not imply complete unlearning or totally forgetting the importance of the conditioned stimulus

ABC's

Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence

Watson

Behaviorism; "Little Albert Study"; aversion therapy, classical conditioning

True

Due to physiological differences in apes' vocal apparatus compared to our own, we cannot teach them talk like us, but we can teach them to communicate using sign language.

Acquisition

During this process the organism begins to form an association between the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus needs to occur before all other processes of classical conditioning

generalization

During this process, the organism elicits a conditioned response to the stimulus similar in nature to the original conditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

Evidence for this process occurs when an extinct behavior reappears after a delay This process supports the idea that n extinct behavior is not truly eliminated; it is only suppressed for a period of time

Exercise and Neurogenesis

Exercise increases cerebral blood flow and the birth of new neurons in the hippocampus

observational learning

For the longest time, Julio had been stuck on World 5-5 when playing Super Mario World. He finally gave in and searched YouTube for pointers on how to get past this world. After that, he was able to complete the world. Which term best characterizes the type of learning Julio demonstrated?

Kohler, Problem Solving

In this case, the researcher associated with insight learning is __________ who studied ___________ using chimpanzees.

Extinction

In this process, only the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly after conditioning has been established As the conditioned stimulus is presented in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response weakens over time until it is no longer expressed pavlov's research gave us a deep and lasting understanding of classical conditioning

Reinforcement

Insight learning, like latent learning, involves learning without ___________.

Hippocampus, Ventricles

It continues past early development in the ___________ and an area lining the brain's ___________ where neural stem cells originate.

Latent Learning (Tolman)

Learning that occurs without either incentive or any clear motivation to learn EX. mouse race rats exploring complex mazes demonstrate evidence of learning without reinforcement

Negative Punishment Example

Mary loses her cell phone privileges for the evening as a result of being mean to her younger sisters. What type of operant conditioning are her parents using?

Prenatal

Neurogenesis begins during ___________ development.

Bandura

Observational learning; Bobo dolls; social-cognitive theory social learning theory

dishabituation

Occurs when a resin that was weakened by habituation is restored to its initial strength, sir that the person responds to the old stimulus as if it were new again

Primary Reinforcer

Primary reinforcer tend to satisfy some biological need and are effective regardless of a person's prior experience

Fixed Ratio

Reinforces a fixed number of responses EX. Salesperson who gets a bonus for every five items sold

variable ratio

Reinforces an average number of responses Gambling

Conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response

The _______ should be presented immediately before the ________, which elicits the __________.

Fixed ratio (graph)

The player needs to hit the alien with one bullet light blue

Variable interval (graph)

The player needs to wait on average around five minutes without firing before hitting the alien with two bullets blue

Fixed interval (graph)

The player needs to wait one minute without firing before hitting the alien with one bullet yellow

Negative Punishment

The removal of a positive stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of a behavior EX. Losing your license(NEGATIVE) for too many speeding tickets, decreases(PUNISHMENT) the behavior by removing the stimulus

Tolman, Cognitive Maps, Mental Representation

The researcher _________ is associated with latent learning and argued that organism create ____________, which he described as an internal ____________ of the world.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, so that learning is not tied too narrowly to specific stimuli the greater the similarities between the two stimul ex. a dog conditioned to salivate to a tome of a particular pitch and loudness will also salivate with considerable regularity in response to tones of higher and lower pitch

Discrimination

This process prevents overgeneralization from occurring bimination is essentially selectively responding to stimuli

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Conditioned taste aversion

To associate nausea (us) with food(CS) rather than with other environmental factors

Reinforcement of successive approximations

To teach her class more operant conditioning, Dr. Martin invites one of her students, Tom, to play "hot/cold" with the rest of the class. Unknown to Tom, the class selects the behavior of touching the whiteboard as the goal. Any time Tom goes in the direction of the whiteboard, the class yells, "warm!" When Tom goes away from the board, the class yells, "cold!" Tom's movement of getting closer and closer to the whiteboard best illustrates which of the following terms? - Getting closer and closer to the board can be reinforced and get tom closer to completing the goal of the game

Which schedule of reinforcement will most likely lead to longer-lasting learned responses?

Variable schedule of reinforcement A variable schedule involves a degree of unpredictability, which influences an organism's behavior more strongly than other schedules.

Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Reinforcement

What is the cognitive process of social learning theory in order from first to last?

Dishabituation

When Raoul first moved to Manhattan, the sound of traffic outside his window made it hard for him to sleep. After three months, Raoul had become used to the traffic and slept without difficulty. However, after spending a weekend in the country, where the nights are quiet, Raoul returns to find that the traffic is disrupting his sleep again. What is the term that describes the renewal of Raoul's sleep disruption?

A softball pitcher

Which example best illustrates behavior that is likely to arise from superstitious conditioning?

insight learning

a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution no trial and error aha moment Kohler chimps and the banana, they suddenly came up with a solution to each problem fitting two sticks together, building a box tower, selecting an appropriate tool to reach the banana.

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus - Boy tensing up

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Learning

a process that allows for enduring changes in both the brain and behavior as a result of prior experience.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place ex. door was originally a neutral stimulus but because the door is associated with the airhorn(unconditioned stimulus) it has turned into conditioned stimulus

Premark Principle

activities someone frequently engages in can be harnessed and used to reinforce activities that the person is less inclined to do EX. Grandma's rule: You cant eat your dessert (preferred behavior) until you eat your vegetables (less-preferred behavior. the frequent behavior that serves to reinforce a less frequent one.

positive

adding a stimulus

Positive Punishment

adding stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of a behavior EX. Adding(POSITIVE) more rules and restrictions when a teen misses curfew, will decrease(PUNISHMENT) the chances the behavior will reappear

Reinforecement

an increased likelihood of a behavior being repeated

habituation

an organism's stimulus becomes weaker The brain becomes less responsive with the repeated exposure, allowing us to direct our resources to more important stimuli in our environment

sensitization

an organisms reflexive resins to a repeated stimulus becomes stronger

Secondary Reinforcer

are learned, acquiring value through experience because of their association with primary reinforcers

Consequence

are the stimuli after the behavior that either increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Partial reinforcement

behavior is rewarded only some of the time a partial reinforcement schedule can be determined by one of two variables: behavior or time

Pavlov

classical conditioning, dogs trained the dogs to salivate at the sound of the bell which was the conditioned stimulus.

Cigarette

companies try to induce a desire for smoking even before consumers directly experienced the addictiveness of nicotine a chronic users tolerance to drug increases, so that more of the drug is needed to get the same high.

observational learning and operant conditioning

different: observational learning differs from operant conditioning due to social and cognitive factors affecting learning similar: Both forms of learning involve desired behaviors that the organism learns how ti execute

Cultural Learning

enables cumulative cultural evolution: Cultures evolve to build complex practices and areas of knowledge that gradually improve over centuries and millennia culture extends to many behaviors, such as eating preferences, language, and group dynamics, it informs a groups habits, behaviors, perspectives, and rituals EX: A child who was raised on a farm might have a different relationship with agriculture than an urban-reared child who works at a grocery store

cognitive maps

essential not only for learning but also for a spatial representation of the environment, closely linking these two function in the brain EX. taxi driver verses bus driver bus drivers are confined to specific routes, while taxi drivers often need to navigate throughout an entire city taxi driver has more gray matter

Attention

first step to imitating actions and is influenced by many factors EX: if a person admires and respects her model or instructor, she is likely to be more attentive. on the flip side, a student who absolutely despises her teacher or is mad at her parents might flat-out refuse to pay attention

Shaping

gradually changes random behaviors into a desired target behavior by what is called the reinforcement of successive approximations starts simply, with a behavior that is vaguely similar to the target behavior, and then builds in complexity until the target behavior is reached

hippocampus

helps Regina form memory of early spider bite primarily in charge of memory formation

Four Main Processes: Motor Reproduction

helps reinforce a skill as the learner physically imitates the model's action you have seen people drive, it is not until you attempt to drive that the skill becomes solidified in your own behavior

Genes

human cultural evolution is theorized to have shaped our genetic evolution genes provide us with the ability to learn

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) ex. reflex of tensing up

EX: Cultural Learning

in monkeys was recorded in 1952, on the isolated island of Koshima, where a monkey was observed washing her sweet potatoes. She took her potatoes to the water and dropped them in, letting the dirt rinse away. Other monkeys began to imitate their behavior until the entire troop learned to do so, and this behavior passed on to offspring and remained a habit

Negative Reinforcement

increases the probability of a behavior by avoiding or removing an outcome taking away a stimulus to decrease the frequency of the behavior EX. When a boy screams, their parents immediately take the food away(NEGATIVE). Each time macaroni and cheese is offered, the child's tantrums increase(REINFORCEMENT) and the parent gives in.

Kholer

insight learning, aha moment: chimps learned to use the ladder after some trial and error. They had the aha moment after. they had trials and errors without knowing that it was what they were doing

Amygdala (example)

integrates Regina's sight of spider with other brain structures primary factor when it comes to establishing conditioned emotional responses, both painful and pleasurable

nonassociative learning

involves an increased or decreased response to a repeated stimulus - habituation and sensitization

associative learning

involves making connections between stimuli and the behavioral responses to them operant conditioning and classical conditioning

Classical conditioning

is a passive form of associative learning where an involuntary response to a stimulus -that is, a reflex- becomes associated with a new stimulus predict future

counterconditioning

is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.

operant conditioning

is an active form of associative learning and is related to changes in voluntary behaviors change Voluntary behaviors are generally modified as a result of their consequences Ex: if you offer your dog treats when he shakes hands and no treat when he does not shake hands, with time and experience your dog will perform the trick on your command. --- you may think you re teaching your dog, but your dogs brain is really learning how to control you (the environment): how to get you to give him a treat

Skinner's Operant Chamber

is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, reinforcement when the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water

Amygdala

is critical for learning fear responses it brings together information regarding a controlled stimulus and an uncontrolled stimulus and connects with other brain regions that control various behavioral and endocrine responses of the unconditioned response

Fifth Fundamental Processes of Underlying Learning: Spontaneous Recovery

is observed when an extinct behavior reappears after a delay Extinction is not forgetting- it is the brain learning to not respond

Acquisition

is the initial learning of the unconditioned stimulus- conditioned stimulus link in classical conditioning. early stage of learning process during which time a response is first established at this point the subject will begin displaying the behavior when a stimulus is presented

Preparedness

is the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

cultural transmission

is the transfer of information from one generation to another that is maintained not by genetics but by teaching and learning cultural traits can be passed on to subsequent generation cultural traits are not passed on by our genes but by many other learning methods, whether via conditioning, observation and imitation, or explicit teaching

Tolman

latent learning, cognition; studied rats and discovered the "cognitive map" in rats and humans

Behavior

learning cannot influence behavior unless the behavior occurs

observational learning

learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates a behavior for a model eliminates the process of trial and error and increases the rate of learning and decreases the risks associated with operant or classical methods

Discrimination

occurs when we learn to respond to a particular stimulus but not to similar stimuli, thus preventing overgeneralization

horizontal transmission

of culture is social learning between peers peer pressure

vertical transmission

of culture occurs when skills are transferred from parent to offspring, such as when children learn a language from their parents a child learns how to clean the cat litter from the parent

variable ratio (graph)

on average, the player needs to hit the alien with five bullets red

Skinner

operant conditioning, skinner box was the rat who pressed the lever and either got shocked or reinforced with food and water

Thorndike

operant learning, He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. trial and error grandmas rule transfer of learning

mirror neurons

our ability to imitate, learn and understand the actions of others may be supported by a specialized matching system in the brain neurons that are active both when performing an action and when the same actions are observed in others

Neuroplasticity

our brain's ability to reinvent and rewire itself-remains a subject for scientific debate that may have significant societal consequences

Aggression (Bandura)

preschool children observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a large inflatable doll. after children watched the cult assaulting the doll, the children in the experiment regardless of his or her personality or general tendency toward aggression, subsequently mimicked the adults aggression behavior without any instruction to do so

Thalamus

processes sensory input from sight of spider and feel of bite

Hypothalamus

regulates blood pressure, which increases at sight of spiders contributes to ones frightened response with increase blood pressure

Fixed interval

reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time. EX. If you had a five minute fixed interval schedule, then after every five minutes in which you displayed the proper behavior, you would be rewarded

Pituitary gland

releases chemicals, making Regina feel fearful when she sees a spider governs the release of hormones responsible in part for fight, flight and freeze response

negative

taking away a stimulus

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement instead of demonstrating newly learned response

Punishment

the decreased likelihood of a behavior being repeated

Four Main Processes: Retention

the encoding of information for future memory retrieval is often assisted by real descriptions or images. Taking notes is a great tool when aiming to improve a skill over time, the notes act as a reminder to practice certain aspects of a new technique

Postive Reinforcement

the frequenting of a behavior increases because to is followed by a reinforcing stimulus. adding a stimulus, to increase the future frequency of the behavior occurring ex. children are given (ADDING/ POSITIVE) stickers for putting in hard work, will therefore increase (REINFORCEMENT) the likelihood of hard work

imitation

the purposeful copying of a behavior

Antecedent

the stimuli that precede the behavior and signal the consequence Ex. when a traffic light is green, stepping on the accelerator is good; when a traffic light is red, stepping on the accelerator is bad. The color of the light is the antecedent(A) stimulus that indicates the likely consequence of your behavior Antecedent does not cause behavior

contiguity

the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related

continuous reinforcement schedule

where a behavior is rewarded every time it is performed EX. you might get a chocolate every time you finish reading a study unit of this book

Variable interval

where a response is reinforced based on an average amount of time elapsed

Diffusion Chain

where individuals learn a behavior by observing a model and then serve as models from which other individuals can learn learning a card trick from a parent, and then showing it to friends from school

Reinforcement

will increase the likelihood that a person will repeat a new behavior or skill

unconditioned stimulus (US)

—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. a stimulus that produces such a response without prior learning ex. airhorn sound