13, 14, 15

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Closure

the tendency to *fill in gaps of missing information* by *assuming* that what we do *NOT* know is consistent with what we already know

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency to *ignore external causes* of behavior & to *attribute* other people's actions to *internal causes*

Selective perception

the tendency to *notice* & *accept* objects and information consistent with our *values, beliefs*, and *expectations*, while *ignoring* or screening out *inconsistent* information

Self-serving bias

the tendency to *overestimate* our *value* by attributing successes to ourselves (internal causes) & attributing *failures* to others or the environment (external causes)

Leadership style

the way a leader generally *behaves* *toward* *followers*

People are motivated by _________ needs.

unmet

Organizational silence

when employees *withhold* information about organizational problems or issues

Ability (equation)

workers possess the knowledge, skills, & talent needed to do job well

Charismatic Leadership

• *Behavioral tendencies* & *personal characteristics* of leaders that: → Creates an exceptionally strong relationship between them & their followers • Categories → *Ethical charismatics:* Leaders who provide developmental opportunities for followers → *Unethical charismatics:* Leaders who control and manipulate followers

CH 13 Summary

• *Equity theory* - People are motivated when they perceive fair treatment • *Expectancy theory* - People are motivated when efforts lead to good performance • *Reinforcement theory* - Behavior is a function of its consequences • *Goal-setting theory* - People are motivated when they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback

Transactional Leadership

• *Exchange process* in which followers are *rewarded* for *good* performance & *punished* for *poor* performance → *Disadvantage* - Rely too heavily on discipline or threats to bring performance up to standards

Basic of Motivation (part 2)

• *Extrinsic reward:* Tangible -Given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors -Used to motivate people to perform basic behaviors • *Intrinsic reward:* Natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake

Managing Organization-Wide Communication (part 2)

• *Improving reception* by finding ways to *hear* what others *feel* & *think* → *Organizational silence:* When employees withhold information about organizational problems or issues → *Company hotlines:* Phone numbers that anyone in the company can call anonymously to leave information for the upper management

What are the 2 types of Needs satisfactions?

1) Lower-order 2) Higher-order

Position power

leaders are able to *hire, fire, reward*, & *punish* workers

Ethical charismatics

leaders who *provide developmental opportunities* for follower

Reinforcement theory

*Behavior* is a *function* of its *consequences*

Goal-Setting Theory

*Components* • Goal specificity • Goal difficulty • Goal acceptance • Performance feedback *Steps to motivate employees* • Assign specific, challenging goals • Ensure workers truly accept organizational goals • Provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback

Survey feedback

*Information* that is collected from surveys given to organizational members & then compiled, disseminated, and used to develop action plans for improvement

Exhibit 13.7 (Intermitted Reinforcement Schedules)

*Interval (Time)* • *Fixed* → Consequences follow behavior after a fixed time has elapsed • *Variable* → Consequences follow behavior after different times, some shorter & some longer, that vary around a specific average time *Ratio (Behavior)* • *Fixed* → Consequences follow a specific number(#) of behaviors • *Variable* → Consequences follow a different number(#) of behaviors, sometimes more & some less, that vary a specified average number of behaviors.

Schedules for Delivering Reinforcement (6)

*Set of rules regarding reinforcement contingencies:* 1) Continuous reinforcement 2) Intermittent reinforcement 3) Fixed interval reinforcement 4) Variable interval reinforcement 5) Fixed ratio reinforcement 6) Variable ratio reinforcement

Reinforcement contingencies

*cause-and-effect* relationships between the *performance* of specific behaviors & *specific* consequences

Perception creates

*communication problems* for organizations b/c people can *end up* with *different* *ideas* & *understandings*

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule

*consequences* *follow* a *behavior* ONLY *after* a *fixed time* has elapsed

Destructive feedback

*feedback* that *disapproves* *without* any intention of being helpful & almost always causes a *negative* or defensive reaction in the recipient

Outcomes

*improves* subordinate *satisfaction* & *performance*

Performance feedback

*information* about the *quality* or *quantity* of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal

Name the 3 Needs Theories

1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2) Alderfer's ERG Theory 3) McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

T or F The leadership trait of integrity refers to the extent to which leaders do what they said they would d

T or F There is no such thing as a "best" leadership style for all situations and employees.

Intrinsic reward

*natural* reward associated with performing a task or activity for its *own* *sake*

Company hotlines

*phone number* that anyone in the company can call anonymously to leave information for upper management

Needs

*physical* or *psychological* requirements that must be met to ensure *survival* & *well-being*

Televised/video taped speeches and meetings

*speeches* & *meeting* originally made to a *smaller* audience that are either simultaneously broadcast to other locations in the company or videotaped for subsequent distribution and viewing

Variable interval reinforcement schedule

*time* between *behavior* & the *following* consequences *varies* around a *specified average*

Empathetic listening

*understanding* the speaker's perspective & personal frame of reference and giving feedback that *conveys* that understanding to the speaker

Jargon

*vocabulary* particular to a profession or group that interferes with communication in the workplace

Reinforcement Theory

*• Behavior is a function of its consequences* a) Behaviors followed by *positive* consequences will occur *more* frequently b) Behaviors followed by *negative* consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur *less* frequently • *Components* → Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, & extinction

Leadership Behaviors

*• Behaviors central to successful leadership* → *Initiating structure:* Degree to which a leader structures the roles of followers - By setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks → *Consideration:* Extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, supportive, and shows concern for employees

One-on-One Communication

*• Coaching* → Communicating with someone for the direct purpose of improving the person's on-the-job performance or behavior *Counselling* → Communicating with someone about non-job-related issues that may be affecting or interfering with the person's performance -*Employee Assistance Program (EAP)*

Visionary Leadership

*• Creates a positive image of the future* → Motivates organizational members → Provides direction for future planning & goal setting. • *Types* a) Charismatic leadership b) Transformational leadership c) Transactional leadership

Basics of Motivation

*• Effort & Performance* - Job Performance = *Motivation* × ability × situational constraints *• Need Satisfaction * - *Needs:* physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival & well-being - People are motivated by *unmet* needs - Types: a) Lower-order b) Higher-order

Managing Organization-Wide Communication

*• Improving transmission by getting the message out* 1) Email 2) Online discussion forums 3) Televised/videotaped speeches and meetings 4) Voice messaging

Expectancy Theory:

*• People will be motivated to the extent to which they believe:* a) Their efforts will lead to good performance b) Good performance will be rewarded c) They will be offered attractive rewards • *Components* - Valence, expectancy, instrumentality → Motivation = Valence x expectancy x instrumentality

Fledler's Contingency Theory (part 2)

*• Situational favorableness* → Degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of group members → Factors that determine the favorability of a situation a) Leader-member relations b) Task structure c) Position power

Path-Goal Theory (part 2)

*• Subordinate contingencies* - Perceived ability - Experience - Locus of control *• Environmental contingencies* - Task structure - Formal authority system - Primary work group *• Outcomes* - Improves subordinate satisfaction and performance

Leadership Traits

*• Trait theory:* Leadership theory stating that effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics → *Traits:* Relatively stable characteristics a) Abilities b) Psychological motives c) Consistent patterns of behavior

Name the 4 Components of Goal-Setting Theory

1) Goal specificity 2) Goal difficulty 3) Goal acceptance 4) Performance feedback

What are the 2 types of Informal Communication?

1) Gossip chain 2) Cluster chain

What are the 2 Leadership behaviors

1) Initiating structure 2) Consideration

Alderfer's ERG Theory (3)

1) *Existence* → (physical & psychological needs) 2) *Relatedness* → (belongingness) 3) *Growth* → (esteem & self-actualization)

Leadership Styles (4)

1) Directive 2) Supportive 3) Participative 4) Achievement-oriented

Name the 3 Formal Communication Channels

1) Downward communication 2) Upward communication 3) Horizontal communication

What are the 4 ways of Managing Organization-Wide Communication?

1) Email 2) Online discussion forums 3) Televised/videotaped speeches and meetings 4) Voice messaging

Name the 3 Subordinate contingencies

1) Perceived ability 2) Experience 3) Locus of control

Subordinate Contingencies (3)

1) Perceived ability 2) Locus of control 3) Experience

Name the 4 Components of the Reinforcement Theory

1) Positive reinforcement 2) Negative reinforcement 3) Punishment 4) Extinction

Outcomes (2)

1) Subordinate satisfaction 2) Subordinate performance

Environmental Contingencies (3)

1) Task structure 2) Formal authority system 3) Primary work group

Name the 3 Environmental contingencies

1) Task structure 2) Formal authority system 3) Primary work group

What are the 3 Expectancy Components?

1) Valence 2) Expectancy 3) Instrumentality

What are 2 types of Listening?

1) active 2) empathetic

What are 2 types of Feedback?

1) destructive 2) constructive

What are the 2 types of Communication medium?

1) oral 2) written

A CEO who tours company plants to meet and talk to employees at all levels in order to better understand their concerns and feelings is demonstrating which type of leader behavior? a. consideration b. leader formalization c. autonomy d. reciprocity e. initiating structure

A group of actors gather to read the critical reviews of the new play they presented to audiences last night. The actors are looking for ____ rewards. a. extrinsic b. psychological c. assigned d. intangible e. intrinsic

According to Alderfer's ERG theory, the lowest-order need is ____. a. existence b. relatedness c. physiological needs d. ego-related e. empath

According to the model of need satisfaction, an unsatisfied need produces ____. a. tension b. high levels of creativity c. sacrificing acquisition d. problem-solving efficiency e. selective perception

According to the path-goal theory, which of the following is an example of an environmental contingency? a. the formal authority system b. perceived ability c. locus of control d. subordinate satisfaction e. focus of subordinate

Although both Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments and the advent of professional women's sporting leagues have led to dramatic increases in opportunities for women in sports at high school, collegiate, and professional levels, significant discrepancies still exist between men's and women's sports. For example, women receive less media coverage, promotion, and institutional support. According to ____, the motivation for women athletes to perform at the top of their ability is less than that for men. a. equity theory b. reinforcement theory c. goal-setting theory d. theory of procedural justice e. expectancy theory

The "great person" theory is another name for the ____ theory of leadership. a. trait b. behavioral c. situational d. path-goal e. leader formalization

Although both Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments and the advent of professional women's sporting leagues have led to dramatic increases in opportunities for women in sports at high school, collegiate, and professional levels, significant discrepancies still exist between men's and women's sports. For example, women receive less media coverage, promotion, and institutional support. According to equity theory, female athletes should feel that male athletes are being ____. a. overrewarded b. synergized c. underrewarded d. extrinsically rewarded e. goal reinforced

Charismatic leaders ____. a. articulate a vision based on strongly held values b. have strong coercive and reward power c. have trouble delegating d. base their influence on an exchange process in which followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance e. are accurately described by none of these

Currently the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been an integral part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. For disabled athletes who believe their efforts will not be fairly rewarded, the motivation to win a Paralympics medal would have a(n) ____. a. low valence b. strong expectancy c. low performance value d. high valence e. strong instrumentality

David Dworkin is the founder of a small Atlanta-based chain of retail stores called Swoozie's. The stores target affluent women and carry eclectic lines of wrapping paper, stationery, invitations, and gifts. Dworkin has expressed a strong need to expand Swoozie's nationwide. According to McClelland's Learned Needs Theory, Dworkin has a need for ____. a. achievement b. esteem c. growth d. self-actualization e. affiliation

Driving in heavy traffic makes Hal very anxious and sometimes angry. He leaves home earlier than usual one morning and doesn't run into heavy traffic. He leaves home earlier again the next morning, and again he avoids heavy traffic. His behavior of leaving home earlier is strengthened by the consequence of the avoidance of heavy traffic. What kind of reinforcement has occurred in this example? a. negative reinforcement b. extinction c. punishment d. intermittent reinforcement e. overreward

During his tenure as the CEO of Credit Suisse First Boston (CSFB), John Mack turned the money-losing bank into a profitable firm by "goading workers to move out of their comfort zones" and setting challenging goals for them. His high expectation for his employees indicates that Mack used a(n) ____ leadership style. a. achievement-oriented b. supportive c. charismatic d. democratic e. participative

In Fiedler's contingency theory, the term ____ refers to the degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of group members. a. situational favorableness b. leader-member relations c. task structure d. position power e. task favorableness

In a(n) ____ reinforcement schedule, a consequence follows every instance of a behavior. a. continuous b. intermittent c. variable interval d. fixed ratio e. variable ratio

In a(n) ____ reinforcement schedule, consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed. a. fixed interval b. variable interval c. fixed ratio d. variable ratio e. intermittent interval

In many organizations, sales managers develop companywide sales forecasts by asking members of the sales force to decide how much growth they anticipate in their individual sales territories. Sales managers then take the input from the individual salespeople and create the companywide sales forecasts based on the information supplied by their subordinates. In the normative decision model, this would be an example of a(n) ____ decision-making style. a. consultative b. group c. autocratic d. participative e. supportive

In terms of simplicity and effectiveness, which of the following reinforcement schedules may be the best choice for managers? a. continuous b. fixed ratio c. variable ratio d. fixed interval e. intermittent interval

James Casey founded UPS in 1907 as a message delivery business. The development of the telephone would have put an end to the business if Casey had not been a ____ leader who was able to get his employees to accomplish more than they had thought possible and re-invent the company as a company that delivered goods for retailers. a. transformational b. substitute c. participative d. transactional e. supportive

Larry Tobin is now president of Fairwinds Credit Union in Florida where he started as a part-time teller. He's learned to ignore one bit of advice he's frequently heard, "Work with what you have." Tobin doesn't buy that view. He subscribes to the philosophy that calls for "having the right people on the bus and the right people in the right seats on the bus." After Tobin assumed the helm at Fairwinds, he made several personnel changes. Which of the following seems most important to Tobin? a. situational favorableness b. initiating structure c. position power d. goal commitment e. empowerment quality

Research at three universities has confirmed that two basic leader behaviors, ____ and ____, are central to successful leadership. a. initiating structure; consideration b. initiating structure; job-centered leadership c. employee-centered leadership; consideration d. concern for production; job-centered leadership e. autonomous; participative

Research results consistently show ____. a. transformational leadership is much more effective on average than transactional leadership b. transactional leadership is much more effective on average than transformational leadership c. transformational and transactional leadership are both equally effective d. transformational leadership tends to emerge from transactional leadership e. transformational leadership based on a vision is more effective than when it is based on an exchange process

Stan O'Neal began his tenure as the CEO of Merrill Lynch by firing the entire management committee. A few months later he fired two of his hand-picked senior executives because they were "plotting to diminish his authority" and did not want to follow his orders unquestioningly. In terms of Fiedler's contingency theory, O'Neal was most concerned with establishing ____. a. situational favorableness b. consideration c. position power d. goal commitment e. empowerment quality

The goal of the Apollo moon flight was to put a man on the moon. According to Charles Garfield, who worked at NASA on the Apollo mission, the flight was off-course 90 percent of the time between here and the moon. But Apollo used ____ that allowed it to make rapid course corrections. a. performance feedback b. goal congruity c. goal specificity d. goal difficulty e. goal acceptance

The number of people who play high-stakes poker is increasing as a result of a number of cable television shows featuring professional poker players vying for $100,000 pots. In terms of reinforcement theory, what kind of a reinforcement schedule motivates the behavior of these card players? a. variable ratio b. fixed ratio c. continuous d. intermittent e. variable interval

The primary ways to create reinforcement contingencies in organizations are ____. a. reinforcement contingencies and the schedules of reinforcement b. extrinsic and intrinsic rewards c. perceptions of equity and reward desirability d. situational motivators e. higher-order needs and organizational structure

The two kinds of charismatic leaders are referred to as ____. a. ethical charismatics and unethical charismatics b. effective charismatics and ineffective charismatics c. transformational and transactional leaders d. visionary and nonvisionary leaders e. those who have learned how to be charismatic and those who are naturally charismatic

Transactional leaders ____. a. reward followers for good behavior and punish followers for poor behavior b. help followers see how their jobs fit with the organization's vision c. pay special attention to individual needs by creating learning opportunities d. motivate followers by providing them with meaningful and challenging work e. are accurately described by all of these

Trucking companies are facing labor shortages and unprecedented worker mobility. Leaders are needed that will do more than simply manage or direct drivers, owner-operators, and the staff that supports them. Instead these leaders need to inspire, coach, encourage, and guide. They need to earn consensus by working as part of the team, providing resources to get the job done, then getting out of the way and letting their people perform. They need to be ____ leaders. a. strategic b. transactional c. directive d. autonomous e. job-oriented

W. L. Gore is the company that created Gore-Tex among many other innovative products. Gore employees (known as associates) don't have titles or bosses in the traditional sense. Instead, associates make commitments to work on projects that they believe are most worthy of their time. At Gore, few leaders are appointed; leaders simply emerge as needed by the other employees or the project itself. Gore more than likely adheres to the ____ theory of leadership. a. contingency b. normative c. strategic d. trait e. visionary

When Jack Welch went to work for General Electric, he immediately began to make drastic changes in the company's structure and product lines. He envisioned a bloated, inefficient General Electric becoming an efficient, profitable organization over time. He inspired and motivated his employees to change. Jack Welch ____. a. would be characterized as a leader b. had a short-term perspective c. emphasized means rather than ends d. acted as a builder rather than an architect e. would be characterized as a manager

Which of the following approaches to implementing Fiedler's contingency theory in the workplace has proven effective? a. accurately measuring and matching leaders to situations b. teaching managers how to change situational favorableness c. arbitrary definition of situations d. only hiring supervisors with appropriate leadership traits e. creating standing plans concerning leader actions and reactions

Which of the following is a major concern of managers (as opposed to leaders)? a. maintaining the status quo b. inspiring and motivating others c. taking a long-term view d. promoting change e. organizational improvements

Which of the following statements about leaders and managers is true? a. Organizations need both leaders and managers. b. Leaders are critical to getting out the day-to-day work. c. Managers are critical to inspiring employees and setting long-term direction. d. Most organizations place greater emphasis on leadership than on management. e. All of these statements about leaders and managers are true.

Which of the following statements about the two basic leader behaviors that are central to successful leadership is true? a. These behaviors are referred to as initiating structure and consideration. b. These behaviors are dependent, meaning that leaders can only do one at a time. c. The worst leadership style entails the use of both behaviors in equal amounts. d. The best leadership style entails high levels of both of these behaviors. e. Most effective leaders select one behavior, adopt it, and maintain that style of leadership for their entire career

Which of the following traits refers to the extent to which leaders are truthful with others? a. honesty b. self-confidence c. emotional stability d. charisma e. extroversion

Which type of inequity occurs more frequently in theory than in practice? a. overreward b. underreward c. negative expectancy d. negative valence e. instrumentality

____ is leadership that creates a positive image of the future that motivates organizational members and provides direction for future planning and goal setting. a. Visionary leadership b. Supportive leadership c. Transactional leadership d. Achievement-oriented leadership e. Leadership empowerment

____ is the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate change that will create a positive future for the organization. a. Strategic leadership b. Initiating leadership c. Vision congruence d. Progressive leadership e. Empathetic leadership

____ is the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. a. Goal specificity b. Goal difficulty c. Goal acceptance d. Goal clarity e. Goal congruity

____ strengthen behavior (i.e., increase its frequency). a. Positive and negative reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement and extinction c. Positive reinforcement and extinction d. Negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, and punishment e. Negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, extinction, and punishment

According to equity theory, when employees perceive ____, they tend to experience anger or frustration. a. overreward b. underreward c. adverse instrumentality d. negative motivational cues e. negative reinforcement

According to some industrial psychologists, job performance is a(n) ____ function of motivation, ability, and situational constraints. a. circular b. multiplicative c. nonlinear d. additive e. corollary

According to the expectancy theory, ____ affect the conscious choices that people make about their motivation. a. equity, value-added, and instrumentality b. valence, expectancy, and instrumentality c. expectancy, reinforcement, and instrumentality d. instrumentality, equity, and expectancy e. expectancy, equity, and reinforcement

A manager who wants to use reinforcement theory to motivate workers should first ____. a. evaluate critical behavior b. identify critical performance-related behavior c. analyze motivational cues d. measure the value of existing extrinsic and intrinsic rewards e. intervene using a change agent

According to an article from CIO Magazine, "Leadership grows from courage and integrity." From this opening statement, you know the article will discuss leadership from the ____. a. University of Michigan perspective b. trait theory viewpoint c. situational approach to leadership d. motivational approach to leadership e. Hershey and Blanchard perspective

According to the path-goal theory of leadership, ____ involves being friendly and approachable to employees, showing concern for them and their welfare, treating them as equals, and creating a friendly climate. a. directive leadership b. supportive leadership c. leadership empowerment d. achievement-oriented leadership e. participative leadership

According to the path-goal theory of leadership, ____ is very similar to considerate leader behavior. a. directive leadership b. supportive leadership c. participative leadership d. achievement-oriented leadership e. people-oriented leadership

Effective managers define ____ as the process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals. a. management b. leadership c. interpersonal influence d. supervision e. autonomy

Extrinsic rewards are ____. a. intangible b. exemplified by bonuses, trophies, and plaques c. exemplified by a sense of accomplishment at the conclusion of a difficult assignment d. rewards associated with performing a task for its own sake e. much more effective motivators than intrinsic rewards

Feedback can lead to stronger motivation and effort if it a. supports a country club style of management, which offers more freedom of action b. encourages employees to set higher, more difficult goals after the initial goals are accomplished c. allows managers to offer criticism without seeming to do so d. creates a direct relationship between goal congruity and higher-level needs e. does all of these

For workers to truly accept organizational goals, the workers must ____. a. respond to an autocratic management style b. trust management c. not require any more training in order to achieve the goal d. operate outside the organizational communication channel e. do none of these

For workers who feel underpaid, creating a union at their place of employment to attain higher wages can be a mechanism for restoring equity by ____. a. reducing inputs b. increasing outcomes c. changing the referent d. rationalizing inputs or outcomes e. reducing employee turnover

Goal acceptance is most similar to the idea of ____. a. goal congruity b. goal commitment c. goal valence d. goal expectancy e. groupthink

Hot Topic is a fast-growing clothing chain targeted to the alternative teen demographic. Hot Topic's CEO Betsy McLaughlin relies on her employees to locate new trends. McLaughlin almost daily consults with her employees for suggestions on what the stores should carry. She relies on their input before making inventory decisions and treats her employees as equals. McLaughlin is demonstrating ____. a. achievement-orientation b. consideration c. charisma d. initiating structure e. empathy

In a(n) ____ reinforcement schedule, consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specified average time. a. fixed interval b. variable interval c. fixed ratio d. variable ratio e. continuous ratio

In equity theory, ____ refers to the fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions. a. process objectivity b. procedural justice c. conventional wisdom d. altruism e. distributive justice

Jeffrey Bleustein was the CEO who brought Harley-Davidson back from the brink of bankruptcy. During the first years he was CEO of Harley-Davidson, Bleustein said, "I was quite a directive leader because we needed to make progress quickly." Bleustein would have ____. a. been very friendly with his employees b. told employees precisely what he expected them to do c. used employees' inputs before making decisions d. assumed his employees would assume responsibility and put forth extraordinary effort e. used delegation

Larry Tobin is now president of Fairwinds Credit Union in Florida where he started as a part-time teller. He's learned to ignore one bit of advice he's frequently heard, "Work with what you have." Tobin doesn't buy that view. He subscribes to the philosophy that calls for "having the right people on the bus and the right people in the right seats on the bus." After Tobin assumed the helm at Fairwinds, he made several personnel changes. This ability to make these personnel changes defines Tobin's ____. a. employee orientation b. position power c. goal specificity d. instrumentality e. tactical leadership skills

Oftentimes when an individual is running for a local political office, he or she promises to consider each issue, make decisions that are good for the entire community, and reduce taxes. When the individual assumes office, he or she is often unable to carry through on political promises, an inability which leads to a perceived problem with ____. a. honesty b. integrity c. empathy d. drive e. charisma

Pat Kelly, founder and CEO of PSS World Medical, a distributor of medical products, establishes ambitious goals for his employees and is confident that they will be able to achieve these goals. In terms of the path-goal theory, Kelly is exhibiting ____ leadership. a. participative b. achievement-oriented c. delegating d. empowering e. supportive

Research shows that while initiating structure impacts primarily on ____, consideration impacts primarily on ____. a. job satisfaction; job performance b. job performance; job satisfaction c. job performance; motivational drive d. job satisfaction; worker synergy e. job description; job specification

The city of Cairo has the world's greatest collection of Islamic buildings and statues. It would seem an ideal location for Muslim tourists, but unfortunately preservation activities have been inadequate and often more destructive than constructive. Imagine the Egyptian government is instituting a marketing campaign to motivate tourists to spend their vacation dollars in Cairo. Imagine tourists visiting Cairo and being motivated never to visit there again due to the fact that every old building they saw seemed more likely to cave in than the last one they had seen. In terms of motivational theory, ____ would have occurred. a. instrumentality b. punishment c. goal acceptance d. contingency feedback e. valence modification

The two basic kinds of inequity are ____. a. performance and situational inequities b. underreward and overreward c. balanced and unbalanced rewards d. intrinsic and extrinsic inequities e. higher-order and lower-order inequities

The two types of visionary leadership are ____. a. tactical leadership and charismatic leadership b. charismatic leadership and transformational leadership c. situational leadership and transactional leadership d. transformational leadership and transactional leadership e. situational leadership and strategic leadership

What practical steps can a manager take to motivate employees to increase their effort? a. determine how other companies within the industry are satisfying employees' needs b. satisfy employees' lower-order needs before attempting to satisfy higher-order needs c. expect employees' needs to be stable d. gradually replace extrinsic rewards with intrinsic rewards that are less expensive e. do all of these

Which of the following is NOT a basic component of goal-setting theory? a. performance feedback b. goal congruity c. goal specificity d. goal difficulty e. goal acceptance

Which of the following is NOT a component of transformational leadership? a. idealized influence b. supportive influence c. intellectual stimulation d. individualized consideration e. inspirational motivation

Which of the following is also called avoidance learning? a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. punishment d. extinction e. intermittent reinforcement

Which of the following is an example of a rule used within normative decision theory to increase decision quality? a. the subordinate conflict rule b. the goal congruence rule c. the worker readiness rule d. the commitment requirement rule e. the commitment probability rule

Which of the following statements about the two basic leader behaviors that are central to successful leadership is true? a. These behaviors are referred to as initiating structure and constructing networks. b. These behaviors are independent, meaning that leaders can do both at the same time. c. These behaviors both impact primarily on job performance. d. These behaviors have minimal impact on work environments. e. All of these statements about the two basic leader behaviors that are central to successful leadership are true.

Workplace injuries cost U.S. businesses $1 billion every week. Safety needs to become a practice, not just a theory. The goal of developing safety consciousness within the workforce requires continuous reinforcement at every organizational level. This means ____. a. no consequences should be delivered until reinforcement can be handed out to everyone b. a consequence must be delivered following every instance of behavior c. consequences should be delivered following a variable reinforcement schedule d. consequences should be delivered following an average number of behaviors e. none of these is true

____ are the cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences. a. Reinforcement temporality effects b. Reinforcement contingencies c. Reinforcement schedules d. Consequences of reinforcement e. Reinforcement expectancies

____ are the rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. a. Extrinsic rewards b. Intrinsic rewards c. Motivational cues d. Performance valences e. Physiological rewards

____ is the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated. a. Procedural justice b. Distributive justice c. Equity d. Postconventional perception e. Process objectivity

____ refers to the behavioral tendencies and personal characteristics of leaders that create an exceptionally strong relationship between them and their followers. a. Consideration leadership b. Charismatic leadership c. Transactional leadership d. Transformational leadership e. Leadership empowerment

____ says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement. a. Equity theory b. Goal-setting theory c. Reward theory d. Expectancy theory e. The theory of instrumentality

Managers who use goal-setting theory to motivate employees should ____. a. look for and correct obvious performance inequities b. reduce employees' inputs c. make sure workers truly accept organizational goals d. avoid the use of empowerment e. do all of these

A manufacturer of modular housing gives each employee a monthly $300 bonus if he or she is neither absent nor late to work for the entire month. There are no excused absences. The loss of a bonus by a parent with a hospitalized child is an example of the use of ____. a. negative reinforcement b. extinction c. punishment d. intermittent reinforcement e. underreward

A sales manager has carefully selected the members of two sales teams so that they have, as nearly as possible, identical skills and abilities. Both are assigned potential customers in the same industry. Both groups are offered the same rewards. One team makes the sale, and the other does not. This information tells you that ____. a. performance and motivation are unrelated b. the concept of synergy is faulty c. one of the components that leads to job performance was weak d. nothing motivates some people e. all of these are true

A(n) ____ is the set of rules regarding reinforcement contingencies such as which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered. a. contingency of reinforcement b. instrumentality of reinforcement c. schedule of reinforcement d. expectancy of reinforcement e. PERT (Positive Examples through Reinforced Timing) plan

According to Don Vlcek, a former Domino's Pizza vice president, "To achieve results, you've got to properly define the goal—and that's not always easy. Vague goals are worthless. For instance, 'Work harder!' isn't a goal that motivates anybody. But 'increase productivity by 12 percent within three weeks'—that is a clear, useful goal." Vlcek is discussing ____. a. performance feedback b. goal congruity c. goal specificity d. goal difficulty e. goal acceptance

According to ____, people will be motivated when they perceive they are being treated fairly. a. expectancy theory b. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs c. equity theory d. Alderfer's ERG Theory e. reinforcement theory

According to a survey done on teaching evaluations, students' motivation to participate in teaching evaluations is impacted significantly by their expectation that they will be able to provide meaningful feedback. In other words, if they are going to expend the thought and effort to fill out evaluation forms, (1) Is the form designed to gather meaningful information? and (2) Do the students have enough information to form a meaningful opinion about the instruction? In terms of expectancy theory, students are concerned with ____, or whether it is worth their efforts. a. valence b. reciprocity c. expectancy d. instrumentality e. synergy

According to expectancy theory, in order for people to be highly motivated, ____ must be high. a. value added b. reinforcement usage c. instrumentality d. equity e. referent power

According to some industrial psychologists, ____ is a function of motivation times ability times situational constraints. a. leadership skill b. creativity c. job performance d. performance valence e. compliance

According to the motivational model presented in the text, perceived inequity directly affects ____. a. cultural synergy b. autonomy c. satisfaction d. rewards e. motivational direction

According to the path-goal theory of leadership, ____ involves consulting employees for their suggestions and input before making decisions. a. directive leadership b. supportive leadership c. participative leadership d. consultative leadership e. achievement-oriented leadership

As CEO of UPS, Michael Eskew transformed the company from a package delivery service to a logistics expert so it could serve as a traffic manager for corporate America. As a transformational manager, Eskew ____. a. insisted his employees do the right thing b. created opportunities for rewards c. used intellectual stimulation to encourage his employees to take innovative approaches to problem solving d. encouraged his employees to depend on information technology as the basis for decision-making e. created heuristics to guide the transformation procedure

Currently the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. These athletes view Olympic athletes as ____. a. valence bearers b. instrumental participants c. referents d. mentors e. reinforcers

Currently the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. What kind of inequity are the Paralympic athletes experiencing? a. adverse valence b. negative instrumentality c. underreward d. negative outcome e. overreward

Doris Cunningham, CEO of Members Choice Federal Credit Union in West Virginia, believes keeping staff excited about the business they're in is one of a leader's primary roles. She believes a spirit of enthusiasm must start at the top. "I've been in the movement for 35 years," she says. "I have the credit union philosophy. And I really try to instill that in my employees." This indicates that Cunningham is high in ____. a. achievement b. charisma c. consideration d. initiating structure e. vision

For punishment to work (i.e., to weaken the frequency of undesirable behaviors without creating a backlash), the punishment must be strong enough to stop the undesired behavior and must be administered ____. a. subjectively b. physiologically c. consistently, contingently, and quickly d. through need deprivation e. at variable intervals

Ford Kinzi is a truck driver for a furniture manufacturer. He has tried every technique he can think of to convince his boss that he deserves a raise. His boss has not responded to changes in inputs and outcomes. Kinzi has also tried to find a different referent and has tried rationalization. What should Kinzi do if he feels the company will never pay him what he deserves? a. use job enrichment b. increase the job valence c. leave the job d. create intermittent outcome changes e. find a new mentor within the company

France has 14 million smokers. More importantly, smokers in France are closely associated with the French culture. So when the French government waged a war against smoking, it set as its ____ to reduce smoking by 30 percent by 2008. a. mission b. motivational drive c. goal d. vision e. expectancy rate

In a(n) ____ reinforcement schedule, consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors. a. fixed interval b. continuous interval c. fixed ratio d. intermittent interval e. variable ratio

In expectancy theory, ____ is the perceived relationship between effort and performance. a. valence b. equity c. expectancy d. synergy e. instrumentality

In terms of leadership behavior, the term ____ refers to the extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, supportive, and shows concern for employees. a. initiating structure b. job-centered leadership c. consideration d. concern for production e. autonomy

Leaders known as ____ will control and manipulate followers, do what is best for themselves instead of his or her organization, only want to hear positive feedback, only share information that is beneficial to themselves, and have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else's. a. manipulative charismatics b. Machiavellian charismatics c. unethical charismatics d. illegitimate charismatics e. charismatic ombudsmen

Leaders who possess the trait of ____ are more decisive and assertive and more likely to gain others' confidence. a. emotional stability b. integrity c. self-confidence d. drive e. cognitive ability

Managers can motivate employees to increase their efforts by ____. a. relying on the innate value of extrinsic rewards b. satisfying higher-order needs first c. asking employees what their needs are then matching rewards to those needs d. expecting employees' needs to remain stable e. doing all of these

Marketers often appeal to consumers' needs as defined by Maslow's hierarchy. Schlage, a lock manufacturer, shows how much protection its locks provide. Clorox developed several types of wipes to eliminate concerns about infectious germs. Both marketers are appealing to which need as defined by Maslow? a. achievement b. belongingness c. safety d. physiological needs e. achievement

On the basis of research evidence, the two basic needs categories are ____. a. tangible and intangible needs b. physiological and psychological needs c. higher-order and lower-order needs d. extrinsic and intrinsic needs e. realized and unrealized needs

Reinforcement theory says behavior is a function of ____. a. perception b. environment c. its consequences d. conscious choices e. the situations in which it occurs

Relatively stable characteristics such as abilities, psychological motives, or consistent patterns of behavior, form the basis for the ____ of leadership. a. situational theory b. behavioral theory c. trait theory d. expectancy theory e. path-goal theory

Road crashes cost Australia $15 billion a year and excessive speed is a major cause of severe traffic crashes. The Australian government is thinking of using cameras to catch speeders, but it only has access to a limited number of cameras, and there are many areas where speeding is a problem. Government officials plan to put cameras at various locations for four weeks and give everyone who gets caught speeding during that period a substantial fine. Then the cameras will be moved. Plans are to put the cameras back to their original location every fourth month. What kind of reinforcement schedule will be used? a. variable ratio b. fixed ratio c. fixed interval d. intermittent e. variable interval

Stan O'Neal began his tenure as the CEO of Merrill Lynch by firing the entire management committee. A few months later he fired two of his hand-picked senior executives because they were "plotting to diminish his authority" and did not want to follow his orders unquestioningly. Due to the key leadership behavior O'Neal used, it is obvious that he was more concerned about his employees' ____ than their job satisfaction. a. worker synergy b. motivational cues c. job performance d. worker responsiveness e. vision

The ____ states that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they are offered attractive rewards. a. reinforcement theory b. equity theory c. expectancy theory d. goal-setting theory e. theory of motivational instrumentality

The author of The Science of Good and Evil describes his meeting with the founders of Google in the book. He described them as visionary leaders, which means their primary goal for being in business is to ____. a. get rich b. show off their intelligence and expertise c. create a positive image of the future d. have as much free time as possible e. be charismatic

The normative decision theory ____. a. states that the situation determines what leadership style to use b. assumes that certain inalienable characteristics determine the most effective leaders c. helps managers determine how much employee participation should be used in decision making d. assumes leader behavior can be fitted to subordinate characteristics e. assumes leaders are generally unable to change their leadership style

The three components of ____ are initiation of effort, direction of effort, and persistence of effort. a. compliance b. self-management c. motivation d. performance e. efficiency

To save Northwest Airlines from bankruptcy, its CEO Doug Steenland told its employees that he would eliminate 53 percent of the company's mechanics and reduce the compensation of the remaining by 26 percent. In terms of the normative decision theory, Steenland ____. a. made consultative decisions b. used a telling leadership style c. made autocratic decisions d. used a selling leadership style e. used an adaptive leadership style

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research has made a study of how important it is for military leaders to be friendly with and to show concern for their troops. Its research shows that a leadership behavior high in ____ positively influences soldier health and their ability to adapt to stressful environments. a. achievement b. charisma c. consideration d. initiating structure e. vision

When Leon was hired to manage the distribution center, his supervisor advised him to "Do things that satisfy followers today or will lead to future rewards or satisfaction" and "Offer employees something unique and valuable beyond what they're experiencing or can already do for themselves" if he wanted to be a successful leader. Which leadership theory does Leon's supervisor apparently believe to be most effective in making a good leader? a. the trait theory of leadership b. strategic leadership c. the path-goal theory d. the theory of initiating structure e. the contingency theory

When it comes to reinforcing behavior in organizational settings, a(n) ____ reinforcement schedule tends to produce weaker results than the other types of reinforcement schedules. a. continuous b. fixed ratio c. fixed or variable interval d. variable ratio e. intermittent

Which of the following is a basic component of equity theory? a. valences b. reinforcement c. referents d. instrumentality e. expectancy

Which of the following is a category of reinforcement schedules? a. instrumental b. contiguous c. variable interval d. adjacent e. synergistic

Which of the following is an example of a situational theory of leadership? a. stimulus-response theory b. trait theory c. Fiedler's contingency theory d. equity theory of leadership e. charismatic theory

Which of the following is an example of an extrinsic reward? a. a sense of achievement b. a feeling of responsibility c. a salary increase d. pride from accomplishing a difficult task e. all of these

Which of the following is an example of an intrinsic reward? a. a bonus b. a contest prize c. a sense of achievement d. a trophy e. all of these

Which of the following is another term for considerate leadership behavior? a. initiating structure behavior b. job-centered leadership c. concern for people d. concern for production e. participative management

Which of the following statements about what makes a successful leader is true? a. Successful leaders have the same traits that nonleaders have. b. Successful leaders have drive, which is defined as the ability to attract and retain the best employees. c. Successful leaders are confident about their ability to make long-term strategic decisions even if the decisions seem risky to others. d. Successful leaders believe in individual reciprocity. e. None of these statements about what makes a successful leader is true.

Which of the following traits refers to the tendency of leaders to remain even-tempered and consistent in their outlook and the way they treat others even when things go wrong? a. honesty b. integrity c. emotional stability d. self-confidence e. cognitive ability

Which one of the following traits refers to high levels of effort and is characterized by achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative? a. desire to lead b. motivational cues c. drive d. self-confidence e. charisma

____ is the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. a. Goal specificity b. Goal difficulty c. Goal acceptance d. Goal congruity e. Goal clarity

rance has 14 million smokers. More importantly, smokers in France are closely associated with the French culture. To reduce the number of smokers in the nation, the French government has increased the costs of cigarettes to a price twenty times greater than that charged in any other nation in the European Union. In terms of reinforcement theory, what kind of a reinforcement schedule is being used? a. variable ratio b. fixed punishment c. continuous d. intermittent e. variable interval

T or F The normative decision theory helps leaders decide how much employee participation should be used when making decisions.

T or F The two kinds of inequity are underreward and overreward.

A ____ is a target, objective, or result. a. vision b. motivational drive c. need d. goal e. mission

According to ____, leaders need to make clear how followers can achieve organizational goals, take care of problems that prevent followers from achieving goals, and then find more and varied rewards to motivate followers who achieve those goals. a. Fiedler's contingency theory b. Blake and Mouton's leadership grid c. the Vroom-Yetton-Jago normative decision model d. the path-goal theory e. the Boston Consulting Group leadership matrix

According to a survey done on teaching evaluations, engineering students consider the improvement of teaching to be the most important outcome of the evaluation process. For engineering students who believe their efforts will lead to better teaching, the motivation to fill out a teaching evaluation would have a ____. a. low valence b. weak expectancy c. low performance value d. high valence e. strong instrumentality

According to a survey done on teaching evaluations, engineering students consider the improvement of teaching to be the most important outcome of the evaluation process. In terms of the expectancy theory, the likelihood that students feel their inputs on the evaluations will lead directly to improved instruction is called ____. a. valence b. reciprocity c. expectancy d. instrumentality e. synergy

According to the path-goal theory of leadership, ____ means setting challenging goals, having high expectations of employees, and displaying confidence that employees will assume responsibility and put forth extraordinary effort. a. directive leadership b. supportive leadership c. participative leadership d. achievement-oriented leadership e. empowerment leadership

According to the text, ____ is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal. a. attitude b. self-management c. persistence d. motivation e. compliance

Asa and Ruby both sell insurance. Asa is married, has three children, and a new house. Ruby is single and has recently purchased a new Lexus. According to some industrial psychologists ____. a. they will be motivated by the same needs b. Asa can be motivated through need, and Ruby cannot c. Ruby has no needs d. how well their employer motivates them relates directly to their individual needs e. none of these is true

College football coaches are often high in ____. They design every facet of practices, set goals for their players, determine schedules, and even direct all of the plays during the games. a. achievement b. consideration c. charisma d. initiating structure e. empathy

Herman Edwards is the coach of the New York Jets football team. As a successful coach, he has to schedule structured practices, emphasize careful planning, and assign tasks. He also has to show the players that he genuinely cares about them as people. According to the Blake and Mouton grid, Edwards' leadership style would be characterized as ____. a. authority-compliance b. country club management c. middle-of-the-road management d. team management e. impoverished management

In Fiedler's contingency theory, the term ____ refers to the degree to which leaders are able to hire, fire, reward, and punish workers. a. situational favorableness b. leader-member relations c. task structure d. position power e. situational unfavorableness

In equity theory, after a(n) ____ comparison in which they compare their outcomes to their inputs, employees then make a(n) ____ comparison in which they compare their O/I ratio with the O/I ratio of a referent. a. tangible; intangible b. lower level; higher level c. predictable; unpredictable d. internal; external e. extrinsic; intrinsic

In expectancy theory, ____ is the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. a. valence b. reciprocity c. expectancy d. instrumentality e. synergy

In the path-goal theory of leadership, subordinate satisfaction and subordinate performance would be examples of ____. a. leadership stimuli b. subordinate contingencies c. environmental contingencies d. outcomes e. motivational cues

Jan Carlson, the former CEO of Scandinavian Airline Systems (SAS), believes the most important role for a leader is to instill confidence in people. According to the path-goal theory, this statement indicates that his leadership style would be ____. a. directive b. achievement-oriented c. employee-centered d. supportive e. job-centered

Logan Stein is the manager of an ad agency. Recently her employees have shown an unwillingness to work as a team. Stein has decided to use reinforcement to encourage more team cohesiveness. What advice can you give her on how to motivate with reinforcement theory? a. Avoid intermittent reinforcement scheduling. b. Administer punishment on an intermittent schedule. c. Choose a complicated reinforcement schedule so the employees will be surprised when rewarded. d. Don't reinforce the wrong behaviors. e. Reinforcement theory will always produce the desired results.

Malcolm Thompson was brought in as the CEO of Novalux, a company involved in laser research, to save the company's promise of innovation. It's what he loves: turning ideas into companies, then shaping those businesses to meet evolving challenges. "You're never done," he says. "It always looks like you're near the finish line, but there are always new opportunities along the road—and new obstacles you'd never thought of. That's part of the exploration—constantly looking at the next problem and the next solution." Apparently, Thompson is an example of a(n) ____. a. leadership substitute b. trait leader c. leadership neutralizer d. visionary leader e. transactional leader

On the television series Lost, a group of survivors sincerely believed that if they built a raft, they could float on it out into a shipping lane and be rescued. In terms of expectancy theory, the raft builders had a ____. a. low degree of instrumentality b. low valence c. potential for overreward d. high level of expectancy e. high valence

One of the criticisms of the television industry is the networks' desire to maintain ratings by thinking in terms of next week's programming. The networks are also more concerned with how to get high program ratings quickly than achieving the ratings through giving viewers time to become acquainted with high-quality programs. Problem solving in terms of show placement or guest stars seems to be more important than inspiring great television innovations. This criticism assumes ____. a. doing the right things is more important than doing things right in the television industry b. the television industry benefits from strong leadership c. long-term strategy is more important than tactics in the television industry d. the television industry has a shortage of effective leadership e. the television industry attracts more architects than builder

Some employees called CEO Jack Welch "Bloody Jack" because his restructuring efforts at General Electric eliminated numerous jobs and product lines without thought about how individual employees were impacted. Welch was viewed as "the hatchet man," the source of the firings. Under Fiedler's contingency theory, Welch would be viewed by General Electric's employees as having ____. a. an emphasis on initiating structure b. a relationship orientation c. weak position power d. strong position power e. an emphasis on consideration

Stan O'Neal began his tenure as the CEO of Merrill Lynch by firing the entire management committee. A few months later he fired two of his hand-picked senior executives because they were "plotting to diminish his authority" and did not want to follow his orders unquestioningly. In terms of situational favorableness, O'Neal demonstrated ____. a. high leader-member relations b. high initiating structure c. high goal commitment d. high power position e. all of these

Stan O'Neal began his tenure at the CEO of Merrill-Lynch by firing the entire management committee. A few months later he fired two of his hand-picked senior executives because they were "plotting to diminish his authority" and did not want to follow his orders unquestioningly. O'Neal is using a(n) ____ leadership style to improve Merrill's profitability. a. achievement-oriented b. supportive c. charismatic d. directive e. participative

A concert pianist had always wanted to play jazz when he got the opportunity to play with a group of New Orleans jazz musicians who were displaced after Hurricane Katrina. He was elated after the experience of playing with the talented jazz musicians. He experienced a(n) ____ reward. a. extrinsic b. physiological c. assigned d. tangible e. intrinsic

The 1993 stand-off between federal agents and people inside the Branch Davidian compound at Waco, Texas, resulted in the deaths of approximately 80 Branch Davidians, including leader David Koresh who had declared himself the new messiah. Koresh used ____ to create the strong relationships between him and his followers who were willing to die for him. a. a leadership substitute b. transactional leadership c. a leadership neutralizer d. charismatic leadership e. trait leadership

The city of Cairo has the world's greatest collection of Islamic buildings and statues. It would seem an ideal location for Muslim tourists, but unfortunately preservation activities have been inadequate and often more destructive than constructive. Imagine the Egyptian government is instituting a marketing campaign to motivate tourists to spend their vacation dollars in Cairo. The buildings and statues in the city would have a(n) ____ to Muslim tourists who wanted to learn more about their heritage. a. low valence b. strong expectancy c. low performance value d. high valence e. strong instrumentality

The component of transformational leadership known as ____ means that transformational leaders pay special attention to followers' individual needs by creating learning opportunities, accepting and tolerating individual differences, encouraging two-way communication, and being a good listener. a. idealized influence b. inspirational motivation c. intellectual stimulation d. individualized consideration e. influential stimulation

The two parts of reinforcement are ____. a. reinforcement temporality and reinforcement administration b. positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement c. continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement d. reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement e. interval reinforcement and ratio reinforcement

Under the leadership of Michael Eisner, Walt Disney Company developed an "executive-centric, Eisner-centric culture"—whatever Eisner wanted to happen, he made happen. In terms of the path-goal theory, Eisner used a(n) ____ leadership style to improve Disney's profitability. a. achievement-oriented b. supportive c. charismatic d. directive e. participative

United Fruit Company is the owner of the Chiquita brand of bananas. To get the bananas picked, United Fruit used a leadership style high in ____ and emphasized how the fruit was to be picked and packed for transportation. It showed no concern for the workers. a. achievement b. charisma c. consideration d. initiating structure e. vision

Users of GM Master Cards earn money toward the purchase of a new General Motors car or truck every time they use this credit card to make purchases. The rebate increases the more times the credit card is used. GM is using ____. a. underreward b. punishment c. extinction d. positive reinforcement e. negative reinforcement

Which of the following is NOT a type of reinforcement contingency? a. negative reinforcement b. punishment c. extinction d. overreward e. positive reinforcement

Which of the following is NOT one of the four leadership styles identified in the path-goal theory of leadership? a. directive b. supportive c. participative d. charismatic e. achievement-oriented

Which of the following is a major concern of leaders (as opposed to managers)? a. controlling and limiting the choices of others b. solving problems so that work can be done c. preserving the status quo d. inspiring and motivating others e. a focus on productivity and efficiency

Which of the following is another term for initiating structure leadership behavior? a. considerate leader behavior b. employee-centered leadership c. concern for people d. concern for production e. formalized people skills

Which of the following leadership theories uses a decision tree to determine the appropriate level of participation by subordinates in decision making? a. Fiedler's contingency theory b. Blake and Mouton's leadership grid c. path-goal theory d. Vroom-Yetton-Jago's normative decision model e. trait theory

Which of the following statements about goal-setting theory is true? a. Feedback should not be specific. b. Goals should be specific, measurable, attainable, and generalized. c. Workers do not have to truly accept organizational goals for goal-setting theory to be motivational. d. Goals can energize behavior. e. None of the above statements about goal-setting theory is true.

____ generates awareness and acceptance of a group's purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interest for the good of the group. a. Virtual leadership b. Charismatic leadership c. Leadership empowerment d. Transformational leadership e. Transactional leadership

A glass of water and shelter from a snowstorm would be examples of ____, and a gold necklace and tickets to see professional wrestling would not be. a. intangible motivators b. perceptional drives c. motivational cues d. performance modifiers e. low-order needs

According to management expert Bill Roche, results from goal setting can virtually be guaranteed, but only if "you have first won the hearts and minds of your workers. When they are on board with the goal—they agree that it is important and can be done—you really will get dramatic improvement." Roche is describing ____. a. goal recognition b. goal congruity c. goal specificity d. goal difficulty e. goal acceptance

According to the path-goal theory of leadership, ____ involves letting employees know precisely what is expected of them, giving them specific guidelines for performing tasks, scheduling work, setting standards of performance, and making sure that people follow standard rules and regulations. a. people-oriented leadership b. supportive leadership c. participative leadership d. achievement-oriented leadership e. directive leadership

Airline companies have blamed their recent financial problems on labor unions, the events of September 11, and a weak economy. Those airlines in financial difficulties have tried to solve the problem through short-term price reductions, firings and early retirements, and asking for employees to take pay cuts. The CEOs of these companies have not tried to motivate employees to create long-term solutions to the problems facing the companies. The CEOs of these troubled companies ____. a. are true leaders b. are more interested in doing the right thing than doing things right c. are promoting long-term change d. tend to focus on organizational visions, missions, goals, and objectives rather than organizational efficiency and productivity e. are more than likely managers rather than leaders

Although both Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments and the advent of professional women's sporting leagues have led to dramatic increases in opportunities for women in sports at high school, collegiate, and professional levels, significant discrepancies still exist between men's and women's sports. For example, women receive less media coverage, promotion, and institutional support. According to equity theory, media coverage, access, promotion, and institutional support are all examples of undesirable ____ for female athletes. a. referents b. valences c. expectancies d. outcomes e. certainties

Currently the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) pays Olympic athletes $25,000 for each gold medal, $15,000 for a silver medal, and $10,000 for a bronze medal. Since 1960, the Paralympics for disabled athletes has been a part of the Olympic Games, yet the USOC pays disabled athletes only 10 percent of what the Olympic athletes are paid, and Paralympic athletes are not allowed to participate in opening ceremonies. Paralympic athletes are angry at being treated unfairly. To achieve perceived equity, the Paralympic athletes are suing the USOC for larger rewards. Paralympic athletes have decided to deal with the inequity by ____. a. rationalizing inputs b. changing the referent c. changing instrumentality d. reducing the level of energy and time they input into a project e. increasing outcomes

Excessive speed is a major cause of road crashes in Australia. The Australian government is thinking of using cameras to catch speeders, but it only has access to a limited number of cameras, and there are many areas where speeding is a problem. Government officials plan to put cameras at various locations for four weeks and give everyone who gets caught speeding during that period a substantial fine. According to reinforcement theory, Australian officials are using ____ to control speeding. a. avoidance learning b. expectancy modification c. negative reinforcement d. positive reinforcement e. punishment

For the goal-setting theory to work, goals must ____. a. focus employees' attention on critical aspects of their jobs b. energize behavior c. create a tension between the current state and the desired state d. be truly accepted by workers e. do all of these

Ford Motor Company has always attracted and nurtured capable managers, but it has failed to do the same for leaders. So, as part of an overhaul of the automaker's organizational culture, Ford is embarking on a sweeping attempt to mass-manufacture leaders. It wants to build an army of "warrior-entrepreneurs." Ford's "warrior-entrepreneurs" will be expected to ____. a. take a long-term perspective b. inspire and motivate employees to embrace change c. realize that results are more important than processes d. be architects rather than builders e. do all of these things

France has 14 million smokers. More importantly, smokers in France are closely associated with the French culture. To reduce the number of smokers in the nation, the French government has increased the costs of cigarettes to a price twenty times greater than that charged in any other nation in the European Union. In terms of reinforcement theory, the French government is trying to use ____ to get people to quit smoking by making cigarettes less affordable and by reducing the discretionary income (or possibly the disposable income) of people who continue smoking. a. avoidance learning b. expectancy modification c. negative reinforcement d. positive reinforcement e. punishment

Hot Topic is a fast-growing clothing chain targeted to the alternative teen demographic. Hot Topic's CEO Betsy McLaughlin relies on her employees to locate new trends. McLaughlin almost daily consults with her employees for suggestions on what the stores should carry. She relies on their input before making inventory decisions. McLaughlin uses the ____ style of management. a. achievement-oriented b. autonomous c. charismatic d. directive e. participative

How do employees try to restore equity when they perceive that they have been treated unfairly? a. by rationalizing inputs or outcomes b. by changing the referent c. by simply quitting their jobs d. by reducing the level of energy and time they input into a project e. by doing any of these

In equity theory, ____ are others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly. a. liaisons b. valence bearers c. mentors d. reinforcers e. referents

McClellend's Learned Needs Theory identifies three needs. They are the needs for ____. a. achievement, relatedness, and growth b. existence, relatedness, and growth c. affiliation, growth, and power d. power, self-actualization, and growth e. power, achievement, and affiliation

People with Machiavellian personalities believe that virtually any type of behavior is acceptable if it helps satisfy needs or accomplish goals. Put that personality type with the ability to create strong bonds with followers and you have described a leader who is a(n) ____. a. negative transformation leader b. transactional leader c. country club manager d. reactive leader e. unethical charismatic leader

Successful business leaders are not like other people. Successful business leaders ____. a. have a desire to lead b. have emotional stability c. are knowledgeable about business d. are self-confident e. are accurately described by all of these

To use expectancy theory to motivate employees, managers can a. assign specific, challenging goals b. make all rewards equal in value c. avoid overreward and underreward d. avoid the use of empowerment e. systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs

Transformational leaders ____. a. are able to make their followers feel they are a vital part of the organization b. encourage followers to make sacrifices for the organization c. help followers see how their jobs fit with the organization's vision d. get employees to see beyond their own needs for the good of the group e. are accurately described by all of these

When an employee uses leaving as a mechanism for restoring equity, he or she may ____. a. quit b. ask for a transfer c. increase the number of monthly absences d. apply for job at another company e. do all of these

Which leadership style would be most likely to rely on positive and negative reinforcement? a. transformational leadership b. charismatic leadership c. participative leadership d. delegating leadership e. transactional leadership

Which of the following is an example of an environmental contingency in path-goal theory? a. locus of control b. subordinate experience c. perceived ability d. subordinate performance e. task structure

Which of the following is another term for considerate leadership behavior? a. initiating structure behavior b. participative management c. job-centered leadership d. concern for production e. employee-centered leadership

Which of the following is one of the steps recommended for companies to take to reduce the risks associated with unethical charismatic leaders? a. Enforce a clearly written code of conduct. b. Recruit, select, and promote managers with high ethical standards. c. Train leaders how to value, seek, and use diverse points of view. d. Reward employees who act ethically, especially managers. e. All of these are recommended steps to take to reduce the risks associated with unethical charismatics.

Which of the following is the best leadership style for all situations? a. team management b. middle of the road management c. authority-compliance d. country club management e. none of these

Which of the following leadership theories assumes that leadership styles are consistent and difficult to change? a. path-goal theory b. normative decision theory c. the Vroom theory d. the status quo theory of leadership e. none of these

Which of the following statements about needs is true? a. In all situations, higher-order needs can be used to motivate. b. The importance of lower-order needs is identified by all needs theories. c. The relative importance of the various needs may change over time in a predictable pattern. d. Higher-order needs are concerned with survival and security. e. Higher-order needs will generally not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied.

____ is a reinforcement strategy which weakens a behavior over time because the behavior has no consequences, positive or negative. a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Punishment d. Reinforcement reversal e. Extinction

____ is based on an exchange process, in which followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance. a. Visionary leadership b. Charismatic leadership c. Leadership empowerment d. Transformational leadership e. Transactional leadership

____ is the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior. a. Consequential modification b. Behavioral substantiation c. Valence manipulation d. Expectancy feedback e. Reinforcement

Subordinate Contingencies →

Environmental Contingencies

T or F According to equity theory, it is objective reality rather than employee perceptions that determines employee motivation

T or F According to industrial psychology, job performance is an additive function of motivation, ability, and situational constraints.

T or F According to some industrial psychologists, Performance = Motivation × Ability.

T or F As a leader behavior, consideration refers to the extent to which leaders do what they said they would do.

T or F Both negative reinforcement and punishment weaken behavior (i.e., decrease its frequency).

T or F Directive leadership is a leadership style in which leaders set challenging goals, have high expectations of employees, and display confidence that employees will assume responsibility and put forth extraordinary effort.

T or F Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions.

T or F Expectancy theory describes motivation as a primarily unconscious process.

T or F Fiedler's contingency theory has proven easy for practicing managers to understand and apply.

T or F Fiedler's contingency theory is based on the assumption that leaders are capable of adapting and adjusting their leadership styles to fit the demands of different situations.

T or F Goal specificity is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish.

T or F In general, extrinsic rewards are more important to workers than intrinsic rewards.

T or F Needs are defined in the text as the physical requirements that must be met to ensure survival.

T or F Overreward frequently causes inequity.

T or F Punishment is also called avoidance learning.

T or F Since there are no consistent trait differences between leaders and nonleaders, or between effective and ineffective leaders, trait theory is wrong

T or F Strategic leadership is defined as the ability to think strategically and create a strategic plan for an organization.

T or F The attractive power of pay and benefits as a reward to motivate workers is strong from recruitment to retirement, declines over time, and is typically only strong during the early phases of a career.

T or F The basic components of equity theory are outcomes, instrumentality, and valence.

T or F While consideration primarily affects subordinates' job performance, initiating structure primarily affects subordinates' job satisfaction.

T or F Within the path-goal model, the achievement-oriented and participative leadership styles directly parallel the key leadership behaviors of initiating structure and consideration, respectively.

T or F In Fiedler's contingency theory, the two situational factors that determine the favorability of a situation are leader-member relations and task structure

T or F One of the differences between managers and leaders is that managers focus on visions, missions, goals, and objectives, and leaders focus solely on productivity and efficiency.

T or F The use of need-satisfaction theories to determine what motivates employees is not a straightforward task because different theories have identified different needs categories.

Job Performance formula =

Motivation × ability × situational constraints

Cluster chain

Numerous people tell a few of their friends

Gossip chain

One highly connected individual shares information with many other managers & workers

Leadership styles →

Outcomes

Expectancy theory

People are motivated when *efforts lead to good performance*

Goal-setting theory

People are motivated when they *accept specific*, *challenging goals* & *receive feedback*

Equity theory

People are motivated when they *perceive fair treatment*

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)

Questionnaire used to measure leadership style

T or F The four kinds of reinforcement contingencies are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction

T or F According to McClelland's Learned Needs Theory, people are motivated by a need for power, achievement, and affiliation.

T or F According to expectancy theory, instrumentality is strong when employees believe that improved performance will lead to better and more rewards.

T or F According to the normative decision theory, using the right degree of employee participation improves the quality of decisions and the extent to which employees accept and are committed to decisions.

T or F An intrinsic reward is a reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake.

T or F As a leader behavior, initiating structure is the degree to which a leader structures the roles of followers by setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks.

T or F Fiedler's contingency theory has been successfully used to place leaders in appropriate situations where they can perform most efficiently.

T or F Fiedler's contingency theory states that in order to maximize work group performance, leaders must be matched to the situation that best fits their leadership style

T or F For punishment to work, the punishment must be strong enough to stop the undesired behavior and must be administered objectively, impersonally, consistently and contingently, and quickly.

T or F Motivation is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal.

T or F Once lower-order needs are satisfied, it is difficult to predict which higher-order needs will motivate behavior.

T or F One of the simplest, most effective ways to motivate workers is to give them specific, challenging goals that they accept.

T or F Rationalizing or distorting outcomes may be used when other ways to restore equity aren't available.

T or F While transformational leaders use visionary and inspirational appeals to influence followers, transactional leadership is based on an exchange process.

T or F For goal-setting theory to motivate employees, managers must provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback.

T or F According to the trait theory, all effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics.

T or F As described in the path-goal theory, directive leadership is similar to the key leadership behavior of initiating structure

T or F Consideration leader behavior has also been referred to as "concern for people" and "employee-centered leadership."

T or F Initiating structure leader behavior has also been referred to as "job-centered leadership" and "concern for production."

T or F Leadership is the process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals.

T or F Researchers believe leaders can simultaneously be considerate and initiate structure because consideration and initiating structure are independent behaviors.

T or F The primary difference between leaders and managers is that leaders are concerned with doing the right thing, while managers are concerned with doing things right.

T or F The three major situational leadership theories all assume that the effectiveness of any leadership style (the way a leader generally behaves toward followers) depends on the situation.

T or F Transformational leadership is leadership that generates awareness and acceptance of a group's purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interest for the good of the group.

T or F Whereas managers tend to have a short-term perspective, leaders tend to have a long-term perspective

Motivation

The set of *forces* that *initiates*, *directs*, & makes people *persist* in their efforts to accomplish a goal

Motivation = (expectancy equation)

Valence x expectancy x instrumentality

Blog

a *personal website* that provides personal opinions or recommendations, news summaries, & reader comments

Visionary leadership creates

a *positive* image of the *future* & *provides* *direction* for future planning

Goal

a *target, objective*, or *result* that someone tries to accomplish

Underreward

a form of *inequity* in which you are getting *fewer outcomes* relative to inputs than your referent is getting

Overreward

a form of *inequity* in which you are getting *more outcomes* relative to inputs than your referent

Goal difficulty

a goal is *hard* or *challenging* to accomplish

Consideration

a leader is *friendly, approachable*, & *supportive* and shows *concern* for employees

Initiating structure

a leader structures the *roles* of followers by setting *goals, giving directions, setting deadlines*, & *assigning tasks*

Trait theory

a leadership theory that *holds* that *effective* leaders possess a *similar set* of *traits* or characteristics.

Contingency theory

a leadership theory that states that in order to *maximize work group performance*, leaders *must* be *matched* to the situation that *best fits* their leadership style

Situational favorableness

a particular situation either *permits* or *denies* a leader the chance to *influence* the *behavior* of group members

Extrinsic reward

a reward that is *tangible*, *visible* to others, & given to employees *contingent* on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

a schedule in which consequences are delivered *after* a *specified* or *average time* has *elapsed* or after a specified or average number of behaviors has *occurred*

Continuous reinforcement schedule

a schedule that *requires* a consequence to be *administered following EVERY instance* of a *behavior*

Attribution theory

a theory that states that we all have a *basic need* to *understand* & *explain* the *causes* of other people's behavior

Normative decision theory

a theory that suggests *how* leaders can *determine* an *appropriate* amount of employee *participation* when making decisions

McClelland's Learned Needs Theory (3)

a) *Affiliation* → (to be liked & accepted) b) *Achievement* → (to accomplish challenging goals) c) *Power* → (to influence others)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (5)

a) *Physiological* → (food & water) b) *Safety* → (physical & economic) c) *Belongingness* → (friendship, love, social interaction) d) *Esteem* → (achievement & recognition) e) *Self-actualization* → (realizing your full potential)

What are the 3 types of Visionary Leadership?

a) Charismatic leadership b) Transformational leadership c) Transactional leadership

What are the 4 components of Transformational Leadership?

a) Charismatic leadership b) Inspirational motivation c) Intellectual stimulation d) Individualized consideration

What are the 4 Leadership Styles of Path-Goal Theory?

a) Directive b) Supportive c) Participative d) Achievement-oriented

Equity theory Components (4)

a) Inputs b) Outcomes c) Referents d) Outcome/Input (O/I) ratio → Underreward → Overreward

What are the 3 factors that determine the favorability of a situation?

a) Leader-member relations b) Task structure c) Position power

How do people "fix" when there is an inequity? (5)

a) decreasing inputs b) increasing outcomes c) rationalize inputs or outcomes d) change the referent e) leave

In addition to traits, behaviors, & a favorable situation to match

leaders have to be allowed to *lead*

Outcome/input (O/I) ratio

an employee's *perception* of how the *rewards received* from an organization *compare* with the employee's *contributions* to that organization

Nonverbal communication

any communication that does *NOT* involve words

Noise

anything that *interferes* with the *transmission* of the *intended* message

Active listening

assuming *half* the responsibility for successful communication by actively giving the speaker nonjudgmental feedback that shows you've *accurately heard* what he or she said

Unethical charismatics

leaders who *control* & *manipulate* followers

Managing one-on-one communication

can be done by choosing the *right communication medium*, *being a good listener*, & *giving effective feedback*

Organization-wide communication

can be made *effective* through *improving* *transmission* & *reception*

Counseling

communicating with someone about *non-job-related* issues that may be *affecting* or *interfering* with the person's performance

Coaching

communicating with someone for the *direct* purpose of *improving* the person's *on-the-job* performance or behavior

Horizontal communication

communication that *flows among managers* & *workers* who are at the *same* organizational level

Downward communication

communication that *flows* from *higher* to *lower* levels in an organization

Upward communication

communication that *flows* from *lower* to *higher* levels in an organization

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule

consequences are delivered *following* a *different number* of behaviors, *sometimes more* & *sometimes less*, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

consequences are delivered *following* a *specific number* of behaviors

Path-goal theory

leaders can *increase subordinate satisfaction* & performance by *clarifying* & *clearing* the paths to goals and by *increasing* the number and kinds of *rewards available* for goal attainment

Situation constraints (equation)

factors *beyond* the control of the *individual* emplyees, such as tools, policies, & resources that have an effect on job performance

Constructive feedback

feedback intended to be *helpful, corrective*, and/or *encouraging*

Leader-member relations

followers *respect*, *trust*, & *like* their leaders

Goal specificity

goals are *detailed*, *exact*, & *unambiguous*

Job performance (equation)

how well someone performs the requirements of the job

Achievement-oriented leadership

leader sets *challenging goals*, has *high expectations* of employees, & displays *confidence* that employees will *assume responsibility* and put forth *extraordinary effort*

Feedback to sender

in the communication process, a *return message* to the *sender* that indicates the receiver's *understanding* of the message

Perception (def)

individuals attend to, *organize, interpret*, & *retain* information from their *environments*

Leadership is the process of

influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals

What it referred to as "grapevine"?

informal communication channel

Participative leadership

leader *consults* employees for their *suggestions* & *input before* making decisions

Supportive leadership

leader is *friendly* & *approachable*, shows *concern* for employees and their *welfare* and *treats* them as *equals*, and creates a *friendly climate*

Transactional leadership

leadership based on an *exchange process*, in which *followers* are *rewarded* for *good performance* & *punished* for *poor performance*

Visionary leadership

leadership that *creates* a *positive image* of the future that *motivates* organizational members & *provides direction* for future planning and goal setting

Transformational leadership

leadership that generates *awareness* & *acceptance* of a group's *purpose* and *mission* and gets employees to *see beyond their own needs* and self-interests for the good of the group

Listening

making a conscious effort to hear

Kinesics

movements of the *body* & *face*

Referents

others with whom people *compare* themselves to *determine* if they have been *treated fairly*

Goal acceptance

people *consciously understand* & *agree* to goals

Expectancy theory

people will be motivated to the *extent* to which they believe that their *efforts* will lead to *good performance*, that good performance will be *rewarded*, & that they will be *offered* attractive rewards

Goal-setting theory

people will be motivated to the extent to which they *accept specific*, *challenging goals* & *receive* feedback that indicates their *progress* toward goal achievement

Equity theory

people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being *treated fairly*

Increase ↑ =

positive & negative reinforcement

Leadership

process of *influencing* others to achieve *group* or *organizational goals*

Decrease ↓ =

punishment & extinction

Encoding

putting a *message* into a *written, verbal*, or *symbolic* form that can be *recognized* & *understood* by the *receiver*

Extinction

reinforcement in which a *positive consequence* is *NO* longer *allowed* to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus *weakening* the behavior

Positive reinforcement

reinforcement that *strengthens* behavior by *following* behaviors with *desirable* consequences

Negative reinforcement

reinforcement that *strengthens* behavior by *withholding* an *unpleasant* consequence when employees perform a specific behavior

Punishment

reinforcement that *weakens* behavior by following behaviors with *undesirable consequences*

Traits

relatively *stable characteristics*, such as abilities, psychological motives, or consistent patterns of behavior

Strategic leadership

the ability to *anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically*, & *work* with others to *initiate* changes that will create a *positive future* for an organization

Motivation (needs equation)

someone who works hard to do the job well

Hearing

the *act* or *process* of *perceiving sounds*

Valence

the *attractiveness* or desirability of a *reward* or *outcome*

Inputs

the *contributions* employees make to the organization

Online discussion forums

the *in-house* equivalent of internet news groups. by using web or software based discussion tools that are available across the company, employees cane easily ask questions & share information with each other

Perceptual filters

the *personality, psychology*, or experience-based differences that *influence* people to *ignore* or *pay* attention to particular stimuli

Paralanguage

the *pitch, rate, tone, volume* & *speaking pattern* of one's voice

Task structure

the *requirements* of a *subordinate's tasks* are *clearly* specified

Outcomes

the *rewards employees receive* for their *contributions* to the organization

Informal communication channel ("grapevine")

the *transmission* of messages from *employee* to *employee outside* of *formal* communication channels

Charismatic leadership

the behavioral *tendencies* & *personal characteristics* of leaders that create an *exceptionally* strong relationship between them and their followers

Communication medium

the method used to *deliver* an *oral* or *written* message

Distributive justice

the perceived *degree* to which *outcomes* & *rewards* are *fairly* distributed or allocated

Procedural justice

the perceived *fairness* of the *process* used to make reward allocation *decisions*

Expectancy

the perceived relationship between *effort* & *performance*

Instrumentality

the perceived relationship between *performance* & *rewards*

Decoding

the process by which the *receiver translates* the written, verbal, or symbolic form of a message into an *understood* message

Reinforcement

the process of *changing behavior* by *changing* the *consequences* that *follow behavior*

Communication

the process of *transmitting information* from *one* person or place to *another*

Formal communication channel

the system of *official channels* that *carry* organizationally *approved* messages and information

Defensive bias

the tendency for people to *perceive themselves* as *personally* & *situationally similar* to someone who is having *difficulty* or trouble

Summary CH 14

• *Leadership* is the process of *influencing* others to achieve group or organizational *goals* • In addition to traits, behaviors, & a favorable situation to match, leaders have to be *allowed to lead* • *Visionary leadership* creates a *positive image* of the future & *provides direction* for *future* planning

Leaders vs. Managers

• *Leadership:* Process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals • *Leaders* are concerned with doing the *right thing* → *Managers* are concerned with doing *things right* • *Leaders* focus on *vision, mission, goals*, & *objectives* → *Managers* focus on *productivity* & *efficiency*

Summary CH 15

• *Perception* creates *communication problems* for organizations because people can end up with different ideas & understandings • Managing one-on-one communication can be done by choosing the right communication medium, being a good listener, & giving effective feedback • *Organization-wide communication* can be made *effective* through *improving* *transmission* & *reception*

Perception Problems

• *Selective perception* → Tendency to *notice* & *accept* *objects* and *information* -Consistent with one's values, beliefs, & expectations, while ignoring or screening inconsistent information • *Closure* → Tendency to fill in gaps of missing information by assuming that what one does *NOT* know is consistent with what one already knows

Managing Organization-Wide Communication (part 3)

• *Survey feedback:* Information that is collected by surveys from organizational members → Compiled, disseminated, & used to develop action plans for improvement • *Blog:* Personal website that provides personal opinions or recommendations, news summaries, and reader comments

Informal Communication Channels

• *Transmission* of messages from *employee to employee* *outside* of formal communication channels - *Referred as "grapevine"* → *Gossip chain* - One highly connected individual shares information with many other managers and workers → *Cluster chain* - Numerous people tell a few of their friends

Schedule of reinforcement

• *rules* that *specify* which behaviors will be *reinforced* • which *consequences* will *follow* those *behaviors* • the *schedule* by which those consequences will be *delivered*

Nonverbal Communication

• Any communication that does *NOT* involve words *→ Kinesics:* Movements of the body and face *→ Paralanguage:* Pitch, rate, tone, volume, and speaking pattern of one's voice

Managing One-on-One Communication

• Choosing the right *communication medium* → Oral communication → Written communication • Listening → *Active listening* → *Empathetic listening* • Giving feedback → *Destructive feedback* → *Constructive feedback*

Motivating with Equity Theory

• Enquire about the needs of employees • Reduce employees' inputs • Ensure decision-making processes are fair -*Distributive justice:* Perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed -*Procedural justice:* Perceived fairness of the procedures used to make reward allocation decisions

Transformational Leadership

• Generates *awareness* & *acceptance* of a group's *purpose* & *mission* → Gets employees to see *beyond* their *own needs* & *self interests* • *Components* a) Charismatic leadership b) Inspirational motivation c) Intellectual stimulation d) Individualized consideration

Path-Goal Theory

• Leaders can *increase* subordinate *satisfaction* & *performance* by: → Clarifying & clearing the paths to goals → Increasing the number & kinds of rewards available for goal attainment • *Leadership styles* a) Directive b) Supportive c) Participative d) Achievement oriented

Equity Theory:

• People will be motivated when they *perceive* that they are being *treated fairly* • *Components* a) Inputs b) Outcomes c) Referents d) Outcome/Input (O/I) ratio →Underreward →Overreward

Perception (part 2)

• Perception of others → *Attribution theory:* People have a basic need to understand and explain the causes of other people's behavior - *Defensive bias* - *Fundamental attribution error* • *Self-perception* → *Self-serving bias:* Tendency to overestimate one's value by attributing successes to oneself and failures to others or the environment

Fledler's Contingency Theory

• Performance can be maximized by matching leaders to the situation that best fits their leadership style - *Leadership style:* Way a leader generally behaves toward followers → Relationship-oriented, task-oriented, & flexible • *Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)* -Questionnaire used to measure leadership style

Perception

• Process by which individuals attend to, *organize, interpret*, & *retain* information from their environments → *Key part of communication* • People experience stimuli through their *perceptual filters* → Filters affect each part of the perception process - Attention, organization, interpretation, & retention

Normative Decision Theory

• Suggests how *leaders* can *determine* an *appropriate* amount of employee *participation* when making decisions → Specifies *five* different *decision styles* → *Right degree* of employee participation *improves*: - Quality of decisions -Extent to which employees accept & are committed to decisions

Formal Communication Channels

• System of *official channels* that *carry* organizationally *approved* messages & information 1) Downward communication 2) Upward communication 3) Horizontal communication

Motivating with Expectancy Theory

• Systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs • Take specific steps to link rewards to individual performance • Empower employees to make decisions

Reinforcement theory

• behavior is a *function* of its *consequences*, • that behaviors followed by *positive consequences* will occur *more* frequently • that behaviors followed by *negative consequences* will occur *less* frequently

Higher-order

• concerned with *relationships*, *challenges*, & *accomplishments* *(higher order needs will NOT motivate people as long as lower-orders needs remain unsatisfied)*

Lower-order

• concerned with *safety*, *psychological*, & *existence* requirements

Directive leadership

• leader lets employees know *precisely* what is expected of them • gives them *specific* guidelines for performing tasks • schedules work, sets standards of performance, & makes sure that people *follow* standard rules and regulations

13, 14, 15

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