1800-1900
Thomas Jefferson
(1743-1826) An *American Founding Father*, the principal author of the *Declaration of Independence*, and the *third President of the United States*.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
(1753-1811) A Jesuit-trained, *Mexican priest* and a *leader of the Mexican War of Independence*. Executed by firing squad after his rebellion failed. Best known for his *Cry of Dolores*.
Louis XVIII of France
(1755-1824) *King of France*. When the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, he was *restored* to what he, and the French royalists, considered his rightful position. Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba, however, and restored his French Empire. Louis XVIII fled and a Seventh Coalition declared war on the French Empire, defeated Napoleon, and for a second time restored Louis XVIII to the French throne.
Horatio Nelson
(1758-1805) A *British flag officer* famous for his service in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. Died during the *Battle of Trafalgar*.
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
(1758-1806) A *leader of the Haitian Revolution* and the *first ruler of an independent Haiti* under the 1801 constitution.
William IV of the United Kingdom
(1765-1837) *King of the United Kingdom* and last British monarch of the House of Hanover. His reign saw several reforms: the poor law was updated, child labour restricted, and slavery abolished in nearly all the British Empire.
João VI of Portugal
(1767-1826) *King of Portugal and Brazil*. Fled from Napoleon to Brazil in 1821. Upon his return to Portugal he left his son, Pedro in charge of Brazil.
Franz II, Holy Roman Emperor
(1768-1835) The *last Holy Roman Emperor*. *Dissolved the Holy Roman Empire* in 1806 after the disastrous *defeat of the Third Coalition by Napoleon* at the Battle of Austerlitz.
Muhammad Ali of Egypt
(1769-1849) An *Ottoman Albanian commander* in the Ottoman army, and *self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan* with the Ottoman's temporary approval. Though not a modern nationalist, he is regarded as the *founder of modern Egypt* because of the *dramatic reforms* in the military, economic and cultural spheres that he instituted.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
(1769-1852) A *British soldier and statesman*, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century. Famous for defeating Napoleon at *Waterloo*.
Ludwig van Beethoven
(1770-1827) A *German composer and pianist*. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers.
Louis Philippe I
(1773-1850) *King of France* and leader of the Orléanist party. Followed *conservative policies* and promoted *friendship with Britain* and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the *conquest of Algeria*. His popularity faded and he was forced to abdicate in 1848; he lived out his life in exile in England.
Bernardo O'Higgins
(1776-1842) A *Chilean independence leader* who freed Chile from Spanish rule in the *Chilean War of Independence*.
José de San Martín
(1778-1850) An *Argentine general* and the prime *leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence* from the Spanish Empire.
Agustín de Iturbide
(1783-1824) A *Mexican army general and politician*. During the *Mexican War of Independence*, he built a successful political and military coalition that took control in Mexico City in 1821, decisively gaining independence. After the liberation of Mexico was secured, he was proclaimed emperor.
Simón Bolívar
(1783-1830) A military and political leader who played a key role in *Latin America's successful struggle for independence* from the Spanish Empire, and is today considered one of the most influential politicians in the history of the Americas. Led Venezuela, Colombia Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire.
Ferdinand VII
(1784-1833) *King of Spain*. After being *overthrown by Napoleon in 1808* he linked his monarchy to *counter-revolution* and *reactionary policies* that produced a deep rift in Spain between his forces on the right and liberals on the left. He reestablished the absolutist monarchy and rejected the liberal constitution of 1812. He suppressed the liberal press and jailed many of its editors and writers. Spain plunged into civil war on his death. Very low reputation.
Lord Byron
(1788-1824) A *British poet and a leading figure in the Romantic movement*. Among Byron's best-known works are the lengthy narrative poems *Don Juan* and *Childe Harold's* Pilgrimage and the short lyric *She Walks in Beauty*. He is regarded as one of the *greatest British poets* and remains widely read and influential.
Leopold I of Belgium
(1790-1865) The *first king of Belgium*, following Belgium's independence from the Netherlands.
Commodore Matthew C. Perry
(1794-1858) A *Commodore of the U.S. Navy* and commander of a number of ships. Played a leading role in the *opening of Japan to the West* with the *Convention of Kanagawa* in 1854 and is often associated with the *Open Door Policy*.
James K. Polk
(1795-1849) *11th President of the United States*. Led the nation to a sweeping victory in the *Mexican-American War*.
Frederick William IV of Prussia
(1795-1861) *King of Prussia*. Best remembered for the many buildings he had constructed in Berlin and Potsdam, as well as for the completion of the Gothic Cologne cathedral. In politics, he was a *conservative*, and in 1849 he *rejected the title of German Emperor* offered to him by the Frankfurt parliament, considering that it was not in the parliament's gift.
Nicholas I of Russia
(1796-1855) *Emperor of Russia*. Best known as a *reactionary tsar* whose reign was marked by geographical expansion, repression of dissent, economic stagnation, poor administrative policies, a corrupt bureaucracy, and frequent wars that culminated in Russia's defeat in the *Crimean War*.
Mary Shelley
(1797-1851) An *English novelist*, best known for her Gothic novel *Frankenstein*.
Wilhelm I
(1797-1888) *King of Prussia* and the *first German Emperor*. Under his leadership and that of his Minister President Otto von Bismarck, *Prussia achieved the unification of Germany* and the establishment of the *German Empire*. Despite his long support of Bismarck as Minister President, however, he held strong reservations about some of Bismarck's more reactionary policies, including his anti-Catholicism and tough handling of subordinates.
Pedro I of Brazil
(1798-1834) *the founder and first ruler of Brazil*. Left in power by his father, João VI of Portugal. Frustrated by the attempt of the Portuguese to reduce Brazil to its pre-1808 colonial status, issued his *Grito de Ipiranga*, and declared Brazil's independence.
Dred Scott
(1799-58) An *enslaved African American* man in the United States who *unsuccessfully sued for his freedom* and that of his wife and their two daughters in the *Dred Scott v. Sandford case of 1857*. The United States Supreme Court decided 7-2 against Scott, finding that neither he nor any other person of African ancestry could claim citizenship in the United States, and therefore Scott could not bring suit in federal court under diversity of citizenship rules.
Battle of Marengo
(1800) Fought between *French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte* and *Austrian forces* in Northern Italy. *French victory*. Enhanced Napoleon's political position in Paris.
Treaty of Lunéville
(1801) Forced Austria to accept France's growing borders.
Treaty of Amiens
(1803) Temporarily ended hostilities between the French Republic and the United Kingdom during the *French Revolutionary Wars*.
Louisiana Purchase
(1803) The *acquisition by the United States of America* of France's claim to the *territory of Louisiana* for the price of $11.250.000. Almost doubled the size of the United Sates.
Napoleonic Wars
(1803-1815) A series of wars between *Napoleon's French Empire* and a series of *opposing coalitions*. French power rose quickly as Napoleon's armies conquered much of Europe but collapsed rapidly after France's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon was defeated in 1814; he returned and was finally defeated in 1815 at Waterloo, and all France's gains were taken away by the victors.
Battle of Trafalgar
(1805) A *naval engagement* fought by the *Royal Navy* against the combined fleets of the *French and Spanish Navies*, during the *War of the Third Coalition*. *Decisive British victory*.
Battle of Austerlitz
(1805) One of *Napoleon's greatest victories*, where the French Empire effectively crushed the Third Coalition in Moravia.
Hans Christian Andersen
(1805-1875) A *Danish author*, best remembered for his fairy-tales.
Ferdinand de Lesseps
(1805-94) A *French diplomat* and later *developer of the Suez Canal*, which in 1869 joined the Mediterranean and Red Seas, substantially reducing sailing distances and times between the West and the East.
Battle of Jena-Auerstedt
(1806) Fought between the forces of *Napoleon I* of France and *Frederick William III of Prussia*. The *decisive defeat suffered by the Prussian Army* subjugated the Kingdom of Prussia to the French Empire until the Sixth Coalition was formed.
Benito Juárez
(1806-72) A *Mexican lawyer and politician* who served as the *president of Mexico* for five terms. He *resisted the French occupation of Mexico*, *overthrew the Second Mexican Empire*, restored the Republic, and used *liberal measures* to modernize the country.
Peninsular War
(1807-1814) A military conflict between the *First French Empire* and the *allied powers* of the Spanish Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Kingdom of Portugal for *control of the Iberian Peninsula* during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its ally until then. The war on the peninsula lasted until the *Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon* in 1814. Is regarded as one of the first wars of *national liberation*, significant for the *emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare*.
Robert E. Lee
(1807-70) An *American soldier* best known for *commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia* in the American Civil War.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
(1807-82) An (Italian general and politician* who played a large role in the history of Italy. He is considered as one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland".
Napoleon III
(1808-73) The *first President of the French Second Republic* and, as Napoleon III, the *Emperor of the Second French Empire*. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. However, when he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a *coup d'état in 1851*, and then took the throne as Napoleon III.
Abdelkader El Djezairi
(1808-83) An *Algerian religious and military leader* who led a *struggle against the French colonial invasion* in the mid-19th century. An *Islamic scholar* and Sufi who unexpectedly found himself leading a military campaign, he built up a collection of Algerian tribesmen that for many years successfully held out against one of the most advanced armies in Europe. His consistent regard for what would now be called *human rights*, especially as regards his Christian opponents, drew widespread admiration, and a crucial intervention to save the Christian community of Damascus from a massacre in 1860 brought honours and awards from around the world.
Jefferson Davis
(1808-89) An *American soldier and politician*, and was the *President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War*.
Charles Darwin
(1809-1882) An *English naturalist and geologist*, best known for his contributions to *evolutionary theory*.
Abraham Lincoln
(1809-65) The *16th President of the United States*. Led the United States through the *Civil War* and *abolished slavery*.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
(1811-96) An *American abolitionist and author*. Her novel *Uncle Tom's Cabin* (1852) was a depiction of life for African Americans under slavery; it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and United Kingdom. It *energized anti-slavery forces* in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South.
War of 1812
(1812-1815) A military conflict between the *United States of America* and the *United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, its North American colonies and its American Indian allies*. The war resolved many issues which remained from the American War of Independence but involved *no boundary changes*. The *United States declared war* in 1812 for several reasons, including *trade restrictions* brought about by the British war with France, the *impressment of American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy*, *British support of Indian tribes against American expansion*, outrage over insults to national honour after humiliations on the high seas and American interest in annexing British North American territory, which had been denied to them in the settlement ending the American Revolutionary War. Ended in a *military stalemate*.
Battle of Leipzig
(1813) Fought by the *coalition armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden* led by the Russian Tsar Alexander I against the *French army of Napoleon I*. Being decisively *defeated for the first time in battle*, Napoleon was compelled to return to France while the Coalition hurried to keep their momentum, invading France early the next year. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Elba in May 1814.
David Livingstone
(1813-73) A *Scottish medical missionary* and *an explorer in Africa*. One of the most popular national heroes of the late 19th century in Victorian Britain, Had a mythic status, which operated on a number of interconnected levels: Protestant missionary martyr, working-class "rags to riches" inspirational story, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of commercial empire. Discovered the sources of the River Nile.
Richard Wagner
(1813-83) a *German composer*, primarily known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works. Revolutionized opera through his concept of the *Gesamtkunstwerk*.
Congress of Vienna
(1814-15) A *conference of ambassadors of European states* held in Vienna. The objective of the Congress was to provide a *long-term peace for Europe* by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to *resize the main powers so they could balance each other off and remain at peace*. The leaders were *conservatives* with little use for republicanism or revolution. *France lost all its recent conquests*, while *Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains*.
Battle of Waterloo
(1815) A French army under the command of *Napoleon* was defeated by the armies of the *Seventh Coalition*, comprising an Anglo-allied army under the command of the *Duke of Wellington* combined with a Prussian army under the command of *Gebhard von Blücher*. Marked the end of the *War of the Seventh Coalition*. Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
Hundred Days
(1815) Marked the period between *Emperor Napoleon of France's return from exile* on Elba to Paris and the *second restoration of King Louis XVIII*. This period saw the *War of the Seventh Coalition*, and included the *Battle of Waterloo*.
Otto von Bismarck
(1815-98) A conservative *Prussian statesman* who *dominated German and European affairs* from the 1860s until 1890. Engineered a series of wars that unified the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished he skillfully used *balance of power diplomacy* to preserve German hegemony in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.
Emily Brontë
(1818-48) An *English novelist and poet*, best remembered for her only novel, *Wuthering Heights*, now considered a classic of English literature.
Alexander II of Russia
(1818-81) *Emperor of Russia*. The most successful *Russian reformer* since Peter the Great. His most important achievement was the *emancipation of serfs* Responsible for *numerous other reforms* including reorganizing the judicial system, setting up elected local judges, abolishing capital punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some of the privileges of the nobility, and promoting the universities. *Sold Alaska* to the United States. Assassinated by *the People's Will*.
Karl Marx
(1818-83) A *German philosopher*, economist, sociologist, and revolutionary socialist. His work in economics laid the basis for the current understanding of *labour and its relation to capital*, and has influenced much of subsequent economic thought. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being *The Communist Manifesto* and *Das Kapital*.
Queen Victoria
(1819-1901) *Queen of Great Britain*. Granddaughter of George III. Inherited the throne at age 18. Had little political power, as the United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy. Ruled over a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom.
Missouri Compromise
(1820) Allowed slavery in Missouri, but not in any new state north of 36,30' latitude.
Susan B. Anthony
(1820-1906) An *American social reformer* who played a pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement.
Florence Nightingale
(1820-1910) A celebrated English social reformer and statistician, and the *founder of modern nursing*. She came to prominence while serving as a nurse during the *Crimean War*, where she tended to wounded soldiers. She was known as "The Lady with the Lamp" after her habit of making rounds at night.
Victor Emmanuel II of Italy
(1820-78) King of Sardinia until, in 1861, he assumed the title *King of Italy* to become the *first king of a united Italy since the 6th century*, a title he held until his death in 1878.
Friedrich Engels
(1820-95) a *German social scientist*, author, political theorist, philosopher, and *father of Marxist theory*, together with Karl Marx. Published *The Condition of the Working Class in England*, based on personal observations and research in Manchester. Co-authored *The Communist Manifesto*.
Greek War of Independence
(1821-1832) A successful *war of independence* waged by the *Greek revolutionaries* with assistance from Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and several other European powers against the *Ottoman Empire*, who were assisted by Egypt and Tunisia.
Clara Barton
(1821-1912) An *American pioneer nurse* who *founded the American Red Cross*.
Fyodor Dostoyevsky
(1821-81) A *Russian author* whose literary works explore *human psychology* in the context of the troubled political, social, and spiritual atmosphere of *19th-century Russia*. His major works include *Crime and Punishment*, *The Idiot* , and *The Brothers Karamazov*.
Ulysses S. Grant
(1822-85) The *18th President of the United States*. As commanding general, he *led the Union Armies to victory over the Confederacy* in the American Civil War.
Louis Pasteur
(1822-95) A *French chemist and microbiologist* renowned for his *discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization*. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and *preventions of diseases*, and his discoveries have saved countless lives ever since.
Alexander Graham Bell
(1847-1922) An eminent *Scottish-born scientist, inventor, engineer and innovator* who is credited with inventing the first practical *telephone*.
Pedro II of Brazil
(1825-91) The *second and last Emperor of Brazil*. Turned Brazil into an emerging power in the international arena. The nation grew to be distinguished from its Hispanic neighbors on account of its political stability, zealously guarded freedom of speech, respect for civil rights, vibrant economic growth and especially for its form of government: a functional, representative parliamentary monarchy. *Overthrown in a sudden coup d'état* in 1899 that had almost no support outside a clique of military leaders who desired a form of republic headed by a dictator.
Geronimo
(1829-1909) A *prominent leader of the Apache* who *fought against Mexico and Texas* for their expansion into Apache tribal lands for several decades during the *Apache Wars*.
Indian Removal Act
(1830) *Stripped American Indians of legal rights*, and forced them to leave their desirable territory in the southeast of the country and *relocate* to sparsely populated land west of the Mississippi.
July Revolution
(1830) Saw the *overthrow of King Charles X*, and the ascent of his cousin *Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans*, who himself, after 18 precarious years on the throne, would in turn be overthrown. It marked the shift from one *constitutional monarchy*, the Bourbon Restoration, to another, the *July Monarchy*; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch, the House of Orléans; and the substitution of the principle of popular sovereignty for hereditary right.
Isabella II of Spain
(1830-1904) *Queen of Spain*. Came to the throne as an infant, but her succession was disputed by the Carlists, who refused to recognise a female sovereign, leading to the *Carlist Wars*. After a troubled reign, she was deposed in the *Glorious Revolution of 1868*, and formally abdicated in 1870. Her son Alfonso XII became king in 1874.
Belgian Revolution
(1830-31) The conflict which led to the *secession of the southern provinces from the Netherlands* and established an independent Kingdom of *Belgium*.
Nat Turner's Slave Rebellion
(1831) A *slave rebellion* that took place in Virginia. Led by *Nat Turner*, rebel slaves killed anywhere from 55 to 65 people, the highest number of fatalities caused by any slave uprising in the American South. The rebellion was put down within a few days, but Turner survived in hiding for more than two months afterwards.
Gustave Eiffel
(1832-1923) A *French civil engineer and architect*. Best known for building the *Eiffel Tower* in 1899.
Maximiliano I of Mexico
(1832-67) The only *monarch of the Second Mexican Empire*. Entered into a scheme with Napoleon III of France to rule Mexico. France had invaded Mexico in 1861, with the implicit support and approval of other European powers, as part of the *War of the French Intervention*. Seeking to legitimize French rule, Napoleon III invited Maximilian to establish a new Mexican monarchy. His reign, however, was short-lived, and the Mexican Empire collapsed in 1867, Maximilian captured and executed.
Carlist Wars
(1833-76) Civil wars that dominated the 19th century in Spain. Began in 1834, triggered by the *death of Ferdinand VII*. The *conservative Carlists* did not want the king's daughter, Isabella, to take the throne, but rather Ferdinand's brother, Don Carlos. After three wars, the dispute was resolved in 1876 with the accession of Isabella's son Alfonso XII to the throne, who drove some 10,000 Carlists out of Spain.
Gottlieb Daimler
(1834-1900) A *German engineer*. Invented the *internal combustion engine*.
Mark Twain
(1835-1910) An *American author and humorist*. He wrote *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer* and its sequel, *Adventures of Huckleberry Finn*, the latter often called "the Great American Novel."
Texas Revolution
(1835-36) A military conflict between the government of *Mexico* and *Texas colonists*, most of whom were land owners from the United States. Resulted in the establishment of the Republic of Texas after the final battle at *San Jacinto*.
Georges Bizet
(1838-75) A *French composer of the romantic era*. Best known for his operas in a career cut short by his early death, Bizet achieved few successes before his final work, *Carmen*, which has become one of the most popular and frequently performed works in the entire opera repertoire.
First Opium War
(1839-42) Fought between *Great Britain* and *China* over their conflicting viewpoints on diplomatic relations, trade, and the administration of justice for foreign nationals. *British Victory*.
Treaty of Waitangi
(1840) A treaty signed by the *Maori* chiefs of New Zealand and the *British Empire*, granting the *British sovereignty over New Zealand.
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
(1840-93) A *Russian composer* whose works included symphonies, concertos, operas, ballets, and chamber music. Some of these are among the most popular theatrical music in the classical repertoire. He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally, which he bolstered with appearances as a guest conductor later in his career in Europe and the United States.
Treaty of Nanking
(1842) Ended the *First Opium War*. China was forced to pay an *indemnity of $20 million* to the British and officially *cede Hong Kong*. It was also made to open the ports of several Chinese cities to British trade. These cities became known as *treaty ports*.
Karl Benz
(1844-1929) A *German engine designer and car engineer*, generally regarded as *the inventor of the first automobile* powered by an internal combustion engine, and together with Bertha Benz, pioneering *founder of the automobile manufacturer Mercedes-Benz*.
First Anglo-Sikh War
(1845-46) Fought between the *Sikh Empire* and the *East India Company* and resulted in the partial *subjugation of the Sikh kingdom*.
Irish Potato Famine (Great Famine)
(1845-52) A *period of mass starvation, disease and emigration* in *Ireland*. Approximately *1 million people died* and *a million more emigrated* from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%.
Mexican-American War
(1846-48) An armed conflict between the *United States* and *Mexico* Followed in the wake of the *1845 U.S. annexation of Texas*, which Mexico considered part of its territory, despite the 1836 Texas Revolution. *American victory*.
Thomas Edison
(1847-1931) An *American inventor and businessman*. Developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the *phonograph*, the *motion picture camera*, and a long-lasting, practical *electric light bulb*.
French Revolution of 1848
(1848) A *Revolution in France* than ended the Orleans monarchy and led to the creation of the *French Second Republic*.
The Communist Manifesto
(1848) A short *publication* written by the political theorists *Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels*. Called for the *overthrow of the bourgeoisie*, with the cry of "working men of all countries, unite."
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
(1848) The *peace treaty* signed *between the U.S. and Mexico* that *ended the Mexican-American War*. Gave the United States the Rio Grande boundary for Texas, and gave the U.S. ownership of California, and a large area comprising New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado.
Second Anglo-Sikh War
(1848-49) Fought between the *Sikh Empire* and the *East India Company* and resulted in the *annexation of the Punjab* by the East India Company.
French Second Republic
(1848-52) The *republican government of France* between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire.
Taiping Rebellion
(1850-64) A massive *civil war in southern China* against the ruling Manchu-led *Qing dynasty*. It was a millenarian movement led by *Hong Xiuquan*, who announced that he had received visions in which he learned that he was the younger brother of Jesus. At least 20 million people died, mainly civilians, in one of the deadliest military conflicts in history. *Victory for Qing Dynasty*.
Second Anglo-Burmese War
(1852-53) The second of the three wars fought between the Burmese and British forces during the 19th century, with the outcome of the gradual *extinction of Burmese sovereignty and independence*.
Second French Empire
(1852-70) The *Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III*, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
Crimean War
(1853-1856) When *Nicolas I of Russia* declared the right to *protect Orthodox Christians* living under Ottoman rule, and his claim was rejected by the Ottomans, Nicholas sent troops into Moldavia and Wallachia, and the Ottoman Empire declared war. By 1854, Britain and France had also declared war on Russia, and in September they landed troops in Russia's Crimea territory and began a *siege of Sevastopol*. *Allied victory*.
Cecil Rhodes
(1853-1902) A *British businessman*, mining magnate, and politician in South Africa. An *ardent believer in British colonialism*.
Vincent van Gogh
(1853-90) A *Dutch Post-Impressionist painter* whose work—notable for its rough beauty, emotional honesty, and bold color—had a far-reaching influence on 20th-century art.
José Martí
(1853-95) A *Cuban national hero* and an important figure in Latin American literature. In his short life he was a poet, an essayist, a journalist, a revolutionary philosopher, a translator, a professor, a publisher, and a political theorist. Through his writings and political activity, he became a *symbol for Cuba's bid for independence against Spain*. He also wrote about the threat of Spanish and US expansionism into Cuba.
Convention of Kanagawa
(1855) A *treaty between the United States and Japan* that opened up Japan to international trade.
Treaty of Paris (1856)
(1856) *Settled the Crimean War* between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The treaty dade the Black Sea neutral territory, closing it to all warships, and prohibiting fortifications and the presence of armaments on its shores. The treaty marked a *severe setback to Russian influence* in the region.
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) An *Austrian neurologist* who became known as the *founding father of psychoanalysis*.
Second Opium War
(1856-60) A war pitting the *British Empire* and the *Second French Empire* against the *Qing Dynasty* of China. It was fought over similar issues as the First Opium War. *Anglo-French Victory*.
Indian Rebellion of 1857
(1857-58) Began as a *mutiny of sepoys* of the East India Company's army, and soon escalated into other *mutinies and civilian rebellions*. The rebellion posed a *considerable threat to East India Company power* in that region, and was contained only with the *fall of Gwalior*.
Reform War
(1857-61) One of the episodes of the long *struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces* that dominated *Mexico*'s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted a federalist government, limiting traditional Catholic Church and military influence in the country. The Conservatives wanted a centralist government, even a monarchy, with the Church and military keeping their traditional roles and powers. With the *conservatives in charge of the military*, the liberals found themselves pushed out of Mexico City, and were eventually forced to make a new capital at the *port of Veracruz*. The *US decided to intervene in the conflict* , recognizing the liberal government and sending it much-needed arms. This aided the rebels in their retaliation, and they managed to defeat conservative forces. *Benito Juárez* returned to Mexico City in 1861 as president, taking control of the whole country, and he once again put the constitution into effect.
Treaty of Tientsin
(1858) A treaty that ended the first part of the *Second Opium War*. *Opened more Chinese ports* to the foreigners, *permitted foreign legations* in the Chinese capital Beijing, *allowed Christian missionary activity*, and *legalized the import of opium*. China refused to ratify these agreements until 1860.
Theodore Roosevelt
(1858-1919) The *26th President of the United States*. A leader of the Republican Party and founder of the Progressive Party. He is known for his exuberant personality, range of interests and achievements, and his leadership of the Progressive Movement, as well as his "cowboy" persona and robust masculinity.
British Raj
(1858-1947) The *British rule in the Indian subcontinent*. Instituted when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria through the *Government of India Act*.
Cochinchina Campaign
(1858-62) Fought between the *French and Spanish* on one side and the *Vietnamese* on the other, began as a limited punitive campaign and ended as a *French war of conquest*. The war concluded with the *establishment of the French colony of Cochinchina*, a development that inaugurated nearly a century of French colonial dominance in Vietnam.
Second Italian War of Independence
(1859) Fought by the *Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia* against the *Austrian Empire* and was a key event in the process of Italian unification. *Victory for France and Sardinia.*
Wilhelm II
(1859-1941) The *last German Kaiser*. Lost *World War I* and was forced to abdicate in 1918.
Theodor Herzl
(1860-1904) An Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist and writer. He is considered to have been the *father of modern political Zionism*. Formed the *World Zionist Organization* and *promoted Jewish migration to Palestine* in an effort to form a Jewish state.
American Civil War
(1861-1865) Seven Southern slave states individually declared their *secession* from the United States and formed the *Confederate States of America*. They grew to include eleven states, and although they claimed thirteen states and additional western territories, the Confederacy was never recognized by a foreign country. The states that did not declare secession were known as the "Union". The war had its origin in the fractious issue of slavery, especially the extension of slavery into the western territories. After four years of bloody combat that left over 600,000 Union and Confederate soldiers dead and destroyed much of the South's infrastructure, the *Confederacy collapsed*, *slavery was abolished*, and the difficult *Reconstruction process* of restoring national unity and guaranteeing civil rights to the freed slaves began.
Confederate States of America
(1861-65) A *secessionist government* established by *seven slave states* of the Lower South that had declared their secession from the United States of America following the November 1860 election of Republican Abraham Lincoln on anti-slavery platform.
Emancipation Proclamation
(1863) A *presidential proclamation* issued by *President Abraham Lincoln* as a war measure during the American Civil War, directed to all of the areas in rebellion and all segments of the Executive branch (including the Army and Navy) of the United States. It *proclaimed the freedom of slaves* in the ten states that were still in rebellion, thus applying to 3 million of the 4 million slaves in the U.S. at the time.
Battle of Gettysburg
(1863) Fought by *Union and Confederate forces* during the *American Civil War*. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as *the war's turning point*. Union General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lee's attempt to invade the North.
Henry Ford
(1863-1947) An *American industrialist*, the *founder of the Ford Motor Company*, and sponsor of the development of the *assembly line technique of mass production*. Although Ford did not invent the automobile or the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford.
Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
(1865) Abolished slavery in the United States.
Austro-Prussian War
(1866) A war fought between the German Confederation under the leadership of the *Austrian Empire* and its German allies on one side and the *Kingdom of Prussia* with its German allies and Italy on the other, that *resulted in Prussian dominance* over the German states.
Nicholas II of Russia
(1868-1918) The *last emperor of Russia*. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to *economic and military collapse*. Enemies nicknamed him Nicholas the Bloody because of the *Khodynka Tragedy*, the *anti-Semitic pogroms*, *Bloody Sunday*, his *violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution*, his *execution of political opponents*, and his pursuit of military campaigns on an unprecedented scale. *Abdicated* following the February Revolution of 1917.
Ten Years' War
(1868-78) A war that began when sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed *Cuba's independence from Spain*. Ended in *failure for the Cuban rebels*.
Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
(1870) Prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude".
French Third Republic
(1870-1940) France from when the Second French Empire collapsed to when France's defeat by Nazi Germany led to the Vichy France government. The *French Constitutional Laws of 1875* gave the Third Republic its shape and form, consisting of a *Chamber of Deputies* and a *Senate* forming the legislature, and a *President* serving as the head of state.
Franco-Prussian War
(1870-71) A conflict between the *Second French Empire* and the *Kingdom of Prussia*. The conflict emerged from tensions caused by German unification. Otto von Bismarck wished to *provoke France* into war. To these ends he published the *Ems telegram*, editing it to appear as though insults had been exchanged between King Wilhelm I of Prussia and the French Ambassador. France declared war on Prussia on July 19. Prussia was victorious at the battles of *Gravelotte* and *Sedan*, where an ill Napoleon III surrendered to German forces and was taken prisoner. While Napoleon was held captive, a provisional government for national defense was set up in Bordeaux where it was decided to depose him and establish the *Third Republic*. By mid-September, the Prussians had besieged Paris. The city was forced to surrender after severe food shortages. By March, an armistice had been agreed and *Germany was given the regions of Alsace and Lorraine*.
League of the Three Emperors
(1873-87) An alliance between *Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary*. *Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, fearing that an alliance of Austria, France, and Russia would crush Germany, his goal was a peaceful Europe, based on the *balance of power*.
Battle of the Little Bighorn
(1876) An armed engagement between combined forces of the *Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes*, against the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the *United States Army*. The most prominent action of the *Great Sioux War of 1876*. It was an *overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho*, led by several major war leaders, including *Crazy Horse* and Chief Gall, inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull.
Anglo-Zulu War
(1879) Fought between the *British Empire* and the *Zulu Kingdom*. *British victory* and *annexation* of the independent Zulu Kingdom.
Treaty of Bardo
(1881) Made *Tunisia* a *French Protectorate*.
Triple Alliance
(1882) The *military alliance* among *Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy*.
Berlin Conference
(1884-85) *Regulated European colonization* and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and *organized by Otto von Bismarck*, first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the *General Act of the Berlin Conference*, can be seen as the *formalization of the Scramble for Africa*. The conference ushered in a *period of heightened colonial activity* by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance.
Thirty Days' War
(1897) A war fought between the *Kingdom of Greece* and *Ottoman Empire*. Its immediate cause was the question over the *status of the Ottoman province of Crete*, whose *Greek majority long desired union with Greece*. Despite a decisive *Ottoman military victory*, as a result of the *intervention of the Great Powers* after the war, an *autonomous Cretan State* under Ottoman suzerainty was established the following year.
First Zionist Congress
(1897) The *inaugural congress of the Zionist Organization* held in Basel, Switzerland. Convened and chaired by *Theodor Herzl*, the founder of the modern Zionism movement.
Spanish-American War
(1898) A conflict between *Spain* and the *United States*, the *result of American intervention* in the *Cuban War of Independence*.
Second Boer War
(1899-1902) Fought by the *United Kingdom* against the *South African Republic* and the *Orange Free State*. The British war effort was supported by troops from all over the British Empire. The war ended in *victory for Britain* and the *annexation of both republics*.
Monroe Doctrine
(early 19th century) Stated that the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs or wars of European powers, nor in any colonies in the Americas, but likewise declared the western hemisphere now closed to any further European attempts at colonization. Interference with territories in the Americas would now be viewed as hostile acts against the US.
Treaty of Paris (1898)
Ended the *Spanish-American War*. Allowed *temporary American control of Cuba*.
Manifest Destiny
The widely held belief in the United States that American settlers were destined to *expand* throughout the continent.