3 Early Jazz

Coda

A (blank), which is Italian for "tail," provides an optional concluding section of an arrangement, added for greater finality.

What leaders and arrangers contributed to the foundations of the big-band style in the 1920s? What were some of the stylistic features of 1920s big-band writing?

*** Bands led by Paul Whiteman and Fletcher Henderson continued to pioneer band division into four sections (trumpets, trombones, reeds, and rhythm) Fletcher Henderson (leader) + Don Redman (arranger) altering stock arrangements

Nick LaRocca - ODJB

1917 Victor Records released what is sometimes considered the first jazz record with Nick LaRocca, white cornetist and bandleader of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (ODJB). The ODJB recorded two pieces, "Livery Stable Blues" and "Dixie(land) Jass Band One Step." These included humorous barnyard effects, with clarinetist Larry Shields crowing and cornetist Nick LaRocca imitating a horse's whinny. A white band from New Orleans, the ODJB achieved popularity performing at Schiller's Cafe in Chicago and Reisenweber's Restaurant in New York. The group—which included Shields, LaRocca, and Tony Sbarbaro on drums; Eddie Edwards on trombone; and Henry Ragas on piano— brought the New Orleans style to national prominence. The brash and energetic barnyard effects of these pieces also made jazz synonymous with novelty or slapstick music. The ODJB may have been the first major popular ensemble to break through as "stars," that is, the first band whose players were covered by the press and idolized by enthusiastic fans, much like rock stars since the 1950s. After the ODJB's appearance at Reisenweber's, the band recorded prolifically through 1923 and helped spread the jazz craze outside the United States.

Transportation

1919 Commercial airplane service begins, between London and Paris. Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927 dramatized the airplane's ability to shrink the world.

Suite

A European classical musical work that has several sections, each with distinctive melodies and moods. The sections may be related thematically. Often composers will extract the most popular or most effective sections from extended works, such as operas and ballets, to create a suite for concert performance.

Speakeasy

A Prohibition-era nightclub in which liquor was sold illegally.

Tag

A brief coda. A short, codalike section added to the end of a composition to give it closure.

Chart

A common term for a jazz band arrangement.

Mute

A device played in or over the bells of brass instruments to alter their tone. Different mutes create different kinds of effects, but a muted brass tone will usually be less brilliant than the "open" horn.

Section (of a band)

A group of related instruments in a big band; three trumpets and three trombones might form the brass section.

Scat singing

A jazz vocal style in which the soloist improvises using made-up or "nonsense" syllables.

Big band

A large jazz ensemble typically including three to four trumpets, three to four trombones, four to five reeds (saxophones and doublings), and rhythm (typically piano, guitar, bass, and drums).

Vibrato

A method of varying the pitch frequency of a note, producing a wavering sound. Heard mostly on wind instruments, strings, and vocals, vibrato brings a note to life.

Cutting contest

A music competition in which players try to surpass, or "cut," one another in the brilliance of their improvisations.

Head arrangement

A musical plan and form worked up verbally by the players in rehearsal or on the bandstand.

Stop time

A performance technique in which the rhythm section punctuates distinct beats, often to accommodate a soloist's improvisation between the band's chords.

Harlem Renaissance

A period—roughly 1921 to 1929—of outstanding artistic activity among African Americans. The movement was centered in Harlem in New York City.

Art Tatum

A pianist, and one of the most prodigious virtuosos in jazz history. Blind in one eye and visually impaired in the other, (blank) was trained in the classics in his native Toledo, Ohio, where he was born in 1909. Tatum's musical personality had two sides—the popular virtuoso and the after-hours pianist. Listeners often remarked that his best playing took place during sessions that sometimes lasted all night long. Tatum expanded the vocabulary of stride and swing piano in three ways that we can hear in this performance: ▶ Timing of chords: Most stride and swing pianists played alternated bass notes and chords in their left hands, but Tatum sometimes used his left hand for richly voiced chords on all four beats. ▶ Runs: Whereas many stride and swing pianists used embellished runs to connect melodic phrases, Tatum used these runs more consistently and elaborately. ▶ Rapidity: Swing and stride pianists always featured impressive dexterity and speed, but Tatum's playing was the most dazzling. ▶ Harmony: Although jazz piano had been slowly developing more sophisticated harmonies, Tatum was the most harmonically advanced of any of his contemporaries.

Player piano

A piano equipped with a mechanism that allows it to play piano rolls.

Dixieland jazz or Dixieland

A popular term for the jazz style that originated in New Orleans and flourished in the late 1910s and 1920s. The Dixieland jazz band often had a front line (of trumpet or cornet, trombone, and clarinet) accompanied by a rhythm section (of piano, guitar or banjo, bass, and drums). Also called Dixieland jazz and New Orleans jazz.

Stride piano (or Harlem Stride)

A school of jazz piano performance based on a moving left-hand accompaniment alternating bass notes and chords with an appropriate right-hand figuration pulling or tugging at the left hand.

Countermelody

A separate line that runs in counterpoint to the main melody. Like an obbligato, a countermelody is a secondary melody that accompanies the main melody. A countermelody, however, is generally heard on the trombone or in a lower voice, has fewer notes than the obbligato, and is often improvised. Another word for countermelody is counterline. Listen to Track 7 of the Audio Primer; the piano enters in the middle register with a countermelody.

Riff

A short melodic idea, usually one to two bars long, that is repeated as the core idea of a musical passage. Sometimes different band sections trade riffs in a call-and-response format, often over changing harmonies. Usually rhythmic and simple, the riff also can provide an effective background for an improvising soloist.

Break

A short pause during a jazz performance—usually one or two bars— in which the rhythm instruments stop playing while the soloist continues. Often a band will play in stop time while the soloist improvises breaks between the band's chords.

Glissando

A technique whereby notes are slurred directly from one to another, producing a continuous rise or fall in pitch.

Chicago jazz

A type of New Orleans-style jazz created by Chicago musicians in the 1920s.

Plunger

A type of mute derived from a plumber's sink plunger. The rubber cup of the plunger is held against the bell of the instrument and manipulated with the left hand to alter the horn's tone quality.

Terminal vibrato

A vibrato added to the end of a sustained note. Used to add excitement and "movement" to notes at the ends of phrases. Part of Armstrong's classic style.

Stock Market Crash

After the high-flying 1920s, the stock market crash of October 1929 dramatically ushered in the Great Depression years of the 1930s.

Blues

An African American folk music that appeared around 1900 and exerted influence on jazz and various forms of U.S. popular music.

Ragtime

An African American musical genre that flourished from the late 1890s through the mid-1910s and is based on constant syncopation in the right hand often accompanied by a steady march bass in the left hand. Associated now primarily with piano music, ragtime was originally a method of performance that included syncopated songs, music for various ensembles, and arrangements of nonragtime music. Scott Joplin was ragtime's most famous composer.

Stock arrangement (stock)

An arrangement created and sold by a publishing company to bandleaders. Bands played stock arrangements to keep up with the latest hit songs.

King Oliver - Creole Jazz Band

An example of New Orleans style.

Rent party

An informal gathering in the 1920s held to help raise money to pay the rent or buy groceries. At such parties, musicians would often gather and perform, sometimes in competition with one another.

New Orleans jazz

Another name for Dixieland jazz or Dixieland.

Sweet bands

Bands that played relatively less syncopated and slower pieces, such as ballads and popular songs. See also hot bands.

Radio

Begun in 1920, became an important source of music, news, and talk for many.

Paul Whiteman

Big Band - Paul Whiteman became the most successful American bandleader during this period in part by incorporating jazz elements within an orchestral format. Whiteman's recordings of "Whispering" and "Japanese Sandman" from 1920, the year he came to New York, sold more than a million copies. He referred to his music as "symphonic Paul Whiteman and George Gershwin syncopation" and devised lush, colorful, and complicated arrangements, often more suitable for listening than for dancing. Said to have made a lady out of jazz. Catchy tunes (understood by the public as jazz) in clever arrangements, played by superb musicians. George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which Whiteman commissioned.

Duke Ellington (and his Orchestra)

Big Band, Influenced by Whiteman.

Fletcher Henderson

Big Band, from Atlanta. Degree in chemistry from Atl-U. song plugger at Pace-Handy. Henderson's band developed a repertory that alternated written ensemble sections with the improvised solos of saxophonist Coleman Hawkins and cornetist Joe Smith. Shortly after the band opened at Roseland, Louis Armstrong left Chicago to join Henderson as third trumpet and the featured hot soloist. With arranger and reed player Don Redman as musical director, Henderson's band developed a repertory that alternated written ensemble sections with the improvised solos of saxophonist Coleman Hawkins and cornetist Joe Smith. Redman did alternations of stock arrangements for Henderson. He later did arrangements himself. Poor mgr & couldn't pay. Had to sell his arangements. *** His group played a fundamental role in the development of the big band.

George Gershwin

Big Band. Wrote Rhapsody in Blue, which Whiteman commissioned.

Segregation

By 1894 the segregation code had removed the final legal distinctions between Creoles of Color and blacks. From that point on, Creoles of Color were segregated along with blacks.

Recording

By 1925, the advent of electric recording had improved sound fidelity. This method used microphones to capture the sound. At the standard speed of 78 rpm (revolutions per minute), recordings were normally about three minutes long for each song and remained so until long-playing records (LPs with 33 1/3 rpm) appeared in the late 1940s Until 1925, recordings were made acoustically instead of electrically. Musicians played into a large horn with a tapered end that connected to a cutting stylus. This stylus cut a groove into wax that covered a disc or cylinder. With this somewhat crude process, sound reproduction often suffered, but we must be thankful for the recordings we have. Jazz was the first musical genre to be so documented in its entirety.

Piano rolls

Cylinders of rolled paper punched with holes. When fed through a properly equipped player piano, the holes activate hammers that played the piano automatically.

East St. Louis Toodle-Oo

Duke Ellington & His Cotton Club Orchestra

Jelly Roll Morton - Red Hot Peppers

During the 1920s, Morton cut classic recordings in Chicago, including superb piano solos and the bestarranged ensemble numbers of early jazz. In his ensemble work, principally with the Red Hot Peppers' recordings of the mid-1920s, Morton shows a deft awareness of the balance between improvisation and worked-out arrangement. He Liked breaks in jazz. Jelly Roll Morton produced the first interracial jazz recording by recording with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. The band recorded several of Morton's own pieces, including "Wolverine Blues" and "Mr. Jelly Lord." One of the most influential of New Orleans musicians was a pianist and composer-arranger named Lemott Ferdinand Joseph "Jelly Roll" Morton (1890-1941). A pool hustler, braggart, and "ladies' man," he often made a living from gambling and pimping, which were far more lucrative than playing the piano. He was also a Creole of Color.

Singin' the Blues

Frankie Trumbauer & His Orchestra feat. Bix Beiderbecke

Bix Beiderbecke

He was a cornet player with a distinctive bell-like tone that would help him become a jazz legend. He and Armstrong were the two most important cornet players of the 1920s. Featured in Frankie Trumbauer & His Orchestra's: Singin' the Blues His style: ▶ Concentration on the middle register ▶ A lyrical, mellow tone ▶ Rhythmic variety ▶ Extreme subtlety of melodic continuation ▶ Restrained use of blue notes ▶ Small but compelling emotional compass ▶ Little use of vibrato ▶ Inside playing

Movies

Hollywood continued its dramatic growth in the 1930's, particularly after the "talking film" appeared in 1937 with The Jazz Singer.

Roaring Twenties

In addition to Prohibition and the maturing of jazz, the 1920s was also a period in which postwar exuberance led to a rapidly climbing stock market. American industrial might, first glimpsed in World War I, ensured the country a place among the major players in the world of nations.

How does Bix Beiderbecke's style compare with Armstrong's?

In contrast to the virtuosic flamboyance of Louis Armstrong, Beiderbecke had developed a style marked by introspection and refinement. Contemporaries strove to pinpoint Beiderbecke's restrained and uniquely lyrical sound: Mezz Mezzrow (born Milton Mesirow) stated that every note sounded "like a pearl" and stood out "sharp as a rifle crack." Hoagy Carmichael described it as a mallet hitting a chime; to Eddie Condon, Bix's sound came out "like a girl saying yes."21 Bested only by Armstrong, Bix Beiderbecke was the second leading voice on the cornet during the twenties. Whereas Armstrong used differing timbres, a wider range, and consistent vibrato as expressive devices, Beiderbecke's sound had a more even timbre, a narrower range, and a straight tone with only occasional vibrato. Beiderbecke's unique tone color resulted partly from employing unusual trumpet fingerings. He also emphasized the ninths and thirteenths of the chords in his playing.

Song plugger

In the 1920s, someone who performed a song, usually at a music store, to encourage people to buy the sheet music.

Hot bands

Jazz bands that featured fast tempos and dramatic solo and group performances, usually with more improvisation than sweet bands had. See also sweet bands.

Django Reinhardt - Hot Club de France

Jean Baptiste "Django" Reinhardt (1910-1953). Reinhardt was a guitar phenomenon. From a Manouche (French gypsy) background, he was raised in a gypsy settlement near Paris. In the mid-twenties, Reinhardt worked commercially in the Paris area and developed a reputation for technique and style. His skill and control were all the more amazing because he was burned in a fire in 1928 and was unable to use two of the fingers on his left hand.

Grandpa's Spells

Jelly Roll Morton and His Red Hot Peppers

What are the key stylistic components of the early New Orleans jazz ensemble as typified by King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band? Discuss instrumentation, repertory, and the role of each instrument within the ensemble.

King Oliver and Louis Armstrong on cornet Johnny Dodds on clarinet Baby Dodds on drums Honore Dutrey on trombone Bill Johnson on double bass and banjo Lil Hardin on piano New Orleans jazz characteristics: 1. Typical instrumentation of cornet(s), clarinet, trombone, piano, banjo, and drums (w/double bass in KO-CJB) 2. Improvised ensemble sections with the first cornet on the lead melody and the other instruments providing countermelodies 3. Hot style with exuberant performances by all the musicians 4. Driving 4/4 meter with emphasis on the beat 5. Simple rhythm-section parts with all the rhythm instruments articulating the beat King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band featured the two cornets of Oliver and Louis Armstrong. And even though we associate the tuba with the bass voice in early jazz, the string bass was also common because it blended better with the violins of the New Orleans string bands. A style where the lead cornet dominates the ensemble texture while the other instruments play parts similar to accompaniments. Also included the evenly distributed, freewheeling collective improvisation, perhaps the essence, of this style.

Dippermouth Blues

King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band

West End Blues

Louis Armstrong

Prohibition

Made the sale and public consumption of alcohol illegal throughout the United States, passed in 1919 and began on January 16, 1920. But Americans bought liquor illegally from smugglers and gangsters, hid it in their cellars, made their own "bathtub gin," and headed to speakeasies to enjoy lively jazz bands.

Buddy Bolden

Many New Orleans musicians attributed the genesis of the rougher, improvised style to this black cornetist, who's given name is Charles. He never recorded, but he may have been an important influence on the emerging jazz style. Born in 1877. A plasterer by trade, he formed a band around 1895 that performed throughout New Orleans in the saloons of Storyville.

Stephane Grappelli

One of the world's great jazz violinists. He was largely selftaught and worked in both dance bands and movie theaters throughout the 1920s. Around 1927, he began more jazz-oriented work. After leaving the Quintette du Hot Club de France in 1939, he worked in England with pianist George Shearing. His later associations with jazz musicians took him throughout the world. When he died in 1997, he was honored as one of the great musicians in jazz.

Tiger Rag

Original Dixieland Jazz Band, Art Tatum, Quintet Of The Hot Club Of France

New Orleans style

New Orleans and Chicago traditions in which groups tended to be roughly five to seven players. In such bands, the front-line combination of cornet, trombone, and clarinet featured one instrument per function: cornet (or trumpet) with the lead, trombone with a lower counterpoint or countermelody, and clarinet with an upper obbligato. A style where the lead cornet dominates the ensemble texture while the other instruments play parts similar to accompaniments. Tailgate trombone is feature of this style, with chromatic glissandos (notes slurred directly from one to another created by a rapid up-and-down motion of the slide). Also included the evenly distributed, freewheeling collective improvisation of King Oliver—the essence, perhaps, of this style. Characteristics include: 1. Typical instrumentation of cornet(s), clarinet, trombone, piano, banjo, and drums 2. Improvised ensemble sections with the first cornet on the lead melody and the other instruments providing countermelodies 3. Hot style with exuberant performances by all the musicians 4. Driving 4/4 meter with emphasis on the beat 5. Simple rhythm-section parts with all the rhythm instruments articulating the beat

How did Louis Armstrong revolutionize the role of the soloist in jazz? What are key aspects of his style?

New Orleans style of improvisation. 1. Armstrong had instrumental virtuosity. Technically, he was head and shoulders above other trumpeters of his generation. 2. He emphasized logical, brilliant solo improvisation. Armstrong was able to create coherent musical relationships and convey them with dramatic depth and pacing. 3. More than his peers, Armstrong had the ability to generate swing in his playing. He did this through the following techniques: ▶ Unequal eighth-note rhythms that implied an underlying 2 + 1 triplet organization ▶ Unexpected accents that were largely off the beat within the melodic line ▶ Control over placement of the notes just before or after the beat ▶ Terminal vibrato to add excitement and "movement" to notes at the ends of phrases

European style

ODJB was the model most often followed by the earliest European groups. Jazz in Paris received a major boost from Josephine Baker's hit show, La Revue Nègre. Baker was a flamboyant African American singer and dancer whose revue opened in 1925. Its jazz-based accompaniment was provided by an orchestra under the leadership of Claude Hopkins (1903-1984). Most significant indigenous band to emerge from the early Paris jazz scene was the Quintette du Hot Club de France. The Hot Club Quintette du Hot Club de France, a band formed in 1934 featuring violinist Stéphane Grappelli (1908-1997) and guitarist Jean Baptiste "Django" Reinhardt (1910-1953). See: "Tiger Rag" track.

Sidney Bechet

One of the most important early players from New Orleans was Sidney Bechet (1897-1959). Although many, if not most, of the early woodwind players played clarinet, the saxophone did appear during the early jazz period. Bechet began as a clarinetist, but he took on the soprano saxophone as his primary instrument and became one of its early virtuoso soloists. Bechet's style on both clarinet and soprano saxophone was unique and unforgettable. His clarinet sound was rich and woody, modulated by a quick and surprisingly wide vibrato. On the clarinet, Bechet tended to be demure, whereas on the soprano sax, he was more experimental and freewheeling. Bechet was possibly the first jazz musician to be recognized as first rate by the musical establishment. Bechet recorded important sessions with Louis Armstrong in groups organized by pianist-composer and music publisher Clarence Williams (c. 1893-1965). At that time, Bechet was more established than Armstrong, but the latter's emerging excellence created a tension in the band that led to such fine recordings as "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" (1924) and two versions of "Cake Walking Babies (from Home)" (1924 and 1925).

Creoles of Color

People of mixed black and white ancestry, often from New Orleans. Until the late nineteenth century, they enjoyed more freedom and were better educated than the general black population. Musicians from this group generally had classical training and could read musical scores.

Lil (Lillian) Hardin

Pianist from Memphis, Tennessee. Married to Armstrong. King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band: "Dippermouth Blues" Encouraged Armstrong to set out on his own.

Chicago style

Players collectively known as the "Chicagoans" epitomized what has been called Chicago jazz.. Up-tempo compositions.... New Orleans and Chicago traditions in which groups tended to be roughly five to seven players. In such bands, the front-line combination of cornet, trombone, and clarinet featured one instrument per function: cornet (or trumpet) with the lead, trombone with a lower counterpoint or countermelody, and clarinet with an upper obbligato.

The City of New Orleans

Popularly considered the birthplace of jazz.

How did ragtime and the blues each contribute to the formation of early jazz?

Ragtime brought improvisation (from early ragtime) and syncopation of the melody (right-hand). Blues added: 1. Loosely constructed phrasing 2. Offbeat, syncopated placement of notes and lyrics 3. Use of slides, blue notes, and other vocal embellishments 4. 12-bar blues form, by far the most common in jazz. The addition of blues to ragtime helped create jazz. More precisely, ragtime—both in its classic piano form and in songs and marches "ragged" by ensembles—gradually metamorphosed into jazz through an internal evolution and the infusion of blues. Because the addition of this final ingredient was so significant, some claim that to improvise with authority and passion in the jazz tradition requires the ability to play the blues well.

How did recording influence the early history of jazz?

Sound recordings began as a novelty and were not taken very seriously at first because their primary function in the late teens and early twenties was to publicize a band's live performances. As quality improved and dissemination broadened, however, recordings became a decisive step toward national prominence for artists and the popularizing of their work. They also became the most important evidence for later historians trying to present a coherent story of jazz. Yet because bands that were physically present near the recording centers of New York and Chicago would naturally have had the opportunity to record first, such recordings taken out of context may present historians with a distorted view of how early jazz crystalized.

New York style

Started in Harlem. Ellington. Earliest manifestations of New York jazz were in the society and military bands, such as those of James Reese Europe—bands that were identified with syncopation and the new ballroom dance music. Bandleaders such as Fletcher Henderson codified new arranging techniques and instrumentations that planted the seeds for the big-band jazz of the 1930s.

Jim Crow Laws

State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these laws continued in force until 1965.

James P Johnson

The "father of stride piano," James P. Johnson excelled as a pianist and as a composer of Broadway musicals and concert works. In the late 1940s, he correctly predicted that future jazz musicians would need to be fluent in various jazz styles. Influenced by Whiteman.

Employment

The 1917 closing of Storyville, the well-known red-light district, cut down employment opportunities for New Orleans musicians, causing their departure. Steadier employment conditions existed in bigger cities. During prohibition, most of the jazz players of the time found ready employment in nightclubs, cabarets, and speakeasies.

Tailgate trombone

The New Orleans style of playing trombone with chromatic glissandos. The trombonist would play in the back—on the tailgate—of the New Orleans advertising wagons when the bands traveled during the day to advertise their upcoming dances.

Early Big Band

The big band featured a section of instruments for each instrument in the New Orleans-style band: a section of trumpets, a section of trombones, and a section of reeds (as saxophones or clarinets). In general, the use of sections required either written arrangements or head arrangements worked out in rehearsal because it was difficult to be completely spontaneous with a larger number of players. The evolution of the early big band is a matter of some controversy in jazz history. Who was the first bandleader to use a saxophone section? Recent scholarship suggests that the Art Hickman band, a San Francisco-based group, may have been the first to use two saxophones as a "proto-reed section" in 1919.31 Bands led by Paul Whiteman and Fletcher Henderson continued to pioneer band division into four sections (trumpets, trombones, reeds, and rhythm), but the early history of the big band remains murky. If the actual course of innovation remains unclear, it is likely that the major New York-based groups, such as the Whiteman and Henderson ensembles, solidified the use of big-band sectional formulas and textures for the 1930s. A big band is a large jazz ensemble typically including three to four trumpets, three to four trombones, four to five reeds (saxophones and doublings), and rhythm (typically piano, guitar, bass, and drums). A section Is a group of related instruments in a big band; three trumpets and three trombones might form the brass section. A head arrangement is a musical plan and form worked up verbally by the players in rehearsal or on the bandstand.

Shout chorus

The climactic chorus of a jazz performance; it often occurs at the end of a piece, in which case it might also be called an out-chorus.

Tin Pan Alley

The collective name applied to the major New York City sheet music publishers. Tin Pan Alley flourished from the late 1800s until the mid-twentieth century.

Out-chorus

The final chorus of a jazz performance. When exuberant, it may also be called a shout chorus.

Inside playing

The jazz technique of playing melodic lines that favor the principal notes of the harmonies. See also outside playing.

Outside playing

The jazz technique of playing notes that depart from (or are "outside" of) the chords of a given piece. See also inside playing.

Staccato

The technique of playing short notes with distinct spaces between them. The opposite of staccato is legato.

Collective improvisation

The term often applied to the simultaneous improvising of the New Orleans (Dixieland) jazz ensemble.

Publishing

The ubiquity of radios and phonographs by the end of the decade signaled recorded music's takeover of the commercial at-home market, beginning the slow demise of published sheet music and amateur live music performance.

Louis Armstrong Hot Five & Seven

These were groups assembled for recording. His band the Hot Seven, which was the Hot Five augmented by Pete Briggs on tuba and Baby Dodds on drums The last of Armstrong's Hot Five recordings, and included "Fireworks," "Skip the Gutter," and "West End Blues." Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five: "West End Blues" (Williams-Oliver). OKeh 8597. Chicago, June 28, 1928. Louis Armstrong, trumpet and vocal; Fred Robinson, trombone; Jimmy Strong, clarinet; Earl Hines, piano; Mancy Carr, banjo; Zutty Singleton, drums.

Tin Pan Alley

This collective of sheet music publishers began to flourish in the late nineteenth century and experienced major growth through promoting ragtime. In the early 1920s, its popular songs provided many of the vehicles for jazz performance, a legacy that continued for decades. They pioneered mass-marketing and aggressive sales techniques in the popular music industry, techniques that still define the business today.

The Great Migration

Trend in which many blacks abandoned rural life in the South for urban life in the North. The most important reason behind this was probably the availability of city jobs that paid a fair wage. The exodus of New Orleans jazz musicians was part of this much larger trend. the Great Migration in which many blacks abandoned rural life in the South for urban life in the North. The most important reason behind the Great Migration was probably the availability of city jobs that paid a fair wage. For example, Henry Ford had invented the automobile assembly line in 1914 and needed workers to manufacture the first mass-produced automobile—his Model T Fords. He guaranteed $5 a day—an astonishing wage at the time. As a result of opportunities like this, nearly half a million blacks moved from the South to the North between 1916 and 1919, the largest internal migration in the history of the United States. Between 1910 and 1920, more than 65,000 blacks emigrated from the southern states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas to Chicago alone