367 Exam 3 Review
Which of the following is a reason a coach or team leader might "use" religion as a way to exercise control (for instance, by encouraging his/her players to be religious and/or by implementing religious practices within the team)? a. Religious players are perceived to be less likely to engage in risky or criminal activities off the field b. Religion can be a way to unify and/or motivate a team c. Equating team norms and rules with religious mandates can help achieve compliance among players
All the above
Which of the following is a way in which Christians and/or Christian religions have used sport? a. To promote spiritual growth b. To recruit new members and promote religious beliefs and organizations c. To promote fundamentalist beliefs and evangelical orientations
All the above
Which of the following American sport organizations is owned by someone from outside the United States? a. New York Red Bulls (MLS) b. Seattle Mariners (MLB) c. Brooklyn Nets (NBA)
All the above; The Nets' owner is Russian, the Mariners' owner is Japanese, and the Red Bulls' owner is Austrian.
Which statement is accurate regarding the migration of athletes across national borders to join professional or national teams?
Athletes from less-wealthy countries are often recruited to join teams in wealthier countries. * This talent drain is most pronounced in Latin American and African countries, particularly in major international sports like soccer.
Between 1880 and 1920, the notion of "Muscular Christianity" inspired many religious organizations (like the YMCA) to use sports in their recruiting and evangelical efforts. Which two sports were created at YMCAs during this period?
Basketball Volleyball
If an athlete was having difficulty reconciling his/her athletic pursuits with his/her religious beliefs, one way to resolve this conflict would be to continue playing sports as usual but also:
Become more evangelical and use sport to teach people about his/her religion
Differences between sport and religion:
o Religion = sacred vs. Sport = secular •Religious beliefs and practices are spiritual •Focus on fundamental uncertainties about human existence •Sport ideologies and practices are easier to understand and explain •No inherent spiritual value o Faith based vs. evidence based •Religion involves some element of faith •Belief in the absence of empirical data •Sport uses competition as the basis of understanding •Competition hierarchies are based on results, not faith o Compassion vs. Competition •Religion tends to place a high value on virtues like love, humility, and submissiveness •Sport tends to place a high value on achievement, even at the expense of opponents
an example of a similarity between sport and religion?
Both sport and religion have events that celebrate widely shared values
Match the statement/assumption to the current trend influencing sport today that it illustrates. The sports that are considered popular and relevant by dominant groups in American society today may not be the same in the future.
Changing demographic composition of communities and societies
Match the example to the appropriate ideological theme which shapes narratives and images in mediated sports: A football game that is preceded by an hours-long pregame show breaking down in great detail how each team can win.
Competitive Success
Match the example to the appropriate ideological theme which shapes narratives and images in mediated sports: A broadcast that features several branded elements, like the "AFLAC Trivia Question" or the "Taco Bell instant replay".
Consumption
Match the statement/assumption to the current trend influencing sport today that it illustrates. If a sport is not on TV or otherwise available through media outlets, it is not usually considered to be very important.
Control of telecommunications and electronic media in sport.
Match the statement/assumption to the current trend influencing sport today that it illustrates. Many people believe that the only way a sport will grow is if it is exciting to watch.
Cultural emphasis on commercialism and consumption
Fill in the blank with the correct word that completes one of the author's suggested changes to the Olympic games. Add to each games "__________" native to the cultural regions where the games are held.
Demonstration sports
As noted in the Reflect on Sports inset (p. 547), which group of people will likely increase demand for disability sport opportunities in new and unprecedented ways?
Disabled veterans of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan
Match the example to the appropriate ideological theme which shapes narratives and images in mediated sports: Overly emphasizing the impact of a Ramadan fast on a Muslim player's performance.
Ethnicity
True/False: Pleasure and participation sports are more likely to attract sponsorships and are easier to market to spectators.
False
True/False: When it comes to sport and religion, essentialists suggest that sport and religion share many fundamental similarities.
False; For essentialists, the answer to the question of whether sport is like a religion (or perhaps is a religion) is an emphatic "no". Social constructionists, on the other hand, do identify many shared characteristics between sport and religion.
True/False: The terms government and the state can be used interchangeably.
False; Governments are institutions that typically have the power to make and enforce laws. "The state" is a much broader concept and refers not just to governments but to other public and private institutions that collectively exert influence and control within a given population.
True/False: Unlike many other extracurricular activities, high school sports attract an academically and socially diverse set of participants.
False; High school athletes tend to be students who perform well academically and are socially popular.
True/False: Privately-owned sports media are interested in covering all sports equally.
False; If a sport is particularly difficult or costly to cover, it is not likely to receive much media attention.
True/False: All female athletes are strongly opposed to being sexualized in the media.
False; Individual female athletes have differing opinions on how they ought to be portrayed in the sports media. However, it's important to identify the range of possible portrayals available to these athletes when trying to understand inherent gender biases in sports media.
True/False: The close relationship between Protestant (and more generally, Christian) virtues and sporting values means that athletes are highly unlikely to encounter any conflicts between their religious beliefs and their athletic careers.
False; Many characteristics of sport (especially elite, commodified sport), such as the use of violence and the temptation to cheat, contradict widely-held religious tenets regarding what constitutes moral behavior.
True/False: When it comes to international relations, sports have a real and significant impact on serious diplomacy.
False; Sports can be useful for public diplomacy, but are unimportant relative to more traditional political issues.
True/False: The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is the only governing body for U.S. collegiate sport.
False; The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) governs sports for about 260 member schools. The National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA) and the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) also govern sports for affiliated Christian schools and for community colleges, respectively.
True/False: The rapidly growing number of older Americans won't have much of an impact on the development of alternatives to power/performance sports.
False; The U.S. Department of Commerce projects that by 2030, 20% of Americans (around 72 million people) will be age 65 or older. Likely, many of them will have new and different ideas about how older people can and should participate in sport.
True/False: The median net revenue (generated revenue less expenses) for NCAA Division I FBS universities is positive; in other words, at least half of all FBS schools' athletic departments generate a profit.
False; The median net revenue among FBS institutions is actually a net deficit of $12,272,000. This means that half of all FBS schools lose more than $12.272 million per year on sports--these shortfalls must be made up by drawing on donations, student fees, and other university-level funding.
True/False: The experiences and meanings associated with being a high school athlete are the same for all athletes.
False; The status accorded to athletes, the identities athletes develop around their sport participation, and the ways in which sport is integrated into everyday activities across social contexts all influence how being an athlete impacts a person's life.
True/False: The U.S.-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow and the Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles had a dramatic effect on the relationship between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., and led to a significant shift in each state's foreign policies.
False; Though each side claimed an ideological victory, the Olympic boycotts in 1980 and 1984 had little impact on the Cold War.
True/False: Public (i.e., governmental) investment in sport usually benefits all segments of society equally.
False; Though much has been made in this course of the inequalities produced through privatization, publicly-organized sport faces similar choices and trade-offs in terms of resource allocation.
True/False: The relationship between religions popular in Asian countries (like Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Shinto) and high-performance sport is more or less the same as the relationship between Protestantism and high-performance sport.
False; While Protestant virtues tend to reinforce or normalize the values typically seen in power and performance sports, other religions don't place as high of a value on competitive sport and may tend to prefer other forms of physical activity.
True/False: When athletes pray prior to competition, it is always because they are deeply religious.
False; While some athletes certainly do pray for religious reasons, research has shown that this behavior is just as likely to be motivated by superstition or a desire to feel in control of the situation.
True/False: There is clear evidence to suggest that watching mediated sport will lead to a more active lifestyle, including increased sport participation.
False; While there is no evidence to clearly demonstrate the opposite is true either, the current consensus is that, unless an effort is made to link sport consumption to sport participation, watching simply leads to more watching.
Match the example to the appropriate ideological theme which shapes narratives and images in mediated sports: Emphasizing during a women's basketball game that the athletes are much slower and less physical than men.
Gender
Habits/effects associated w/ mediated sport consumption:
• Audience - can be something that brings people together (husband and wife) • Participation- can get people to play by inspiring them • Non-participation- can become a source of entertainment on TV, not an activity • Attending Events- media has increased attendance at events, but that may change do to HD TV's • Gambling - connected to media sports but media sports does not cause gambling in sports, can be a threat to sports by throwing games or point shaving
Relationship between sport and media:
• Media interest- using sport to generate revenue (mostly through ad sales) • Sport interest- using media to create /satisfy consumers, stimulate further demand
Ideological themes in mediated sport:
• Success - through individual effort, competition, teamwork • Consumption - 20% of TV sports is ads • Gender - Men's sports receive most attention • Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality- Sports coverage today pretends race doesn't exist, everyone has same challenge
History of NCAA Lecture:
•The Sanity Code: (The NCAA attempted (and failed) to create a truly amateur collegiate sport model) o Framework for NCAA oversight o Codified the NCAA's commitment to amateurism o Emphasized institutional control and the importance of meeting minimum academic standards o Original version of the code, expulsion from the NCAA was the only punishment for an NCAA violation o Firmer governance of financial aid and recruiting • No direct aid for athletics • No paid college visits • No more open tryouts for non-students •College Sport has always been commercialized • 1905 - Intercollegiate Athletic Association is formed (IAA) in response to the growing commercialization of college sport • 1920's - Commercialization continues largely unabated with paid attendance, sponsorships/advertising, recruiting •The term student athlete was a PR maneuver • The Student Athlete o SID's (College Sports Information Directors of America) involvement may not have been coincidence (good w/communication) o NCAA deliberately began to encourage use of term to emphasize status, even as the push for employment style scholarships gained momentum o Walter Byers, NCAA Executive Director claimed the term was embedded into college sport and told publicists to speak of teams, not clubs
Gender Themes in Media Representation of Sports:
Gender Marking: referring to men's events as the events and to women's events as women's events. Compulsory heterosexuality: that is, mentioning that women athletes are "normal" because they have a boyfriend, husband, or child, and ignoring the reality that some women athletes are lesbians and that sexuality has nothing to do with athletic ability Appropriate femininity: that is, highlighting personal characteristics that distinguish women from men in terms of stature, strength, power, speed, emotional control, and vulnerability. Infantilization: that is, referring to women athletes as girls and calling them by their first names in a way that reduces them to a status subordinate to men, who are referred to by last names and never called boys Nonsport Issues: that is, calling attention to a woman athlete's personality, personal appearance, and personal or family life in a way that makes her athlete identity seem secondary to these important "female matters." Sexualization: that is, representing women athletes with images that highlight physical attractiveness to the exclusion of sport related physical attributes, and giving special attention to women athletes who have "redeemed their femininity" by posing for such representations in videos or photoshoots. Ambivalence: that is, using narratives that recognize and praise sporting skills but also include comments that trivialize or undermine a woman's identity and prowess as a serious athlete
Fill in the blank with the correct word that completes one of the author's suggested changes to the Olympic games. Emphasize __________ in media coverage.
Global responsibility
Fill in the blank with the correct word that completes one of the author's suggested changes to the Olympic games. Replace the Olympic motto Citius-Altius-Fortius (Faster-Higher-Stronger) with __________.
Health-Unity-Peace
When the President of the United States throws out the first pitch at a Major League Baseball game and emphasizes his/her interest in sports, this is an example of government involvement in sport to:
Increase support for political leaders and government
Sports depend on media:
It is only when sports become commercial entertainment that they depend on the media
Fill in the blank with the correct word that completes one of the author's suggested changes to the Olympic games. Promote a fair method of calculating __________.
Medal counts
Fill in the blank with the correct word that completes one of the author's suggested changes to the Olympic games. Use __________ for each Olympic Games.
Multiple sites
As of 2012, which division of collegiate sport had the most athletes participating?
NCAA Division III
Though international sport events are often associated with global peace and cultural understanding, participating countries often use these events to promote:
Nationalism * The fact that most international events are organized around nationally-affiliated athletes often encourages national governments to draw connections between athletic success and a country's political power.
Match the example to the appropriate ideological theme which shapes narratives and images in mediated sports: Hinting at the possibility of a brawl or other violence during a game between two politically-conflicted countries.
Nationality
Fill in the blank with the correct word that completes one of the author's suggested changes to the Olympic games. Integrate the Olympics and __________.
Paralympics
Sports and Politics Terms/Background info:
Politics: processes of organizing social power and making decisions that affect people's lives in a social world Governments: formal organization with the power to make and enforce rules in a particular territory or collection of people. In the sociology of sport we often refer to it as "THE STATE" because this concept includes the formal institution of a national gov. plus those parts of civil society- such as (education, family, media, and churches)- that teach values and ideologies that extend the influence and control of the political agencies that make and enforce laws and govern a society. Power: an ability to influence people and achieve goals, even in the face of opposition from others Authority: a form of power that comes with a recognized and legitimate status or office in a gov., and org., or an established set of relationships
When a government emphasizes the success of a national team (either in a specific sport or at the Olympics) as a way to draw attention away from internal conflicts and social unrest, this is an example of government involvement in sport to:
Promote identity and unity
When a national government supports the bid to host a sport mega-event like the World Cup or the Olympics in the hopes that it will improve its international standing, this is an example of government involvement in sport to:
Promote the prestige and power of a community or nation
Diplomacy
Public Diplomacy: public expressions of togetherness in the form of cultural exchanges and general communication among officials from various nations Serious Diplomacy: discussions and decisions about political issues of vital national interest
Match the example to the appropriate ideological theme which shapes narratives and images in mediated sports: Describing a black athlete as "physically superior" or "naturally talented"
Race
Match the statement/assumption to the current trend influencing sport today that it illustrates. It is difficult to determine whether some forms of assistance for atheltes (chemicals, surgeries, prostheses, etc.) should be allowed in sport.
Rapidly changing nature of technology
The Protestant virtue based on the idea that truth can be discovered through human reason, and that virtue is expressed through efficiency and measurable achievements is known as:
Rationalization * According to Overman (2011), this virtue is manifested in sport through the emphasis placed on keeping time and score, tracking records, and other forms of measuring performance.
When a city's police and EMS services are used to facilitate a road race (e.g., Komen Race for the Cure) by securing the route and providing emergency medical treatment, this is an example of government involvement in sport to:
Safeguard the public order
Parallels between traditional sports and eSports
Socialization processes and effects related to sport • Play with friends • Go to events together • Dress up in cosplay • Intense gamers look for jobs in eSports (shout casters, cosplay designers, pro gamers) Norms and deviance • Type of behavior and clothes they wear while they attend the big eSports events • Its evident that one of the norms is to dress up like a favorite character from one of the games, similar to how we wear our favorites player's jerseys • Also how the eSport players were treated in preparation of the event and after the event was that they were icons to the crowd. The relationship between sport and social institutions • The government noticed this and decided to put an internet curfew in place for those under the age of 18. • Similar to how the health institutions have increased their awareness of concussions and repetitive small hits because of the discovery of CTE in ex-football players Relationships between sport and social groups/functions • Teens go to PC cafes to play league of legends and other games o They practice, and play for fun together • Similar to how teens play pick up games in their free time at parks
Politics of/in Sport:
Sport Governance • Examines how power/authority is wielded in sport organizations and industries • Who makes decisions and enforces rules? Why? • Example: Big-time Collegiate Sport NCAA- controls members Power 5 Universities- controls assets and labor Broadcasters/Corporate Sponsors - control $$$ Donors/Alumni - control relationships (and $$$)
Social Constructionist:
Sport and religion are both cultural practices and can be understood as such
Politics thru sport:
Sport can be used as a political tool • Usually by governments to achieve other ends (not always good) o Social intervention (improve health, mitigate crime, etc.) o Nationalism (pride in team = patriotism) o Economic development (stadium construction, hosting events)
Widespread belief in the "great sport myth" (especially the notion that sport participation builds character and teaches moral lessons) has resulted in:
Sport programs are rarely evaluated in terms of learning outcomes and there is very little empirical data that indicates whether sports are actually educational.
Ideological themes in mediated sport continued:
Sports are represented in the media through images and narratives that are selected from a vast array of possibilities In the case of sports, the most central ideologies that influence what we see and hear are those related to success, consumption, gender, race, ethnicity, and nationality • Success - through individual effort, competition, teamwork • Consumption - 20% of TV sports is ads • Gender - Men's sports receive most attention • Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality- Sports coverage today pretends race doesn't exist, everyone has same challenge
Media production and representation of sports:
Sports coverage generally consists of images and narratives that exaggerate the spectacular, such as heroic injuries or achievements. Images and narratives also sinvent and highlight rivalries and explains why events are important. Furthermore, they strive to create and maintain the celebrity status of athletes and teams. Narratives even redeem villains who demonstrate that they can be heroic warriors, with commentators describing them as "loyal blue collar players"- "willing to take figurative bullets for their teammates"- and "always being there when the chips are down," even if they sometimes have broken rules in the past
What are the two most likely ways in which coaches and athletic departments might respond to higher academic eligibility standards for athletes?
Take academic issues more seriously Find ways to get around the rules without being caught * This is the double-edged sword of maintaining academic performance as a criterion for athletic participation--while it may motivate some programs to genuinely improve the academic experience for athletes, many other programs see this as nothing more than an obstacle to athletic success.
Media depends on sports:
The media most dependent on sports for commercial success are newspapers and television
Infantilization
The practice of broadcasters calling female athletes "girls" and referring to them by their first names is known as. This common practice in the sports media subtly reaffirms the superiority of men's sports.
Which of the following examples shows how sport and religion are different?
The purpose of religion is to transcend the material world, while sport embraces material reality and physical performance.
A "colorblind" approach to sports media coverage produces which effect?
The racial and ethnic status quo is reproduced and the realities of racial issues in sport are ignored.
Arguments against Interscholastic Sports:
They distract students from school work* They perpetuate dependence, conformity They cause too many serious injuries to athletes* They deprive educational programs of resources, facilities, staff, and community support* They create pressure on athletes* They support a hierarchical status system in which athletes are unfairly privileged over other students
an argument for maintaining interscholastic sport programs in high school?
They generate spirit and unity and maintain the school as a viable organization.
an argument against maintaining interscholastic sport programs in high schools?
They turn most students into passive spectators and cause too many serious injuries to athletes.
Reasons for direct governmental involvement in sport
To achieve other ends (not always good) • Crime reduction • Social engagement • Health
Especially in sport, globalization has significantly increased the power of which group of international actors?
Transnational corporations
True/False: Competitive success is emphasized to a much greater degree in U.S. media coverage of sport than it is in coverage from other countries around the world.
True
True/False: Consuming media sports is related to gambling habits, but it does not cause people to gamble on sports.
True
True/False: Dominant sport forms in most societies (including American society) are--and will likely continue to be--organized around the power and performance model.
True
True/False: The Olympic Games are based upon a philosophy known as Olympism that emphasizes the combination of sport with culture and education.
True
True/False: Authority is a form of power that comes with a recognized and legitimate status or office in a government, an organization, or an established set of relationships.
True; Authority is typically linked with a person's position or job title, or at the organizational level, an organization's position within a hierarchy or network of organizations.
True/False: Politics refers to the processes of organizing social power and making decisions that affect people's lives in a social world.
True; Authority is typically linked with a person's position or job title, or at the organizational level, an organization's position within a hierarchy or network of organizations.
True/False: Clustering occurs when athletes in certain sports are overrepresented in specific courses and majors.
True; Clustering occurs for a variety of reasons--compatibility of course schedules with practice/competition schedules, a desire to take the same courses as teammates, and/or a perceived (or actual) deference to athletes among instructors in an academic program.
True/False: As of 2012, over 40% of all American colleges and universities that have sport programs compete at the Division III or NJCAA levels.
True; Collectively, NJCAA and NCAA Division III are home to 45.3% of all colleges and universities with sport programs. By comparison, only 16.4% of all colleges and universities compete in NCAA Division I.
True/False: Globalization is a process through which financial capital, products, knowledge, world views, and cultural practices flow through political borders worldwide and influence people's lives.
True; Globalization is often characterized as a positive process, using economics and technology to transcend national differences. However, the realities of globalization are far more complicated.
True/False: Religions are socially shared beliefs and rituals that assume the existence of supernatural entities or powers with a moral purpose, that people accept on faith and use as a source of meaning, guidance, and transcendence.
True; Note that the essential components of this definition are a faith-based belief in a higher power. In this sense, religion does not have to involve belief in a God or gods, but it typically does involve some measure of belief that does not require scientific proof.
True/False: Politics refers to the processes of organizing social power and making decisions that affect people's lives in a social world.
True; This definition suggests that sport is not separate from or transcendent of politics.
True/False: The work of Max Weber and Steven Overman illustrates how Protestant religious beliefs and capitalist ideology have shaped the organization and spirit of modern sport.
True; While Weber focused primarily on the relationship between Protestantism and capitalism, Overman builds on this perspective to show how values and beliefs in sport parallel religious and economic ideas.
During the 2010-11 academic year, the average spending per student at an FBS university was $13,600, while the average spending per athlete was __________.
$92,000
Arguments for Interscholastic sports:
*They involve students in school activities *They foster fitness and stimulate interest in physical activities *They generate spirit and unity They promote parental, alumni, and community support for school programs They give students opportunities to be recognized for their competence.
The Sport-Government Connection:
1. Safeguard the public order 2. Ensure fairness and protect human rights 3. Maintain health and fitness among citizens 4. Promote the prestige and power of a group, community, or nation 5. Promote a sense of identity, belonging, and unity among citizens 6. Reproduce dominant values and ideologies in a community or society 7. Increase support for political leaders and government 8. Facilitate economic and social development in a community or society
The meaning of playing on a school team depend upon these three factors:
1. The status given to athletes and sports in various contexts 2. The identities young people develop as they play sports 3. The ways that young people integrate sports and an athlete identity into their lives.
During televised sports broadcasts, about how much of the time is devoted to airing commercials?
20%; During a typical three-hour baseball or football broadcast, over half an hour is commercials--and this does not include various advertising messages and promotions embedded in the broadcast itself.
an example of how concerns over health and fitness might support the growth of pleasure/participation sports?
A corporation reducing or ending its sponsorship of a professional team in order to provide fitness programs for its employees.
Similarities between Sport and Religion:
Use of physical space: Both have places or buildings for communal gatherings and special events- sports have stadiums and arenas, and religions have churches and temples services Emotional and Meaningful: Both evoke intense emotions and give meaning to peoples lives- sports inspire players and fans to contemplate human potential, and religions inspire theologians and believers to contemplate the meaning of existence. Distraction/ Escape from day-to-day life: Both can be used to distract attention from important social, political,and economic issues and thereby become "opiates" of the masses- sports focus attention on athlete- celebrities, scores, and championships; and religions focus attention on everlasting life and a personal relationship with the super natural, rather than here-and-now issues and the material conditions of people's lives.
Politics and sport:
When non-sport political issues affect sport • Example: 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics boycott USSR invaded Afghanistan in Dec. 1979 • U.S. led Olympic boycott; should convince other countries to do so as well • Often most salient (noticeable) when political issues conflict with "sport values" • This type of sport-politics connection is usually described as inappropriate
Match the statement/assumption to the current trend influencing sport today that it illustrates. Many people believe that every sport eventually has to get organized and have a regulated system of competitions.
Widespread commitment to organization and rationalization
Essentialists
assume that the universe is governed by unchanging laws and the meaning and truth are inherent in nature. In sport, Sport and Religion are qualitatively different and really have nothing to do with one another
Internet Media:
eMagazines, websites, etc.
High school athletes as a group:
generally have higher GPA's, more positive attitude toward school, lower rates of absenteeism, more interest in attending college, more years of college completed, greater career success, and better health than students who don't play school-sponsored sports.
Electronic Media
included radio, television, and film
Print Media
includes newspapers, magazines, fanzines, books, catalogues, event programs, and even trading cards- words and images on paper
Alleged benefits to schools of providing sport programs:
increase school spirit increase revenue (in reality, most schools lose money)
Media provides:
information, interpretation, entertainment, and opportunities for interactivity
Consequences of consuming media sports:
Active participation in sports: When children watch sports on television, some copy what they see if they have or can make opportunities to do so. Children are great imitators with active imaginations, so when they see and identify with athletes, they may create informal activities or seek to join youth sport programs to pursue television-inspired dreams. However, participation grounded in these dreams usually fades quickly, especially after children discover that it takes years of tedious, repetitious, and boring practice to compete successfully and reach the victory podium. Adults who are not regular participants use media sports as entertainment, whereas those who are avid participants are those ones who use media sports as a source of inspiration for their own participation Attendance at sporting events: Game attendance is related to many factors, including the consumption of media sports. Although consuming media sports has generally been positively related to attending live events, this may be changing with widespread use of new media and the existence of HDTV. Gambling on Sports: Sports gambling debts can have destructive consequences, but betting on sports is not generally seen as an important model or legal issue. However, gambling constitutes a threat to sports because it elevates the stakes associated with competitive outcomes and may lead people to seek an edge by convincing one or more athletes to control the score of the game. In this sense, consuming media sports does not influence gambling as much as gambling could influence media sport consumptio
Which of the following approaches is employed by high schools to fund sport programs when normal revenue sources (local and state taxes) are not sufficient? a. Seek corporate sponsorships b. Charge participants a fee to participate in sports c. Create booster clubs to raise funds for the athletic department
All the above
