5.2 The African American Struggle for Equality

The state party organizations argued that as private groups, rather than part of the state

government, they had no obligation to follow the Fifteenth Amendment's requirement not to deny the right to vote on the basis of race.

As long as nominally equal facilities were provided for both races, it was legal to require members of each race to use the facilities designated for them. Similarly, state and local

governments passed laws limiting neighborhoods in which Black and White people could live.

In some states, poorer, less-literate white voters feared being disenfranchised by the literacy and understanding tests. Some states introduced a loophole, known as the

grandfather clause, to allow less literate white people to vote. The grandfather clause exempted those who had been allowed to vote in that state prior to the Civil War and their descendants from literacy and understanding tests.

With Black people effectively disenfranchised, the restored southern state governments undermined

guarantees of equal treatment in the Fourteenth Amendment.

The Obama administration proposed new rules under the Fair Housing Act that were intended to lead to more integrated communities in the future;

however, the Trump administration repeatedly sought to weaken the Fair Housing Act, primarily through lack of enforcement of existing regulations.

Although schools for Black people had existed in some places, southern states had made it largely

illegal to teach enslaved people to read and write. At the beginning of the Civil War, only 5 percent of Black people could read and write, and most of them lived in the North.

While the public mood may have shifted toward greater concern about economic inequality in the United States, substantial policy changes to

immediately improve the economic standing of African Americans in general have not followed.

In this case, the Supreme Court unanimously overturned its decision

in Plessy v. Ferguson as it pertained to public education, stating that a separate but equal education was a logical impossibility.

In New York City in the late 1950s, a group of activist parents led by Mae Mallory protested the

inadequate schools in their neighborhood; a court ruled that New York was engaging in de facto segregation, and forced the city to institute policies that would provide more equitable access.

Progress in registering African American voters remained slow in many states despite

increased federal activity supporting it, so civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King, Jr. decided to draw the public eye to the area where the greatest resistance to voter registration drives were taking place.

Some, like Booker T. Washington, argued that acceptance of

inequality and segregation over the short term would allow African Americans to focus their efforts on improving their educational and social status until White people were forced to acknowledge them as equals.

Because state courts are government

institutions and the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the government from denying people equal protection of the law, the courts' enforcement of such covenants would be a violation of the amendment.

It is safe to say this ruling was controversial. While

integration of public schools took place without much incident in some areas of the South, particularly where there were few Black students, elsewhere, it was confrontational—or nonexistent.

Collectively, these discriminatory laws came to be known as

jim crow laws

In fact, the Court's majority stated that Scott had no legal right to sue for his freedom at all because Black people (whether free or enslaved) were not, and could not become, U.S. citizens. Thus, Scott

lacked the standing to even appear before the court. The Court also held that Congress lacked the power to decide whether slavery would be permitted in a territory that had been acquired after the Constitution was ratified. This decision had the effect of prohibiting the federal government from passing any laws that would limit the expansion of slavery into any part of the West.

CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE COURTS

CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE COURTS

CONTINUING CHALLENGES FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS

CONTINUING CHALLENGES FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS

The events at Selma galvanized support in Congress for a follow-up bill solely dealing with the right to vote. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 went beyond previous

laws by requiring greater oversight of elections by federal officials.

The second attempt was aborted because King feared it would

lead to a brutal confrontation with police and violate a court order from a federal judge who had been sympathetic to the movement in the past.

Perhaps the most famous of the tools of disenfranchisement were

literacy tests and understanding tests.

Legacies of the de jure segregation of the past remain in much of the United States. Many Black people still

live in predominantly Black neighborhoods where their ancestors were forced by laws and housing covenants to live.

Some were able to take advantage of educational opportunities after they were freed, but

many were not able to gain effective literacy.

While the Civil Rights Act of 1964 created opportunities for members of the Black

middle class to advance economically and socially, and to live in the same neighborhoods as the White middle class, their departure left many Black neighborhoods mired in poverty and without the strong community ties that existed during the era of legal segregation.

A few months later, in Little Rock, Arkansas, governor Orval Faubus resisted court-ordered integration and

mobilized National Guard troops to keep Black students out of Central High School.

Even had these tests been administered fairly and equitably, however,

most African Americans would have been at a huge disadvantage, because few had been taught to read.

Literacy tests, which had been used in the North since the 1850s to disqualify

naturalized European immigrants from voting, called on the prospective voter to demonstrate his (and later, her) ability to read a particular passage of text.

Political support for abolition was very much a minority stance in the United States at the time, although after the Revolution many of the

northern states followed the European example of fifty years prior in abolishing slavery.

Furthermore, they contended, voting for nominees to run for office was

not the same as electing those who would actually hold office. So they held primary elections to choose the Democratic nominee in which only White citizens were allowed to vote.

The revocation of voting rights, or disenfranchisement, took a number

of forms; not every southern state used the same methods, and some states used more than one, but they all disproportionately affected Black voter registration and turnout.

This construction allowed states to continue to decide the qualifications

of voters as long as those qualifications seemed to be race-neutral. Thus, while states could not deny Black people the right to vote on the basis of race, they could deny it on any number of arbitrary grounds such as literacy, landownership, affluence, or political knowledge.

while leaving obstacles in place for Black people who wanted to vote as well. Time limits were

often placed on these provisions because state legislators realized that they might quickly be declared unconstitutional, but they lasted long enough to allow illiterate White men to register to vote.

Although this ruling expanded

opportunities for professional and graduate education in areas such as law and medicine for African Americans by requiring states to provide institutions for them to attend, it nevertheless allowed segregated colleges and universities to continue to exist.

Police also appear, consciously or subconsciously, to engage in racial profiling: singling

out Black people (and Latino people) for greater attention than members of other racial and ethnic groups, as former FBI director James B. Comey and former New York police commissioner Bill Bratton have admitted.

The NAACP soon focused on a strategy of

overturning Jim Crow laws through the courts.

However, since voter registration officials had discretion to decide what text the voter was to read, they could give easy passages to voters they wanted to register (typically, white people) and more difficult

passages to those whose registration they wanted to deny (typically, Black people).

Southern states chose to establish colleges for Black

people rather than allow them into all-White state institutions.

Even those who live in the suburbs, once largely populated only by White

people, tend to live in suburbs that are mostly populated by Black people.

In states where the voting rights of poor white people were less of a concern, another tool for disenfranchisement was the

poll tax

Although these methods were usually sufficient to ensure that Black people were kept away from the

polls, some dedicated African Americans did manage to register to vote despite the obstacles placed in their way.

Relegation of minority residents to less desirable neighborhoods has the

practical effect of diminishing both generational wealth, and the tax base needed to build, maintain, and improve schools and other institutions that might hasten equality and integration.

To ensure their vote was largely meaningless, the White elites used their control of the Democratic Party to create the white primary:

primary elections in which only White people were allowed to vote.

In the postwar era of White flight, however, the Supreme Court had been evolving into a more

progressive force in the promotion and preservation of civil rights.

Literacy and understanding tests, and other devices used to discriminate against voters on the basis of race, were banned. The Voting Rights Act

proved to have much more immediate and dramatic effect than the laws that preceded it; what had been a fairly slow process of improving voter registration and participation was replaced by a rapid increase of Black voter registration rates—although White registration rates increased over this period as well.

Ultimately, of course, the issue was decided by the Civil War (1861-1865), with the southern states seceding to defend "states' rights," specifically, the

purported right to own human property, without federal interference.

Beyond these favorable court rulings, however, progress toward equality for African Americans

remained slow in the 1950s.

Today, a lack of well-paying jobs in many urban areas, combined with the poverty resulting from the legacies of slavery,

Jim Crow era terror, and persistent racism, has trapped many Black people in under-served neighborhoods with markedly lower opportunity and life expectancy.

Attempts to integrate public

schools through the use of busing—transporting students from one segregated neighborhood to another to achieve more racially balanced schools—were particularly unpopular and helped contribute to "White flight" from cities to the suburbs.

This White flight has created de facto segregation, a form of

segregation that results from the choices of individuals to live in segregated communities without government action or support.

Many White southerners who objected to

sending their children to school with Black students then established private academies that admitted only White students; many of these schools remain overwhelmingly White today.

RECONSTRUCTION

RECONSTRUCTION

In recognition of the fact that southern states would delay school integration for as long as possible, civil rights activists

urged the federal government to enforce the Supreme Court's decision. Bayard Rustin and A. Philip Randolph organized a Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom in Washington, DC, on May 17, 1957, in which approximately twenty-five thousand African Americans participated.

Not all African Americans in the civil rights movement were comfortable with gradual change. Instead of

using marches and demonstrations to change people's attitudes, calling for tougher civil rights laws, or suing for their rights in court, they favored more immediate action to prevent White oppression and protect their communities.

Many of these neighborhoods continue to suffer from high rates of crime and

violence

Although it stated "all persons held as slaves . . . henceforward shall be free," the proclamation

was limited in effect to the states that had rebelled.

Following the army's removal, political control of the South fell once again into the hands of White men, and violence

was used to discourage Black people from exercising the rights they had been granted.

Early cases brought by the NAACP dealt

with racial discrimination in higher education.

SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR

SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR

A constitutional amendment to this effect was passed by the House of Representatives in January of 1865,

after having already been approved by the Senate in April of 1864, and it was ratified in December of 1865 as the Thirteenth Amendment.

He has since been convicted and sentenced to life in prison for his actions. This event sent shockwaves through U.S. politics, as leaders tried to grapple with the

significance of the event. President Trump said that "good people existed on both sides of the clash," and later, for inciting a group of protesters to storm the Capitol after a rally of his in which he repeated the false claim that the election had been stolen from him.

More recently, banks have been fined for not lending to people of color to buy homes and start business at

rates commensurate with similarly situated prospective White borrowers.

Yet, like other wealthy landowners of his time, Jefferson also owned dozens of other human beings as his personal property. He recognized this contradiction, personally considered the institution of

slavery to be a "hideous blot" on the nation, and agreed to free those he held in bondage upon his death.

As the new United States expanded westward, however, the issue of slavery became harder to ignore and ignited much controversy. Many opponents of

slavery were willing to accept the institution if it remained largely confined to the South but did not want it to spread westward.

This rally included chants and racial

slurs against African Americans and Jews. Those rallying clashed with counter-protestors, one of whom died when an avowed Neo-Nazi deliberately drove his car into a group of peaceful protestors.

Other recent movements are more troubling, notably

the increased presence and influence of White nationalism throughout the country.

Some two million African American young people attend schools whose

student body is composed almost entirely of students of color.

The slow rate of progress led to frustration within the Black community. Newer, grassroots organizations

such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) challenged the NAACP's position as the leading civil rights organization and questioned its legal-focused strategy.

In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson made the radical statement that

"all men are created equal" and "are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

LEGISLATING CIVIL RIGHTS

LEGISLATING CIVIL RIGHTS

The organizations' leaders planned a march from

Selma to Montgomery in March 1965. Their first attempt to march was violently broken up by state police and sheriff's deputies

In the case of Shelley v. Kraemer (1948),

the Supreme Court held that while such covenants did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment because they consisted of agreements between private citizens, their provisions could not be enforced by courts.

Meanwhile, grassroots movements to improve neighborhoods and local schools have taken root in many Black

communities across America, and perhaps in those movements is the hope for greater future progress.

This was an annual per-person tax, typically one or two

dollars (on the order of $20 to $50 today), that a person had to pay to register to vote.

amendment. Thus, if a White family chose to sell its house to a Black family and the other homeowners in the neighborhood tried to sue the seller, the court would not hear the case. In 1967,

the Supreme Court struck down a Virginia law that prohibited interracial marriage in Loving v. Virginia

In 1962, Congress proposed what later became the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, which banned the poll tax in elections to federal (but not state or local) office;

the amendment went into effect after being ratified in early 1964.

The amendment's first section states,

"Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." In effect, this amendment outlawed slavery in the United States.

The Fifteenth Amendment stated that people could not be denied the right to vote based on

"race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

At the end of the Civil War, the South entered a period called Reconstruction

(1865-1877) during which state governments were reorganized before the rebellious states were allowed to be readmitted to the Union. As part of this process, the Republican Party pushed for a permanent end to slavery.

Such violence occurred in Charlottesville, Virginia, in August

2017, when various White supremacist groups and alt-right forces joined together in a "Unite the Right" rally

Restrictive real estate covenants bound White residents to not sell their houses to

African Americans and sometimes not to Chinese, Japanese, Mexicans, Filipinos, Jews, and other ethnic minorities.

Many groups in U.S. history have sought recognition as equal citizens. Although each group's efforts have been notable and important, arguably the greatest, longest, and most violent struggle remains that of

African Americans, whose dehumanization was even written into the text of the Constitution in the clause counting them as three fifths of a person. Their fight for freedom and equality provided the legal and moral foundation for others who sought recognition of their equality later on.

Understanding tests required the prospective voter to explain the meaning of a particular passage of text, often a provision of the U.S. Constitution, or answer a series of questions related to citizenship.

Again, since the official examining the prospective voter could decide which passage or questions to choose, the difficulty of the test might vary dramatically between African American and white applicants.

People could no longer be excluded from citizenship based solely on their race.

Although lack of political or judicial action rendered some of these provisions toothless, others were pivotal in the expansion of civil rights.

The landmark court decision of the judicial phase of the civil rights movement settled the

Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954.

Although the immediate effect of these provisions was quite profound, over time the Republicans in

Congress gradually lost interest in pursuing Reconstruction policies, and the Reconstruction ended with the end of military rule in the South and the withdrawal of the Union army in 1877.

As the campaign for civil rights continued and gained momentum, President John F. Kennedy called for

Congress to pass new civil rights legislation, which began to work its way through Congress in 1963. The resulting law (pushed heavily and then signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson after Kennedy's assassination) was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which had wide-ranging effects on U.S. society.

This movement espouses White supremacy and does not shrink from

the threat or use of violence to achieve it.

Men like Malcolm X, and groups like the Black Panthers were willing to use other means to achieve their goals

Faced with continual violence at the hands of police and acts of terrorism like the bombing of a Black church in Alabama that killed four girls, Malcolm X expressed significant distrust of White people.

The civil rights movement for African Americans did not end with the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965.

For the last fifty years, the African American community has faced challenges related to both past and current discrimination, and progress on both fronts remains slow, uneven, and often frustrating.

Direct action also took such forms as the sit-in campaigns to desegregate lunch counters that began in Greensboro, North Carolina, in 1960, and the 1961

Freedom Rides in which Black and White volunteers rode buses and trains through the South to enforce a 1946 Supreme Court decision that desegregated interstate transportation (Morgan v. Virginia).

Several southern states continued to require residents to pay poll taxes in order to vote in state elections until 1966 when, in the case of

Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, the Supreme Court declared that requiring payment of a poll tax in order to vote in an election at any level was unconstitutional.

That night, three of the marchers, White ministers from the north, were attacked and beaten with clubs by members of the

Ku Klux Klan; one of the victims died from his injuries. Televised images of the brutality against protesters and the death of a minister led to greater public sympathy for the cause. Eventually, a third march was successful in reaching the state capital of Montgomery.

To many people's way of thinking, however, the Supreme Court turned back the clocks when it gutted a core aspect of the Voting Rights Act in Shelby County v. Holder (2013).

No longer would states need federal approval to change laws and policies related to voting. Indeed, many states with a history of voter discrimination quickly resumed restrictive practices with laws requiring photo ID; limiting early voting, ballot drop-off locations, and hours; and making registering and waiting to vote more onerous. Some of the new restrictions are already being challenged in the courts.

Abolitionists, primarily in the

North, argued that slavery was immoral and contrary to the nation's values and demanded an end to it.

The Supreme Court upheld the separate but equal doctrine in 1896 in

Plessy v. Ferguson, inconsistent with the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause, and allowed segregation to continue.

In 1938, the Supreme Court essentially gave states a choice:

they could either integrate institutions of higher education, or they could establish an equivalent university or college for African Americans.

Once the nominee had been chosen, they might face token opposition from a

Republican or minor-party candidate in the general election, but since White voters had agreed beforehand to support whoever won the Democrats' primary, the outcome of the general election was a foregone conclusion.

Although at the beginning of the war, President Abraham Lincoln had been willing

to allow slavery to continue in the South to preserve the Union, he changed his policies regarding abolition over the course of the war. The first step was the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863

Civil rights pioneers adopted these measures in the 1955-1956 Montgomery bus boycott. After

Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a White person and was arrested, a group of Black women carried out a day-long boycott of Montgomery's public transit system. This boycott was then extended for over a year and overseen by union organizer E. D. Nixon. The effort desegregated public transportation in that city.

While such focused campaigns could be effective, they often had little impact in places where they were not replicated. In addition, some of the campaigns led to violence against both the campaigns' leaders and ordinary people;

Rosa Parks, a longtime NAACP member and graduate of the Highlander Folk School for civil rights activists, whose actions had begun the Montgomery boycott, received death threats, E. D. Nixon's home was bombed, and the Freedom Riders were attacked in Alabama.

By the turn of the twentieth century, the position of African Americans was quite bleak. Even outside the

South, racial inequality was a fact of everyday life. African American leaders and thinkers themselves disagreed on the right path forward.

In Virginia, state leaders employed a strategy of "massive resistance"

to school integration, which led to the closure of a large number of public schools across the state, some for years.

People who didn't want to vote didn't have to pay, but in several states the poll tax was cumulative, so if you decided

to vote you would have to pay not only the tax due for that year but any poll tax from previous years as well. Because formerly enslaved people were usually quite poor, they were less likely than White men to be able to pay poll taxes.

The spread of slavery into the West seemed inevitable, however, following the Supreme Court's 1857 ruling in the case Dred Scott v. Sandford

The justices rejected Scott's argument that though he had been born into slavery, his time spent in free states and territories where slavery had been banned by the federal government had made him a free man.

The court also rested its decision in part on social science studies suggesting that racial discrimination led to feelings of inferiority among Black children.

The only way to dispel this sense of inferiority was to end segregation and integrate public schools.

He sought to raise the self-esteem of Black people and

advocated for their separation from the United States through eventual emigration to Africa.

Enslaved people in states that had remained within the Union, such as Maryland

and Delaware were not set free, nor were they in parts of the Confederacy already occupied by the Union army. Although enslaved people in rebel states were freed by federal decree, the relatively small Union troop presence made it impossible to enforce their release from bondage.

They passed laws that excluded African Americans from juries and allowed the imprisonment

and forced labor of "idle" Black citizens. The laws also called for segregation of White and Black people in public places under the doctrine known as "separate but equal."

In general, Malcolm X rejected the mainstream civil right's movement's integration and assimilation approach,

and laid the foundation for the Black Power movement, which sought self-determination and independence for Black people. His position was attractive to many young African Americans, especially after Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated in 1968.

President Eisenhower then called up the Arkansas National Guard for federal duty (essentially taking the troops out of Faubus's hands)

and sent soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division to escort students to and from classes, as To avoid integration, Faubus closed four high schools in Little Rock the following school year.

However, to forge a political union that would stand the test of time, he

and the other founders—and later the framers of the Constitution—chose not to address the issue in any definitive way.

Because Black people were not allowed to vote prior to the Civil War, but most White men had been voting

at a time when there were no literacy tests, this loophole allowed most illiterate white people to vote

The SCLC and SNCC particularly focused their

attention on the city of Selma, Alabama, which had been the site of violent reactions against civil rights activities.

Not only did the act outlaw government discrimination and the unequal application of voting qualifications by race,

but it also, for the first time, outlawed segregation and other forms of discrimination by most businesses that were open to the public, including hotels, theaters, and restaurants that were not private clubs.

School and other segregation was and is hardly limited to the South. Many neighborhoods in northern

cities remain segregated by virtue of "red lining" districts where minorities were allowed and not allowed to live.

W. E. B. Du Bois, however, argued for a more

confrontational approach and in 1909 founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) as a rallying point for securing equality. White liberals dominated the organization in its early years, but Black people assumed control over its operations in the 1920s.

Perhaps its greatest series of legal successes

consisted of its efforts to challenge segregation in education.

Even with the same funding and equivalent facilities, a segregated school

could not have the same teachers or environment as the equivalent school for another race.

When incidents of real or perceived injustice arise, as recently occurred after a series of

deaths of Black people at the hands of police in Ferguson, Missouri; Staten Island, New York; Baltimore, Maryland; Louisville, Kentucky; and Minneapolis, Minnesota, many African Americans turn to the streets to protest because they feel abandoned or ignored by politicians of all races.

They feared the expansion of slavery would lead to the political dominance of the South over the North and would

deprive small farmers in the newly acquired western territories who could not afford to enslave others.

These newer groups tended to prefer more confrontational approaches, including the use of

direct action campaigns relying on marches and demonstrations. The strategies of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, or the refusal to obey an unjust law, had been effective in the campaign led by Mahatma Gandhi to liberate colonial India from British rule in the 1930s and 1940s.

Even though the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had a monumental impact over the long term, it did not end

efforts by many southern White people to maintain the White-dominated political power structure in the region.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s,

efforts to tackle these problems were stymied by large-scale public opposition, not just in the South but across the nation.

It outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, sex, or national origin by most employers, and it created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to monitor

employment discrimination claims and help enforce this provision of the law. The provisions that affected private businesses and employers were legally justified not by the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection of the laws but instead by Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce.

Although de jure segregation, segregation mandated by law, had

ended on paper, in practice, few efforts were made to integrate schools in most school districts with substantial Black student populations until the late 1960s.

The changes wrought by the Fourteenth Amendment were more extensive. In addition to introducing the

equal protection clause to the Constitution, this amendment also extended the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment to the states, required the states to respect the privileges or immunities of all citizens, and, for the first time, defined citizenship at the national and state levels.