A&P Exam 3

foramen magnum

"large hole" through which brain connects with spinal cord (you can find it if you flip skull upside down) (where medulla and spine meet)

lever

(bone): rigid bar that moves on a fixed point called fulcrum (joint)

dislocations

(bones forced out of ligament) usually can pop them back in usually keep it immobile after you pop it back in to allow for healing

thigh bone

(femur, longest bone, ¼ of person's height - femur and patella)

direct attachment

(fleshy): epimysium fused to periosteum of bone or perichondrium of cartilage

vertebral ribs

(floating) ribs (pairs 11-12) No attachment to sternum (only articulate with thoracic vertebrae, which holds them in place)

frontal sinuses

(fluid-filled cavities that give our faces shape (skin is not tight to our bones) located just lateral to glabella

thoracic vertebrae

(giraffe) T1 to T12 increase in size and articulate with ribs Unique characteristics: Body is heart shaped with two small demifacets that articulate with ribs T10 to T12 have only single facet, not two Vertebral foramen is circular Long, sharp spinous process points inferiorly Transverse processes have transverse costal facets that articulate with ribs (except T11, T12) Location of articular facets allows rotation of this area of spine

sprains

(ligaments reinforcing the joint are stretched or torn) (most common found in ankles, knee, lumbar region of spine) partially torn ligament will heal on its own, it just takes time complete tear requires surgery or immobilization depending on what is torn if you tear MCL (immobilization), but ALC (surgery - graft replaces ACL)

ligament number and location

(limited role) The more ligaments (can only stretch about 6% before it snaps), the stronger the joint capsules and ligaments unite bones and prevent excess or undesirable motion

human genome project

(maps every gene in human chromosomes) has determined human DNA sequence, which can aid in genetic research and genetic screening

Shape of articular surface

(minor role) Shallow surfaces less stable than ball-and-socket Shape determines which movements are possible

lumbar vertebrae

(moose) L1 to L5 "small of back"; receives most stress, so bodies are massive Other characteristics: Short, thick pedicles and laminae Flat, hatchet-shaped spinous processes point posteriorly Vertebral foramen is triangular Orientation of articular facets locks lumbar vertebrae together to prevent rotation

effort of lever system

(muscle contraction): force applied to lever to move resistance (load)

rickets

(osteomalacia of children) Results in bowed legs and other bone deformities because bones ends are enlarged and abnormally long causing pain in children Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium

epiphyses

(proximal/distal) ends of long bones that consist of compact bone externally and spongy bone internally

Excitability of Muscle Tissue

(responsiveness): ability to receive and respond to stimuli by changing the membrane potential

hypodermis

(superficial fascia) Subcutaneous layer deep to skin Not part of skin but shares some functions Mostly adipose tissue that provides cushioning -- absorbs shock and insulates Anchors skin to underlying structures: mostly muscles Provides cushioning to the epidermis and dermis

true ribs

(vertebrosternal) ribs (pairs 1-7) Attach directly to sternum by individual costal cartilages

Intramembranous ossification

- Bone develops from fibrous membrane - Bones are called membrane bones begins within fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells Forms flat skulls of the bones Forms facial bones and maniacal (jaw; moveable part of the skull) and clavicle Forms frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and clavicle bones

bone-lining cells

- Flat cells on bone surfaces believed to also help maintain matrix (along with osteocytes) - On external bone surface, lining cells are called periosteal cells - On internal surfaces, they are called endosteal cells - Think about periosteum and endosteum

phalanges

-14 bones of toes -Digit I (hallux, great toe) has two bones: no middle phalanx -Digits II to V have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx

spongy bone characteristics

-Appears poorly organized but is actually organized along lines of stress to help bone resist any stress -Trabeculae (protect and support red bone marrow), like cables on a suspension bridge, confer strength to bone No osteons are present, but trabeculae do contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients Always found in the interior bone protected by compact bone Weighs less than compact bone

strength of bone and bones after death

-Bone is half as strong as steel in resisting compression and as strong as steel in resisting tension -Lasts long after death (why we can look at them in the lab) because of mineral composition -Can reveal information about ancient people (size and shape based on how long and short the bone is and also we can look at the bones to show any ailments that were present in them)

osteoblasts

-Bone-forming cells that secrete unmineralized bone matrix called osteoid Bone building cells Osteoid is made up of collagen and calcium-binding proteins Secretes collagen (needed to build the ECM of bone tissue) makes up 90% of bone protein Initiate calcification As the osteoblasts surround themselves with the extracellular matrix, they become trapped in their secretions and they become osteocytes (mature bone cells)

cervical vertebrae

-C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae -C3 to C7 share following features: Oval-shaped body Exception: C7 spinous processes is not split (bifid) (C7, C11, C12 - as we move down spinal cord, later Cs start to take on the spinous process of other vertebrae) Large, triangular vertebral foramen Transverse foramen found in each transverse process for artery passageways

Modified apocrine glands

-Ceruminous glands -Mammary glands

naming muscles based on number of origins

-Example: biceps (two origins) and triceps (three origins), quadriceps (4 origins)

naming skeletal muscles based on direction of muscle fibers or fasciles

-Example: rectus (fibers run straight), transversus (fibers run at right angles), and oblique (fibers run at angles to imaginary defined axis)

metatarsals

-Five metatarsal bones (I to V from hallux to little toe) -Enlarged head of metatarsal I forms "ball of the foot"

stratum lucidum (clear layer)

-Found only in thick skin (palms of our hands and soles of our feed) -Clear layer (lucidum) -Consists of thin, translucent band of two to three rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes -Lies superficial to the stratum granulosum

bursitis

-Inflammation of bursa, usually caused by blow or friction -Treated with rest and ice and, if severe, anti-inflammatory drugs (motrin, advil, tylenol)

tendonitis

-Inflammation of tendon sheaths, typically caused by overuse -Symptoms and treatment similar to those of bursitis (rest, ice, anti-inflammatory drugs if appropriate)

risk factors for osteoporosis

-Most often aged, it is age related ⇒ usually postmenopausal women Affects 30% of women aged 60-70 years and 70% by age 80 30% of Caucasian women will fracture bone because of osteoporosis Estrogen plays a role in bone density, so when levels drop at menopause, women run higher risk -Men are less prone due to protection by the effects of testosterone Petite body form Insufficient exercise to stress bones Diet poor in calcium and protein Smoking Hormone-related conditions Hyperthyroidism Low blood levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone Diabetes mellitus -Immobility -Males with prostate cancer taking androgen-suppressing drugs

myofilaments

-Orderly arrangement of actin and myosin myofilaments within sarcomere (basic functional unit of the myofibril) -actin and myosin involved in contraction -Z disc separates the sacromere from one another

preventing osteoporosis

-Plenty of calcium in diet in early childhood/adulthood -Reduce consumption of carbonated beverages and alcohol Leach minerals from bone, so decrease bone density -Plenty of weight-bearing exercise (running, lifting weights, playing tennis) Increases bone mass above normal for buffer against age-related bone loss

aerobic respiration

-Produces 95% of ATP during rest and light-to-moderate exercise Slower than anaerobic pathway -Consists of series of chemical rxns that occur in mitochondria and require O Breaks glucose into CO2, H2O, and large amount ATP (32 can be produced) -Fuels used include glucose from glycogen stored in muscle fiber, then bloodborne glucose, and free fatty acids Fatty acids are main fuel after 30 minutes of exercise

additional functions of muscles

-Protect organs, form valves, control pupil size, cause "goosebumps" (errector pilli muscle in hair)

how many pairs of sex chromosomes are there?

1 pair

processes in sphenoid bone

1) -Greater wings 2) -Lesser wings 3) -Pterygoid

formina of sphenoid

1) -Optic canals 2) -Superior orbital fissure: cranial nerve passage 3) -Foramen rotundum and foramen ovale 4) -Foramen spinosum

axial skeleton functions

1) Form longitudinal axis of body 2) Support head, neck, and trunk 3) Protect brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs

4 principle situations for bone formation

1) Initial formation in embryo and fetus (mostly hyaline cartilage at this point) 2) Growth during infancy, childhood and adolescence until adult size reached (hyaline cartilage → rigid bone) 3) Remodeling of bone If bone needs to be replaced for some reason 4) Repair of fractures throughout life If we break a bone, the dead cells need to be cleaned up and new cells need to replace them

4 sutures of the skull

1) coronal suture 2) sagittal suture 3) lambdoid suture 4) squamous (squamosal) sutures

what two sets of bones compose the skull?

1) cranial bones (cranium) 2) facial bones

types of bones

1) long bones 2) short bones 3) flat bones 4) irregular bones

three parts of the hair shaft

1) medulla 2) cortex 3) cuticle

4 steps that must occur for skeletal muscle to contract and where they occur

1) nerve stimulation 2) action potential must be generated in sacrolemma 3) action potential must be propagated along sacrolemma 4) intracellular Ca2+ levels must rise breifly Steps 1 and 2 occur at neuromuscular junction Steps 3 and 4 link electrical signals to contraction, so referred to as excitation-contraction coupling

4 factors that affect the force of contraction which depends on the number of cross bridges attached

1) number of muscle fibers stimulated 2) relative size of fibers 3) frequency of stimulation 4) degree of muscle stretch

major regions of temporal bones

1) squamous 2) tympanic 3) petrous

5 major regions of vertebral column and the way to remember the number of vetrebrae they all have

1. Cervical: 7 vertebrae 2. Thoracic: 12 vertebrae 3. Lumbar: 5 vertebrae **meal times: 7 am (cervical), 12 noon (thoracic), and 5 pm (lumbar)**

3 components of lever system

1. Lever 2. Effort 3. Load

4 steps of intramembranous ossification

1. Ossification centers are formed when mesenchymal cells cluster and become osteoblasts 2. Osteoid is secreted, then calcified 3. Woven bone is formed when osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, resulting in trabeculae Outer layer of woven bone forms periosteum 4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, and red marrow appears

functions of bones

1. Support 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Mineral and growth factor storage Calcium and phosphorus (contribute to bone strength), and growth factors reservoir Body tissue makes up approx. 18% of the weight of the human body Bone tissue stores approx. 99% of the human body's calcium 5. Blood cell formation 6. Triglyceride (fat) storage 7. Hormone production

3 phases of muscle twitch

1. latent period 2. period of contraction 3. period of relaxation

how many bones are in the appendicular skeleton?

106

diameter of muscle fibers compared to the average body cell's diameter

10x larger 10-100 micrometers

how many ribs are there?

12 pairs

Diploid (2n)

2 sets of chromosomes 46 chromosomes

what percentage of body mass does the skeleton account for?

20%

stratum corneum (horny layer)

20-30 rows of flat, anucleated, keratinized dead cells Accounts for three-quarters of epidermal thickness Though dead, cells still function to: Protect deeper cells from the environment Prevent water loss Protect from abrasion and penetration Act as a barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults Body's first lines of defense in our immune system Regeneration occurs about every 24 hours Cells change by going through apoptosis (controlled cell death) -Dead cells slough off as dandruff and dander -Humans can shed ~50,000 cells every minute

how many bones are in the body?

206 bones

how many pairs of autosomes are there?

22 pairs

how many bones are vertebrae, and how many are individual and fused?

26 irregular bones called vertebrae in 5 major regions 24 individual bones and 2 fused ones (sacrum and coccyx)

how long are the regions of the vertebral column

28 inches long

how many bones form the upper limb?

30 bones

how many processes do vertebrae have?

7

tarsus (tarsal)

7 tarsal bones form posterior half Body weight carried primarily by talus and calcaneus (heel)

hand bones

8 carpal bones in the wrist 5 metacarpal bones in the palm 14 phalanges in the fingers

how many bones are in the axial skeleton?

80

how many openings are in the skull?

85

arthritis

>100 different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage joints Most widespread crippling disease in the U.S. Symptoms: pain, stiffness, and swelling of joint - Acute forms: caused by bacteria, treated with antibiotics - Chronic forms: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis

what gives the striated appearence of myofibrils

A and I bands together

do muscles push or pull?

ALWAYS PULL

energy needed for contraction

ATP supplies the energy needed for the muscle fiber to: Move and detach cross bridges Pump calcium back into SR Pump Na+ out of and K+ back into cell after excitation-contraction coupling Available stores of ATP depleted in 4-6 seconds ATP is the only source of energy for contractile activities; therefore it must be regenerated quickly

ribs attachment ways

All attach posteriorly to bodies and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae

structure of a typical long bone

All long bones have a shaft (diaphysis), bone ends (epiphyses), and membranes Diaphysis: tubular shaft that forms long axis of bone Consists of thick compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that is filled with yellow marrow (due to adipose/fat) in adults Epiphyses Articular cartilage Between diaphysis and epiphysis is epiphyseal line Remnant of childhood epiphyseal plate where bone growth occurs when growth stops

pelvic girdle

Also called hip girdle; is formed by 2 hip bones (coxal bones, or os coxae) and sacrum -Attach lower limbs to axial skeleton with strong ligaments -Transmit weight of upper body to lower limbs -Support pelvic organs (reproductive, bladder, and rectum are all parts of the pelvic cavity) Less mobility but more stability than shoulder joint -Ilium, ischium, and pubis xpands during birth; connects hip bones at bottom -Deep socket, acetabulum, formed at point of fusion receives head of femur

compact bone characteristics

Also called lamellar bone Consists of: Osteon (Haversian system) Run parallel to the length of the diaphysis Lamellae and lacunae Canals and canaliculi (how does one osteon communicate with another) Interstitial and circumferential lamellae strongest bone of bone tissues Provides protection, support, and resists the stresses produced by weight and movement Repeating units of osteons or perversion canal system

sudoriferous glands

Also called sweat glands All skin surfaces except nipples and parts of external genitalia contain sweat glands About 3 million per person Two main types Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands Apocrine sweat glands Contain myoepithelial cells Contract upon nervous system stimulation to force sweat into ducts

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)

Attaches to anterior tibia Prevents forward sliding of tibia and stops hyperextension of knee

Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)

Attaches to posterior tibia Prevents backward sliding of tibia and forward sliding of femur

can DNA sequence be the same or different?

BOTH same and different, it depends

hip (coxal) joint

Ball-and-socket joint Large, spherical head of the femur articulates with deep cup-shaped acetabulum ⇒ hip dislocations are rare Good range of motion, but limited by the deep socket Acetabular labrum: rim of fibrocartilage that enhances depth of socket (hip dislocations are rare)

Gregor Mendel

Basic principles of genetics were proposed in mid-1800s studied inherited characteristics that were either all or none Human traits are much more complex than that father of modern genetics

polygene inheritance

Basically follows Mendelian genetics Traits that are result of actions of several gene pairs at different locations The more genes are involved in a trait, the more phenotypic variation will be seen Results in continuous (quantitative) phenotypic variation between two extremes -Examples: skin color, eye color, height, intelligence, metabolic rate -Example of polygenic inheritance for skin color Alleles for dark skin (ABC) are incompletely dominant over those for light skin (abc) First-generation offspring of AABBCC × aabbcc cross would result in all heterozygotes with intermediate pigmentation Second-generation offspring would have even wider variation in possible pigmentations, which, if charted, would lead to a bell-shaped curve

Endochondrial ossification

Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage Bones are called cartilage (endochondrial) bones Forms most of the skeleton

chemical composition of bone

Bone is made up of both organic (contain carbon) and inorganic (usually don't contain carbon (with the exception of CO2) components

skeletal system

Bone=Organ (made of several different tissues working together) Due to composition bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons all make up the skeletal system as we develop embryonically, most of the bone we think of is cartilage, whereas as we start to grow it is replaced by hard skeletal bone that we know

bone structure

Bones are organs because they contain different types of tissues Bone (osseous) tissue predominates, but a bone also has nervous tissue, cartilage, fibrous connective tissue, muscle cells, and epithelial cells in its blood vessels Three levels of structure Gross Microscopic Chemical

fibrous joints

Bones joined by dense fibrous (dense irregular) connective tissue No joint cavity (no synovial cavity) Most are immovable Depends on length of connective tissue fibers based on how much mobility these types of joints have Two types of fibrous joints Sutures Syndesmoses

appendicular skeleton

Bones of upper and lower limbs Girdles attaching limbs to axial skeleton

nasal bones (2)

Bones that form the bridge of the nose

symphyses

Bones united by fibrocartilage (unites bone in joint; allows a limited amount of movement in the joint) or hyaline cartilage (acts as the articular cartilage on the bony surface) amphiarthrotic (slightly moveable) ex: intervertebral joint and pubic symphysis

synchronodroses

Bones united by hyaline cartilage bar or plate of hyaline cartilage that unites the bones immovable ⇒ sinarthrotic ex: epiphyseal/growth plate (connects epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone) (as the growing bone, the epithesial plate gets smaller, hyaline cartilage —> bone, line is left over)

period of relaxation

Ca2+ reentry into SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum) Tension declines to zero

cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in heart (epithelial tissue lines heart chamber walls (4)) Heart beats every .8 seconds Makes up bulk of heart walls Striated Involuntary: cannot be controlled consciously Contracts at steady rate due to heart's own pacemaker, but nervous system can increase rate (ex: flee — nervous system will alert heart to beat so you can run) Uninucleated intercalated discs (modifications cardiac tissue has made) allows heart to work as a pump cardiac muscle tissue branches Keywords for cardiac muscle: cardiac, striated, and involuntary

lower limb

Carries entire weight of erect body Subjected to exceptional forces during jumping or running

cartilaginous joints

Cartilaginous Joints Bones united by cartilage Like fibrous joints, have no joint (sinovial) cavity Not highly movable (little to none) bones connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage Two types Synchondroses Symphyses

lyme disease

Caused by bacteria transmitted by tick bites (deer) -Symptoms: skin rash, flu-like symptoms, and foggy thinking -May lead to joint pain and arthritis if not treated or if not treated soon enough -Treatment Long course of antibiotics

contraction causes what? - to muscle fiber length, I bands, Z discs, H zones, and bands

Causes shortening of muscle fiber Z discs are pulled toward M line I bands shorten Z discs become closer H zones disappear A bands move closer to each other

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

Chorionic villi sampled at 8-10 weeks; karyotyped for genetic abnormalities; testing can be done earlier than amniocentesis Suctions off bits of the chorionic villi from placenta for examination Tube is inserted in the vagina and cervical canal, guided by ultrasound, to remove chorionic villi Sent out for karyotyping -- looks at abnormalities of chromosomes Generally an immediate result after you get karyotype (few days)

rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

Chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause No known cause Debilitating Immune system attacks own cells (body thinks your cells are foreign so immune system attacks it) Usually arises between ages 40 and 50, but may occur at any age; affects three times as many women as men - Signs and symptoms include joint pain and swelling (usually bilateral - 2 different areas), anemia (not enough Fe produced —> not enough O), osteoporosis, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular problems

common knee injuries

Collateral ligaments Cruciate ligaments Cartilages (menisci)

irregular bones

Complicated shapes Vertebrae and hip bones Oddly shaped (doesn't fall into any other category) vertebral bones (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae)

thoracic cage

Composed of: Thoracic vertebrae posteriorly Sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly Ribs laterally Functions Protects vital organs of thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs Provides attachment sites for muscles of neck, back, chest, and shoulders

Structure of short, irregular, and flat bones

Consist of thin plates of spongy bone (diploe) covered by compact bone

hair

Consists of dead keratinized cells None located on palms, soles, lips, nipples, and portions of external genitalia Genetic and hormonal influences largely determine the thickness and pattern of hair distribution Functions: Warn of insects on skin (due to the touch receptors associated with the hair follicles, the slightest movement is sensed) Hair on head protects Protect from physical trauma Protect from heat loss Shield skin from sunlight

synovial joints

Contain synovial cavity between the two bones Made up of hyaline cartilage (which covers the bones at the synovial joint ⇒ articular cartilage) important: prevents the crushing of bone ends Most of the joints in our body are synovial Bones separated by fluid-filled joint cavity All are diarthrotic Include almost all limb joints Characteristics of synovial joints Have six general features Have bursae and tendon sheaths associated with them Stability is influenced by three factors Allow several types of movements Classified into six different types

muscle tension

Contraction produces muscle tension, the force exerted on load or object to be moved

short bones

Cube-shaped bones (in wrist and ankle - carpals and tarsals) Sesamoid bones form within tendons (example: patella) Vary in size and number in different individuals

stratum basale (basal layer)

Deepest of all epidermal layers (base layer) Layer that is firmly attached to dermis - basement membrane -Consists of a single row of (columnar or cuboidal keratinocytes) stem cells that actively divide (mitotic), producing two daughter cells each time One daughter cell journeys from basal layer to surface, taking 25-45 days to reach surface -Cell dies as it moves toward surface Other daughter cell remains in stratum basale as stem cell to maintain mitosis -Layer also known as stratum germinativum because of active mitosis -10-25% of layer also composed of melanocytes

dermis characteristics

Deepest part of our skin made of dense irregular connective tissue which makes it flexible Contains collagen and elastic fibers (allowing for great tensile strength -- ability to resist longitudinal stresses) Elastic fibers stretch and recoil like a rubber band, much like how the dermis acts Thicker (not more layers) on the palms of our hands and the soles of our feet Dermis is dry and is treated from animals (snake skin) Strong, flexible connective tissue Cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells Fibers in matrix bind body together (collagen and elastic) Makes up the "hide" that is used to make leather Contains nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels Contains epidermal hair follicles, oil glands, and sweat glands Two layers: Papillary and Reticular

gouty arthritis

Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by inflammation More common in men Typically affects joint at base of great toe In untreated gouty arthritis, bone ends fuse and immobilize joint Treatment: drugs, plenty of water, avoidance of alcohol and foods high in purines (such as liver, kidneys, and sardines)

osteoclasts

Derived from same hematopoietic stem cells that become macrophages (ones that start off as monocytes which leave the blood cells to destroy invaders (bacteria and viruses)) Giant, multinucleate cells function in bone resorption (breakdown of bone) When active, cells are located in depressions called resorption bays bone resorption: breakdown of bones' ECM; part of regular maintenance of bone Cells have ruffled borders that serve to increase surface area for enzyme degradation of bone Also helps seal off area from surrounding matrix

lactic acid in terms of anaerobic respiration

Diffuses into bloodstream Used as fuel by liver, kidneys, and heart Converted back into pyruvic acid or glucose by liver

apocrine sweat glands

Don't function until puberty Confined to axillary (armpit) and anogenital (genital) areas Secrete viscous milky or yellowish sweat that contains fatty substances and proteins Bacteria break down sweat, leading to body odor Larger than eccrine sweat glands with ducts emptying into hair follicles Begin functioning at puberty Function unknown but may act as sexual scent gland

postnatal bone growth

During infancy, childhood, and adolescence Long bones grow lengthwise by interstitial (longitudinal) growth of epiphyseal plate Men stop growing at about the age of 21 Women stop growing at about the age of 18 Bones increase thickness through appositional growth Bones stop growing during adolescence -Some facial bones continue to grow slowly through life

nerve and blood supply

Each muscle receives one nerve, artery, and vein(s) Consciously controlled skeletal muscle has nerves supplying every fiber to control activity Contracting muscle fibers require huge amounts of oxygen and nutrients -Also need waste products removed quickly -skeletal muscles have own blood supply since these fibers uses large amounts of E — requires an almost continuous delivery of O and nutrients -skeletal muscles give off large amounts of metabolic waste (removed via veins - reason why we have so many veins)

sexual sources of genetic variation

Each person is genetically unique as a result of three events -Independent assortment of chromosomes -Crossover of homologues -Random fertilization of eggs by sperm

connective tissue sheaths

Each skeletal muscle, as well as each muscle fiber, is covered in connective tissue Support cells and reinforce whole muscle Sheaths from external to internal: epimysium perimysium endomysium

cranial bones (cranium)

Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity Provide sites of attachment for head and neck muscles (ex: sternocleidomastoid - attaches to mastoid process of sternum) -Skull has NO MOVEABLE PARTS (only one is mandible)

endosteum

Endo means in Delicate connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surface Thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity (contains yellow bone marrow) Covers trabeculae of spongy bone Lines canals that pass through compact bone Like periosteum, contains osteogenic cells that can differentiate into other bone cells

friction ridges

Enhance gripping ability (fingers and feet) Genetically determined (why we all have our own unique fingerprints which are formed in the dermis) Contribute to sense of touch Sweat pores in ridges leave unique fingerprint pattern

cells of the epidermis

Epidermis consists mostly of keratinized (made of keratinocytes) stratified squamous epithelium Four cell types found in epidermis: 1) keratinocytes 2) melanocytes 3) Dendritic (Langerhans) 4) Tactile (Merkel)

skin biological barriers

Epidermis contains phagocytic cells Dendritic cells of epidermis engulf foreign antigens (invaders) and present to white blood cells, activating the immune response -Dermis contains macrophages Macrophages also activate immune system by presenting foreign antigens to white blood cells -DNA can absorb harmful UV radiation, converting it to harmless heat

layers of the epidermis

Epidermis is made up of four or five distinct layers depending on where the skin is located Thick skin contains five layers (strata) and is found in high-abrasion areas (hands, feet) Thin skin contains only four strata (like eyelids) Five layers of skin

naming skeletal muscles based on size

Example: maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), longus (long), brevis - short

paget's disease

Excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption cause bone to be made fast and poorly Called Pagetic bone Very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization Usually occurs in spine, pelvis, femur, and skull Extremely painful disease (especially if it affects the skull) Rarely occurs before age 40 Affects about 3% of North American elderly Cause unknown: possibly viral Treatment includes calcitonin and bisphosphonates

articular (joint) capsule of synovial joint

External fibrous layer: dense irregular connective tissue that strengthens the joint Inner synovial membrane: loose connective tissue that makes synovial fluid that secretes synovial fluid

homeostatic imbalance - stretch marks

Extreme stretching of skin can cause dermal tears, leaving silvery white scars called striae (internal damage to that layer) Also known as "stretch marks" (found in pregnancy and people who are grossly obese) (skin gets stretched so quickly, the skin can't produce new cells quick enough) Acute, short-term traumas to skin can cause blisters, fluid-filled pockets that separate epidermal and dermal layers (blister is body's way of protecting the skin's dermal layer)

overview of skull geography

Facial bones form anterior aspect, with cranium forming the rest of skull Cranium is divided into a vault and a base -Brain enclosed by cranium vault -Area referred to as cranialcavity

how many bones are in the facial skeleton

Facial skeleton is made up of 14 bones, 12 of which are paired (exceptions to this rule are the mandible and vomer which are single)

muscle fasciles

Fascicles determine muscle's range of motion and its power - depends more on the total number of muscle fibers in the muscle Amount of movement when muscle shortens Fascicles determine muscle's power Long fibers more parallel to long axis shorten more; usually not powerful Power depends more on the total number of muscle fibers in the muscle Bipennate, multipennate muscles have most fibers → shorten little but are powerful

bone - triglyceride (fat) storage

Fat, used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities Adipose cells store triglycerides in the yellow bone marrow (giving it the yellow color)

types of cells of bone tissue

Five major cell types, each of which is a specialized form of the same basic cell type 1) Osteogenic cells (stem cells) 2) Osteoblasts (provides bone growth) 3) Osteocytes (bone cells) 4) Bone-lining cells 5) Osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells)

skin physical barrier

Flat, dead, keratinized cells (bricks) of stratum corneum (brick and mortar), surrounded by glycolipids (mortar), block most water and water-soluble substances Some chemicals have limited penetration of skin Lipid-soluble substances (O2, CO2, vitamins, steroids (ex: estrogen), etc.) Plant oleoresins (e.g., poison ivy, poison oak) Organic solvents (acetone, paint thinner -- dissolve cell lipids) Salts of heavy metals (lead (anemia and neurological defects - used to be in paint, Thomas the Train) and mercury) Some drugs (nitroglycerin - sea sickness medicine) Drug agents (enhancers that help carry other drugs across skin)

bone - support

For body and soft organs Serves as a structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues and providing attachment points for tendons of most skeletal muscles

facial bones

Form framework of face Contain cavities for special sense organs for sight, taste, and smell (eyes, nose, mouth) Provide openings for air and food passage Secure teeth (teeth anchored into maxilla or mandible) Anchor facial muscles used for facial expression (ex: smiling, laughing, crying) -Most skull bones are flat and firmly locked together (except for mandible)

endochondral ossification

Forms essentially all bones inferior to base of skull, except clavicles Begins late in month 2 of development Uses previously formed hyaline cartilage models Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification Begins at primary ossification center in center of shaft Blood vessels infiltrate perichondrium, converting it to periosteum Mesenchymal cells specialize into osteoblasts

multiple-allele inheritance

Genes that exhibit more than two allele forms Example: ABO blood groups have three alleles: I A, I B, and i -The combination of two out of the three alleles determine a person's ABO blood type I A and I B are codominant: both are expressed if present (type AB) i is recessive type O -Heterozygotes express dominant A or B So a person with OA is type A blood (iI^A) A person with OB is type B blood (iI^B) -Homozygote person with ii results in OO, so type O blood

epiphyseal plate

Growth plate, made of cartilage, gradually ossifies

structure of hair

Hairs (also called pili): flexible strands of dead, keratinized cells Epidermal cells are bound together by extracellular proteins produced by hair follicles Contains hard keratin, not like soft keratin found in skin Hard keratin is tougher and more durable, and cells do not flake off Regions: -Shaft -Root

bone cell formation

Hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets formed in hematopoiesis

incomplete dominance

Heterozygous individuals have intermediate phenotype (between dominant and recessive traits): they may have symptoms, but usually not as intense as those experienced by homozygous individuals Example: sickling gene

elbow joint

Hinge joint — Allows for flexion and extension only Humerus articulates with radius and ulna Anular ligament surrounds head of radius Two capsular ligaments restrict side-to-side movement Ulnar collateral ligament (located medially) Radial collateral ligament (located laterally)

inorganic components of bone

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) Makeup 65% of bone by mass Consist mainly of tiny calcium phosphate crystals in and around collagen fibers Crystals are responsible for the hardness and resistance to compression

degree of muscle stretch

Ideal length-tension relationship When the muscle is slightly stretched and the thin and thick filaments overlap optimally -allows sliding along almost the entire length of the of the thin filaments (actin) If muscle is stretched too much: Myosin heads have nothing to attach to (no site on actin) and can't generate tension If sarcomeres are so compressed that actin filaments interfere with each other No further shortening can occur

insensible perspiration

If body temperature rises, dilation of dermal vessels can increase sweat gland activity to produce 12 L (3 gallons) of noticeable sweat

bone disorders

Imbalances between bone deposit and bone resorption underlie nearly every disease that affects the human skeleton Three major bone diseases: Osteomalacia and rickets Osteoporosis Paget's disease

Environmental Factors' Effect on Gene Expression

In many situations, environment can override or influence gene expression Maternal factors (example: drugs, pathogens) can alter normal gene expression during embryonic development -Example: thalidomide (drug given to alleviate morning sickness, however, it caused the children to have flipper-like appendages since the drug directed the development of their genes) Embryos developed phenotypes not directed by their genes, but by the drug Example of phenocopies: Environmental factors can also influence gene expression after birth -Poor nutrition can affect brain growth, body development, and height -Childhood hormonal deficits can lead to abnormal skeletal growth and proportions (usually extremely small) -creatinism

organic components of bone

Includes osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone-lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteoid

angular movements

Increase or decrease angle between two bones Movement along any plane Angular movements include: Flexion Extension Hyperextension -ABduction -ADduction -Circumduction

dominant-recessive inheritance

Inheritance involves an interaction between dominant and recessive alleles

sex-linked inheritance

Inherited traits determined by genes on sex chromosomes X chromosomes bear over 1400 genes (many code for proteins important for brain function), and Y chromosomes carry about 200 genes (based on size difference) Few regions can participate in crossover -Genes found only on X chromosome are called X-linked genes -X-linked recessive alleles are always expressed in males and are never masked or damped because there is no Y counterpart (colorblind men) Females must have recessive alleles on both X chromosomes in order to express an X-linked condition X-linked recessive conditions are passed from mothers to sons -Example: hemophilia (blood clotting issue) or red-green color blindness Can also be passed from mothers to daughters, but females require two alleles to express

occipital bone

Internally, it forms most of skull's posterior wall and posterior cranial fossa Articulates with parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones Foramen magnum Flanked by pair of occipital condyles that articulate with 1st vertebra

circumduction movement

Involves flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction of limb distal end moves, while proximal end does not

Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ)

Jaw joint is a modified hinge joint (combo of hinge and plain) Mandibular condyle articulates with temporal bone Posterior temporal bone forms mandibular fossa, while anterior portion forms articular tubercle Articular capsule thickens into strong lateral ligament Two types of movement - Hinge: depression and elevation of mandible - Gliding: side-to-side (lateral excursion) grinding of teeth Most easily dislocated joint in the body Due to shallow socket of the joint Almost always occurs anteriorly, causing the mouth to remain open Physician will need to push the mandible back into place

syndesmosis

Joint held together by a ligament. Fibrous tissue can vary in length, but is longer than in sutures. Allows limited movement.

stuture

Joint held together with very short, interconnecting fibers, and bone edges interlock. Found only in the skull.

sutures

Joints are called sutures -Have a serrated, saw-tooth appearance

homeostatic imbalance - knee injuries

Knee absorbs great amount of vertical force (equal to about 7x the person's body weight); however, it is vulnerable to horizontal blows Football and hockey players vulnerable to horizontal blows Lateral blows to extended knee can result in tears in tibial collateral ligament, medial meniscus, and anterior cruciate ligament Injuries affecting just ACL are common in runners who change direction fairly quickly, twisting ACL Surgery usually needed for repairs

increase of gene pool on probability

Larger number of offspring would increase likelihood of ratios conforming to predicted values The more offspring, the bigger the gene pool and the inheritance pattern will be more likely to be followed

lateral joint and medial joints of the knee

Lateral and medial joints together are called tibiofemoral joint Joint between femoral condyles and lateral and medial menisci of tibia Helps to prevent anterior-posterior displacement Hinge joint that allows flexion, extension, and some rotation when knee partly flexed

bone - movement

Levers for muscle action Our bones are rigid, without skeletal attachments, bones would not move Upon skeletal muscle contraction, bones are pulled to produce a movement

locus

Location of a gene on a chromosome alleles are at the same locus on homologous chromosomes

axial skeleton

Long axis of body Skull, vertebral column, rib cage

long bones

Longer than they are wide Limb bones long with a shaft with a head at one end do not get confused with the SIZE, length does NOT equal size fingers, toes, humorous, fibula

vertebral column

Main axial support for our body AKA spine or spinal column General Characteristics Extends from skull to pelvis Also called spine or spinal column Functions to transmit weight of trunk to lower limbs, surround and protect delicate spinal cord, provide attachment points for ribs and muscles Flexible curved structure

integumentary system

Main source of protection for our body Made up of a complex set of organs (below) Skin Hair Nails Sweat glands Sebaceous (oil) glands

prime mover (agonist)

Major responsibility for producing specific movement

reticular layer

Makes up ~80% of dermal thickness Consists of coarse, dense fibrous connective tissue Many elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties (to allow the dermis to have some movement) Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency Bind water, keeping our skin hydrated Cutaneous plexus: network of blood vessels between reticular layer and hypodermis Extracellular matrix contains pockets of adipose cells and collagen fibers

papillary layer

Makes up ⅕ of the thickness of the dermis Superficial layer of areolar connective tissue consisting of loose, interlacing thin collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels Loose fibers allow phagocytes to patrol for microorganisms Surface area of papillary layer is greatly increased by the dermal papillae Dermal papillae

mastoid and styloid processes

Mastoid (triangular region) and styloid (stick that hangs down) processes: areas for attachment of several neck and tongue muscles

osteocytes

Mature bone cells in lacunae that no longer divide Maintain bone matrix and act as stress or strain sensors Respond to mechanical stimuli such as increased force on bone or weightlessness Communicate information to osteoblasts and osteoclasts (cells that destroy bone) so bone remodeling can occur

homeostatic imbalance - carpal tunnel

Median nerve and tendons travel through carpal tunnel Tunnel formed by ligaments through wrist Carpal tunnel syndrome can occur from overuse and inflammation of tendons, which can compress median nerve, causing tingling and numbness Treatment: wear some type of immobile device to allow it to heal, but if it gets progressively worse, surgery can release the inflammation/pain

men vs. women's face shapes

Men's faces tend to be elongated and women's tend to be rounder and less angular

knee joint

Modified hinge joint Absorbs a great amount of vertical force, however it is very vulnerable to horizontal blows Largest, most complex joint of body Consists of three joints surrounded by single cavity femoropatellar joint, lateral joint, and medial joint

denosumab

Monoclonal antibody shown to reduce fractures in men with prostate cancer Biologic drug Improves bone density in elderly

osteoarthritis (OA)

Most common type of arthritis Chronic, irreversible, degenerative ("wear-and-tear") arthritis May reflect excessive release of enzymes that break down articular cartilage Cartilage is broken down faster than it is replaced Bone spurs (osteophytes) may form from thickened ends of bones By age 85, half of Americans develop OA, more women than men (since women have less estrogen (Ca uptake ⇒ weaker bones))

shoulder (glenohumeral) joint

Most freely moving joint in body ⇒ not as stable Stability is sacrificed for freedom of movement Ball-and-socket joint Large, hemispherical head of humerus fits in small, shallow glenoid cavity of scapula Like a golf ball on a tee Articular capsule enclosing cavity is also thin and loose Contributes to freedom of movement

Eccrine (Merocrine) Sweat Glands

Most numerous type Abundant on palms, soles, and forehead However, found across skin of most body regions Ducts connect to pores Function in thermoregulation Regulated by sympathetic nervous system Their secretion is sweat (Involuntary control - controlled by sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; main reason is to prevent our body from overheating (cooling mechanism to maintain homeostasis)) -Sweat: 99% water, salts, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin (microbe-killing peptide), metabolic wastes (urea found in sweat)

a muscle contracts and how long it can stay contracted is influenced by what 3 things?

Muscle fiber type Load Recruitment

muscle attachments

Muscles span joints and attach to bones Muscles attach to bone in at least two places can be direct or indirect origin and insertion

myofibrils

Myofibrils are densely packed, rodlike elements Single muscle fiber can contain 1000s Accounts for ~80% of muscle cell volume contains contractile elements of skeletal muscle cells (sacromeres — contain smaller structures known as myofilaments) Myofibril features Striations Sarcomeres Myofilaments Molecular composition of myofilaments

do muscles weigh more than fat?

NO

nerves and blood vessels of synovial joint

Nerves detect pain (some); monitor joint position and stretch (most) Capillary beds supply blood filtrate (produces synovial fluid) rich supply of sensory nerve fibers that innervate the capsule (within capsule)

extranuclear (mitochondrial) inheritance

Not all DNA is located in cell's nucleus Mitochondria contain 37 of their own genes, referred to as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (**all of it is maternal DNA**) Mitochondria are transmitted to embryo by mother in cytoplasm of egg Errors in mtDNA are linked to rare disorders Usually problems associated with oxidative phosphorylation (end of cellular respiration) Some muscle and neurological problems, possibly Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases have also been linked to mitochondrial DNA errors Now looking at possible links with sickle cell disease

fibula

Not weight bearing; no articulation with femur Several muscles originate from fibula Articulates proximally and distally with tibia

osteomalacia

Number of bone disorders Bones are poorly mineralized Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts not adequately deposited Results in soft, weak bones Pain upon bearing weight

bone remodeling

ONLY occurs in adults Bones are dynamic and active About 5-7% of bone mass is recycled each week Spongy bone replaced ~ every 3-4 years Compact bone replaced ~ every 10 years Bone that is not remodeled is susceptible to fractures because it becomes brittle Bone remodeling consists of both bone deposit and bone resorption Occurs at surfaces of both periosteum and endosteum Remodeling units

gliding movements

One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface Examples Intercarpal joints Intertarsal joints Between articular processes of vertebrae

Stratum granulosum (granular layer)

One to five cell layers thick, but cells are flattened, so layer is thin Cell appearance changes Cells flatten, nuclei and organelles disintegrate (living → dead) Undergoing apoptosis (programmed cell death) Keratinization begins Cells accumulate keratohyalin granules that help form keratin fibers in upper layers Cells also accumulate lamellar granules

melanin

Only pigment made in skin; made by melanocytes Found only in the deeper layers of the epidermis -When exposed to sunlight melanocytes are stimulated via keratinocytes secreting chemicals to protect DNA (nuclei must be protected otherwise mutations would occur) -Sun exposure stimulates melanin production (defense mechanism to protect our skin) Can range in colors from reddish yellow to brownish black People who live near the equator tend to have darker skin tones because they don't need as much protection from the sun People who have lighter skin tones generally live closer to the poles (north and south poles) because there isn't as much exposure to UV rays which can be damaging All humans have same number of keratinocytes, so color differences are due to amount and form of melanin Freckles and pigmented moles (can be flat or raised) are local accumulations of melanin

antagonist

Opposes or reverses particular movement -some cases where some antagonist can be prime movers as well -Ex: latissimus dorsi - involved in arm extension

bone - hormone production

Osteocalcin secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and metabolism

osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a group of diseases in which bone resorption exceeds deposit ⇒ bones become extremely fragile (bones become coarse and light) Matrix remains normal, but bone mass declines Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur are the most susceptible Vertebral and hip fractures common

muscle fatigue

Physiological inability to contract despite continued stimulation Usually occurs when there are ionic imbalances -Levels of K+ accumulate and halts Ca2+ release from SR -Lack of ATP is rarely a reason for fatigue, except in severely stressed muscles

hemoglobin

Pinkish hue of fair skin is due to lower levels of melanin -Skin of Caucasians is more transparent, so color of hemoglobin shows through -What carries our O through the iron molecules that our hemoglobin has

types of synovial joint

Plane Hinge Pivot Condylar Saddle Ball-and-socket

femoropatellar joint

Plane joint Allows gliding motion during knee flexion (decreases angle) patella glides over the femur at this joint

nails

Plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, keratinized epidermal cells Form a clear, solid covering over the dorsal surfaces of the distal portions of the digits (fingers and toes) Scalelike modifications of epidermis that contain hard keratin Act as a protective cover for distal, dorsal surface of fingers and toes Consist of free edge, nail plate, and root Nail bed is epidermis underneath keratinized nail plate Our nails are similar to the hooves or nails of other animals Contain a hard keratin-like nail Free edge (nail plate) - area that grows out (white) Nail bed is the upper layer of the epidermis that extends beneath the nail Nails grow from nail matrix out Nail matrix Nails normally appear pink because of underlying capillaries Lunule

independent event

Probability of two offspring having same trait is an independent event, because inheritance in one child does not depend on whether other child inherited trait - don't know how genes will align

keratinocytes

Produce fibrous keratin (protein that gives skin its protective properties) Major cells of epidermis Tightly connected by desmosomes Start off as living, but as they move up eventually the top layer is dead Millions sloughed off every day Ex: dead skin cells

bone - protection

Protect brain, spinal cord (protects spinal column), and vital organs (anything in our thoracic cavity) from any injury Organs not protected are kidneys, liver, large/small intestine (no bones protecting them)

what do the openings in the skull do?

Provide passageways for spinal cord, major blood vessels, and the 12 cranial nerves

hyaline cartilage

Provides support, flexibility, and resilience nose, costal cartilage of our ribs, ends of long bones Most abundant type; contains collagen fibers only Articular (joints), costal (ribs), respiratory (larynx), nasal cartilage (nose tip)

forearm bone

Radius (lateral; major forearm bone contributing to the wrist joint) and ulna (medial and slightly longer; forms the elbow joint with the humerus) Wrist watches are worn on distal end of the forearm, not the wrist

patterns of inheritance

Randomness of crossing over Few phenotypes can be traced to a single gene Most traits determined by multiple alleles or by interaction of several gene pairs

recessive

Recessive trait is expressed only if both alleles are recessive Example: blue eyes (phenotype)occur only if person has bb

hematopoetic tissue in bones

Red marrow: found within trabecular cavities of spongy bone and diploë of flat bones, such as sternum In newborns, medullary cavities and all spongy bone contain red marrow However, in adults, red marrow is located in heads of femur and humerus, but most active areas of hematopoiesis are flat bone diploë and some irregular bones (such as the hip bone - oxcaxa) Yellow marrow can convert to red, if person becomes anemic

shoulder stability

Reinforcing muscle tendons contribute most to joint stability Tendon of long head of biceps brachii muscle is "superstabilizer" Travels through intertubercular sulcus

sickling gene alleles

SS = normal hemoglobin (Hb) made Ss = sickle-cell trait: both mutated and normal Hb are made; person can suffer sickle-cell crisis under prolonged reduction in blood O2 ss = sickle-cell anemia: makes only mutated Hb; person is more susceptible to sickle-cell crisis even with short O2 reduction

Tactile (Merkel) cells

Sensory receptors that sense touch

stratum spinosum (prickly layer)

Several cell layers thick 8-10 layers of keratinocytes Cells contain weblike system of intermediate pre-keratin filaments that are attached to the desmosomes Allows them to resist tension and pulling Keratinocytes in this layer appear spiky, so they are called prickle cells

elastic cartilage

Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers External ear and epiglottis (flap that covers the trachea when we swallow to prevent food/liquid from aspirating into our lungs so then everything we are swallowing will go to our stomach to be digested)

blood tests

Simple blood tests are used to screen for sickling gene in heterozygotes Sophisticated blood chemistry tests and DNA probes can detect presence of other unexpressed recessive genes Carriers of Tay-Sachs and cystic fibrosis genes can be identified with such tests

muscle twitch

Simplest contraction resulting from a muscle fiber's response to a single action potential from motor neuron Muscle fiber contracts quickly, then relaxes Twitch can be observed and recorded as a myogram Tracing: line recording contraction activity

bone markings

Sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment

skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle Tissue is packed into skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle tissue is packaged into skeletal muscles: organs that are attached to bones and skin Skeletal muscle fibers are longest of all muscle and have striations (stripes) that run parallel to the tissue multinucleated — nuclei pushed to ends of cells Also called voluntary muscle: can be consciously controlled Contract rapidly; tire easily; powerful Key words for skeletal muscle: skeletal, striated, and voluntary

skeletal muscle anatomy

Skeletal muscle is an organ made up of different tissues with three features: nerve and blood supply (for movement), connective tissue sheaths, and attachments

functions of skin

Skin (organ bc of its vast size) is first and foremost a barrier Its main functions include: Protection Body temperature regulation Cutaneous sensations Metabolic functions Blood reservoir Excretion of wastes

skin protection

Skin (our most vulnerable organ system) is exposed to microorganisms, abrasions, temperature extremes, and harmful chemicals Constitutes three barriers: Chemical barrier Physical barrier Biological barrier

blood reservoir of skin

Skin can hold up to 5% of the body's total blood volume Skin vessels can be constricted to shunt blood to other organs, such as an exercising muscle Dermis will contain extensive amount of blood vessels If other organisms need our blood, skin will constrict and shunt it to where it is needed

excretion of skin

Skin can secrete limited amounts of nitrogenous wastes, such as ammonia, urea, and uric acid Sweating can cause salt and water loss

metabolic functions of skin

Skin can synthesize vitamin D needed for calcium absorption in intestine Chemicals from keratinocytes can disarm some carcinogens Keratinocytes can activate some hormones Example: activates cortisone to convert it into hydrocortisone Skin makes collagenase, which aids in natural turnover of collagen to prevent wrinkles

skin chemical barrier

Skin secretes many chemicals, such as: Sweat, which contains antimicrobial proteins Melanin Sebum and dermcidin, which kill bacteria Cells also secrete antimicrobial defensins

sacromere

Smallest contractile unit (functional unit) of muscle fiber Contains A band with half of an I band at each end Consists of area between Z discs Individual sarcomeres align end to end along myofibril, like boxcars of train

recessive inheritance

Some recessive genes result in the more desirable condition Example: normal vision is a recessive trait, whereas astigmatism is a dominant trait Most genetic disorders are inherited as simple recessive traits Examples: albinism (skin is extremely pale, eyes are red (hat and sunglasses need to be worn)), cystic fibrosis (disease that affects the lungs), and Tay-Sachs disease -Heterozygotes are carriers of trait, meaning they do not express trait but can pass it on to offspring

melanocytes

Spider-shaped cells located in deepest epidermis Produce pigment melanin (what gives us our skin color -- more is darker, less is lighter skin) (freckles and moles are clusters of melanin), which is packaged into melanosomes Melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes, where they protect nucleus from UV damage

Dendritic (Langerhans) cells

Star-shaped macrophages that patrol deep epidermis Are key activators of immune system Monocytes are a type of white blood cells -- leave the bloodstream and travel to wherever the infection is -- become macrophages (sort of like clean-up duty to make sure wound heals quickly; key activators in our immune system by ingesting/digesting whatever is attacking the body (ex: bacteria or virus))

5 layers of the epidermis from deep to superficial

Stratum basale Stratum spinosum Stratum granulosum Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin) Stratum corneum

rotator cuff endons

Subscapularis Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres minor

illium

Superior region of coxal bone Auricular surface articulates with sacrum (sacroiliac joint)

structure of hair follicle

Surrounds the root of the hair Extends from epidermal surface to dermis Hair bulb Hair follicle receptor (or root hair plexus) Hair bending stimulates the endings -- considered a sensory touch receptor Hair is considered a sensory touch receptor

lordosis

Sway back type of disease attenuate lumbar curvature resulting from spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia

fixator

Synergist that immobilizes bone or muscle's origin Gives prime mover stable base on which to act

skeletal cartilage

The human skeleton initially consists of just cartilage, which is replaced by bone, except in areas requiring flexibility 1) hyaline 2) elastic 3) fibrocartilage

inferior nasal conchae (2)

The lowermost scroll-shaped bones on the sidewalls of the nasal cavity.

fibrocartilage

Thick collagen fibers - has great tensile strength (ability to resist longitudinal stress) Menisci of knee; vertebral discs protects from bone-on-bone pain (located between bones)

molecular composition of myofilaments: thick filaments

Thick filaments: composed of protein myosin that contains two heavy and four light polypeptide chains Heavy chains intertwine to form myosin tail Light chains form myosin globular head -During contraction, heads link thick and thin filaments together, forming cross bridges Myosins are offset from each other, resulting in staggered array of heads at different points along thick filament

flat bones

Thin, flat, slightly curved Sternum, scapulae, ribs, most skull bones

skin color

Three pigments contribute to skin color Via amino acid tyrosine and enzyme tyrosinase 1) melanin 2) carotene 3) hemoglobin

calculating probability mathematically

To obtain overall probability, multiply probabilities of separate events

pedigrees

Traces a genetic trait through several generations to help predict future risks Genetic counselor collects phenotype information on as many family members as possible to construct the pedigree (family tree) Genetic counselor can work backward, applying rules of dominant-recessive traits to deduce genotypes of parents and others

treating osteoporosis

Traditional treatments Calcium Vitamin D supplements Weight-bearing exercise Hormone replacement therapy Slows bone loss but does not reverse it Controversial because of increased risk of heart attack, stroke, and breast cancer Other drugs for osteoporosis: -Bisphosphonates -Selective estrogen receptor modulators

dominant traits/disorders

Traits dictated by dominant alleles include widow's peaks, freckles, and dimples, to name a few Dominant disorders are uncommon because most are lethal, and death occurs before reproductive age Exception is Huntington's disease, caused by delayed-action gene that is not activated until ~ age 40 Dominant lethal inherited disease Fatal nervous system disease Offspring of individual with Huntington's have a 50% chance of also having disease

T or F: muscle contracts faster than it relaxes

True!

T tubules

Tube formed by protrusion of sarcolemma deep into cell interior occurs at A band I band junction Increase muscle fiber's surface area greatly

parietal bones

Two large parietal bones form most of superior and lateral aspects of cranial vault

carrier recognition

Two major ways to identify carriers of detrimental (to surviving) genes 1) pedigrees 2) blood tests

skin's body temperature regulation

Under normal, resting body temperature, sweat glands produce about 500 ml/day of unnoticeable sweat Called insensible perspiration and sensible perspiration

fetal testing

Used only when there is a known risk of genetic disorder because testing is invasive and risky for both mother and fetus (only done when necessary) With both, there is a danger of miscarriage Two procedures are about to become obsolete, however, due to advances in research (the mom's blood contain free-floating maternal and fetal DNA, both of which are released from the placenta -- less invasive to take blood than do a big procedure) 1) Amniocentesis 2) Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

excess postexcercise oxygen consumption

Vigorous exercise alters the musclechemistry dramatically For a muscle to return to its pre-exercise state: Oxygen reserves are replenished Lactic acid is re-converted to pyruvic acid Glycogen stores are replaced - in muscle or liver ATP and creatine phosphate reserves are resynthesized All replenishing steps require extra oxygen, so this is referred to as excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) Formerly referred to as "oxygen debt"

embryonic "skeleton"

Week 6 of embryo development: embryonic "skeleton" (site of cartilage formation and ossification)

sebaceous glands

Widely distributed, except for thick skin of palms and soles of our feet Most develop from hair follicles and secrete into hair follicles Relatively inactive until puberty Stimulated by hormones, especially androgens (sex hormones) Secrete sebum Oily holocrine secretion Bactericidal (bacteria-killing) properties Softens hair and skin Accumulate the product within them until they rupture -inhibit some, but not all bacterial growth

can muscles be prime movers, antagonist, and synergists for different movements?

YES

carotene

Yellow to orange pigment Carrots, egg yolks, any orange vegetable (pumpkin, butternut squash, yams, etc.) Babies who eat lots of orange foods turn an orange tint Most obvious in palms and soles of our feet Accumulates in stratum corneum and hypodermis Can be converted to vitamin A for vision and epidermal health

lamellar granules

a water-resistant glycolipid that slows water loss so we don't lose too much water to our skin

extensibility of muscle tissue

ability to be stretched

elasticity

ability to recoil to resting length (think about rubber band) (ie: when you contract a muscle and relax it)

contractility of muscle tissue

ability to shorten forcibly when stimulated

hair matrix

actively dividing area of bulb that produces hair cells As matrix makes new cells, it pushes older ones upward and the cells die

adductor magnus

adducts thigh

multipennate muscles

all quills inserted into one large tendon

heterozygous

alleles are different for single trait (DNA sequence is different on one homologous chromosome than other)

homozygous

alleles are same for single trait (DNA sequence is same on both homologous chromosomes) gene on mom's chromosome is the same as the one on the dad's chromosome

independent assortment

alleles of two different traits on two different chromosomes are distributed independently of each other (occurs during meiosis 1) Each gamete has a single allele for each trait and that allele represents only 1 of the 4 possible parental alleles Example: Bb for hair color is on one chromosome, and Jj for double thumb joint trait is on another chromosome, so possibilities of inheritance are: BJ, Bj, bJ, and bj -Whether you inherit a B or b is independent of whether you inherit a J or j

optic canals

allow passage of optic nerves

saddle (movement and sport example)

allows for abduction, adduction, flexion, and extension returning a shot while playing table tennis requires your wrist to abduct and that requires sliding joints in the wrist

hinge joint (movement and sport example)

allows for flexion and extension shooting a basket in basketball requires your elbows to extend as you shoot

ball and socket (movement and sport example)

allows for most types of movement; abduction, adduction, rotation, flexion, and extension movements needed to run or swim or do any kind of full body movement

pivot (movement and sport example)

allows only for rotation when rowing your vertebrae is moving as you stroke but your head is staying motionless

jugular foramen

allows passage of 3 cranial nerves

generating heat as muscles contract

allows us to maintain normal body temperature

joints

also called articulations: contact point for two bones / sites where two or more bones meet

coccyx

also fused bones that form terminus of column tailbone formed from three to five fused vertebrae (based on genetics); articulates superiorly with sacrum -Very little function

foramen rotundum and foramen ovale

also passageways for cranial nerves

what happens to the antagonist when the prime mover is activated?

antagonist will either be stretched or it can remain relaxed

pubis

anterior portion of hip bone joins at pubic symphysis joint

body (centrum) of vertebrae

anterior weight-bearing region

glabella

area of frontal bone between orbits

hair shaft

area that extends above scalp, where keratinization is complete (dead) (the hair we can touch)

Hyponychium

area under free edge of plate that accumulates dirt

hair root

area within scalp, where keratinization is still going on (penetrates into the dermis) (deep to the shaft) (the rest of the hair that we can't touch)

Cutaneous Sensations

arise in our skin like touch, pressure, and vibrations -- tactile sensations as well as thermal sensations like warm and coolness and pain

3 segments of upper limb

arm, forearm, hand

Six general features of synovial joints

articular cartilage, joint cavity, articular capsule, synovial fluid, reinforcing ligaments, nerves and blood vessels

C1 cervical vertebrae

atlas Holds head onto body (like Atlas who held the world in their hands) No body or spinous process Consists of anterior and posterior arches, and two lateral masses Superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with occipital condyles Occipital condyles "carry" skull Movement for nodding head "Yes"

pectoral girdle

attaches upper limbs to body trunk (shoulder girdle) consists of clavicles (shoulder blade - anteriorly) and scapulae (shoulder blade - posteriorly) Attach upper limbs to axial skeleton Provide attachment sites for muscles that move upper limbs Offer great degree of mobility because: Scapulae are not attached to axial skeleton Socket of shoulder joint is shallow and does not restrict movement Less movement in pectoral than pelvic girdle, but more stable

origin

attachment to immovable (fixed origin) or less movable bone

insertion

attachment to movable bone

cartilage tears

avascular ⇒ not easily repaired (cannot obtain enough nutrients to repair themselves); to repair: surgery

major divisions of the skeleton

axial and appendicular

C2 cervical vertebrae

axis Has body and processes like other vertebrae Major feature is knoblike dens (becomes the body of C1) that projects superiorly into anterior arch of atlas Dens is the "missing" body of atlas Dens is a pivot for rotation of atlas Movement allows side to side rotation for saying "No"

dorsiflexion

bending foot towards shin heel-walking

squamous (squamosal) sutures

between parietal and temporal bones on each side of skull

coronal suture

between parietal bones and frontal bone

lambdoid suture

between parietal bones and occipital bone

sagittal suture

between right and left parietal bones

saddle joint

bi-axial (ex: between thumb and wrist bones)

ellipsoid joint

bi-axial (ex: c1 and occipital ; knuckles)

cyanotic skin

blue color (not getting enough oxygen from our lungs so the skin, nail beds, and mucus membranes will appear blue)

naming skeletal muscles based on location

bone or body region with which muscle associated Example: temporalis (over temporal bone)

gliding (movement and sport example)

bones slide past each other ice hockey when you are skating on the ice you are using the gliding joints in your ankle to push you along

axons

branch into terminals, each of which forms NMJ with single muscle fiber

convergent muscles

broad origin with fibers converging towards a tendon

inflammatory and degenerative conditions

bursitis, tendonitis, arthritis

common joint injuries

cartilage tears sprains dislocations

what is at the center of the tree-trunk-like substance in bone tissue?

central canal

medulla

central core of large cells and air spaces -Not found in someone with fine hair

genomic imprinting

certain genes are tagged with methyl groups during gametogenesis to identify them as maternal or paternal Essential for normal development Allows embryo to express only mother's or only father's gene Each new generation erases imprinting when new gametes are produced -Examples of genomic imprinting can be seen in mutations of imprinted genes that result in pathology -Same allele can have different effects depending on which parental chromosome was expressed Example: deletions in chromosome 15 (q11-q13) result in disorders with two different symptoms -Prader-Willi syndrome -Angelman syndrome

zygomatic bones (2)

cheek bones

sphenoid bone

complex, bat-shaped bone Keystone bone that articulates with all other cranial bones (touches every single cranial bone!) Sphenoidal sinuses found within body of sphenoid Body also includes sella turcica prominence that includes hypophyseal fossa area enclosing the pituitary gland Sphenoid contains three pairs of processes Sphenoid contains several foramina

molecular composition of myofilaments: thin filaments

composed of fibrous protein actin Two F actin strands twist together to form a thin filament Anchored to Z discs Individual actin molecules join to form an actin filament Twisted into a helix Each actin has a myosin-binding site for a myosin head

circular muscles

concentric ring fibers

indirect attachment

connective tissue wrappings extend beyond muscle as rope-like tendon or sheetlike aponeurosis (much more common due to the small size and durability)

articular cartilage of synovial joint

consists of hyaline cartilage covering ends of bones Prevents the crushing of the bone ends

motor nerve

contains axons of up to hundreds of motor neurons

orbital plates of ethmoid bone

contribute to medial wall of orbits (bony eye sockets that house our eyes)

tropomyosin

covers myosin binding site on actin when the muscle is relaxed

what cavities does the cranium contain?

cranial cavity Middle and internal ear cavities Nasal cavity Orbits that house eyeballs

superior orbital fissuer

cranial nerve passage

internal acoustic meatus and stylomastoid foramen

cranial nerve passageways

period of contraction

cross bridge formation and activation Tension increases 10-100 milliseconds in

A bands

dark regions

what happens to the duration of the contraction as load increases?

decreases

flexion

decreases the angle of the joint (ex: flex your arm)

intracapsular ligament

deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane (not found within the joint cavity)

ethmoid bone

deepest skull bone -Superior part formed by paired cribriform plates that also form roof of nasal cavity and floor of anterior cranial fossa

prader-willi symptoms

deletions in chromosome 15 (q11-q13) result in this disorder seen if mutated gene inherited from father is expressed (short in stature, morbidly obese (are not full), mental retardation)

angelman symptoms

deletions in chromosome 15 (q11-q13) result in this disorder seen if mutated gene inherited from mother is expressed (23 hours up, 1 hour asleep, are not tired, mental retardation)

epimysium

dense irregular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle; may blend with fascia

compact bone

dense outer layer on every bone that appears smooth and solid smooth and homogeneous

sensible perspiration

designed to cool body Cold external environment Dermal blood vessels constrict Skin temperature drops to slow passive heat loss

punett square

diagram used to predict possible gene combinations resulting from mating of parents of known genotypes

karyotype

diploid chromosomal complement displayed in homologous pairs visual appearance of the chromosomes

3 mechanisms that ATP is quickly regenerated

direct phosphorylation anaerobic pathway aerobic pathway

naming skeletal muscles based on shape

distinctive shapes Example: deltoid muscle (deltoid = triangle), trapezius muscle (trapezoid)

biphosphonates

drugs that decrease osteoclast activity and number Partially reverse osteoporosis in spine

tetrad

during meiosis 1, each replicated homologous chromosome will form tetrad; the way that the tetrads align is random, and therefore, the maternal and fraternal chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells (specifically the daughter nuclei) Two important separations of traits occur in meiosis I of gametogenesis: 1) chromosome segregation 2) independent assortment

hip replacements

either a partial (femur is replaced with plastic) or total hip (head of femur and acetabulism with metal) replacement

Where are the accessory structures located?

embryonic dermis

vertebral foramen

enclosure formed by body and vertebral arch coming together (spinal cord goes through this)

phenocopies

environmentally produced phenotypes that mimic conditions caused by genetic mutations (permanent transmissible changes in the DNA)

4 characteristics of muscles

excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity

hair bulb

expanded area at deep end of follicle

pubic symphysis

expands during birth; connects hip bones at bottom

triceps brachii

extends forearm

hyperextension

extension beyond anatomical position

yellow bone marrow

fatty tissue found in the medullary cavity of most adult long bones

perimysium

fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle fibers)

structural joints

fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

endomysium

fine areolar connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber

latent period

first few milliseconds in, events of excitation-contraction coupling No muscle tension seen

brachioradialis

flexes forearm at elbow

dorsiflexion and plantar flexion

foot movements

maxillary bones (2)

form most of the upper jaw

palatine bones (2)

form part of the hard palate of the mouth and the floor of the nose

perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone

forms superior part of nasal septum and is flanked by lateral masses that contain sinuses called ethmoidal air cells Lateral masses extend medially to form superior and middle nasal conchae (purpose is to warm, moisten, and filter the air that we breathe in)

red bone marrow

found in cancellous bone; site of hematopoiesis produces red and white blood cells and platelets

smooth muscle

found in walls of hollow organs Examples: stomach, urinary bladder, and airways predetermined pathway (muscles contract and pushes whatever through the body) -Not striated -spindle shape -uninucleated -Involuntary: cannot be controlled consciously Can contract on its own without nervous system stimulation

diarthrotic

freely movable joint

diarthroses

freely moveable joints

cranial bones (8)

frontal bone parietal bones (2) occipital bone temporal bones (2) sphenoid ethmoid

laminae

fused, flattened plates form posterior arch

genome

genetic (DNA) makeup; two sets of genetic instructions (maternal and paternal)

genotype

genetic makeup of a person for a trait For eye color example, person can have three possible genotypes: BB, Bb, bb

function of joints

give skeleton mobility and hold skeleton together

3 general types of movement

gliding, angular movements, rotation

synergist

helps prime movers Adds extra force to same movement Reduces undesirable or unnecessary movement ex: stabilize wrist from being limp when you punch

purpose of joints

hold bones together while still allowing (in most cases) some degree of movement

tropin

holds tropomyosin strands in place

crossover/chiasmata

homologous chromosomes can break, even between linked genes, and a precise exchange of gene segments can result in recombinant chromosomes Chromosomes are now a mixture of contributions from each parent Results in tremendous variability

petrous region of temporal bone

houses middle and internal ear cavities -Makes up part of the middle cranial fossa -Several foramina penetrate petrous region: Jugular foramen Carotid canal Foramen lacerum Internal acoustic meatus and stylomastoid foramen

arm bone

humerus

kyphosis

hunched back dorsally exaggerated thoracic curvature usually very common in the elderly due to osteoporosis however, can be from rickets or osteomalacia too (not just osteoporosis

3 bones that form coxal bone

ilium, ischium, pubis

synarthroses

immovable joints (ex:sutures)

hypertrophy

increase in cell size occurs in muscle cells with regular excercise

extension

increases the angle of the joint

osteogenic layer of periosteum

inner layer abutting bone and contains primitive osteogenic stem cells that gives rise to most all bone cells

abductor magnus

inner thigh

unipennate muscles

insert into only 1 side of the tendon

bipennate muscles

inserts into 2 sides of the tendon

striae

internal damage to that layer stretch mark

what connects the tibia and fibula?

interosseous membrane

foramen lacerum

jagged opening covered by cartilage in living human

what is the weakest part of our skeleton?

joints/articulation

muscle tone

keeps tendons taut as they cross joints (most important) Extremely important in reinforcing shoulder and knee joints and arches of the foot Tendons kept under tension by the tone of their muscles Constant, slightly contracted state of all muscles (even though they can be in their relaxed state) Due to spinal reflexes Groups of motor units are alternatively activated in response to activated stretch receptors in the muscle Keeps muscles firm, healthy, and ready to respond at a moments notice

main synovial joints

knee, shoulder, elbow, hip, jaw

what is between the central canal and lacunae outline in bone tissue?

lamella

femur

largest and strongest bone in the body, making up about one-fourth of person's height Articulates proximally with acetabulum of hip and distally with tibia and patella

intervertebral foramina

lateral openings between vertebrae for passage of spinal nerves

ligaments vs. tendons

ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscle to bone

H zone

lighter region in middle of dark A band

I bands

lighter regions

Z disc

line coin-shaped sheet of proteins on midline of light I band

M line

line of protein (myomesin) that bisects H zone vertically

ceruminous glands

lining of external ear canal; secrete cerumen (earwax)

skin acid mantle

low pH of skin retards bacterial multiplication -Melanin provides a chemical barrier against UV radiation damage -Will be killing foreign bacteria, not helpful ones (like the ones that are living in symbiosis with us on our skin)

mandible

lower jaw bone

hair pigments

made by melanocytes in hair follicles Combinations of different melanins (yellow, rust, brown, black) create all the hair colors Red hair has additional pheomelanin pigment Gray/white hair results when melanin production decreases and air bubbles replace melanin in shaft

vertebral arch

made of 2 pedicles and 2 laminae

spongy bone

made up of a honeycomb of small, needle-like or flat pieces of bone called trabeculae compact spongy bone sandwich (compact-spongy-compact) Open spaces between trabeculae are filled with red or yellow bone marrow

lacrimal bones (2)

make up part of the orbit at the inner angle of the eye

osteoid

makes up one-third of organic bone matrix, is secreted by osteoblasts Consists of ground substance and collagen fibers, which contribute to high tensile strength and flexibility of bone

facial bones (list of them)

mandible vomer maxillary bones (2) zygomatic bones (2) nasal bones (2) lacrimal bones (2) palatine bones (2) inferior nasal conchae (2)

retraction

mandible is pulled toward neck

protraction

mandible juts out

tibia

medial leg bone that receives weight of body from femur; transmits to foot

Selective estrogen receptor modulators

mimic estrogen without targeting breast and uterus

recombinant chromosomes

mixed contribution from each parent, resulting in tremendous variability Genes are arranged linearly along the chromosome length Genes on the same chromosome are linked because they are transmitted as a unit to daughter cells during mitosis However, during meiosis, chromosomes can break and precisely exchange gene segments with their homologous counterpart, which gives rise to them

thyroid hormone

modulates activity of growth hormone, ensuring proper proportions

growth hormone

most important hormone in stimulating epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood

abduction

movement along frontal plane, away from the midline

adduction

movement along frontal plane, toward the midline

protraction and retraction

movement in lateral plane

uniaxial

movement in one plane

multiaxial

movement in or around all three planes (frontal, transverse, and sagittal)

biaxial

movement in two planes

ball-and-socket joint

multiaxial (ex: shoulder and hip joints)

sacroplasm

muscle fiber cytoplasm Contains many glycosomes for glycogen storage, as well as myoglobin for O2 storage (red-pigment) provides glucose for muscle cell activity for ATP production Modified organelles -Myofibrils -Sarcoplasmic reticulum -T tubules

sacrolemma

muscle fiber plasma membrane

isotonic contraction

muscle shortens because muscle tension exceeds load (4-lb bag of sugar)

prefixes for muscles

myo, mys, sarco

Eponychium

nail fold that projects onto surface of nail body Also called cuticle

naming muscles based on location of attachments

named according to point of origin and insertion (origin named first) Example: sternocleidomastoid attaches to sternum and clavicle; attachment (sternocleido), insertion (mastoid process)

naming muscles based on muscle action

named for action they produce Example: flexor or extensor

vomer

nasal septum

how much of body mass is muscle tissue?

nearly half

motor unit

nerve-muscle functional unit Motor unit consists of the motor neuron and all muscle fibers (four to several hundred) it supplies Smaller the fiber number, the greater the fine control finger movement — more control needed ⇒ smaller motor units hip muscles - less control needed ⇒ larger motor units Muscle fibers from a motor unit are spread throughout the whole muscle, so stimulation of a single motor unit causes only weak contraction of entire muscle

sacroplasmic reticulum

network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum tubules surrounding each myofibril Most run longitudinally Terminal cisterns form perpendicular cross channels at the A-I band junction SR functions in regulation of intracellular Ca2+ levels - Stores and releases Ca2+ upon demand

isometric contraction

no shortening; muscle tension increases but does not exceed load (200-lb car)

calculation of independent assortment's variety - general formula, men, and women

number of gamete types is 2n, where n = number of homologous pairs -In male gametes, 223 = 8.5 million combinations! -In female gametes, there are not as many combinations since only about 400 will mature in its entirety

direct phosphorlation

of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP) upon vigorous exercise, stored ATP is used quickly, therefore CP is used (also stored in muscles)

dominant

one allele masks (suppresses) expression of its recessive partner Dominant allele is denoted by capital letter and recessive by same letter, but in lowercase Example: brown eyes is dominant trait, designated as B ; blue eyes is recessive trait designated as b Dominant trait is expressed even if other allele codes for recessive trait Example: BB or Bb (genotype) will result in brown eyes, not blue

sacrum

one bone, formed from fusion of several bones, articulates with hip triangular bone shapes posterior wall of pelvis; made from five fused vertebrae (S1-S5) -Superior articular process articulates with L5 -Articulates inferiorly with coccyx and laterally with hip bones -Sacrum and coccyx form the pelvic girdle

allele

one of a number of different forms of a gene gene pair not only do chromosomes line up, but the genes inside of them line up too (one gene from mom, one from dad)

foramen spinosum

opening for ateries

what is the tree-trunk-like substance in bone tissue?

osteocytes in lacunae

what controls of the degree of muscle stretch

our joints, which normally prevent bone movements that would stretch the muscles beyond normal range Ex: hyperextension — most likely need to get on crutches to allow muscles to heal

fibrous layer of periosteum

outer layer consisting of dense irregular connective tissue, secure to bone matrix via Sharpey's fibers

cuticle

outer layer consisting of overlapping layers of single cells that are most heavily keratinized -Provides strength and helps to keep inner layers tightly compacted

extracapsular ligament

outside the capsule

how many muscles are in the body

over 600

bone remodeling units

packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate remodeling process

pallor skin

pale skin color (due to shock or anemia - not enough iron molecules to carry enough oxygen molecules)

supination

palms face anteriorly anatomical position Radius and ulna are parallel

pronation

palms face posteriorly not anatomical position Radius rotates over ulna

Cutaneous sensory receptors

part of the nervous system Exteroreceptors respond to stimuli outside body, such as temperature and touch Free nerve endings which sense painful stimuli

carotid canal

passageway for internal carotid artery

appendicular skeleton girdles

pectoral girdle pelvic girdle

phenotype

physical (trait) expression of genotype For eye color example: Person with genotypes BB or Bb will have brown eyes (B is dominant) Person with genotype bb will have blue eyes Heterozygous person with Bb has genotype for blue eyes, but phenotypically will have brown eyes

plantar flexion

pointing toes toe-walking

ischium

posteroinferior part of hip bone

Ossification (osteogenesis)

process of bone tissue formation

transverse processes

project laterally

spinous process

projects posteriorly (body is on the anterior side)

Testosterone (males) and estrogens (females) at puberty

promote adolescent growth spurts (growth spurt after growth spurt may cause growing pains -muscles/ ligaments/ tendons need to catch up with bone growth) -End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure (disphesis and epithesius fuses) Excesses or deficits of any hormones cause abnormal skeletal growth

inferior articular processes

protrude inferiorly

superior articular processes

protrude superiorly

genetic screening and counseling

provide information and options for prospective parents Newborn infants are routinely screened for a number of genetic disorders Congenital hip dysplasia, imperforate anus, PKU, and other metabolic disorders Other examples: screening adult children of parents with Huntington's disease; testing fetus of 35-year-old woman (advanced maternal age (AMA) -- eggs age as we age, unlike sperm for men which are constantly produced) for trisomy-21 (Down syndrome)

erythema skin

redness (engorgement of the capillaries in the dermis from skin injury or exposure to heat or some type of infection or an allergic reaction to an inflammation) Hypertension will also give your skin a red tone to it

tropomyosin and troponin

regulatory proteins bound to actin part of the thin filament

load of lever system

resistance (bone + tissues + any added weight) moved by the effort

producing movement - muscles

responsible for all locomotion and manipulation in our body Example: walking, digesting, pumping blood

supination and pronation

rotation of radius and ulna

parallel muscles

run parallel to the long axis of a muscle

burae

sack-like structure that alleviates frictions within some joint; ex: bursitis is the inflammation of bursae sacs

mammary glands

secrete milk; any mammal that nurses to feed their young

hair follicle receptor (or root hair plexus)

sensory nerve endings that wrap around bulb

vertebral canal

series of vertebral formina

patella

sesamoid bone in quadriceps tendon that protects knee joint

cortex

several layers of flattened cells surrounding medulla -Middle region that forms the major part of the shaft

factors influencing stability of synovial joints

shape of articular surfaces, ligament number and location, and muscle tone

frontal bone

shell-shaped bone forms anterior portion of cranium Vertical part, called squamous region, is also known as the forehead Inferior portion ends at supraorbital margins Area underneath eyebrows

periosteum

shiny, white, double-layered membrane that covers external surfaces except for joints think about peripheral (outer layer) Fibrous layer Osteogenic layer Contains many nerve fibers and blood vessels that continue onto the shaft through nutrient foramen openings Foramen means 'opening' Anchoring points for tendons and ligaments

pennate muscles

short fibers that attach obliquely to a central tendon that runs the length of the muscle

pedicles

short pillars form sides of arch

condyloid (movement and sport example)

similar to the ball and socket and allow for the same type of movement but to a lesser extent a serve in tennis

what types of muscle tissues are elongated and are referred to as muscle fibers

skeletal and smooth muscle cells

maintaining posture/body position - muscles

skeletal muscles control this

types of muscle tissues

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

nail folds

skin folds that overlap border (proximal (cuticle) and lateral (hyponychium/distal end)) of nail - overlapped by skin folds

ampthiarthroses

slightly moveable joints

nonaxial

slipping movements only

velocity of contraction

slow or fast fibers according to: Speed at which myosin ATPases split ATP Pattern of electrical activity of motor neurons

arrector pili

small band of smooth muscle attached to follicle Responsible for "goosebumps" (hairs standing on end)

joint (synovial) cavity of synovial joint

small, fluid-filled potential space that is unique to synovial joints (prevents bone on bone; helps to decrease friction)

eversion

sole of foot faces laterally

inversion

sole of foot turns medially

body parts with no hair

soles of feet lips nipples

double-jointedness

someone who is double-jointed does not have extra joints, but the joint capsule in the ligaments are more stretchy and loose than people who are not double-jointed

inversion and eversion

special movements of the foot

creatinism

specific type of dwarfism resulting from hypothyroidism (not enough thyroid hormone being produced)

vertebrae processes

spinous transverse (2) articular (superior (2) and inferior (2))

sliding filament model of contraction

states that during contraction, thin filaments slide past thick filaments, causing actin and myosin to overlap more Thick and thin filaments DO NOT change length, just overlap more When nervous system stimulates muscle fiber, myosin heads are allowed to bind to actin, forming cross bridges, which cause sliding (contraction) process to begin

what layer does thin skin do not have?

stratum lucidum (clear layer)

striations

stripes formed from repeating series of dark and light bands along length of each myofibril

aponeurosis

strong sheet of tissue that acts as a tendon to attach muscles to bone

classifications of joints

structural functional

osteon

structural unit of compact bone

genetics

study of the mechanism of heredity how genes are inherited from parents

epidermis

superficial region What you can touch Superficial to the surface Consists of epithelial tissue and is avascular (doesn't have its own blood supply) -- comes from underlying dermis layer

dermal papillae

superficial region of dermis that sends fingerlike projections up into epidermis Projections contains capillary loops, free nerve endings (give rise to the sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling, and itching), and touch receptors (tactile corpuscles, also called Meissner's corpuscles) In thick skin, dermal papillae lie on top of dermal ridges, which give rise to epidermal ridges Collectively ridges are called friction ridges

trabeculae

supporting bundles of bony fibers in cancellous (spongy) bone

tympanic region of temporal bone

surround external acoustic meatus (external ear canal)

functional joints

synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses

foot bones

tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges

contraction

the activation of cross bridges to generate force Shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on thin filaments exceeds forces opposing shortening Contraction ends when cross bridges become inactive In the relaxed state, thin and thick filaments overlap only slightly at ends of A band (when we contract, we lose the H band and A and I come together)

recruitment

the more motor units contracting, the faster and more prolonged the contraction

load

the opposing force exerted on the muscle by the weight of the object to be moved is known as the load (contracting muscle doesn't always shorten to move the load)

what is the most complex structure in the body?

the skull

myosin myofilaments

thick filaments functions as a motor protein in all 3 types of motor tissue 4 light-polypeptide chains (2 head projections - think golf club) and 2 heavy-polypeptide chains (tails that point towards end line) during a contraction, heads link thick and thin filaments to form cross-ridges Extend length of A band Connected at M line

lunule

thickened nail matrix, appears white Abnormal color or shape can be an indicator of disease

capsular ligament

thickened part of fibrous layer

nail matrix

thickened portion of bed responsible for nail growth

3 segments of lower limb

thigh, leg, foot

actin myofilaments

thin filaments Extend across I band and part way in A band Anchored to Z discs actin and myosin involved in contraction sacromere = basic functional z disc separates sacromere from one another

articular cartilage

thin layer of hyaline coverage that covers articular (joint) surfaces; acts as a cushioning of one bone articulating with another

temporal bones

think of location as when you rub your temple when you get a headache): paired bones that make up inferolateral aspects of skull and parts of cranial base

leg bone

tibia (medial, receives weight from fibula and connects that weight to the foot) and fibula (no weight-bearing, no articulations with the femur, articulates proximally and distally with tibia) fibuLa has an L (lateral bone) and tibia doesn't (medial bone)

dermis' reason for not sliding around

tightly secured to deeper structures -Skin's inability to slide easily for joint movement causes deep creases -Visible on hands, wrists, fingers, soles, toes

4 main muscle functions

to produce movement to maintain posture and body position to stabilize joints to generate heat as they contract

knee replacements

total (femur, tibia, and patella if damaged is replaced; sometimes patella is saved if possible) or partial (only one side of knee joint is replaced) Both involve cementing the prosthetics into place

crista galli of ethmoid bone

triangular process that is point of attachment for the brain's dura mater (one of 3 types of tissues covering brain -- tough outer covering of our brain)

tendon sheaths

tube-like bursae that wrap around a tendon

rotation

turning of bone around its own long axis, toward midline or away from it Medial: rotation toward midline Lateral: rotation away from midline Examples Rotation between C1 and C2 vertebrae (around the dens) (allows us to say "no") Rotation of humerus and femur

scoliosis

twisted disease abnormal rotation of the spine that results in a lateral curvature usually in the thoracic region more common in girls than boys treatment usually starts off with a brace, then surgery is required

chromosome segregation

two alleles of one particular trait will be separated and distributed to two different daughter cells Example: for Bb—allele B will go in one daughter cell, and allele b will go in other Errors in segregation can lead to cancer, infertility, and Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

bone membranes

two types (periosteum and endosteum)

Amniocentesis

ultrasound, needle will puncture placenta to get to the amniotic fluid Most common of the two Amniotic fluid is withdrawn after week 14 (so there is enough amniotic fluid); fluid and cells are examined for genetic abnormalities Testing takes several weeks to get your results

dermis

underlies epidermis Mostly fibrous connective tissue, vascularized Tough leathery layer Feeds the upper epidermis

pivot joint

uniaxial (ex: c1 and c2 rotation)

plane joint

uniaxial (ex: intercarpal and intertarsal joints)

hinge joint

uniaxial (ex: knee and elbow)

osteogenic cells

unspecialized bone stem cells derived from mesenchyme (like all connective tissues -- BONE TISSUE IS CONNECTIVE TISSUE) Also called osteoprogenitor cells Mitotically active stem cells (the only ones that undergo mitosis!!) in periosteum and endosteum One cell will stay behind, and the other will move on to develop into osteoblasts When stimulated, they differentiate into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells Some remain as osteogenic stem cells

oxidative fibers

use aerobic pathways

glycolytic fibers

use anaerobic glycolysis

reinforcing ligaments of synovial joint

used to strengthen the synovial joint Capsular Extracapsular Intracapsular

what causes the differences in strength and duration of twitches

variations in metabolic properties and enzymes between muscles -Example: eye muscles contraction are rapid and brief, whereas larger, fleshy muscles (calf muscles) contract more slowly and hold it longer

C7 cervical vertebrae

vertebra prominens; large and can be felt through skin, so used as a landmark

false ribs

vertebrochondral) ribs (pairs 8-10; technically 8-12) Attach indirectly to sternum by joining costal cartilage of rib above

synovial fluid of synovial joint

viscous, slippery filtrate of plasma (blood plasma) and hyaluronic acid (produced from synovial cells) clear/pale-yellow ⇒ think of an uncooked egg-white Lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage Contains phagocytic cells to remove microbes and debris (from normal wear-and-tear of your joint) benefit to warming-up before exercising? ⇒ warm-up joint to stimulate the production of synovial fluid; less stress on joints

bone gross anatomy

what we see with our eyes Compact and spongy bone

medula omendala

where skull meets the body

alae of sacrum

winglike expansions

where do intracapsular legaments live and what do they do

within capsule, but outside synovial cavity Help to prevent anterior-posterior displacement

jaundice skin

yellow color (buildup of bilirubin which usually indicates some type of liver disease; not talking infants (usually this is when the liver hasn't opened up yet to get rid of bilirubin, solution is to put them under UV lights) but rather later on in life)

is bone a type of tissue?

yes

anaerobic respiration

yields only 5% as much ATP as aerobic respiration, but produces ATP 2½ times faster — quick fix for E needed in certain instances glycolysis and lactic acid formation -Normally, pyruvic acid enters mitochondria to start aerobic respiration phase; however, at high intensity activity, oxygen is not available Bulging muscles compress blood vessels, impairing oxygen delivery -In the absence of oxygen, referred to as anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid

squamous region of temporal bone

zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch and mandibular fossa makes up part of temporomandibular joint