A&P EXAM UNO

List the steps of the production and release of ADH and oxytocin. As part of this, make sure to describe the role of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract.

- 1. Hypothalamic neurons make either ADH or oxytocin - 2. The hormones travel through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract in the infundibulum o The hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract is a system of blood vessels that transports and exchanges hormones between the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary - 3. ADH and oxytocin are stored in the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary - 4. The hormones are secreted into the capillaries in the posterior pituitary when the hypothalamic neurons fire action potentials

Describe the cause and main symptom of diabetes insipidus.

- The cause of diabetes insipidus is an abnormal lack of ADH secretion or activity. - The symptoms of this disease include extreme thirst, dehydration and very high solute concentration of the blood because the body is unable to conserve most of the water that is consumed

Describe the general effect of ADH on the body and describe how its production is regulated by the hypothalamus (e.g. what stimuli will result in increased or decreased ADH production).

- The general effect of ADH on the body is to decrease urine production by increasing the amount of water retained by the body. - Cells of the hypothalamus contain osmoreceptors that monitor changes in the solute concentration of the blood. These osmoreceptors respond to increasing solute concentration by stimulating ADH release from the posterior pituitary gland which leads to water retention which then decreases the solute concentration of the blood. Then vice versa, these receptors respond to abnormally low solute concentrations by inhibiting ADH release, which leads to water loss and an increased solute concentration of the blood.

Identify the primary target tissues of oxytocin, and describe one of the two positive feedback loops that oxytocin is involved in.

- The primary target tissues of oxytocin are specialized cells of the mammary glands and the smooth muscle cells of the uterus. - Positive feedback loop - 1. Oxytocin binds to the specialized cells in the mammary glands that stimulate their contraction - 2. Resulting in milk ejection - 2. Lactation induces the hungry infant to suckle more vigorously - 3. Stimulates more milk release - This positive feedback loop is broken when the infant becomes full so no longer suckles

Describe the long-term effects of growth hormone on the body, including how blood glucose concentrations, bone size, and muscle mass change as a result. Describe how the long-term effects of growth hormone are different in a child versus an adult. Identify whether these long-term effects of growth hormone are direct or indirect and identify the intermediate hormone that is directly responsible for most of the long-term effects.

-GH stimulates the release of insulin-like factor (IGF) release by the liver, muscle, bone, and other organs Effects (in-direct) -Stimulates glucose uptake by the cells= decreased blood glucose concentration -stimulates cell division= increase growth of bone and other tissues -stimulates protein synthesis= increase mass of muscle and other tissue -in a child these effects make the child grow such as the bones with get longer, but in an adult the the effect on the bones would be focused more on bone density (width) rather than bone length

Describe how the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary communicate through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system. As part of this, make sure to identify the advantages of having this portal system.

-blood goes thru the hypothalamic capillary bed and then thru the capillary bed in the anterior pituitary, then back into the systemic circulation -this creates a portal system (capillary beds in sequence) -tropic hormones made in hypothalamus; go thru the first capillary bed then to the second in the anterior pituitary bed which is their target cell -these hypothalamic hormones then regulate the secretion or inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary cells (hormonal regulation) Advantages -hormones reach target cells in higher concentration and faster because of the portal system

13. Describe the regulation of growth hormone, including which tropic hormones are involved, where those tropic hormones are produced, and whether the effects of growth hormone throughout the body lead to stimulation or inhibition of the production of those tropic hormones.

-hypothalamus releases GHRH (tropic) which then stimulates the release of Growth hormone from the anterior pituitary -GH travels to its target cells -effects lead to the release of somatostatin hormone which then inhibits the release of GH (negative feedback loop)

Describe the short-term effects of growth hormone on the body, including how blood glucose and blood fatty acid concentrations change as a result, and identify whether these effects are direct or indirect.

-overall effect goal is to increase more metabolic fuels in the blood -direct effects; growth hormone goes to the target cells and does this -inhibits glucose uptake by the skeletal muscle -stimulates gluconeogenesis in the liver -stimulates lipolysis in the fat -this raises levels of blood glucose and fatty acids in the blood

List the organs that are considered part of the endocrine system and locate them within the body (see Fig. 16.3).

1. Anterior pituitary gland (in the brain) 2. Hypothalamus, pineal gland, and posterior pituitary gland (brain) 3. Thyroid gland (the neck) 4. Parathyroid gland (on the back of the thyroid gland in the neck) 5. Thymus gland (chest area) 6. Adrenal gland (kidney) 7. Pancreas (abdomen) 8. Ovaries and testes (pelvic area)

Describe the causes and symptoms (to the level of detail provided in class) of Cushing's disease and iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome.

1. Cushing's Disease: naturally caused by an over secretion of cortisol 2. Iatrogenic Cushing's Syndrome: doctor caused, being treated with cortisol long term (more common) Both are due to high levels of cortisol Both have the same effect, but are caused by different things Symptoms we need to know for test - on muscles: muscle wasting - on glucose levels in blood: increases (hyperglycemia) - stimulate break down of adipose tissue and redistribution of the fat - immunosuppression: increases risk of infections

List the primary effects of cortisol.

1. Gluconeogenesis: formation of glucose 2. Release of fatty acids: break down fats 3. Release of amino acids: break down proteins 4. Anti-inflammatory 5. Down-regulates immune system 6. Stress response

Describe the steps of a generic second messenger system initiated by a hormone binding to a cell surface (aka membrane-bound) receptor. Include all relevant chemical messengers and proteins.

1. Hormone binds to its receptor on the plasma membrane 2. Receptor activates a peripheral protein (example of peripheral protein = G-protein) 3. Peripheral protein activates an enzyme 4. Enzyme catalyzes formation of a second messenger 5. The second messenger initiates a series of events in the cell that leads to changes in its activity Hormone → Receptor → G protein → Enzyme → 2nd messenger Ex. of a 2nd messenger = cAMP. cAMP will go on to undergo signal amplification by activating protein kinase

Describe the steps of intracellular receptor signaling, including the most likely outcome within the cell.

1. Hydrophobic hormone diffuses into the target cell 2. Hormone binds to an intracellular receptor and enters the nucleus of the cell 3. The hormone-receptor interacts with the DNA, leading to certain genes being turned on and off

List the potential cellular outcomes of a hormone signal being received by the target cell.

1. Permeability 2. Altering cell membrane potential 3. Stimulating/Inhibiting Secretion 4. Activating/Inhibiting Enzymes 5. Stimulating or inhibiting Cell division 6. Activating or inhibiting gene transcription impact synthesis of proteins

List the primary effects of thyroid hormones.

1. Regulate BMR (anabolic gluconeogenisis,Catabolic breakdown of proteins) 2. Thermoregulation (use of ATP, production of heat) 3. Promote growth and development 4. Synergism with sympathetic nervous system 5. Erythropoiesis (RBC formation)

List the three zones of the adrenal cortex and identify which specific hormones each zone produces.

1st zone: hypothalamus à produces CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) 2nd zone: anterior pituitary à produces adrenocortical tropic hormone 3rd zone: target organ (adrenal cortex) à produces the hormone cortisol

Explain the general purpose of a chemical signal

A chemical signal alters the behavior of a cell.

Describe the effects of aldosterone, including which three types of homeostasis it helps maintain, whether it increases or decreases water retention by the body, and which organ it targets.

Aldosterone targets the kidneys and it is and it is used to maintain electrolyte homeostasis, fluid homeostasis and blood pressure and acid/base homeostasis. Aldosterone stimulates the retention (stays in blood/body) of sodium and chloride ions (electrolyte homeostasis) Also retains water because water follows ions and solutes (fluid homeostasis) It increases the loss of potassium (electrolyte homeostasis) and hydrogen ions (acid-base homeostasis)

Compare and contrast amino-acid derived hormones and steroid hormones and give an example of each. Identify whether each of these types is more likely to be hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

Amino acid-derived: These are protein based hormones. Consists of the groups amines and peptides. Example of amine: Epinephrine Example of peptide: Oxytocin Amino acid-derived hormones will generally be hydrophilic as they are water soluble. (Have to bind to the receptor that's on the membrane). Steroid hormones: These hormones are based on a cholesterol ring structure Example of steroid hormone: testosterone Steroid hormones will generally be hydrophobic as they are lipid soluble (most will be able to diffuse through a plasma membrane).

Identify where else, besides the adrenal glands, androgens are made.

Androgens are mainly produced by the gonads (testes or ovaries). They have the same effect as those being made in the adrenal cortex, which is being converted in the circulation to the androgen testosterone or the female hormone estrogen.

Compare and contrast the anterior and posterior pituitary, including what type of tissue they are made of, whether they produce their own hormones or just release hormones made by the hypothalamus, and how they communicate with the hypothalamus.

Anterior pituitary - Tissue type: epithelial tissue - Produce or release hormones: makes a ton of its own hormones - Communication w/ hypothalamus: by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system - Posterior pituitary - Tissue type: nervous tissue - Produce or release hormones: releases hormones made by the hypothalamus (does not make its own hormones) - Communication w/ hypothalamus: by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

Explain why T4 is produced in larger amounts than T3.

Because it is a "storage form" and can be converted into T3 when the body needs it.

Describe how catecholamines work with the sympathetic nervous system (e.g. are they synergistic or antagonistic, can they prolong the response, etc.).

Catecholamines have a synergistic relationship with the nervous system and will have a prolonged response

Describe the overall effect of parathyroid hormone, including the three mechanisms used to produce this effect.

Effects- stimulates osteoclasts (increasing blood calcium levels) Mechanisms- made by Chief cells, increases absorption of calcium in intestines, kidneys retain more calcium, targets bone breakdown

Compare and contrast endocrine hormones, neurohormones and neurotransmitters, including how they travel through the body and which type of tissue produces them.

Endocrine: Hormones made by the epithelial endocrine organs Generally these chemical signals travel through the blood to distant target cells, they are slower in acting and more long lived. Neurohormones: Hormones made by nervous endocrine organs (nervous tissue) These travel more systemically than neurotransmitters (many produced in hypothalamus and enter the bloodstream to travel to the target cell). Neurotransmitters: Electrical signal travels across an axon releasing chemical signals (stored in vesicles in axon terminals) to travel across a synapse to the receiving neuron. Generally excitatory or inhibitory. local signals, fast, and short lived.

Compare and contrast the different types of chemical signals, making sure to include how they are transported (through the blood or extracellular fluid) and their target cells (same cell, nearby cell, or distant cell).

Endocrine: This is also known as hormones. It travels through the blood to distant cells. Paracrine: This chemical travels through the ECF and to nearby cells. Autocrine: This chemical travels through the ECF and the target cell is the same cell.

List the primary effects of catecholamines

Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate the body's immediate response to a stressor by - Increasing the rate and force of heart contraction - Dilating bronchioles (the airway passages in the lungs) - Contrasting the blood vessels supplying the skin, digestive organs and urinary organs (which increases blood pressure) - Dilating the blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles - Dilating the pupils - Decreasing digestive and urinary functions

Describe the structure of a follicle.

Follicle cells- contain colloid, have an external blood vessel

Define hormone and describe how hormones travel to their target cells.

Hormones are a regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported through the bloodstream.

Compare and contrast hydrophilic and hydrophobic hormones, including their solubility in water, whether each of these types is more likely to travel in the blood bound to a carrier protein or freely, how quickly each of these types is typically broken down or eliminated from the body, and whether each of these types is more likely to have a receptor on the surface of its target cell or inside its target cell.

Hydrophilic: Water soluble and easily interact with water, travel freely in blood, bodies can remove these faster, have to bind to receptor that's on the membrane of the target cell Most amino acid-derived hormones are hydrophilic SOLUBILITY AFFECTS HOW IT INTERACTS WITH THE TARGET CELL Hydrophobic: Not easily water soluble and does not interact with water, bound to carrier proteins in blood, harder to remove from the blood & stick around longer, Will bind to receptor inside its target cell All steroid derived hormones are hydrophobic SOLUBILITY AFFECTS HOW IT INTERACTS WITH THE TARGET CELL

Identify which type of hormone thyroid hormones are (amino acid-derived or steroid) and whether they are hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

Hydrophobic, Amino acid derivative (only acception of being hydrophobic)

Name and describe the different disorders associated with hypersecretion or hyposecretion of growth hormone.

Hypersecretion Gigantism -occurs before the closure of epiphyseal plate -abnormally tall, wide body, big hands Acromegaly -occurs after closure of the epiphyseal plate - larger organs, visual discrepancies, larger facial features Hyposecretion Pituitary Dwarfism -short (grow about 3-4 feet) -slowed sexual maturation, cardiovascular problems

Define hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism and describe their effects on TSH production.

Hyperthyroidism (grave's disease)- too much T3, T4; tropic hormones decrease, weight loss, intolerance to heat/cold, increased HR and BP. Feedback loop disconnected. Immune system produces protein mimicking TSH, enlarged thyroid, and intolerance to heat. Hypothyroidism- feedback loop is trying to increase, Tropic hormones increased, weight gain, cold b/c of intolerance, lowered HR and BP. Either iodine deficiency or Hashimoto's disease. Hashimoto's is auto immune sys attacking follicle cells, goiter because of increased tropic hormones, growth of gland, thyroglobulin accumulation in colloid.

List the six hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland (full names) and give the hypothalamic releasing hormone for each one (abbreviations ok). Also indicate which of those hormones are inhibited by hypothalamic somatostatin.

Hypothalamus-anterior pituitary gland hormone 1) TRH-Thyroid stimulating hormone 2) CRH-Adrenocorticotropic hormone 3) PRH-Prolactin 4) GnRH-Follicle-stimulating hormone AND Luteinizing hormone 5) GHRH-Growth hormone (inhibited by somatostatin)

Describe in detail the three-tier feedback loop that regulates the secretion of cortisol, making sure to include the stimuli involved.

In the 1st zone, the hypothalamus detects outside stimuli, like stress, and secretes CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone). CRH then goes into the 2nd zone, the anterior pituitary and this secretes adrenocortical tropic hormone. Adrenocortical tropic hormone then goes into the adrenal cortex (3rdzone) and releases cortisol into the body.

Describe the stimulus that primarily regulates catecholamine production.

Neural stimulus → The sympathetic neurons stimulate secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine from an adrenal medulla cell

Can hormones interact with a cell that doesn't have a receptor for that hormone?

No, hormone must interact with receptor on target cell to have an effect.

Explain the difference between endocrine and neuroendocrine organs and list the organs of the endocrine system that fall into each category (see Fig. 16.3)

One of the main differences between the two is that endocrine organs are composed of epithelial tissue while the neuroendocrine organs are composed of nervous tissue. ENDOCRINE: anterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal cortex, ovaries and testes NEUROENDOCRINE: hypothalamus, pineal gland, posterior pituitary gland, adrenal medulla

Heart

Produces: Atrial natriuretic peptide, which decreases blood pressure by targeting the kidneys and blood vessels

Kidneys

Produces: erythropoietin and renin, which stimulate red blood cell formation

Adipose tissue

Produces: leptin, stimulates the feeling of fullness

Pineal gland

Produces: melatonin (neurohormone), melatonin aids in the sleep cycle

Gonads (testes and ovaries)

Produces: sex hormones

Thymus

Produces: thymosin and thymopoietin, stimulate the maturation of certain white blood cells

Identify the steps of a negative feedback loop, including which types of cells are likely to serve as the receptor, control center, and effector in the context of the endocrine system.

Receptor: ● Cells that detect deviation from maintaining homeostasis ● These receptors from the endocrine gland cells continuously monitor regulated variables in the blood: glucose, calcium Control Center: ● The stimulated control center (often the same as the control center) increases/decreases its secretion of a particular hormone ● When the control center is stimulated, it changes its secretion of the appropriate hormone Effector: ● The hormone triggers its response in its target cells that moves conditions towards its normal range Hormone travels through the blood to reach its target organ

Are receptors specific to a particular hormone?

Receptors are very specific to a particular hormone.

. Identify whether the sympathetic nervous system stimulates or inhibits glucagon and insulin production

Reduces insulin production and promotes glucagon production

Describe signal amplification.

Signal amplification takes a small signal and incorporates more peripheral proteins amplifying the signal making it bigger and bigger Ex. cAMP activates protein kinase, protein kinase goes on to phosphorylate (add phosphate group to) other proteins. This activates those proteins continuing the process.

Describe in detail the feedback loop involving parathyroid hormone that regulates blood calcium levels, including what type of regulation this is considered (e.g. hormonal, humoral, or neural stimulus), and identifying the stimulus, receptors, and control center.

Stimulus- Blood calcium decreases Receptor- chief cells in parathyroid gland detect low calcium level (humoral) Control center- Chief cells produce PTH secretion Effect- Osteoclasts degrade bone, more calcium is absorbed in intestines, kidneys retain more calcium

Identify the stimulus for the secretion of calcitonin and describe its effect, including the mechanisms that produce this effect.

Stimulus- Hypercalcemia (humoral stimulus) Effects- lower calcium in the blood, inhibits osteoclasts Mechanisms- Made of parafollicular cells, more important for putting calcium into bone (bone turnover).

Describe the basic steps of thyroid hormone secretion (to the level of detail described in class), including where each step occurs (e.g. within the follicle cells or within the colloid), the precursors needed for synthesis of thyroid hormones, and where each precursor originates (aka is it made in the thyroid or does it come from diet?).

Stimulus- either decreased T3, T4 or exposure to cold Receptor- hypothalamus detects change First tier control- Hypothalamus secretes Thyroid reducing hormone Second tier control- Anterior pituitary secretes Thyroid stimulation hormone Third tier control- Thyroid gland is stimulated to either produce T3,T4, or grow and develop T3 and T4 made by iodine and thyroglobulin entering colloid and attaching, then entering back into follicle cell and getting broken down by lysosome becoming T3 and T4 Effects- increased levels of T3, T4 and increased BMR

Describe in detail the three-tier negative feedback loop that regulates the secretion of T3 and T4, making sure to include the stimuli involved.

Stimulus- either decreased T3, T4 or exposure to cold Receptor- hypothalamus detects change First tier control- Hypothalamus secretes Thyroid reducing hormone Second tier control- Anterior pituitary secretes Thyroid stimulation hormone Third tier control- Thyroid gland is stimulated to either produce T3,T4, or grow and develop T3 and T4 made by iodine and thyroglobulin entering colloid and attaching, then entering back into follicle cell and getting broken down by lysosome becoming T3 and T4 Effects- increased levels of T3, T4 and increased BMR *Somatostatin also inhibits TSH

Define synergists and antagonists in the context of hormones and based on the activities of a pair of hormones, be able to classify that pair as synergists or antagonists.

Synergists: hormones with similar effects Examples: GH, Cortisol, Glucagon are synergistic in that they increase metabolic fuels in the blood Antagonists: Hormones with opposite effects Examples: (PTH, Calcitonin) & (Glucagon, Insulin)

Compare and contrast T3 and T4, including structure, how much is produced, half-life, and how biologically active they are.

T3 is more potent but there is less circulating in the blood (10%). T4 stays in the blood longer, more in the body (90%), tissues can convert into T3

Describe the general function of the endocrine system.

The general function of the endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis, secrete chemical signals that stay in the body.

Identify the type of cells in the adrenal medulla that produce hormones and what particular hormones they produce.

The adrenal medulla consists of neuroendocrine cells called chromaffin cells. The chromaffin cells secrete the chemicals called catecholamines, mainly epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Describe the main function of the hypothalamus with respect to the endocrine system.

The hypothalamus integrates activities of the nervous and endocrine system. It produces and secretes hormones including tropic hormones that signal the pituitary gland(s).

Compare and contrast the endocrine system and the nervous system. Make sure to include how signals travel to their target cells, the scale of communication (local vs. systemic), the speed of communication, and how long the effects persist.

The nervous system: They have cell to cell communication, they travel through the synapse. They are local interactions and are fast signals but short lived. They are also considered paracrine signals. They use electrical signals. The endocrine system: They are hormones that travel through the blood. Being that they can travel anywhere in the body they are considered systemic. The affect of these are increased because they can go to different tissues in the body. They have slow signals but are long lived. They also use chemical signals.

List the hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus but released by the posterior pituitary.

The posterior pituitary stores and released two neurohormones produced by clusters of cell bodies in the hypothalamus known as supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. These hormones are antidiuretic hormones (ADH) and oxytocin.

List the two processes whose relative rates determine the levels of a particular hormone in the blood.

The two processes that determine the levels of hormones are how much is put into the blood and how much is taken out of the blood.

Describe the relationship between the endocrine system and the nervous system (e.g. do they work antagonistically or synergistically).

The two systems work synergistically.

List the three ways that hormones can be removed from the blood.

They can be taken up by the target cell and broken down by enzymes in the target cell, they can be broken down in the liver by enzymes, they can also be broken down in the kidney and lost by the urine.

Describe paraneoplastic syndrome.

This is when cancer cells start producing hormones. Although this isn't a good thing, it can help diagnose cancer early because of the high levels of hormones in the blood

For the other five hormones produced by the anterior pituitary (besides growth hormone), identify their target organ (or organs) and basic effects.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone -targets thyroid -stimsulate growth and release of hormones (tropic) Adrenocorticotropic hormone -targets adrenal cortex -stimulates growth and hormone release (tropic) Prolactin -stimulates growth of mammary glands and milk production (women) Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone -targets the gonads (men and women) -stimulate formation of gametes and release of sex hormones and other reproductive functions

List the hormones secreted by the thyroid and parathyroid and identify which type of cells produce each hormone.

Thyroid: T3 and T4 hormones in follicle cell Parathyroid: Chief cells make Parathyroid hormone

Define tropic hormone

Tropic Hormone: goes to target cell/organ to release more or less hormone

Define upregulation and downregulation in terms of hormone receptors on target cells and explain what situation (or situations) could lead to each.

Upregulation: Increase in the number or receptors on or in a membrane. Can be caused by having a low level of a particular hormone or if you have a short lived increase in the levels of a hormone (quick swell in # of hormones). Downregulation: Decrease in the number of receptors on or in a membrane. Can be caused by having a high level of a particular hormone. A long-lived high level of a hormone is not good so it can be downregulated.

Can there be more than one type of receptor for a given hormone? If so, could that hormone potentially produce a different effect if it binds to a different receptor?

there may be different receptors for the same hormone depending on the target organ, meaning that hormone can show different effects depending on the receptor.

List the specific effects of insulin, including its overall effect on the levels of glucose and metabolic fuels in the blood.

● Decrease the level of blood glucose in the body ○ Uptake lipis, amino acids, & glucose ○ Synthesis of glycogen (stores the glucose) ○ Synthesis of adipose tissue (more storage) ○ Promotion of satiety (tells you that you are full)

List the hormones in the pancreas that are inhibited by somatostatin.

● Glucagon and insulin

Describe the three possible ways that hormone secretion can be regulated and give an example of each. Given a description of a situation where hormone secretion is being regulated, be able to determine which type of regulation is occurring.

● Hormonal Stimuli/Inhibition: one hormone stimuli/inhibiting another hormone ● Humoral Stimuli: non-hormonal substance that is influencing hormonal levels ● Neural Stimuli: neuron interacting with cell, telling hormones to produce more/less cells

Define hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia and identify possible causes and symptoms.

● Hypoglycemia is when there is not enough glucose within your blood. Symptoms include weakness, dizziness, and sometimes coma ● Hyperglycemia is when there is too much glucose within your blood. Can lead to blood vessel and nerve damage and kidney failure

List the specific effects of glucagon, including its overall effect on the levels of glucose and metabolic fuels in the blood.

● Increase the availability of building blocks within the blood ○ Gluconeogenesis ○ Release fatty acids and amino acids ○ Glycogenolysis ○ Formation of ketone bodies ● All this is used to increase the blood glucose level

Describe in detail the feedback loops that regulate blood glucose levels (both below and above homeostatic levels).

● Insulin decreases the concentration of glucose in the blood. After you eat a meal, your blood glucose levels rise, triggering the secretion of insulin from β cells in the pancreas. Insulin acts as a signal that triggers cells of the body, such as fat and muscle cells, to take up glucose for use as fuel. Insulin also causes glucose to be converted into glycogen—a storage molecule—in the liver. Both processes pull sugar out of the blood, bringing blood sugar levels down, reducing insulin secretion, and returning the whole system to homeostasis

Describe the cause of ketoacidosis and its effect on the blood.

● Ketoacidosis is caused when there are too many ketones produced in the body. It primarily affects Type I diabetics. The ketones within the blood drop the normal pH lower than 7.35, this then causes the blood to be acidic

Identify which type of feedback loop (positive or negative) is more common in endocrine regulation of homeostasis and give an example of a positive and a negative feedback loop involved in the endocrine system.

● Negative Feedback loops are more common in endocrine regulation of homeostasis ● Negative Example: ● Positive Example: Oxytocin stimulates contraction of uterus muscles, and also stimulates mammary glands (increasing stimulus in both)

Identify which structures in the pancreas have an endocrine function and list the three types of cells that make up those structures. For each specific type of cells, identify the hormone that is produced.

● Pancreatic islet ○ Alpha cell- produce glucagon ○ Beta cell- produce insulin ○ Delta cell- produce somatostatin

Describe the steps of the cAMP second messenger system. Include the specific names of all chemical messengers and proteins, as well as the specific effect that cAMP has inside the cell.

● The goal of the second messenger system is to produce another compound inside the cell 1. A hormone is bound to the outside of the cell 2. The receptor activates a peripheral protein (which is next to the membrane) 3. The peripheral protein activates an enzyme 4. The enzyme will catalase formation of a second messenger 5. The second messenger initiates a series of events in the cell that leads to changes in its activity ● cAMP activates the protein kinases and phosphorylates other proteins ● Signal amplification: single hormone can activate multiple peripheral proteins

Compare and contrast Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus, including how common each is, the cause, typical symptoms, and how each is treated.

● Type 1- no insulin is being produced, can be an autoimmune issue because the beta cells are broken down and cannot produce insulin, treated with insulin Type 2- insulin resistant, usually due to being overweight, treated with exercise and diet changes