A&P II - Exam 3
stomach
greater curvature pyloric sphincter rugae
What separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity?
hard and soft palate
Taenia coli, the three bands or ribbons of muscle on the longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa, form pockets causes by the constant tension of the bunches called _______
haustra plural: haustrum
The indentation on the medial surface of the kidney is the __________.
hilum
This electrolyte imbalance is normally caused by hyperparathyroidism.
hypercalcemia
This electrolyte imbalance can be caused by renal failure, aldosterone insufficiency, cellular destruction from severe burns or trauma, and accidental administration or ingestion of excess potassium salts.
hyperkalemia
The most common cause of this electrolyte imbalance is dehydration.
hypernatremia
Mrs. Frykholm is experiencing diabetic ketoacidosis, which causes metabolic acidosis. She has experienced damage to her kidneys from diabetes mellitus. Predict how her body compensates to return her blood pH to normal.
hyperventilation
This electrolyte imbalance is normally caused by diuretics
hypokalemia
This electrolyte imbalance is caused by an abnormal decrease in the plasma sodium ion concentration.
hyponatremia
Feeding centers are located in the:
hypothalamus
What leads to respiratory acidosis?
hypoventilation
Meals high in protein __________ gastrin secretion from the gastric glands
increase
Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can do all of the following, EXCEPT __________. increase renin secretion increase blood concentration of angiotensin-II (A-II) increase the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) constrict both the afferent and efferent arterioles
increase the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Increased water reabsorption in the descending limb of the nephron loop will result in __________.
increased NaCl reabsorption in the ascending limb
A meal high in fat would __________.
inhibit gastric emptying
Water loss from the body that we do not notice is known as:
insensible water loss
Which hormone stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, lowering the concentration of glucose in the blood?
insulin
Where does blood in the arcuate artery travel next on its journey toward the glomerulus?
interlobular (cortical radiate) artery
The _______ in the small intestine have a similar structure and function to the _______ in the stomach.
intestinal glands; gastric pits
The thick ascending limb of the nephron loop is mostly permeable to:
ions, such as Na and Cl
As filtrate moves down the descending limb of the nephron loop:
its concentration increases
Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of lactose into glucose and galactose?
lactase
If there was no medullary gradient, the kidneys would produce:
large amount of dilute urine
Simple columnar epithelium extends from the stomach to the ______.
large intestine
Which organ functions to absorb significant quantities of water, electrolytes, and vitamins?
large intestine
It is possible for vegetarians to obtain complete proteins by combining _______ and _______.
legumes cereal grains
Mouth
lined with stratified squamous epithelium Oral Orifice (anterior opening), Lips made of orbicularis oris muscle Cheeks made of buccinator muscles Oral Vestibule recess internal to lips and cheeks, external to teeth and gums Oral Cavity Proper: lies w/in teeth and gums Labial Frenulum: median attachment of each lip to gum
Cirrhosis of the liver would most severely impact digestion of __________.
lipids
taeniae coli
longitudinal muscles that aid in the process of peristalsis
Peristaltic contractions that propel the contents of the colon toward the distal large intestine are:
mass movements
The majority of __________ occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine.
mechanical breakdown
Where does ADH promote water reabsorption?
medullary collecting duct
Hyperventilation is the compensation for an acid-base imbalance known as ________.
metabolic acidosis
A patient is admitted to the hospital with the following plasma values: pH = 7.2, pCO2 = 25 mmHg, and HCO3 −− = 18 mEq/L. What is the acid base imbalance?
metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation
Diarrhea can lead to which acid/base disturbance? Assuming compensation, would it be a metabolic or respiratory compensation?
metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation
Starvation would cause which of the following acid-base conditions? Also, determine what type of compensation (metabolic or respiratory) there would be.
metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation
A patient is admitted to the hospital with the following plasma values: pH = 7.5, pCO2 = 45 mmHg, and HCO3 −− = 30 mEq/L. What is the acid-base imbalance?
metabolic alkalosis with no compensation
metabolic alkalosis metabolic acidosis respiratory acidosis respiratory alkalosis
metabolic alkalosis: Respiratory compensation for this acid-base balance occurs via hypoventilation. metabolic acidosis: The main compensatory mechanism for this acid-base imbalance is hyperventilation. respiratory acidosis: This acid-base imbalance is caused by an abnormal decrease in ventilation and retention of carbon dioxide. respiratory alkalosis: To compensate for this acid-base imbalance, the kidneys secrete more bicarbonate ions and reabsorb more hydrogen ions.
Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of:
monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Increased water volume causes the hydrostatic pressure in plasma to increase and the osmotic pressure to decrease; as a result, water will __________.
move from the ECF to the ICF
Absorption is best described as the:
movement of food particles through the wall of the alimentary canal.
Superior Labial Frenulum & Inferior Labial Frenulum
mucosal fold connected to upper and lower lip
Countercurrent multiplication and exchange occurs in the __________.
nephron loop and vasa recta
Question 1: Which of the following is NOT a nutrient monomer used by the body to generate ATP? glucose fatty acids nucleic acids amino acids
nucleic acids
What best exemplifies enzymatic hydrolysis?
nutrient breakdown
The lips are formed by the ________ muscle and covered with _________ epithelium
orbicularis oris; stratified squamous keratinized epithelium.
Under what condition might it be beneficial to administer hypertonic sodium chloride to a patient?
overhydration
What molecule is both the starting compound and end result of the citric acid cycle?
oxaloacetate
Substances that lose electrons are said to be:
oxidized
Which hormone has NO role in potassium ion regulation?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
The __________ cells are responsible for HCl production.
parietal
Urine collection occurs in the _______ of the kidney
pelvis
Chief cells release:
pepsinogen
What process involves the donation of a phosphate group from ATP to a reactant to "pay" for a cellular process?
phosphorylation
The cells surrounding the glomerular capillaries are called
podocytes|podocyte
Heat is exchanged between the body and the environment by all of the following mechanisms EXCEPT: convection. precipitation. evaporation. radiation.
precipitation.
What leads to metabolic alkalosis?
prolonged vomiting and the loss of acidic stomach contents
What is the main job of the pharynx?
propulsion
Digestion of which of the following might be inhibited if a patient chronically consumes an antacid?
protein
What is the main difference in composition of plasma and interstitial fluid?
protein content
Glomerular colloid osmotic pressure (GCOP) is created by __________.
proteins such as albumin in the blood
The portion of the renal tubule through which filtrate initially flows is known as the __________.
proximal tubule
What can we consciously control about the defecation reflex?
relaxation of the external anal sphincter
Voluntary neural control is necessary for __________.
relaxation of the external urethral sphincter
The process of filtration occurs at the __________.
renal corpuscle
What are the two main divisions of the nephron?
renal corpuscle and renal tubule
Urine drains from a major calyx into __________.
renal pelvis
What are the three main regions of the kidney?
renal pelvis, renal medulla, renal cortex
A patient is admitted to the hospital with the following plasma values: pH = 7.2, pCO2 = 55 mmHg, and HCO3 −− = 30 mEq/L. What is the acid base imbalance?
respiratory acidosis with metabolic compensation
Hypoventilation is the cause of an acid-base imbalance known as:
respiratory acidosis.
Emphysema can lead to which acid/base disturbance? What would be the compensation?
respiratory acidosis; kidneys will retain more HCO3 −− and excrete H+
The stomach is able to expand to nearly 100 times its empty volume partly due to __________ in its walls.
rugae
Which of the following does NOT increase surface area in the small intestine? microvilli rugae circular folds villi
rugae
Reabsorption of filtered glucose from the filtrate into the cells of the proximal tubule is by __________.
secondary active transport
You would expect blood levels of __________ to be highest when the pH of stomach chyme entering the duodenum is at its lowest.
secretin
Which process is a squeezing motion of the circular layer of smooth muscle in the small intestine?
segmentation
Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
self-contained branch of the autonomic nervous system supplying alimentary canal from the esophagus to the anus -Nerve Plexus of the ENS work w/ sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems to control secretion and motility
What is the most abundant extracellular cation?
sodium ion
Peritoneal Cavity
space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum -contains serous fluid that lubricates organs sliding against one another
At the junction of the pharynx and the esophagus, the muscularis externa is modified into a
sphincter called the upper esophageal sphincter
__________ macrophages are located in the liver.
stellate
In general, parasympathetic inputs to the gut are ____, while sympathetic inputs are ______.
stimulatory; inhibitory
Esophagus
stratified squamous
Mesenteries
structures formed by visceral peritoneum folding over on itself around organs to support and bind organs together
Submucosa contains _______ which regulates secretion from and blood flow to its area of the alimentary canal.
submucosal plexus
Deglutition
swallowing -major function of pharynx and esophagus to pass food from mouth to stomach -involves coordination of 22 muscle groups and two phases: 1. Buccal phase: voluntary contraction of tongue 2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase: involuntary phase that primarily involves vagus nerve (medulla and lower pons)
Extrinsic controls regulate glomerular filtration rate as a means of regulating ________.
systemic blood pressure
Stimuli that regulate gastrointestinal tract activity are generated by __________.
the CNS chemoreceptors in the gut the enteric nerve plexus
The glomerular filtration rate is defined as __________.
the amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys in one minute
The glomerular filtration rate is defined as:
the amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys in one minute
Dilute urine is more likely to be produced when __________.
the collecting duct is impermeable to water
Which of the following pH values is most acidic?
the higher the number the less acidic; the lower the number then the more acidic
The muscularis externa has two layers similar to the muscularis mucosae; the muscularis externas motility is regulated by _______
the myenteric plexus of the ENS
The trigone of the urinary bladder is created by __________.
the openings to the two ureteral orifices and the internal urethral orifice
Renal clearance is defined as __________.
the rate at which the kidneys remove a substance from the blood
Renal clearance is defined as:
the rate at which the kidneys remove a substance from the blood.
Recall that the sympathetic nervous system causes activation of Angiotensin II. With this knowledge, how would the sympathetic nervous system be affected by a treatment for high blood pressure?
the sympathetic nervous system would be inhibited
The muscularis externa of the stomach has ______ instead of _______ like the rest of the alimentary canal.
three layers (additional inner oblique layer - for churning); 2
The majority of the body's energy is stored as:
triglycerides
The myogenic mechanism acts to restore glomerular filtration rate (GFR) by changing __________.
vessel diameter
What creates the mesentery?
visceral peritoneum
What is the main component of all body fluids?
water
Fluid balance in the human body is roughly equivalent to:
water balance.
An increase in the ECF solute content causes:
water to move out of the cell
Autoregulatory mechanisms are most effective ________.
when the arterial pressure is between 80 and 180 mm Hg
Describe how sodium and water reabsorption are regulated in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
-ADH causes increase in water reabsorption -Aldosterone: Na+ reabsorptions; little Na+ leaving body -Atrial Natriuretic Peptide: reduces Na+ in blood, lowering blood volume and BP -Parathyroid hormone: acts on DCT to increase Ca2+ reabsorption
Identify and describe structural modifications of the wall of the small intestine that enhance the digestive process.
-Circular folds: force chyme to slowly spiral through lumen allowing more time for nutrient absorption -Villi: dense capillary bed and lymphatic capillary (lacteal) for absorption -Microvilli: Cytoplasmic extensions of mucosal cell (fuzzy brush border) that contains membrane-bound enzymes brush border enzymes used for final carbohydrate and protein digestion Increases surface area for nutrient absorption
What factors contribute(s) to the higher filtration rate in the glomerular capillaries compared with other capillary beds?
-The glomerular capillaries are fenestrated. -The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than the diameter of the afferent arteriole. -The visceral layer of the glomerular capsule is very porous.
List the major functions of the large intestine.
-absorbs water from indigestible food residues and eliminates the latter as feces -critical for maintaining fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base homeostasis
When ADH levels are low, the kidneys produce _______ urine.
-dilute -high volume of
Teeth
-sit in gum-covered sockets in margins of mandible and maxilla -Mastication: process of chewing that tears and grinds food Primary detention: 20 deciduous teeth (baby teeth) 32 deep-lying permanent teeth
List minerals essential for health.
1. Calcium 2. Phosphorus 3. Potassium 4. Sulfur 5. Sodium 6. Chlorine 7. Magnesium
Regions of the Stomach
1. Cardial part (cardia): surrounds cardial orifice 2. Fundus: dome-shaped region beneath diaphragm 3. Body: midportion 4. Pyloric part: wider and more superior portion of pyloric region, antrum, narrows into pyloric canal that terminates in pylorus
Gastric Acid Secretion Phases in the Stomach
1. Cephalic Phase: sight and smell triggering vagus nerve 2. Gastric Phase: food enters the stomach 3. Intestinal Phase: remaining 10% of secretion completed when digested proteins in fluid enter the duodenum
Papillae of the Tongue
1. Filiform papillae: roughness to provide friction, no taste buds, whitish appearance 2. Fungiform papillae: scattered widely over tongue, mushroom shaped, vascular core causes reddish appearance 3. Vallate / Circumvallate papillae: 8-12 form V-shaped row in back of tongue 4. Foliate papillae: located on lateral aspects of posterior tongue
Describe the mechanisms underlying water and solute reabsorption from the renal tubules into the peritubular capillaries.
1. Glomerular filtration 2. Tubular reabsorption 3. Tubular secretion
List and define the major processes occurring during digestive system activity.
1. Ingestion: Eating/Drinking 2. Propulsion: Movement of food through the alimentary canal through swallowing and peristalsis (alternating waves of contraction and relaxation) 3. Mechanical Breakdown: chewing, churning, segmentation (local constriction of intestine that mixes food w digestive juices) 4. Digestion: Series of catabolic steps that use enzymes to break down complex food molecules into chemical building blocks 5. Absorption: passage of digested fragments from lumen of GI tract into blood or lymph 6. Defecation: elimination
Fastest to Slowest Food Digestion in the Stomach
1. Liquids 2. Carbohydrates, Proteins 3. Lipids
Functions of the Kidney
1. Maintain the body's internal environment -regulating total water volume and total solute concentration in water -Regulating ion concentrations in ECF -Ensuring long-term acid-base balance -excreting metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs -producing erythropoietin (regulate BP) and renin (regulate RBC production) -Activating vitamin D -carry out gluconeogenesis if needed
Identify the four layers of the alimentary canal
1. Mucosa: lines lumen 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis externa 4. Serosa
Stomach: Describe changes in the basic alimentary canal structure that aid its digestive function.
1. Muscularis externa has an additional 3rd layer of inner obliques allowing stomach to churn, mix, and move chime, but also pummel (increasing physical breakdown) 2. Mucosa layer consists of columnar epithelium ENTIRELY composed of mucous cells, secrete two-layer coat of alkaline mucus in which the surface layer traps bicarbonate-rich fluid layer that is beneath it
Peristaltic waves in the stomach
1. Propulsion 2. Grinding 3. Retropulsion
Internal Kidney
1. Renal Cortex 2. Renal Medulla: composed of medullary/renal pyramids Papilla (tip of pyramid) Renal Columns (separate pyramids) Lobe (pyramid and surrounding cortical tissue) -8 lobes per kidney 3. Renal Pelvis Minor Calyces (cup-shaped areas collecting urine drained from pyramidal papillae) Major calyces (collect urine from minor calyces and empty it into renal pelvis)
Flow of Urine through Kidney
1. Renal Pyramid 2. Minor Calyx 3. Major Calyx 4. Renal pelvis 5. ureter
Phases of Deglutition (swallowing)
1. Voluntary phase - pushing food from nasopharynx back to the oropharynx 2. Pharyngeal phase: soft palate and epiglottis seal off nasopharynx and larynx 3. Esophageal phase: peristaltic waves move the bolus down to the stomach
Describe the function of the digestive system
1. take in food 2. break it down into nutrient molecules 3. absorb molecules into the bloodstream 4. Rid body of any indigestible remains
What fraction of the cardiac output is delivered to the kidneys each minute?
1/4
enamel
12 molars in permanent dentition
What is the normal value for the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in mL/min?
125
How many net ATP are produced as a result of glycolysis?
2
What percentage of body fluids does interstitial fluid account for?
32%
__________ ATP molecules are produced via the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
34
Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near:
37.5 °C (99.5 °F)
How much urine is lost through obligatory water loss each day?
500 ml
How much urine is lost through obligatory water loss each day?
500ml
Describe the normal physical and chemical properties of urine.
95% water 5% solutes Nitrogenous wastes -urea (largest solute) -uric acid -creatinine Other Solutes: -Na+ -K+ -PO3^3- -SO4^2- -Ca2+ -Mg2+ HCO3-
Predict what might be found in an arterial blood gases test for a patient who has asthma and has been suffering from pneumonia that has worsened over several days and is obstructing his airways.
A patient with pneumonia and asthma is likely to have developed respiratory acidosis that is partially compensated.
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
A: duodenum B: jejunum C: ileum -goblet and enterocyte cells -muscularis mucosae
How does ADH contribute to the formation of concentrated urine?
ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water by stimulating the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membrane.
Question 2: From which of the following are ketone bodies assembled during ketogenesis? glycerol acetyl-CoA glucose NADH
Acetyl-CoA
What chemical dissociates in water to release a hydrogen ion (H+)?
Acid
What is a possible side effect of weakening of the cardiac sphincter?
Acid reflux into the esophagus
Which of the following functions is not associated with water? Acts as a nonpolar solvent Cushions organs and tissues Distributes body heat Transports and distributes solutes
Acts as a nonpolar solvent
Indicate the major uses of lipids in the body.
Adipose tissue offers protection, insulation, fuel storage Phospholipids essential in myelin sheaths and all cell membranes Cholesterol stabilizes membranes; precursor of bile salts, steroid hormones Prostaglandins smooth muscle contraction, BP control, inflammation Help absorb fat-soluble vitamins Major fuel of hepatocytes and skeletal muscle
List the factors that determine body water content and describe the effect of each factor.
Adult males: 60% Adult females: 50% Infants: 73% (low fat, low bone mass) Elderly: 45% -Body mass: muscle contains more water; females have less skeletal muscle mass -Age -Sex: body fat -Adipose tissue: least hydrated of all
What would occur if the response to dehydration were regulated by a positive feedback loop rather than a negative feedback loop?
After fluid balance was restored, the response would continue, leading to overhydration and other electrolyte and pH imbalances.
Drinking too much alcohol results in a headache the next day. Why does this happen?
Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion.
Which hormone influences the concentration of hydrogen ions in the filtrate formed by the kidneys?
Aldosterone
Which of the following hormones functions to regulate fluid balance in the body?
Aldosterone
Why do high levels of potassium stimulate aldosterone secretion?
Aldosterone stimulates the sodium-potassium pump to reabsorb sodium while simultaneously secreting potassium.
Identify alimentary canal vs accessory digestive organs
Alimentary Canal (GI Tract/Gut): -mouth -pharynx -esophagus -stomach -small intestine -large intestine -anus Accessory Organs: -teeth -tongue -gallbladder -digestive glands (salivary glands, liver, pancreas)
What is the most potent stimulus for thirst?
An increase in plasma osmolarity
Describe the tissue composition and general function of Submucosa
Areolar Connective Tissue -Contains blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and submucosal nerve plexus that supply surrounding GI tract tissues -Has abundant amount of elastic tissues that help organs to regain shape after storing large meal
Large Intestine
Ascending Colon Cecum
Location and Features of Large Intestine
Ascending Colon: retroperitoneal, ends at the hepatic flexure Transverse Colon: intraperitoneal; ends at the splenic flexure Descending Colon: retroperitoneal; passes along the left side of the abdominal cavity Sigmoid Colon: intraperitoneal; "s-shape"
Describe mechanisms involved in regulating blood volume and blood pressure.
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) released by atrial cells in response to stretch caused by increase blood pressure which decreases blood pressure and blood volume by: -inhibiting ADH, renin, and aldosterone production -increasing excretion of Na+ and water -promoting vasodilation directly and also decreasing production of angiotensin-II Cardiovascular Baroreceptors: alert brain to increase blood volume and pressure -sympathetic nervous system impulses to kidneys decline which causes: afferent arterioles to dilate, GFR increases, increased Na+ and water output, and reduced blood pressure and volume
Art-Labeling Activity: Anatomy of the urinary tract
B. Rugae C. Trigone
Where does primary active transport of sodium occur in proximal convoluted tubule cells?
Basolateral membrane
Which of the following factors is a possible cause for respiratory alkalosis?
Brain tumor on the respiratory centers
Which of the following actions is a primary role of the phosphate buffer system?
Buffer intracellular fluid (ICF)
__________ stimulates the gallbladder to contract.
CCK
Which of the following solutes has a higher concentration in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Calcium
What are building-block molecules of the four classes of macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)?
Carbohydrates: monosaccharides Lipids: fatty acids Proteins: amino acid Nucleic acids: nucleotide
What is the biggest source of metabolic acids in the body?
Carbon dioxide
What product forms when a hydrogen ion from a strong acid is accepted by a bicarbonate ion?
Carbonic acid
How does the respiratory system work to decrease acidosis?
Carbonic acid is broken down into water and CO2; the CO2 is then exhaled.
What is the main buffer system of the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Carbonic acid-bicarbonate ion buffer system
Which of the following effects tend to be caused by hypernatremia?
Cellular crenation
What is the initial H+ regulatory mechanism in the body?
Chemical buffers
Ducts of the Liver
Common hepatic duct: leaves liver Cystic duct: connects gallbladder Bile duct: formed by union of common hepatic and cystic ducts
Which statement is true regarding complete proteins? Complete proteins can be synthesized from carbon skeletons. Complete proteins provide all of the essential amino acids. Complete proteins can only be obtained from animal proteins. Complete proteins lack one or more essential amino acids.
Complete proteins provide all of the essential amino acids.
Distinguish between nutritionally complete and incomplete proteins.
Complete: contain all needed essential amino acids -eggs, milk, fish, soybeans Incomplete: lack some essential amino acids -legumes, nuts, cereals
Composition and Circulation of Bile
Composed of yellow-green, alkaline solution containing: 1. Bile Salts: cholesterol derivatives that function in fat emulsification and absorption 2. Bilirubin: pigment formed from heme, bacteria breakdown in intestine to stercobilin that gives brown color to feces 3. Cholesterol, Triglycerides, Phospholipids, and Electrolytes
Tongue
Composed of: interlacing bundles of skeletal muscle Functions: gripping, repositioning, and mixing food during chewing -formation of bolus (mix of food and saliva) -initiation of swallowing, speech, and taste Features: Intrinsic muscles change shape of tongue Extrinsic muscles alter tongue's position Lingual Frenulum: attachment to floor of mouth Terminal sulcus: groove located posterior to vallate papillae dividing body (oral cavity) and root (oropharynx) of tongue, bumpy due to lingual tonsil
Describe the anatomy and basic functions of the pharynx.
Composition: Internal - stratified squamous epithelium lining w mucus-producing glands External - Inner longitudinal skeletal muscles and outer pharyngeal constrictors encircle wall of pharynx Functions: allows passage of food, fluids, and air
Describe the composition and functions of saliva
Composition: 97-99.5% water -slightly acidic (pH 6.7-7.00) -electrolytes: Na+, K+, Cl-, PO42−, HCO3− -Proteins: mucin, lysozyme, and IgA Enzyme: salivary amylase and lingual lipase metabolic wastes: urea and uric acid Functions: cleanses mouth -dissolves food chemicals for taste -moistens food; compacts into bolus -begins breakdown of starch with amylase
Describe the anatomy and basic functions of the esophagus.
Composition: flat muscular tube running from laryngopharynx to stomach and flat when not involved in food propulsion -pierces diaphragm at esophageal hiatus -joins stomach at cardial orifice -gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincter surrounds cardial orifice (closed when food is not being swallowed, help protects against acid reflux) Contains all four alimentary canal layers (has adventitia instead of serosa), contains stratified squamous epithelium but changes to simple columnar at stomach
Describe the mechanisms responsible for the medullary osmotic gradient
Countercurrent mechanism: fluids flowing in opposite directions that exchange materials or heat Components: 1. countercurrent multiplier system in the nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons 2. recycling of urea in the medullary collecting ducts 3. countercurrent exchanger in the vasa recta
What is the appropriate respiratory compensation for alkalosis?
Decreased respiratory rate
Which of the following functions is not an important role of hydrogen ions? Intracellular digestion by lysosomes Decreases sodium ion reabsorption Digestion of ingested food Inactivation of bacteria
Decreases sodium ion reabsorption
What triggers the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
Decreasing calcium ion concentration of the blood
Define splanchnic circulation and indicate the importance of the hepatic portal system.
Defined: Blood vessels that supply and drain the abdominal digestive organs Hepatic portal system: digestive organs drain into > veins which drain into >hepatic portal vein > delivers the blood to the liver for processing > drained from liver by a set of hepatic veins > deliver blood to the inferior vena cava
Which of the following conditions is characterized by a decreased volume and increased concentration of the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Dehydration
Describe the general processes of digestion and absorption.
Digestion: breaks down food into smaller and smaller pieces through mechanical and chemical digestion until only individual nutrient molecules remain Absorption: the moving of nutrients and other substances across the epithelial lining of the alimentary canal to enter the bloodstream for delivery to body cells
Overview of the liver.
Digestive function: produce bile Largest gland in body - ~3lbs Falciform ligament separates liver into the larger right and smaller left lobe Round ligament - remnant of fetal umbilical vein
Describe the histologic anatomy of the pancreas.
Digestive function: supplies most of enzymes needed to digest chyme, as well as bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid -Acinar cells are modified simple cuboidal epithelial cells found in clusters (acini) surrounding a small duct to secrete products -Most of the small ducts merge and drain into the main pancreatic duct, some into the accessory pancreatic duct
Which of the following will cause an increase in GHP and GFR?
Dilation of the afferent arteriole
Which of the following locations is a site of potassium ion secretion?
Distal tubule
Peritoneal Membrane
Double-layered membrane surrounding the abdominal organs -folds in on itself w the inner being called visceral peritoneum forming the outer tissue layer of organs
How would giving a patient intravenous albumin affect filtration?
Due to higher colloid osmotic pressure, the net filtration pressure would be lower.
What effect does an increase in antidiuretic hormone (ADH) have on the volume of extracellular fluid (ECF)?
ECF increases when ADH is present
Which of the following solutes will dissociate into ions when placed in water?
Electrolyte
Enamel Dentin Cementum
Enamel: mineralized substances (primarily hydroxyapatite crystals w/ small amount of organic material) covering pulp Dentin: inner layer of mineralized tissue in both root and crown (70% hydroxyapatite crystals; second hardest material in the body), formed by odontoblasts Cementum: outer portion of the root formed by mineralized bone-like tissue (hydroxyapatite crystals and half organic compounds, inc. collagen)
Which of the following is not a layer of the ureter?
Endothelium
The layers of the Mucosa:
Epithelium (simple columnar) Lamina propria (connective tissue)Muscularis Mucosae 1. Inner layer: circular 2. Outer layer: longitudinal
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue
Extrinsic: position of the tongue, move the tongue during chewing, help form the bolus Intrinsic: shape and size of tongue, pushes food against the hard palate during chewing; pushes the bolus posteriorly during swallowing
True or False: Carbon dioxide is formed during the electron transport chain (ETC).
False
True or False: Feeding occurs during the absorptive state.
False
True or False: Filtrate and whole blood contain identical constituents.
False
True or False: The juxtamedullary apparatus acts as a special vascular system called the countercurrent exchanger.
False
True or False: The osmotic pressure gradient, or the force of solutes in a solution, tends to push water away from the solution with the higher osmotic pressure, or the more concentrated solution, by osmosis.
False
True or False: The synthesis of fatty acids is known as lipolysis.
False
Describe the regulation of defecation.
Feces forced into the rectum by mass movements stretch the rectal wall and initiate the defecation reflex. This spinal cord-mediated parasympathetic reflex causes the sigmoid colon and the rectum to contract, and the internal anal sphincter to relax. As feces are forced into the anal canal, messages reach the brain allowing us to decide whether the external (voluntary) anal sphincter should be opened or remain constricted to stop feces passage temporarily. If defecation is delayed reflex contractions end within a few seconds, and the rectal walls relax.With the next mass movement, the defecation reflex is initiated again—and so on, until the person chooses to defecate or the urge to defecate becomes unavoidable.
For which imbalance is the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) appropriate?
Fluid and electrolyte imbalance
Question 4: Which of the following is NOT true of glycolysis? Two molecules of ATP are spent. Four molecules of ATP are synthesized. Glucose is split into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. Four molecules of NADH are spent.
Four molecules of NADH are spent.
Describe the role of the gallbladder.
Function: store and concentrate bile by absorbing water and ions Thin-walled muscular sac on ventral surface of liver -contains honeycomb folds that allow it to expand as it fills -muscular contractions release bile via the cystic duct which flows into bile duct
What effect does high blood pressure have on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in the absence of regulatory mechanisms?
GFR will increase.
The Net Filtration Pressure (NFP) is equal to:
GHP - (GCOP + CHP)
Name the cell types responsible for secreting the various components of gastric juice and indicate the importance of each component in stomach activity.
Gastric pits lead to gastric glands that produce gastric juice Glands in fundus and body produce the most gastric juice Glands including secretory cells: 1. Mucous neck cells: thin, acidic mucus 2. Parietal cells: 3. Chief cells: pepsinogen activating to pepsin; lipases 4. Enteroendocrine cells
What is released by the enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands?
Gastrin
Which hormone increases acid secretion by the stomach?
Gastrin
An increase in blood pressure will cause an increase in _______.
Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP)
Which of the following forces drives filtration?
Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP)
Why is glucose in the urine an indicator of diabetes mellitus?
Glucose occupies all the transport carriers and it is no longer reabsorbed.
Indicate the major uses of carbohydrates in the body.
Glucose: fuel most used by cells to make ATP; neurons die quickly w/o glucose Converted to glycogen or fat for storage Fructose and galactose are converted to glucose by liver before entering circulation
Curvatures of the Stomach
Greater Curvature: bigger/ outer Lesser Curvature: smaller/inner -lesser omentum: runs from lesser curvature to liver -greater omentum: greater curvature over intestine, spleen, and transverse colon
The Mesenteries
Greater omentum: contains 4 layers of folded visceral peritoneum and covers the abdominal organs like an apron; base of stomach down into pelvis Lesser omentum: smaller; extends from the medial surface of the stomach to the liver -both accumulate adipose tissue between the folds
Hard Palate vs Soft Palate
Hard Palate: anterior two-thirds -stratified squamous epithelium and connective tissue -covers the palatine processes of the maxillary and palatine bones -slightly rough to assist w mechanical digestion Soft Palate: posterior one-third -stratified squamous epithelium -covers skeletal muscle -arch shaped -contains uvula which moves posteriorly to prevent food from entering the nasal cavity
Hard and Soft Palates of the Mouth
Hard: formed by palatine bones and palatine processes of maxillae w a midline ridge called raphe Functions: mucosa is slightly corrugated to help create friction against tongue Soft: formed mostly by skeletal muscle and includes: -palatoglossal arches (anchoring to tongue) -palatopharyngeal arches (anchored to wall of oropharynx) -fauces: between arches -uvula: protection facing downward from free edge of soft palate Functions: closes off nasopharynx during swallowing
Which ion imbalance causes the plateau phase of the cardiac muscle cell action potential to shorten, making the heart contractions shorter and weaker?
Hypercalcemia
Which of the following side effects is most likely to develop if a patient is given aldosterone inhibitors?
Hyperkalemia
A patient is experiencing diabetic ketoacidosis, which causes metabolic acidosis. If that patient experienced damage to the kidneys from diabetes mellitus, predict how the body compensates to return blood pH to normal.
Hyperventilation will return blood pH to normal.
What part of the brain controls the thirst mechanism?
Hypothalamus
List the routes by which water enters and leaves the body.
Hypotonic EFC causes a cell to gain water: EFC is hypotonic to the cytosol; cell gains water and will swell Hypertonic EFC causes a cell to lose water: EFC is hypertonic to the cytosol; loses water bc it leaves the cytosol and enters the EFC which causes the cell to shrivel/crenate
Types of Teeth
Incisors: central, broad teeth w narrow crown (central incisors and lateral incisors) Canines: aka cuspids w pointed crowns for ripping/tearing Molars: premolars and molars -cusps: rounded projections
Shape of Teeth
Incisors: chisel shaped for cutting Canines: fanglike teeth that tear/pierce Premolars (bicuspids): broad crowns w rounded cusps to grind/crush Molars: broad crowns, rounded cusps: best grinders
Describe feedback mechanisms that regulate water intake and hormonal controls of water output in urine.
Increased ADH = increased water reabsorption = increased ECF = reduced urine output -Thirst mechanism (angiotensin II or baroreceptor input)
Hepatocytes (Liver Cells)
Increased rough and smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, and mitochondria Functions: -produce ~900 ml of bile per day -process blood-borne nutrients -store fat-soluble vitamins -perform detoxification
Which of the following individuals has the highest total body water percentage?
Infants
Ingestion Secretion Propulsion Digestion Absorption Defecation
Ingestion: Food/water brought in through the mouth typically Secretion: Glands secreting substances (enzymes, hormones, etc.) into the system Propulsion: Movement of ingested food Digestion: food breakdown Absorption: digested food moving through the wall of the alimentary canal into the blood or lymphatic vessels Defecation: material exiting body
Which of the following accounts for the most water loss, second only to urine output?
Insensible perspiration
Intraperitoneal vs Retroperitoneal
Intra: organs located entirely w/in the peritoneal cavity Retro: partly or completely outside of the peritoneal cavity
Indicate the relative fluid volume and solute composition of the fluid compartments of the body.
Intracellular: 60% Cytosol Extracellular: 40% Plasma - 8% of total body water Interstitial fluid - 32%
Which of the following functions is associated with chloride ions in the body?
Involved in the secretion of newly formed bicarbonate ions from erythrocytes
When considering drug administration, why is it important to know the renal clearance rate of the drug?
It dictates the dosage and frequency of administration of drugs.
In what way is the small intestine well adapted for nutrient absorption?
It has a large surface area due to the presence of the circular folds, villi, and microvilli.
Which of the following statements about ECF is correct? It is made up of fluids such as plasma and interstitial fluid. It has the same composition as the ICF. It is found inside cells. It accounts for about 60% of the total body water.
It is made up of fluids such as plasma and interstitial fluid
The vasa recta are associated with which structures in the kidney?
Juxtamedullary nephrons
Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver
Liver Lobules: hexagonal structure and functional units composed of hepatocytes Portal Triad: corner of lobules, containing -Branch of hepatic artery supplying oxygen -Branch of hepatic portal vein bringing nutrient-rich blood from intestine -Bile duct which receives bile from bile canaliculi Liver Sinusoids: leaky capillaries between hepatic plates Stellate Macrophages (Hepatic macrophages): in liver sinusoids remove debris and old RBCs
Which mineral is required in moderate amounts (>200mg per day)?
Magnesium
Which of the following ions is an important component of osseous tissue?
Magnesium ions
What is a major function of potassium ions in the body?
Maintaining resting potential of neurons and muscle cells repolarization of neurons and muscle cells after action potential
Glands of the Tongue
Major (extrinsic) glands outside oral cavity -Parotid: duct opens into oral vestibule -Submandibular: duct opens at base of lingual frenulum -Sublingual: under tongue opening 10-12 ducts into floor of mouth Minor salivary glands are scattered throughout oral cavity with the purposes of keeping mouth moist
Summarize important events and products of electron transport.
Major Phases: 1. Complexes 2 & II accept hydrogen from NADH and FADH2 2. Hydrogen atoms are split into H+ (proton) + electrons (e-), passing electrons down the chain and each complex is reduced when it accepts e-, then oxidized when it passes e on to next complex (coenzyme Q and cytochrome C); energy released is used by complexes I, III, IV to pump H+ into the intermembrane space creating H+ concentration gradient 3. At complex IV, electron pairs combine with some H+ and a molecule of oxygen to form water; electrons cascade from NADH +H+ to progressively lower energy levels until finally delivered to oxygen; energy is used to pump H+ into inner membrane creating an electrochemical proton (H+) gradient
Summarize important events and products of glycolysis.
Major Phases: 1. sugar activation: glucose is phosphorylated twice / energy investment phase requiring input of 2 ATP; provides activation energy 2. sugar cleavage: split into 3 carbon fragments into one of two isomers (dihydroxyacetone phosphate or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) 3. sugar oxidation and ATP formation: (a) each 3-carbon fragments is oxidized by removal of pair of H which alters NAD+ to NADH; (b) Inorganic phosphate groups are attached to each oxidized fragment Results in formation of: 2 pyruvic acid 2 reduced NAD+ net gain of 2 ATP
Summarize important events and products of the citric acid cycle.
Major Phases: Transitional Phase: each pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA by: a. decarboxylation b. oxidation c. formation of acetyl CoA d. joins to carbon creating oxaloacetic acid (6-carbon citric acid) e. acetic acid is changed to keto acid f. oxaloacetic acid regenerated Results in: 6 CO2 8 NADH +H 2 FADH2 2 ATP
Explain how salivation is regulated (only 1500mL per day)
Major salivary glands are activated by parasympathetic nervous system when: -the ingested food stimulates chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in mouth sending signals to: -salivatory nuclei in brain stem that stimulate parasympathetic impulses along fibers in cranial nerves VII and IX glands
Compare the course, length, and functions of the male urethra with those of the female.
Male: three regions 1. Prostatic urethra (2.5cm) w/in prostate 2. Intermediate part/membranous urethra (2cm) passing through urogenital diaphragm from prostate to beginning of penis 3. Spongy urethra (15cm) passes through penis, opens via external urethral orifice Female: 3-4cm tightly bound to anterior vaginal wall -external urethral orifice anterior to vaginal opening
Types of Digestion
Mechanical: physically breaking down food into smaller pieces by chewing and mixing food Chemical: enzymes catalyzing reactions that break the chemical bonds w/in food particles until only small compounds remain
What acid-base imbalance has an elevated blood pH and an elevated bicarbonate ion level?
Metabolic alkalosis
Define metabolism. Explain how catabolism and anabolism differ.
Metabolism: sum of all biochemical reactions inside a cell involving nutrients Catabolism: hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler one (i.e. breakdown of proteins into amino acids) - break Anabolism: synthesis of large molecules from small ones (i.e. synthesis of proteins from amino acids) - build
Describe the tissue composition and general function of Mucosa
Mucosa has 3 sublayers 1. Epithelium: simple columnar epithelium - secretes mucus 2. Lamina Propria: loose areolar connective tissue -nourishment and absorption, defend against microorganisms 3. Muscularis Mucosae: smooth muscle - produces local movements of mucosa
Choose the answer that lists the four layers of the wall of the alimentary canal in the appropriate order from innermost to outermost.
Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa
Cell Types of the Stomach
Mucous Neck Cells: top neck of gland secreting mucous Parietal cells: secrete HCl; produce chemical intrinsic factor Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen DNES cells: aka G cells, very bottom of the gland, secrete gastrin; produce histamine (all throughout digestive system)
Describe the general location, structure, and function of the urethra.
Muscular tube that drains the urinary bladder Mostly pseudostratified columnar epithelium, except: -transitional epithelium near bladder -stratified squamous epithelium near external urethral orifice Sphincters: -Internal: involuntary smooth muscle at bladder-urethra junction -External: voluntary skeletal muscle surrounding urethra as it passes pelvic floor
Describe mechanisms involved in regulating sodium balance.
Na+ water balance is linked to blood pressure and blood volume control mechanisms Changes in blood pressure or volume trigger neuron and hormonal controls to regulate Na+ content Low sodium ion concentration triggers RAAS which leads tot he release of renin, then the formation of angiotensin-II to reabsorb sodium from proximal tubule and initiate aldosterone secretion to reabsorb sodium ions from the distal tubule
The most abundant cation of the ECF is _______ and the most abundant anion in the ECF is _______.
Na+; Cl-
Indicate the role of coenzymes used in cellular oxidation reactions.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) act as hydrogen or electron acceptors in oxidative pathway
Define nutrient, essential nutrient, and calorie.
Nutrient: substance in food needed for growth, maintenance and repair Essential Nutrient: Nutrients that must be eaten because the body cannot synthesize these from other nutrients Calorie: the amount of heat needed to raise temperature of 1kg of water by 1 degree; one dietary calorie equals 1 kcal
Where are the majority of calcium ions stored in the body?
Osseous tissue
Describe the forces (pressures) that promote or counteract glomerular filtration.
Outward Pressure: 1. Hydrostatic Pressure in Glomerular Capillaries -chief force pushing water, solutes out of blood -High pressure (55mm Hg) due to efferent arteriole is a high-resistance vessel w/ smaller diameter than afferent arteriole Inward Pressures: 1. Hydrostatic Pressure in Capsular Space -filtrate pressure in capsule (15mm Hg) 2. Colloid Osmotic Pressure in Capillaries -"pull" of proteins in blood (30mm Hg) Net Filtration Pressure (NFP): sum of forces -pressure responsible for filtrate formation -main controllable factor determining glomerular filtration rate (GFR) -Outward (HPgc) minus Inward (HPcs + OPgc) = 10mm Hg
A patient with heart failure is administered an intravenous line containing a solution of hypertonic sodium chloride. For which of the following patients is this solution an appropriate choice?
Overhydration
Define oxidation and reduction and indicate the importance of these reactions in metabolism.
Oxidation Rx: the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen atoms (and their electrons) Oxidation-reduction (redox) Rx: -oxidized substances lose electrons and energy -reduced substances gain electrons and energy -redox reactions are catalyzed by enzymes that usually require a B vitamin coenzyme (Dehydrogenases: catalyze removal of hydrogen atom; Oxidases: catalyze transfer of oxygen)
Pancreatic Juice
Pancreatic Juice (1200-1500ml/day produced) contains watery, alkaline solution (pH 8) to neutralize acidic chyme coming from stomach
State the roles of bile and pancreatic juice in digestion.
Pancreatic lipase catalyzes reactions that digest lipids into free fatty acids and monoglycerides; upon completion, bile salts and digested lipids stay together in structures (micelles) to ensure absorption -otherwise lipids would re-form into larger globules
Which hormone has no role in potassium ion regulation?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
A patient with a low RBC count receives vitamin B12 injections every 2 weeks. Why?
Parietal cells in this patient's stomach have ceased producing intrinsic factor.
Salivary Glands
Parotid (para=beside; ot=ear) secretes saliva through the parotid duct near second molar (25-30% of total saliva) -only serous cells Submandibular: medial to the inferior portion of the mandible; secrete saliva through submandibular duct in the floor of the oral cavity (65-70% of total saliva) -mostly serous and some mucous cells Sublingual: inferior to the tongue; secrete saliva through several small sublingual ducts emptied into the cavity just under the tongue (5% of total saliva-smallest glands) -mostly mucous
Types of Propulsion
Peristalsis: rhythmic, propulsive, alternating contractions of both longitudinal and circular smooth muscle of the alimentary canal and is aided by mucus Segmentation: intestinal churning, contractions of only the circular layer of smooth muscle producing a squeezing motion
Describe the location and function of the peritoneum.
Peritoneum: serous membranes of abdominal cavity that consists of: -Visceral Peritoneum: external surface of most digestive organs -Parietal Peritoneum: lines the body wall fluid lubricates mobile organs
What ion concentration is linked to calcium ion concentration and regulated by vitamin D3 (calcitriol)?
Phosphate ions
What is most abundant intracellular cation?
Potassium
Motilin
Produced: Duodenal mucosa Stimulus to produce: Fasting; periodic release every 1.5-2hrs by neural stimuli Target organ: Proximal duodenum - stimulates migrating motor complex
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)
Produced: Enteric Neurons Stimulated to produce by: chyme containing partially digested foods Target organs: Small intestine - stimulates buffer secretion; dilates intestinal capillaries; relaxes intestinal smooth muscle Pancreas - increases secretion Stomach - inhibits acid secretion
Glucose-dependent insulotropic peptide (GIP or gastric inhibitory peptide)
Produced: duodenal mucosa Stimulus to produce is: fatty chyme Target Organ: stomach: inhibits HCl production Pancreas: stimulates insulin release
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Produced: duodenal mucosa Stimulus to produce it is: fatty chyme Target Organ: stomach: inhibits secretory activity liver/pancreas: potentiates secretin's actions pancreas: increases output of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice gallbladder: stimulates organ to contract and expel stored bile Hepatopancreatic sphincter: relaxes sphincter to allow entry of bile and juice into duodenum
Intestinal Gastrin
Produced: duodenal mucosa Stimulus to produce: acidic and partially digested foods in duodenum Target organ: Stomach - stimulates gastric glands and motility
Secretin
Produced: duodenal mucosa Stimulus to produce: acidic chyme (also partially digested proteins and fats) Target Organs: Stomach - inhibits gastric gland secretion and gastric motility Pancreas - increases output of pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate ions; potentiates CCK's action Liver - increases bile output
Somatostatin
Produced: stomach and duodenal mucosa Stimulated to produce by: food in stomach; stimulation by sympathetic nerve fibers Target Organ: Stomach - inhibits gastric secretion of all products Pancreas - inhibits secretion Small Intestine - inhibits GI blood flow; thus inhibits intestinal absorption Gallbladder & Liver - inhibits contraction and bile release
Serotonin
Produced: stomach mucosa Stimulated to produce by: food in stomach Target Organ: stomach - causes contraction of stomach muscle
Histamine
Produced: stomach mucosa Stimulus to produce: food in stomach Target organ: stomach - activates parietal cells to release HCl
Gastrin
Produced: stomach mucosa (G-cells) Stimulus to produce: partially digested food in stomach; acetylcholine released by nerve fibers Target Organ: stomach (parietal cells): increases HCl secretion small intestine: stimulates contraction of intestinal muscle ileocecal valve: relaxes large intestine: stimulates mass movement
List the end products of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid digestion.
Protein: free amino acids Fat: Chylomicrons Carbohydrate: monosaccharides - glucose, fructose, and galactose Nucleic acid: Phosphate ion, ribose/deoxyribose, and a nitrogenous base
Glomerulonephritis, or inflammation of the glomerulus, will result in leaky glomerular capillaries and damaged glomeruli, both of which will cause the GFR to decrease. If GFR decreases, which mechanisms would be triggered to help maintain the GFR?
RAAS and tubuloglomerular feedback
Describe the layers of the kidney.
Renal Fascia: outer layer-dense fibrous connective tissue Perirenal fat capsule: fatty cushion Fibrous Capsule: transparent capsule that prevents spread of infection to kidney
Through what two organ systems are carbon dioxide eliminated from the body?
Respiratory and urinary systems
Describe the general location, structure, and function of the urinary bladder.
Retroperitoneal muscular sac, on pelvic floor posterior to pubic symphysis, for temporary storage of urine Trigone: smooth triangular area outlined by openings for ureters and urethra -infections tend to persist in this region Layers of Bladder Wall: 1. Mucosa: transitional epithelial mucosa 2. Muscular layer: thick detrusor muscles (contains 3 layers of smooth muscle; inner and outer layer=smooth muscle and middle=circular) 3. Fibrous Adventitia: except on surface where it is covered by peritoneum
Describe the general location, structure, and function of the ureters.
Retroperitoneal tubes transporting urine from kidneys to bladder with distal ends preventing backflow Layers of Wall 1. Mucosa: transitional epithelium 2. Muscularis: smooth muscle sheets contracting -propels urine into bladder -rate of peristalsis adjusted to rate of urine formation -sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate ureters, but insignificant role in peristalsis 3. Adventitia: outer connective tissue
Define retroperitoneal and name the retroperitoneal organs of the digestive system.
Retroperitoneal: located outside/posterior to the peritoneum -Pancreas, duodenum, and parts of the large intestine
Kidney Gross Anatomy
Right kidney is lower than left (liver) Left is between T12 & L5 Adrenal gland sits atop each -Renal Artery -Renal Hilum - leads to internal space (renal sinus) -Renal Vein -Ureter: transports urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
Components of Saliva
Salivary Amylase: enzyme for carbohydrate digestion starting in the mouth Lysozyme: chemical for killing bacteria in saliva Secretory IgA: antibody Bicarbonate ions: only during eating; neutralize any acid from the stomach that regurgitates into the esophagus
Indicate routes of electrolyte entry and loss from the body.
Salts control fluid movements, provide minerals for excitability, secretory activity, and membrane permeability Salts enter the body by: ingestion and metabolism Salts are lost: perspiration, feces, urine, vomit
Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fatty acid sources.
Saturated: meat, dairy foods, tropical oils, Unsaturated: seeds, nuts, olive oil, and most vegetable oils Trans: hydrogenated oils
What process in urine formation is important for regulating blood pH?
Secretion
Serosa vs Adventitia
Serosa: organs w/in the peritoneal cavity (intraperitoneal organs) -also called visceral peritoneum -simple squamous epithelial tissue -loose connective tissue Adventitia: organs outside of the cavity (retroperitoneal) -dense irregular connective tissue
Secretory Cells of Salivary Glands
Serous: produce watery secretion, enzymes, ions, and mucin Mucous: produce mucus
Short vs Long Reflexes of the ENS
Short reflexes: pathways are confined to local neurons Long reflexes: must travel outside of the local digestive neurons to the CNS to function
Describe the tissue composition and general function of Serosa
Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue and Loose Connective Tissue -outermost layer made up of the visceral peritoneum -support digestive organs and anchor them to surrounding structures
Which type of epithelial tissues predominates in most of the digestive tract?
Simple columnar
Distinguish between simple and complex carbohydrate sources.
Simple: mono and disaccharides (sugars) from fruits, sugarcane, sugar beets, honey, and milk Complex: plants such as starch, grains, and vegetables
When the body is at rest, which of the following accounts for about 20-30% of heat generation?
Skeletal muscle
Describe the tissue composition and general function of Muscularis externa
Smooth Muscle: inner circular muscle layer and outer longitudinal layers -responsible for segmentation and peristalsis, circular layer forms sphincters at certain areas
Describe the importance of sodium in the body's fluid and electrolyte balance.
Sodium is most abundant cation in ECF (280 of 300 mOsm solute concentration) -the only cation exerting significant osmotic pressure -controls ECF volume and water distribution bc water follows salt -changes in sodium levels affects plasma volume, blood pressure, and ECF and IF volumes -Na+ that leaks into cells is pumped out against its electrochemical gradient -Na+ moves back and forth between ECF and body secretions -renal acid-base control mechanisms are coupled to sodium ion transport
What initiates the micturition reflex?
Stretch receptors in the wall of the urinary bladder signal the sacral region of the spinal cord.
Indicate the major uses of proteins in the body.
Structural materials (keratin in skin; collagen and elastin in connective tissue, etc.) Functional molecules: enzymes and hormones Nitrogen balance: positive (pregnant women, children) and negative nitrogen (stress, infection, injury, starvation) balance -All-or-none rule: all amino acids needed must be present for protein synthesis to occur, if not then amino acids are used for energy -Protein is used as fuel if insufficient carbohydrate or fat is available -Hormonal controls - anabolic hormones accelerate protein synthesis and growth; adrenal glucocorticoids released during stress promote protein breakdown and conversion of amino acids to glucose
Explain the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
Substrate-level: high energy phosphate groups are directly transferred from phosphorylated substrates to ADP Oxidative Phosphorylation: (more complex, produces most ATP) completed through chemiosmotic process - couples movement of substances across membranes to chemical reactions
Why does your mouth suddenly "go dry" when you are about to deliver a presentation to a large crowd?
Sympathetic activity inhibits salivation.
What type of response by the afferent arterioles would you expect if blood pressure increased?
The afferent arterioles would constrict.
A patient who suffers from renal failure increases his water intake to account for his low urine output. What will happen to his electrolyte balance?
The excess water his kidneys cannot excrete will dilute body fluids and lead to an imbalance in electrolytes.
What determines the hydrostatic pressure of a solution?
The force that fluids exert.
Why is the osmolarity of medullary fluid in the kidney almost four times higher than the osmolarity of plasma?
The nephron loop acts as a countercurrent multiplier and contributes solutes to the interstitial fluid. Urea is recycled from the collecting duct and is transported to the interstitial fluid
What happens to the pH of a solution when hydrogen ions are added?
The pH decreases.
What effect will an increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the plasma have on the plasma pH?
The pH will decrease
If the Pco2 in the plasma increases, what effect will this have on plasma pH?
The pH will decrease.
A patient with heart failure is administered an intravenous line containing a solution of hypertonic sodium chloride. Select the patient for whom this solution an appropriate choice. The patient is experiencing hypovolemia. The patient is dehydrated. The patient is experiencing overhydration, or hypotonic hydration. The patient produces too little antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
The patient is experiencing overhydration, or hypotonic hydration.
If the blood pH lowers, what change would you expect from the respiratory system?
The respiration rate would increase.
While traveling through the rain forest of Peru, you are introduced to a rare and exotic plant. You discover that it contains a toxin that blocks the reabsorption of sodium ions from the proximal tubule. If administered, what affect would this toxin have on the reabsorption of glucose?
The toxin would significantly decrease the amount of glucose reabsorbed.
What would be the effect on urine output if sodium channels in the tubule cells were inhibited?
The volume would increase.
Furosemide is a loop diuretic drug that inhibits the pump responsible for active reabsorption of Na and Cl in the nephron loop. Predict the effect of furosemide on the quantity of urine produced.
There will be a large amount of urine produced.
Based on the histology of a renal tubule, which section would be most severely inhibited if simple squamous epithelium were damaged?
Thin segment of the nephron loop
True or False: Calorimetry is used to measure the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
True
True or False: Reactions in which smaller molecules are combined to make a larger molecule are known as anabolic reactions.
True
True or False: The digestive system is regulated by the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems.
True
True or False: The majority of sodium ions are reclaimed through sodium ion leak channels in the proximal tubule.
True
True or False: The stomach differs anatomically from other organs of the alimentary canal because it has an additional oblique layer of muscularis externa for churning.
True
Describe the importance of tubular secretion and list several substances that are secreted.
Tubular Secretion: reabsorption in reverse Important for: 1. Disposing of substances (drugs/metabolites) that are bound to plasma proteins 2. Eliminating undesirable substances that were passively reabsorbed (urea/uric acid, etc.) 3. Ridding body of excess K+ (aldosterone effect) 4. Controlling blood pH by altering amounts of H+ or HCO3- in urine Secretions: -K+, H+, NH4, creatinine, organic acids and bases are moved from peritublar capillaries -HCO3- and other substances synthesized in tubule cells
What statement best describes the function of tubular reabsorption?
Tubular reabsorption reclaims items from filtrate and returns them to the blood.
Describe the anatomy of a nephron.
Two main parts: 1. Renal Corpuscle: -Glomerulus -Glomerular/Bowman's Capsule 2. Renal Tubule -Proximal Convoluted Tubule -Nephron Loop -Distal Convoluted Tubule
What system is responsible for the most common route of water loss from the body?
Urinary system
Angiotensin-II restores fluid-homeostasis when dehydration occurs as a result of inadequate fluid intake. Which of the following actions is not an effect of angiotensin-II?
Vasodilation
Vestibule vs Oral Cavity Proper
Vestibule: space between teeth and inner lips Oral Cavity Proper: space behind teeth
Which of these vitamins is water-soluble? vitamin C vitamin K vitamin D vitamin A
Vitamin C
What general functions can be assigned to the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system?
Water conservation Blood pressure elevation
In what direction will water move when hypotonic fluids are present in the plasma?
Water is pulled out of the interstitial fluid and plasma into the cell.
What would be the effect of a hypertonic extracellular fluid on a cell?
Water will move out of the cytosol and the cell shrinks.
Distinguish between fat- and water-soluble vitamins, and list the vitamins in each group.
Water-soluble vitamins: Not stored (excreted if not used w/in 1 hour) B complex and C are absorbed w water; B12 absorption requires intrinsic factor Fat-soluble vitamins: Stored in body, except for K A, D, E, and K absorbed w lipid digestion products Excessive consumption can cause health problems
Which of the following statements best describes the principle of mass balance?
What is gained by the body must equal what is lost by the body.
What two products can be generated from the transamination of an amino acid?
a carbon skeleton and the amino acid glutamate
A patient who has long-term renal failure may have:
a decreased number of erythrocytes in his blood.
Splanchnic circulation involves the blood supply that feeds and drains:
abdominal digestive organs.
Which of the following does NOT transport bile? common hepatic duct common bile duct accessory pancreatic duct cystic duct
accessory pancreatic duct
If the filtrate concentration is lower than normal at the turn of the nephron loop:
active transport in the thick ascending limb will be less efficient
Define micturition and describe its neural control.
aka urination or voiding Simultaneous Events: 1. Contraction of detrusor by ANS 2. Opening of internal urethral sphincter by ANS 3. Opening of external urethral sphincter by somatic nervous system
What should NOT be found in filtrate?
albumin / protein
Which hormones promote facultative water reabsorption?
aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
The esophagus is a part of the , while the pancreas is considered a(n) when it comes to the digestive system.
alimentary canal; accessory digestive organ
Teeth are located in bony sockets called ______ within the _______ and _____ bones and are held in place by ___________.
alveoli mandible and maxilla periodontal ligament: bands of connective tissue
The basal metabolic rate can most effectively be defined as the _______.
amount of energy needed to maintain life
The alkaline tide uses a(n) in the basolateral membrane to move out of the cell and __________ into the parietal cell.
antiporter, bicarbonate, chloride
The bicarbonate ion is an example of a(n) __________.
base
What is the major ECF buffer system in the body?
bicarbonate buffer system
What is the most common base in the human body?
bicarbonate ions
Damaged hepatocytes will impair:
bile production
Emulsification requires:
bile salts
Splanchnic Circulation
blood flow to the stomach, spleen, pancreas, intestines, and liver includes: celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, inferior mesenteric artery - and their branches
The reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule helps regulate __________.
blood pH
What region of the stomach does food first enters after its passage through the relaxed gastroesophageal sphincter?
cardia
When your stomach growls in response to an ad on TV for food, the __________ phase of gastric secretion is initiated.
cephalic
The lateral walls of the oral cavity are formed by the _____, which are composed largely of the _____.
cheeks; buccinator muscles -lined internally by stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
The major metabolic function for most vitamins is that they assist enzymes by serving as _______.
coenzymes
The gallbladder _______ bile by __________ water and ions.
concentrates, absorbing
Angiotensin II promotes:
constriction of the efferent arteriole
What does the countercurrent mechanism accomplish in the nephron loop?
creation of a steep concentration gradient for continued water reabsorption
Liver & Gallbladder
cystic duct quadrate lobe right lobe
Question 1: Which of the following accounts for the majority of our total body water? interstitial fluid cytosol plasma extracellular fluid
cytosol
The following represents the main locations fluids are found in the human body. Rank these body fluids in order from the fluid that accounts for most in the human body to the fluid that accounts for the least. interstitial fluid, cytosol (intracellular fluid), plasma cytosol (intracellular fluid), interstitial fluid, plasma cytosol (intracellular fluid), plasma, interstitial fluid plasma, cytosol (intracellular fluid), interstitial fluid
cytosol (intracellular fluid) - 60% interstitial fluid - 32% plasma - 8%
Increase in urine volume is usually accompanied by ___________ in urine concentration.
decrease
A drug that inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) may lead to __________.
decreased blood pressure
The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is:
defecation
__________ involves over 22 muscle groups and includes the buccal phase and the pharyngeal-esophageal phase.
deglutition
What is the most common cause for hypernatremia?
dehydration
Most teeth are primarily composed of __________.
dentin
At the splenic flexure, the colon becomes the:
descending colon
Simple squamous epithelium is located in the:
descending limb of the nephron loop (loop of Henle).
In which organ is chyme mixed with pancreatic juice and bile?
duodenum
An excess accumulation of interstitial fluid is called ______________.
edema
The crown of a tooth is covered by:
enamel
Which cells produce CCK in the intestine?
enteroendocrine cells
Epiploic Appendages
fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum/serosa that hang from the teniae coli
What molecule cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?
fatty acid
What part of a triglyceride undergoes β-oxidation?
fatty acids
Substances used to measure renal clearance should be __________.
filtered but neither reabsorbed nor secreted
Urine from a person with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus has a(n) .............. due to the presence of __________ .
fruity odor, acetone
The __________ prevents contents of the stomach from reentering the esophagus
gastroesophageal sphincter or lower esophageal sphincter
What is renal clearance used to estimate?
glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Which of the following results from the lipolysis of a triglyceride?
glycerol and fatty acids
The process of storing glucose as glycogen is known as:
glycogenesis
