A&P2 final
What is the function of f thyroxine
(T4)-is a tyrosine based hormone produced in the thyroid it's primary function is to regulate the metabolism. Iodine is a necessary part of the production of t3 and t4 decreased production leads to goiter
List the properties of glucocorticoids
-anti inflammatory effects -increase rates of glucose and glycogen formation by the liver -release of amino acids from skeletal muscles and lipids from adipose tissues
Describe hemoglobin structure and function
-composed of 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains (which are proteins composed of many amino acids) -main function- carries oxygen from lungs to tissues then transports CO2 back from the tissues to the lungs.
Describe hydrostatic and osmotic pressure (oncotic)
-hydrostatic pressure is the 'pushing force', pushing the fluid out of the capillaries. It's the result of the actual pressure of the fluid on the capillary walls. -Oncotic pressure is the 'pulling force', pulling fluids from the surrounding tissue into the capillaries. It's the result of a difference in the concentration of solutes in the fluid inside the capillaries as opposed to outside them, because water will naturally seek a state of balance in the concentration of solute (particles). -Whenever hydrostatic pressure is greater than oncotic pressure, fluid will leave the capillaries, whenever the onctoic pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure fluid will enter the capillaries.
How does insulin work? What are its targets
-insulin activates its receptors on the membrane of target cells (adipocytes, muscle, liver) and this activation causes blood sugar to enter the cell. -Insulin is secreted to rapidly lower and maintain blood sugar at homeostatic levels
What is the function of TSH
-produced and released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. -controls production of the thyroid hormones, t3 and t4
Describe the histology of the islets of langerhans
-regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells. contain alpha cells (glucagon) and beta cells (insulin) that secrete their hormones directly into the blood. -The Islets and only the islets maintain blood sugar between 70-110 mg/ dl
What does aldosterone do
-stimulates kidneys to reabsorb sodium -increases blood volume and blood pressure -stimulates kidneys to secrete potassuim -stimulates kidneys to secrete hydrogen -stimulates the release of ACTH -renin causes aldosterone to be produced -produced in the zona glomerulosa
What is the JG complex? What is its function
-the mascula densa and the JG cells= jg complex -the mascula densa induces the smoothe muscle of the arterioles to become JG cells( endocrine cells that secrete renin) when bp is elevated, angiotensinigen (which is produced by liver) converts Ang1 to Ang2 by ACE -
Describe the coronary veins and where they take their blood
-the myocardium is largely drained by the great, middle, and small cardiac veins -cardiac veins collect and return blood to the right atrium through the coronary sinus -in addition, several anterior cardiac veins empty directly into the right atrium
What are the functions of the pharynx
-the pharynx, or throat, is the passageway leading from the mouth and nose to the esophagus and larynx. -permits the passage of swallowed solids and liquids into the esophagus, or gullet, and conducts air to and from the trachea, or windpipe, during respiration *air and food *3 parts of -nasopharynx -oropharynx -laryngopharynx
Name a second messenger
1.Cyclic-AMP (cAMP)- a derivative of ATP: generated by activated adenyl cyclase Calcium ion- concentration increases due to release from storage sites
Name all of the internal parts of the penis
2 corpora cavernosa, 1 corpus spongiosum
Where do you find CD4 receptors
A receptor protein on the surface of T helper cells found on the T lymphocytes utilizing MHC class ll antigens as a restriction element for antigen recognition Aids Virus CD4
What are venous valves for? Where are they found
Blood flow in the major veins of the lower extremity depends, in part, on the pumping action produced by leg muscle contractions. Retrograde flow is prevented by venous valves.
What is wrong with a patient who has a very dilute and copious amounts of urine for many days
ADH problems
How does aldosterone work
Aldosterone helps regulate sodium and potassium levels in the body. This helps control blood pressure and the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the blood. The kidney hormone renin normally stimulates the adrenal glands to release aldosterone
What is a plasma cell
B cell lymphocytes that secretes antibodies
Calculate CO
EDV-ESV
Describe the different classes of immunoglobulins
IgA - found in secretions, saliva, GI lumen, tears IgM - primitive antibody, first formed IgE - allergic reactions; attaches to mast cells to release histamine IgG - effect bullet to kill and neutralize; crosses placenta, gives passive immunity IgD - only on B cells for sensitization
Where do you find IgA? Name its function
IgA is found in saliva, mucus, sweat, tears and colostrum and milk secretory IgA plays an important role in preventing mucosal infections by serving as the primary immunological defense against local infections of the respiratory and GI tracts
What are the functions of parietal cells in the stomach
Intrinsic factor for B12
What is the classic pathway of complement
The classical pathway of the complement system is a major effector of the humoral branch of the human immune response. The trigger for the classical pathway is either IgG or IgM antibody bound to antigen
What is IgE for
allergies, parasites, anaflactic reactions
What is a dural sinus? Where do they do
are venous channels found between dura mater in the brain, they receive blood from internal and external veins of the brain, receive CSF from the subarachnoid space, and empty into the internal jugular vein.
Why are arterioles called the resistance vessels
arterioles regulate the arterial blood pressure and blood flow into an organ
What is a P wave for?
atrial depolarization which results in artial contraction note atrial repolarization occurs during ventricular depolarization and is obsured
Define a bronchiole
branches off tertiary bronchi to alveoli in lungs conduct air toward alveoli terminal bronchiole- final bronchiole segment of conducting zone respiratory bronchiole- branches off terminal bronchiole and gives rise to alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli
Name the resistance airway/duct in the lung
brnchioles
Describe the difference between sympathetic vs parasympathetic innervation of the lungs
bronchodilation- caused by sympathetic ANS broncoconstriction- caused by parasympathetic ANS -histamine released for allergic reactions
What are the functions of the pancreas
cck endocrine function exocrine- digestive juices
What GI structure dehydrates and compacts fecal matter
colon
What is venoconstriction
constriction of veins
What does the body do with the ammonia after protein breakdown
converts it to urea
What are innate defenses
defenses we are born with.. skin, fever, inflammation, neutrophils
What embryonic germ layer develops into skin and the nervous system
ectoderm
What happens to your acid basis balance in hyperemesis
excessive vomiting during this, metabolic alkalosis may happen which is the imbalance of pH, the body accumulates too much of an alkaline substance( bicarb) and does not have enough acid to effectively neutralize the effects of the alkali
What is cardiac tamponade
fluid buildup in the heart (pericardial) sac
List the airways by name
from nose-nostrils/hair, nasal cavity(passes through nasal conchae- superior, middle, inferior), pharynx (first nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx), larynx(including epiglotis), trachea, right and left primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, teritarty bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli from the mouth- oral cavity, pharynx.... and so on
What is a reticulocyte
immature red blood cells lthat make up about 1% of red blood cells they develop and mature in the bone marrow and then circulate for a day until the develop into mature rbc's
Where is urea formed? Why
in the liver, ammonia and Co2 are converted to urea here. The formed urea is then transported to the kidneys where it is excreted.
What are the functions of FSH
in women stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in ovary before the release of an egg in men acts on the Sertoli cells of the testes to stimulate sperm production(spermatogenisis)
Where do common iliac veins take their blood
inferior vena cava
What is the function of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
inhilation
What does a megakaryocyte for
is a large bone marrow cell with a lobulated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes (platelets) which are necessary for normal blood clotting
Describe the muscles and control of inspiration
is active. external contract and internal relax. ribs move up and out and diaphragm contracts increasing the volume which reduces the pressure so air is forced in
What is IgE
is an antibody located on the serum, mast cell surfaces it triggers the release of histamines from basophils and mast cells
What is a secondary lymphoid organ
it is where antigen localized so that it can be effectively exposed to mature lymphocytes initiate adaptive immune response spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, peyer's patches
What are the two primary lymphoid organs
it is where immature lymphocytes develop differentiation, proliferation and maturation of stem cells into immuno competent cells takes place Thymus and bone marrow
What is a coronary vessel? Name 4
left coronary artery right coronary artery circumflex anterior interventricular artery
What is the function of the lymphatic system
lymphocytes allowed to enter its vascular space, Returns them to blood Adding antibodies to plasma To protect us against disease
Calculate MAP
mean arteriol pressure- which is the average arteriol pressure during a single cardiac cycle MAP=(CO * SVR)+CVP co=cardiac output svr= systemic vascular resistance cvp= central venous pressure
Define MAP
mean arteriol pressure- which is the average arteriol pressure during a single cardiac cycle MAP=(CO * SVR)+CVP co=cardiac output svr= systemic vascular resistance cvp= central venous pressure if MAP falls below 60mmHg organs will not get enough oxygen perfusion and become hypoxic=ischemia
What hormones are amino acid derivatives
melatonin, t4, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
What embryonic germ layer develops into bone and cartilage
mesoderm
How is most CO2 transported in your body
most CO2 is carried in the body as HCO3 in both blood and plasma 20% of bound CO2 is in the blood dissolved 5% bicarbonate 90% carbamino compounds 5%
How is Co2 transported from the tissues to the lungs
most by bicarbonate
What is a NK cell? How does it operate
natural killer cells play an important role in defense against tumor cells, some viral infections and other intracellular pathogens can function without recognizing Ag express CD16(FC receptor) and thus bind to Ab- coated target cells
What is the function of kinase
phosphorylates (adds PO4) to inactive, waiting enzymes. this activates them.
What are the major ions in the intracellular fluid
potassium and phosphate
What is innate immunity
present at birth prior to exposure to a pathogen or antigen and that includes components (intact skin, salivary enzymes, nuetrophils, nk cells and complement) which provide and initial response against infection
What is cardiac tamponade
pressure on the heart that occurs when blood or fluid builds up in the space between the heart muscle(myocardium) and the outer covering sac of the heart (pericardium)
What are the functions of the liver
produce bile store vitamins, store glycogen, detox Kupffer cells, makes albumin
Where are ADH and Oxytocin produced and released
produced in the hypothalamus. Axons of neurons from the supraoptic nuclei (SON) and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus travel the infundibulum into the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) to release ADH and oxotocin. supraoptic nuclei produce ADH paraventricular nuclei produce oxytocin
What does insulin do? Where is it produced
produced in the pancreas helps move glucose into the cells of the body insulin helps regulate blood sugar too much hyperglycemia too little hypoglycemia the liver clears about 60% of endogenous insulin and the kidneys about 35-40%
What are monocytes for
regulate inflammatory response phagocytic originate in bone marrow transported to tissues
describe the physiology of the erection of the penis
relaxation of these smooth muscles and the following events: Dilatation of the arterioles and arteries by increased blood flow in both the diastolic and the systolic phases Trapping of the incoming blood by the expanding sinusoids Compression of the subtunical venular plexuses between the tunica albuginea and the peripheral sinusoids, reducing the venous outflow Stretching of the tunica to its capacity, which occludes the emissary veins between the inner circular and the outer longitudinal layers and further decreases the venous outflow to a minimum An increase in PO2 (to about 90 mmHg) and intracavernous pressure (around 100 mm Hg), which raises the penis from the dependent position to the erect state (the full-erection phase) A further pressure increase (to several hundred millimeters of mercury) with contraction of the ischiocavernosus muscles (rigid-erection phase)
What is the function of a bronchiole
resistant air duct, all smooth muscle
What does ACTH do
secreted from pituitary. Target is adrenal cortex-secretion of glucocorticoids (cortisol), also stimulates androgen secretion
What is the function of an arteriole
smallest arteries; resistance vessels for blood pressure control
Describe the citric acid cycle
starts in the matrix of the mitochondria stripping hydrogen and making co2
How does a steroid hormone exert its effect on target cell
steroid hormone receptors are intracellular (bind and are activated by lipid soluble hormones that diffuse through the cell membrane). Once activated by their hormone they move to the nucleus where they bind DNA and activate transcription.
What is stroke volume (SV)
stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped from a ventricle in a single heartbeat
What are the functions of thyroxine and the thyroid gland
thyroxine, T4, is the main hormone produced by the thyroid gland (80%). primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. Iodine is necessary for the production of T3 and T4. -T3 and t4 are essential to maintaining the body's metabolic rate, heart and digestive functions, muscle control, brain development and maintenance of bones.
Why are veins called capacitance vessels
veins are called capacitance vessels because most of the blood volume (60%) is contained within the viens
What is pCO2 in venous and arterial blood
venous 45mm mercury arterial 4omm mercury
Explain the QRS complex
Corresponds to the depolarization of the right and left ventricles of the heart prior to the contractions of the ventricles
What is factor X
activated on surface of platelets by factor lxa with vlll and by vlla/TF/ca2+/tenase. common pathway
What is humoral immunity
The component of the immune response involving the transformation of Bcells into plasma cells that produce and secrete antibodies to a specific antigen immunoglobulins IgA, IgB, IgM-coat antigens and target them for destruction by polymorphonuclear neutrophils 2 types of humoral responses primary- IgM appears 48-72 hours and secondary- produces large quantities of IgG appears 24 to 48 hours and is longer than the first response
What is the function of ANP/BNP
The function of ANP is to inhbit Na+ reabsorption by the distal part of the nephron increasing Na+ secretion in urine reduce blood pressure ANP inhibition of renin secretion by the JGcells= reducing aldosterone secretion vasodilation of the afferent and vasoconstriction of the efferent arterioles of the glomerous elevated levels of both ANP and BNP will produce increased salt and water loss through kidneys BNP is ventricular, it is secreted in response to stretching of the heart muscle and is modulated by calcuim ions both ANP and BNP decrease blood volume, which lowers blood pressure and after overloading yeilding an increase in cardia output
What is and define blood pressure
The pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries, maintained by the contraction of the left ventricle, the resistance of the arterioles and capillaries, the elasticity of the arterial wall, and by the viscosity and volume of the blood
Define cardiac output (CO)
The volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle of the heart. cardiac output is equal to stroke volume times the the heart rate
What is the function of TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone produced when thyrotropin releasing hormone triggers pituitary to release TSH, which causes the thyroid to produce t3 and t4 to help control metabolism THS- hypothryroidism
Where is elastic cartilage vs hyaline cartilage in the respiratory tree
Trachea is hyaline cartilage, epiglotis elastic cartilage
What is a cardiac cycle
a complete heartbeat from its generation to the beginning of the next beat, includes diastole, systole, and the intervening pause. beats per minute
Order: structures of filtration in the renal corpuscle
a glomerulus with a Bowmans capsule- continues into a renal tubule with 3 specialized regions pct loop of henle dct collecting duct
How are B cells activated
activated in lymphoid tissue, first sensitized, then helper T-to MCH complex- activating signals to the B cells
Order of systemic blood vessels, from and back to the heart
superior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta -aorta leads to... --subclavian arteries that take the blood to the arms --carotid artery that takes the blood to the head --hepatic artery that carries blood to liver --mesenteric artery carries blood to the small intestines --renal artery supplies blood to kidneys --iliac arteries carry blood to legs
Describe the function of coronary arteries
supply myocardium (heart muscle) nutrients and oxygen
What does a typeII pneumocyte do
surfactant production
What is the function of ADH? Where does it come from
synthesized in the neurons of posterior pituitary potent vasoconstrictor increases h2o permeability in tubules decrease in inner medullary blood flow **increase thirst and salt apetite increase ACTH release increase production of coagulation factor vlll
What does the hematocrit tell you
tells you the percentage of red blood cells in the blood.
What is stroke volume
the amount of blood pumped from a ventricle in a single heartbeat. SV=COxHR
What is complement? How does the classic pathway differ from the alternate pathway
the complement system is a system of proteins that acts as a cascade. Each protein is assigned a number and they react in sequence once the system is activated. It is part of the body's innate immune system and is involved in the initation of an inflammatory response and the destruction of bacteria and viruses the classic pathway C1,C2,C3,C4 inital stages of pathway, it is antigen dependent, major effector pathway of the humoral response Alternative pathway can be initated directly on antigenic surface depending on generation of c3b and how it covers the binding surface. this pathway doesnt involve Ag-Ab complex like classical does. Alternative is more important the first time an individual is infected by a microorganism because it is the first response to occur due to the lack of IgG or IgM
What is internal respiration
the exchange of gases between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
What is the thoracic duct? What's its function
the thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel and the main collecting duct for the lymphatic system it receives lymph from the left side of head,neck, and chest, upper extremities, and entire body below ribs begins in the abdomen empties into venous blood of the left internal jugular vein and left subclavian vein
What is the function of ADH
thirst mechanism water retention
