AASP:100 (MIDTERM 1) STUDY GUIDE

Antislavery resistance movements

had an effect on the civil rights development

Sargent William Carney

*- Received congressional medal of honor - highest award for most brave. - Carney was born into slavery and he joined the 54th regiment during the assault Carney was wounded in his head, leg, hip, lying in agony, he saw Shaw fall. He picked up the flag and ran into the volley of Confederate grapeshot. - He didn't receive his medal of honor until the 1900s *although wounded four times, saved the regiment's flags. In May 1900, he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his gallantry that night.

The 54th Massachusetts's regiment

*1st African American Infantry unit it was up to them to change people's perspective on African Americans. - Colored troops were very influential - They thought African Americans weren't smart enough or athletic enough to fight - Northern soldiers doubted them - If a black soldier was found in Confederate hands they would kill them, this was the biggest war crime in the civil war. - Robert Shaw volunteered the regiment to be the 1st assault squad on Fort Wagner. *While ex-slaves joined the Union ranks in Louisiana and South Carolina, free black men in the North enlisted in what would become the most famous black unit, the 54th Massachusetts Regiment. (This all-black volunteer infantry regiment was recruited in the northern states for service with Union military forces in the Civil War. It was made up almost entirely of black men who had been free. It was commanded by white officers.) In January 1863 Governor John A. Andrew received permission from Secretary of War Stanton to raise a black regiment; however, because few black men lived in Massachusetts, Andrew asked prominent black men across the North for help. The Black Committee (An organization of prominent black men in the North who assisted in recruiting African Americans to fight for the Union in the Civil War.)—as it became known—included Frederick Douglass, Martin Delany, Charles Remond, and Henry Highland Garnet. These black leaders were convinced that by serving in the military, black men would prove they deserved to be treated as equals and had earned the right to be citizens. Frederick Douglass put it succinctly: "Once let the black man get upon his person the brass letters, U.S.; let him get an eagle on his button, and a musket on his shoulder and bullets in his pocket, and there is no power on earth which can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship." Douglass's sons, Charles and Lewis, joined the 54th. Lincoln, who had opposed emancipation and resisted enlisting black troops, became an enthusiastic supporter of black men in the Union Army. Writing to Andrew Johnson, the Union military governor of Tennessee, Lincoln perhaps overoptimistically predicted that, "the bare sight of fifty thousand armed, and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi, would end the rebellion at once. And who doubts that we can present that sight, if we but take hold in earnest." Governor John A. Andrew selected 25-year-old Robert Gould Shaw to command the 54th Massachusetts Regiment. Shaw was a Harvard graduate from a prominent Massachusetts family, and he had already been wounded at the Battle at Antietam. Although not an active abolitionist, he opposed slavery and was determined to prove that black men would fight well. The men the Black Committee recruited came from most of the northern states. Their average age was around 25, and virtually all of them were literate. They were farmers, seamen, butchers, blacksmiths, and teamsters. Only one of them had grown up in a slave state. As the ranks of the 54th filled, the 55th Massachusetts Regiment and the all-black 5th Massachusetts Cavalry Regiment were also formed. On May 28, 1863, the 54th paraded through Boston to board a ship for the trip to South Carolina and the war. Thousands turned out to see the black men in blue uniforms. As they passed the home of fiery abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, he stood erect with a bust of John Brown. As they passed the Old Statehouse where Crispus Attucks and four others had been killed in the Boston Massacre in 1770, the regiment sang "John Brown's Body." The departure of the 54th from the city was perhaps the most emotional event Boston had witnessed since Anthony Burns had been forcibly returned to slavery in 1854. *refused to accept their pay until they received equal pay. To take no compensation was an enormous sacrifice for men who had wives, children, and families to support. For some, however, it was more than a monetary loss. Sergeant William Walker insisted—despite orders—that the men in his company take no pay until they received equal pay. He was charged with mutiny, convicted, and executed by firing squad. In Texas, a soldier in a black artillery unit from Rhode Island threatened a white officer in the dispute over pay. The white lieutenant shot and killed him, and the regiment's commander declined to press charges. *arrived in South Carolina and joined the raids in Georgia. Other raids in the Carolina low country devastated rice plantations and liberated hundreds of slaves. *Since 1861 and the Confederate capture of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, Union leaders had been determined to retake the fort and occupy nearby Charleston—the heart of secession. In 1863 Union commanders began a land and sea offensive to seize the fort. But Battery Wagner (This defensive fortification guarded Fort Sumter near the entrance to Charleston Harbor in South Carolina. It was the scene in July 1863 of a major Union assault by the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, a black unit. The assault failed, but the bravery and valor of the black troops earned them fame and glory.), a fortified installation on the northern tip of Morris Island, guarded the entrance to the harbor. Frustrated in their efforts to enter the harbor, Major General Quincy A. Gilmore and Rear Admiral John Dahlgren decided on a full-scale assault on Wagner. After an unsuccessful attack by white troops, Colonel Shaw volunteered to lead the 54th in a second attack on the battery. To improve the Union's chances, artillery fired more than 9,000 shells on Wagner on July 18, 1863. Everyone but the fort's Confederate defenders was convinced that no one could survive the bombardment. In fact, it had killed only eight of the 1,620 defenders. At sunset, 650 men of the first brigade of the 54th prepared to lead more than 5,000 Union troops in storming the battery. The regiment was tired and hungry but eager for the assault. Colonel Shaw told his troops, "Now I want you to prove yourselves men." At 7:45 p.m., the 54th charged and was met by heavy rifle and artillery fire. Within minutes, the sand was littered with injured and dying men. Sergeant Major Lewis Douglass (the son of Frederick Douglass) was among those who took part. The 54th reached the walls, only to be thrown back in hand-to-hand combat. Shaw was killed. Sergeant Major William H. Carney, although wounded four times, saved the regiment's flags. In May 1900, he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his gallantry that night. Although white troops supported the 54th, the attack could not be sustained, and the battle was over by 1:00 a.m. But within days, the courage of the 54th was known across the North, putting to rest—for a time—the myth that black men lacked the nerve to fight. The day after the attack, Shaw and 20 of his men were buried in a trench outside Wagner. Several wounded men had drowned when the tide came in. Altogether 246 black and white men were killed, 890 were wounded, and 391 were taken prisoner. Forty-two percent of the men of the 54th were killed or injured, and 80 men were taken prisoner. Union forces never took Wagner. The Confederates abandoned Charleston as the war was ending in February 1865. Black Union troops—the 21st U.S. Colored Infantry and the 55th Massachusetts Regiment—occupied the city. Years later Charles Crowley recalled the scene: "Never, while memory holds power to retain anything, shall I forget the thrilling strain of music of the Union, as sung by our sable soldiers when marching up Meeting Street with the battle stained banners flapping in the breeze." Olustee: On February 20, 1864, the 54th fought again and was joined by two black regiments—the First North Carolina and the Eighth U.S. of Pennsylvania—and six white regiments at the Battle at Olustee in northern Florida. After almost five hours of combat, Confederate troops forced a Union retreat. The 54th had marched 110 miles in 100 hours before entering the engagement. The Crater: As impressive as black troops often were in battle, northern commanders sometimes hesitated to commit them to combat. In 1864, after Union troops laid siege to Petersburg, Virginia, white soldiers of the 48th Pennsylvania, who had been coal miners before the war, offered to dig a tunnel and set off an explosion under Confederate lines. General Ambrose Burnside assigned black troops to prepare to lead the attack after the blast. *their bravery and pride the 54th regiments was the most memorable. *Robert Shaw, the corneal of the 54th Massachusetts regiments, 1862. The men learned quicker than white folks. President Lincoln declared any black man in the Union found by the Confederate any black man found in a uniform will return to slavery. Also, any white man leading a black army will be put to death. Any black man who tried to desert the army would be flogged in front of the rest of the army. The men got notified that since they were a colored regimen they would receive 10$ a month instead of 13$ like the white regiment. Then, Robert Shaw takes no pay along with his men. Rallens only white officers would be commissioned to lead it but nothing was mentioned about non-commission officers, so he was awarded the rank of sergeant major. In 1863, the day after they showed they immediately went right into the action and marched into Georgia. The men were not allowed to fight they supposed to be only for manual labor. Therefore, he wrote to his father to write to president Lincon to allow them to fight. Shaw went to his lieutenant and confronted him that many illegal things were going on, and said he would report him to the war department. This allowed him to finally take his men into the fight. In South Carolina 1863, the 54th regiment went to battle, they took the win of the battle and only 42 casualties. The next battle they took was a battle in Fort Wagner, and Shaw requested that the 54th regiment lead the battle into Fort Wagner. They lost half their number in this battle and the fort was never taken. Their bravery spread, at last Congress, started raising black troops throughout the Union, and over 180,000 volunteered. President Lincoln credited these men of color with helping turn the tide of war.

Madame S.J. Walker

She was a business pioneer she launched her hair product she was the 1st female millionaire white or black.

Reconstruction ended

blacks were forced out of office

Watson

White supremacy

Origins of black culture

spirit of resistance

Mary Church Terrell

-The NACW: "Lifting as We Climb": The two groups—the National Federation of Afro-American Women and the National Colored Woman's League—merged in 1896 to form the National Association of Colored Women (NACW), with Mary Church Terrell elected the first president. The NACW adopted the self-help motto "Lifting as We Climb," and in the reforming spirit of the progressive age they stressed moral, mental, and material advancement. By 1914 the NACW had 50,000 members in 1,000 clubs nationwide. Middle- and upper-class black club women were sometimes more concerned with the morality and behavior of black men and women than with civil rights and white supremacy. They opposed premarital sex and warned against the evils of alcohol. There were occasionally unpleasant disagreements and conflicts among the club women. Margaret Murray Washington—Booker T. Washington's wife—served as NACW president from 1912 to 1916, and the organization's National Notes was published at Tuskegee until 1922. Not everyone was fond of this arrangement. Ida Wells Barnett claimed that the Tuskegee Machine censored the publication. Meanwhile, Mary Church Terrell found Barnett abrasive and contentious and managed to exclude her from the initial NACW meeting in 1896. There were also regional rivalries, ideological disputes, and sensitivity over the light complexion of leaders like Terrell. More important than these internal struggles were the efforts of black women to confront the problems black people encountered in urban areas as rural southerners migrated to the cities by the thousands in the second and third decades of the twentieth century. The NACW clubs worked to eradicate poverty, end racial discrimination, and promote education. Members cared for older people, especially former slaves. They aided orphans; provided nurseries, health care, and information on childrearing for working mothers; and established homes for delinquent and abandoned girls. *-In 1896, the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was founded it was the 1st colored women association that fought for the struggle and advocation to improve life for all black people against the Jim Crow reality. The motto was "lifting as we climb" Mary Church Terrel - coined this term and she helped found it in 1896. She was the NACW president from 1896-1901, the 1st president. -IDA B Wells - was also in the NACW. -NACW - They engaged with white women feminists who were very prejudiced. White women held black suffrages that excluded black women, and they had blacks follow in the back of the parades, and excluded them from the 1st women sufferage book. *Mary Church Terrel - Came from a wealthy background, her father was the first black millionaire. She had values of education and was studying to become an educator. Then, she moved to the DMV and taught at Dumbar highschool. She was very a significant person the 1st black to be on the school board and became the school principal. She founded the NACWC and participated in the women suffrage march which had a jim crow section of the parade. She was one of the founding members of the NAACP, even when she was very she was still an active civil rights activist. At 86, she created a desegregation group that walked into a desegregated restaurant. This created the case of the District of Columbia Vs. John R. Thompson Co. and they won the case in 1953.

Lynching

3,700 were lynched, most were because of supposely white women rape.

Slave uprising

Had a great influence on contradicting whites stereotypes about blacks.

Olaudah Equiano

"The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African," Written by Himself, published in 1789, former slave _______ provides a vivid account of a West African's capture, sale to traders, and voyage to America in 1755. He tells the story of a young Igbo, the dominant ethnic group in what is today southern Nigeria. African slave raiders capture him when he is 10 years old and force him to march along with other captives to the Niger River or one of its tributaries, where they trade him to other Africans. His new captors take him to the coast and sell him to European slave traders whose ships sail to the West Indies. -Equiano, in his first-person narrative, insisted that "many more" would have jumped overboard "if they had not been prevented by the ship's crew." -Attempts to keep the slaves entertained and in good humor seldom succeeded. Crews sometimes forced the slaves to dance and sing, but their songs, as slave-ship surgeon Alexander Falconbridge testified, were "melancholy lamentations, of their exile from their native country." Depression among the Africans led to a catatonia that contemporary observers called melancholy or extreme nostalgia. Falconbridge noted that the slaves had "a strong attachment to their native country" and a "just sense of the value of liberty." Although the traders, seeking to lessen the possibility of shipboard conspiracy and rebellion, separated individuals who spoke the same language, the boy described by Equiano manages to find adults who speak Igbo. They explain to him the purpose of the voyage, which he learns is to go to the white people's country to labor for them rather than to be eaten by them. He does not realize that work on a West Indian island could be a death sentence. Although the controversy over Equiano's birthplace may never be resolved, it is certain that he was a young slave in Virginia when a visiting British sea captain named Michael Henry Pascal purchased him in 1754. Pascal commanded a merchant ship and employed Equiano as his personal servant. Pascal also gave him the name Gustavus Vassa (after the king of Sweden), which Equiano used for the rest of his life. Pascal and Equiano traveled extensively and served together in North America during the French and Indian War of 1754-1763. As a result, both of them were with General James Wolfe in 1759 at Quebec, Canada, where the British won the decisive battle of the war. Equiano also lived in England, where he received the schooling that allowed him to work as "a shipping clerk and amateur navigator on the ship of his . . . [third] master, the Quaker Robert King of Philadelphia, trading chiefly between [North] America and the West Indies." In 1766 growing antislavery sentiment among Quakers led King to allow Equiano to purchase his freedom for 40 pounds sterling. This was more money than most eighteenth-century British laborers earned in a year. Thereafter, Equiano toured the Mediterranean, sailed to the Arctic and Central America, converted to Calvinism, and became a leader in the British movement against the slave trade. In 1787 he helped organize a colony for emancipated British slaves at Sierra Leone in West Africa. Just before embarking for that country, however, dissention and confusion in the enterprise cost him his position as Commissary for Stores for the Black Poor. His autobiography, which he wrote shortly thereafter, proved to be a greater contribution to the anti-slave trade cause. The book also became a major source of income for Equiano. In April 1792 he married an Englishwoman, Susanna Cullen, with whom he had two daughters. Their marriage notice recognized him "as the champion and advocate for procuring the suppression of the slave trade." When Equiano died on March 31, 1797, he was, according to Carretta, "probably the wealthiest and most famous person of African descent in the Atlantic world." -Earliest black abolitionist, 1st civil rights activist his book he wrote was widely read among the abolitionist. He was captured and put into slavery he remembered vivid imagery, arrived at Barbados. He was bought and sent to Virginia and taught how to work on a ship. He bought his way out of slavery, well-known abolinist in England and throughout Europe.

Black Newspapers

-In the midst of this tense situation, Alex Manly, the young editor of a local black newspaper, the Daily Record, wrote an editorial condemning white men for the sexual exploitation of black women. Manly also suggested that black men had sexual liaisons with rural white women, which infuriated the white community: "Poor white men are careless in the matter of protecting their women, especially on the farms. . . . Tell your men that it is no worse for a black man to be intimate with a white woman than for a white man to be intimate with a colored woman. . . . Don't think ever that your women will remain pure while you are debauching ours." -Ida B. Wells, a newspaper editor and a friend of Moss, was heartbroken: "A finer, cleaner man than he never walked the streets of Memphis." She considered his lynching an "excuse to get rid of Negroes who were acquiring wealth and property and thus keep the race terrorized and keep the n word down." Wells began a lifelong crusade against lynching. (See Profile: Ida Wells Barnett.) -*Assaulting an individual lead to lynching event *Bull revel epidemic - an economic catastrophe *Lynching was a public spectacle; the pictures were posted primarily male audience. *Causes contact with women tied blacks to stereotype. *Equals Justice initiative found 25% of lynching was accused of sexual assault *30% was due to murder. *Georgia, CSA states *Advertised in newspapers -Black clergymen counseled against union activities. Black newspapers, including the Chicago Defender, opposed the BSCP. -Rules of Black media, edited by W.E.B. Du Buis, lead a black newspaper and helped blacks leave the South and gain information about local information throughout the South to inform them where to live. -Chicago Defender - Biggest black newspaper it was the most honest about racial issues. The Defender was sold throughout the country, they were cartoons and it was created by Robert Abbott. -Newspapers played a huge role in anti-lynching, making people aware of these massacres, civil right organization, and the frequency of the events.

Convict Leasing

-The battle against leasing was initially fought on humanitarian grounds. John Martin and Roderick Gambrell were moral reformers who railed against convict leasing. However, may newspaper editors were gunned down by Hamilton's men. -- In 1890, the convention abolished convict leasing by an overwhelming vote. However, convict leasing lingered on in Mississipi. *The Mississippi Plan: Thousands of ex-slaves were being arrested, tried, and convicted for acts that in the past had been dealt with by the master alone. The theft of a pig could now mean a few years at hard labor instead of a beating behind the barn. -whites had long viewed criminal behavior as natural to the Negro. - "All the men are thieves and all the women are prostitutes." - Stealing of "pigs, turkeys, chickens, melons, and roasting ears" were the most common offense. - General Edmund Ord, the military commander did not disagree "there is reason to fear a war of races if the blacks are not fed." - Some slaves viewed this as payback for all their years of hard unpaid labor. - Stealing became a regular act for ex-slaves, who the law offered the least possible protection. - In Alabama they would punish them on their own by flogging them, and others were lynched. - the jails became to be populated with coloreds - Edmund Richardson - born in North Carolina he was a business man. In 1868, he struck a deal with the federal authorities in Mississippi. He needed cheap labor to work some land he had bought, and got a contract that allowed him to work felons. He promised to feed them, clothe them, guard them, and treat them well. The state agreed to pay him $18,000 a year. All working on his Delta planatation - This caused an era of slave leasing, but the conditions were much worst than when they were slaves many died. They worked in coal mines, sawmills, railroad camps, and cotton fields of the emerging New South. - Many of the convicts that would do labor were black, they built levees, cleared swampland, and plowed fields. - Many convicts escaped, and many died from diseases and gunshot wounds. - Mississipi plan - designed to win back the state government - and ensure white supremacy-through terror, coercion, and fraud. - Sheriff Crosby, a black Republican accused of widespread corruption. Crosby responded by forming a posse of 500 black men armed with knives and pistols. The militia killed these men and white units went on a rampage killing three hundred blacks in a matter of days. - Many whites continued to kill blacks and the government did nothing about it, on election days blacks stayed home or were turned away from the polls keeping Democrats in office. - In 1876, the legislature passed a major crime bill aimed directly at the Negro. Known as the Pig Law, it redefined "grand larceny"- offenses punishable by up to five years in state prison-to include the theft of a farm animal or any property valued at ten dollars or more. - This caused the arrest to quadruple - After, the leasing act was passed making leasing convicts legal in every state. It was designed for black, not white, convicts. - The chain gang arose - White convicts soon became the most prized political contract such as Edmund Richardson, Nathan Bedford Forest (KKK leader), and Jones Hamilton. - Hamilton subleased convicts - The times of the Middle Passage seemed to be emerging again slaves died of bad work conditions and doctors would come to separate those that were ill from those good to work. Even children were forced to work - The battle against leasing was initially fought on humanitarian grounds. John Martin and Roderick Gambrell were moral reformers who railed against convict leasing. However, may newspaper editors were gunned down by Hamilton's men. - Hamilton even dueled with Roderick Gambrell and survived with a gun shot wound. Then, John Martin was killed in a duel with General Wirt Adams. - Then, Natchez Democrat stepped in calling leasing "dark and shameful" and Chickasaw Messenger. - In 1890, the convention abolished convict leasing by an overwhelming vote. However, convict leasing lingered on in Mississipi. *At least 100,000 African Americans were re-enslaved in the last decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth century. The convict lease system (Southern states and communities leased prisoners to privately operated mines, railroads, and timber companies. These businesses forced the prisoners, who were usually black men, to work in brutal, unhealthy, and dangerous conditions. Many convicts died of abuse and disease.) emerged as a key source of cheap labor in every former Confederate state except Virginia. Southern states and counties found that it was lucrative to lease prisoners—the vast majority were black men—to timber companies, coal mines, railroads, and plantation owners. The state or the county was freed of the responsibility of feeding, housing, and guarding inmates. Businessmen, industrialists, and planters paid the states and counties for the convict labor. South Carolina, for example, collected $3 per month for each leased prisoner. There was no incentive to maintain the health and strength of the laborers. Leased convicts endured appalling conditions. They were shackled and beaten, overworked, and underfed. They slept on vermin-infested straw mattresses and received little or no medical care. They sustained terrible injuries on the job and at the hands of guards. Diseases proliferated in the camps. Hundreds died. They had, in effect, been sentenced to death for petty crimes. As one employer explained in 1883, "But these convicts; we don't own em. One dies, get another." Leasing prisoners became such an attractive source of revenue for sheriffs, counties, and states that they simply rounded up black men and sent them into involuntary servitude. They were arrested for a variety of felonies and misdemeanors, ranging from murder and larceny to drunkenness, loitering, and vagrancy. Sometimes no charges were levied against them. Petty crimes or no crime meant virtual enslavement. As horrific as the convict lease system was for black men, it was worse for black women. In much smaller numbers than men, African American women were leased to businesses and agricultural enterprises. In states like Georgia they were forced into the same jobs and working conditions in mines, lumber operations, and fields as men. But unlike men, they were sexually abused, raped, and became pregnant while under the harsh domination of white guards and supervisors. Convict leasing became such a notorious scandal that most states outlawed it by the 1930s. *Black people received longer sentences and larger fines than white people. In Georgia, black convicts served much longer sentences than white convicts for the same offense—five times as long for larceny, for example. An 80-year-old black preacher went to prison "for what a white man was fined five dollars." In New Orleans, a black man was sentenced to 90 days in jail for petty theft. A black newspaper said it was "three days for stealing and eighty-seven days for being colored." -till well over 100,000 African American men and women were held in bondage through the convict lease system while thousands of other landless black families were kept in involuntary servitude through peonage.

Banjo

African banjo survived in America, and African Americans quickly adopted the violin and guitar. At night, in their cabins or around communal fires, slaves accompanied these instruments with bones and spoons. Aside from family and religion, music may have been the most important aspect of African culture in the lives of American slaves. Eventually, African-American music influenced all forms of American popular music.

The Fourtheen Amendment

Allowed every person to have citizenship and should be treated fairly llegally but did not occur. Andrew Johnson denied this

13th amendment

Although the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, thousands of black people were trapped in peonage or labored as sharecroppers and renters, indebted to white landowners and merchants. Yet more than 100,000 black families managed to acquire their own farms by 1900. Many black farmers had also organized and participated in the Colored Farmers' Alliance and the Populist Party, although it brought few tangible benefits.

Middle Passage

Many died because slaves were insured,

When the slavery trade in 1850 became illegal Sexual Coercian

The Americas began to make Africans have sex with one another having a stud that would be forced to have sex with a women. Women were told if they have an amount of children there was a chance of being freed. Youn girls 13 year old were allowed to start ha

Labor, The Great Migration

The arrival of thousands of black migrants in American cities during and after World War I changed the composition of the industrial workforce and intensified pressure on labor unions to admit black members. By 1916, 12,000 of the nearly 50,000 workers in the Chicago stockyards were black people. In Detroit, black laborers made up nearly 14 percent of the workforce in the automobile industry. The Ford Motor Company employed 50 black people in 1916 and 2,500 by 1920. Yet even with the Industrial Revolution and the Great Migration, more than two-thirds of black workers in 1920 were employed in agriculture and domestic service. Less than 20 percent were engaged in manufacturing. Many black men and women remained confined to the rural South. Those who were part of industrial America disproportionately worked in the dreary, dirty, and sometimes dangerous unskilled jobs that paid the least. Still, work in the factories, mills, and mines paid more than agriculture (Figure 17-2). But even those with skills were usually not admitted to the local craft unions that made up the American Federation of Labor (AFL). More than 50 trade unions within the AFL had no black members. Unions that did admit black workers included those representing cigar makers, coal miners, garment workers, and longshoremen. By the World War I years, the NAACP and the Urban League regularly appealed to employers and unions to accept black laborers. The Urban League attempted to convince business owners that black employees would be efficient and reliable. But many employers preferred to divide black and white workers by hiring black men and women as strikebreakers, thereby enraging striking white workers. In 1918 Urban League officials met with Samuel Gompers, the longtime president of the AFL, and he agreed to bring more black people into the federation, but there were few tangible results. The Urban League did persuade the Department of Labor to establish a Division of Negro Economics to advise the secretary of labor on issues involving black workers. *-Cities became black because of this it was the largest movement of people. -In the cities manufacturing jobs that were not allowed to employ blacks could begin doing so. -1.6 million was included in the 1st move even to the upper north cities. -102,000 blacks that moved into the U.S. from DIASPORA, from the Carribean it was a driving force for the renaissance -Economic reality: Oppression economic with sharecropping in the South in the North there was much better opportunities, the U.S. was the supreme manufacturer for W.W.1 5 million left from the north to go to war which is why these manufacturing jobs open. -1st WW1 when blacks manufacturing became available 1910-1920 the population growed the numbers all came from Mr. Works year book. -Harlem Hell fighters (369th Infantry Regiment) All black infantry unit, originally a national guard unit, the Germans named gave this name to them because how intense of fighters they were. -Henry Johnson was the 1st black to receive a French medal of honor, his nick name was the black death because he fought and killed 70 Germans with hand grenades, and a jammed rifle. -Boll Weevil - Boll of Cotton on the plant they would bore a hole in the Boll it was catastrophic to cotton cultivation, another push factor, why they moved. -Great Harlem: Renaissance There were outlets in every city it was an explosion in for blacks in literature, art, music, and performance. The connection to the migration allowing blacks to integrate and influence the U.S. partly caused by the Great Migration. -Paul Robeson Fitz - 1st black man that played in football team he played on many teams one was the 1st team of all Americans - he was the valedictorian of his class and the 1st black to have himself on a Hollywood theater. -3 the chitlin circuit -Harlem, Apollo clubs going out with your friends and didn't have to be on guard, they were interracial places, but the majority was black. -Royal Theater: -Rules of Black media, edited by W.E.B. Du Buis, lead a black newspaper and helped blacks leave the South and gain information about local information throughout the South to inform them where to live. -Chicago Defender - Biggest black newspaper it was the most honest about racial issues. The Defender was sold throughout the country, they were cartoons and it was created by Robert Abbott. -The migration now had cities filled with blacks.

Pullman Porters

The southern states were erecting a segregated system called Jim Crow. Many blacks left their sharecropping jobs to join working on the railroads. They relied on blacks to repair and extend the railroads after the war. They fixed brakes and shoveled coal alongside the engineer. They loaded baggage and freight and on occasion drove the train. They earned 10-20% less than whites doing the same work. John Henry a former 6-foot slave who worked very hard. He went up against a steam drill with 2 20 pound hammers and he dug a deeper hole than the steam drill. Many blacks became caterers on the train for white passengers. They were all hired by the Pullman company to cut cost, but they still paid them good. Their trains had sleepers that allowed passengers to sleep overnight. George Pullman was the manager that hired all of the slaves and he hired more slaves the blacker they were. In the early 1900 century the Pullman company was the larger employer of Negroes, black loved the jobs and they loved George. They were able to have financial stability and attain some education from the intelligent travelers. The brotherhood tried to unionize negro workers to make it fair working. Randolph was the leader of the black union working for equal pay. They managed to pass the Railway Labor Act which promised prompt and orderly settlement of labor disputes. They finally went on strike 90% of the labor force participated but once the pressure was on 90% left. Mr. Pullman try to bribe Randolph to stop the brotherhood. Randolph though was so thin because he didn't have money for food denied the blank check. In 1937 they finally negotiated with the brotherhood. -By the 1920s the Pullman Company, which owned and operated passenger railroad coaches, was the single largest employer of black people in the United States. More than 12,000 black men were porters on Pullman railroad cars. After founding the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1867, George Pullman decided to employ only black men as porters—on the assumption that prosperous white people were accustomed to being waited on by black servants. Furthermore, black employees could be and were paid less than white workers. Pullman porters toiled for upward of 400 hours each month to maintain the coaches and serve the passengers. Porters had to prepare the cars before the train's departure and service them after the train arrived at its destination, although they were paid only for the duration of the trip. They assisted passengers, shined shoes (they had to purchase the polish themselves), and arranged sleeping compartments. Considered mere servants by most passengers, porters had little time for rest. To add to the indignity, white travelers invariably referred to these black men as "George," no matter what their actual name was. Porters were paid an average of $67.50 per month—about $810 per year. But with tips that might average $600 annually, a porter could earn $1,400 in a year ($19,141 in 2016 dollars), a decent wage at the time. They had to buy their own uniforms during their first 10 years of employment. Although strenuous and time-consuming, Pullman employment was the most satisfactory work many black men could hope to achieve. Barred from business and industry, black men with college degrees often worked as sleeping car porters. As poorly paid as they were compared with many white workers, they still earned more than most black schoolteachers. Most of these Pullman employees regarded themselves as solid, respectable members of the middle class. It seemed unlikely that men as subservient and unobtrusive as the Pullman porters would form a labor union to challenge one of America's most powerful corporations. But they did. The key figure in this effort was A. Philip Randolph. In 1925 Pullman porters in Harlem invited Randolph to become their "general organizer" as they formed the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP). Randolph accepted. -The pullman dress very nicely and acted very politely, a lady was trying to steal the sheets a pullman she she couldn't because they would take it out of his paycheck once they found the sheets in her suitcase she said the pullman planted it. Mr. Rudolph was very smart not to sign a contract by the wall street man that said he could no longer form a union. He would have colored newspaper boys selling the messenger on the streets. Men that worked for pullman porter would be fired if they tried to create in union in the train system. Ashley Toten went to Rudolph to form the pullman union, Rudolph did not want to be apart of the colored union at the beginning. For pullman porters they only got 60$ a month and they would tell the porters to do silly things like bark for tips. The pullman porters would have to shine shoes and bow everyday to the clients. They would have to still ride the trains for trains even though tickets were not being sold. They would carry luggage and would be treated badly by the customers the customers would try to push the porters, but they couldn't complain because they would be fired. Rudolph signed up as a porter to see what the experience was like and a white women tried to convince him by getting nude to have sex with him knowing that he would be lynched if he interacted. This convinced him to publish the union cause in the messenger. The justice system called Rudolph the most dangerous negro in the states, supposedly Rudolph got all his money from his wife who had a successful beauty salon. Phillip A. Rudolph couldn't get fired because he didn't work for the pullman company, and created a labor group that would barter for the union work. They fought for a minimum wage of 150$ that they should get paid the same amount as conductors and that they should be treated like free men. The dues for the Union was 10$ a month, they called it the brotherhood. The dues went to some porters that were fired. He saw Webster in Chicago who insulted him that he was no pullman porter. However, he convinced Webster that he was a reliable leader. In Chicago they tried to have Rudolph arrested. They said that Randolph and his wives were Bolsheviks working for the russians and caused his wife to lose her business at her hair salon. George fired many porters for believing they were working to unionize and finally Toten got fired. Randolph simmer the people down saying violence is not the answer. He said they needed to got to the AFL. Randolph and Webster met will Mr. Green in AFL and he wanted to help to become a recognized union, but the outcome seemed like it didn't work. Mr. Green agreed to help them and was able to get a case against the Pullman Company. They lost the case and prepared for a strike at the same time white men jumped Ashley Toten. He got so beat up that his mind was injured, it turned out Leon was the spy. Then, Randolph went to go speak in different cities and got the news his mother past. The Pullman company tried to bribe Randolph 10,000 to step down, but the brotherhood voted him to stay. Then, Mr. Green allowed Randolph in the AVL and George tried to convince him not to, and George offered Randolph up to $999,999. Pullman tried to fire all the men, so they could no longer vote but Randolph fought for them to vote.

Slave music

The jubilee "joy" songs.

The Great Awakening

The major turning point in African-American religion came in conjunction with the religious revival known as the Great Awakening. This extensive social movement of the mid- to late-eighteenth century grew out of growing dissatisfaction among white Americans with a deterministic and increasingly formalistic style of Protestantism that seemed to deny most people a chance for salvation. During the early 1730s in western Massachusetts, a Congregationalist minister named Jonathan Edwards began an emotional and participatory ministry aimed at bringing more people into the church. Later that decade, George Whitefield, an Englishman who along with John Wesley founded the Methodist Church, carried a similarly evangelical style of Christianity to the mainland colonies. In his sermons, Whitefield appealed to emotions, offered salvation to all who believed in Christ, and—although he did not advocate emancipation—preached to black people as well as white people. Some people of African descent had converted to Christianity before Whitefield's arrival in North America. But two factors had prevented widespread black conversion. First, most masters feared that converted slaves would interpret their new religious status as a step toward freedom and equality. A South Carolina minister lamented in 1713, "The Masters of Slaves are generally of Opinion that a Slave grows worse by being a Christian; and therefore instead of instructing them in the principles of Christianity . . . malign and traduce those that attempt it." Second, many slaves remained so devoted to their ancestral religions that Christianity did not attract them. With the Great Awakening, however, a process of general conversion began. African Americans did indeed link the spiritual equality preached by evangelical ministers with a hope for earthly equality. They tied salvation for the soul with liberation for the body. They recognized that the preaching style Whitefield and other evangelicals adopted had much in common with West African "spirit possession." As in West African religion, eighteenth-century revivalism in North America emphasized personal rebirth, singing, movement, and emotion. The practice of total body immersion during baptism in rivers, ponds, and lakes that gave the Baptist church its name paralleled West African water rites. Consequently, when they could, African Americans established their own churches. Dancing, shouting, clapping, and singing became especially characteristic of their religious meetings. Black spirituals probably date from the eighteenth century and, like African-American Christianity itself, they blended West African and European elements. African Americans also retained the West African assumption that the souls of the dead returned to their homeland and rejoined their ancestors. Reflecting this family-oriented view of death, African-American funerals were often loud and joyous occasions with dancing, laughing, and drinking. Perhaps most important, the emerging black church reinforced black people's collective identity and helped them persevere in slavery. Although African Americans did not retain their ancestral languages, those languages contributed to the pidgins and creolized languages that became Black English by the nineteenth century. It was in the low country, with its large and isolated black populations, that African-English creoles lasted the longest. The Gullah and Geechee dialects of the sea islands of South Carolina and Georgia, which combine African words and grammatical elements with a basically English structure, are still spoken today. In other regions, where black people were less numerous, creole languages did not last so long. Nevertheless, they contributed many words to American—particularly southern—English. Among them are yam, banjo (from mbanza), tote, goober (peanut), buckra (white man), cooter (tortoise), gumbo (okra), nanse (spider), samba (dance), tabby (a form of concrete), and voodoo. *Had a big effect on black churches and singing, jubilee, joy, and faith of slaves (resistance).

Anna Julia Cooper

This African American scholar was known for covering issues of race and gender in the America south in the late 1800s. She also argued men should not fear women attaining more education. -Anna Julia Cooper and Black Feminism: "Only the BLACK WOMAN can say 'when and where I enter, in the quiet, undisputed dignity of my womanhood, without violence and without suing or patronage, then and there the whole Negro race enters with me.' " So wrote Anna Julia Cooper in the late nineteenth century. Not only was Cooper convinced that black women would play a decisive role in shaping the destiny of their people, she labored against the stereotype that black women lacked refinement, grace, and morality. Cooper was born a slave in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1858 and graduated from St. Augustine's School. She then earned a bachelor's degree from Oberlin College in 1884. Speaking and writing with increasing confidence and authority, she published A Voice From the South, by a Black Woman of the South in 1892. In these essays she stressed the pivotal role that black women would play in the future and chastised white women for their lack of support. In 1900 she addressed the Pan African Conference in London. Cooper was principal of Washington's famed M Street Colored High School (later Paul Laurence Dunbar High School) from 1901 to 1906. She was forced out in 1906 amid allegations that supporters of the Tuskegee Machine resented her emphasis on academic preparation over vocational training. She went on to teach for four years at Missouri's Lincoln University before returning to M Street High as a teacher. Fluent in French, she earned a Ph.D. at the Sorbonne in Paris. She was active with the NACW, the NAACP, and the YWCA. Married in 1877, her husband died only two years later. Cooper found time following his death to take in and raise five children. She died in 1964 at age 105.

James Hemings

got freed from Mr. Jefferson

5th emancipation proclamation

*Allowed African Americans to have a say in the war. -President Lincoln needed a decisive Union military victory so that the Emancipation Proclamation to show positive strength of his executive order was positive. -Intended effects: -The legal document then people believed slaves were free because as soon as a slave ran away and got past the Mason Dixon line they were free because the Confederates couldn't get past. - All States in South and border states didn't free slaves

The Emancipation Proclamation 1863

*85% of blacks that were allowed to fight did and they made up 1/10 of the army. *Made the civil war that would now make the blacks free, and allowed blacks to fight in the Union allowing them to win the war. *Had an effect on white supremacist arising. *Reunited black families not only marked the beginning of the end of slavery but also authorized the enlistment of black troops in the Union Army. Just as white leaders in the North came to realize the preservation of the Union necessitated the abolition of slavery, they also began to understand that black men were needed for the military effort if the Union was to triumph in the Civil War. -The black men were now allowed until the Emancipation proclamation because of the stereotypes that were in american culture. However, their bravery and pride the 54th regiments was the most memorable. White confederates killed and brutally murdered them on the spot, and they wanted to send a message to previous or current slaves in the south. 180,000 African Americans fought in the army and 1/6 died in the civil war. In Abraham final proclamation gave blacks the right to vote, but even after they still weren't a reality. *Issued by Abraham Lincoln on September 22, 1862 it declared that all slaves in the confederate states would be free. - End of slavery in the South - The end of slavery changed by a state by state basis. *-Lincoln was like white folks he didn't like slavery, nor was he an abolitionist. - When the civil war started it was about the integrity of the Union - 2nd summer of the war the Union was not doing so well. - Many slaves were displaced, so they put them to work. - created a new source of military power - Military policy - didn't free slaves in border states. - The overseers and poor whites in the south were forced into the war. - Emancipation Proclamation was created because without African Americans the Union would have lost. -Every slave in Confederate territory told them that any slave in a rebellion state is free. - It was African Americans Declaration of Independence. - Many people were hostile to the change of policy

Ku Klux Klan

*Originally in 1866 - leader was Nathanial Bedford Forrest Motive? Concerned about free black people, target northern -Carpet Baggers - entrepreneurs coming from the North to the other places in the country -Reestablished white power and control black labor by force and restore racial subordination of southern life. -Forrest - General during the war, owned slaves before, and committed Ford Pillow Massacre: evenly divided white and blacks in the Union, Forrest brought his army with a fake friend flag, and he went up, then he told them to surrender the Union thought he was bluffing, then the massacre occurred. Black soldiers tried to surrender they did not allow them to they did not think they owned a spot in the war.. This changed the way the Union interacted with confederates. Forrest said he could not control his men, and you are responsible for your men in war. This leads the Union to stop participating in the prisoner of war.h -Other Racist and terror groups The white league and white shirts their goals was to target Republicans and try to get rid of them. They did not cover their faces. *Redshirts youth league, young southern men who were not able to participate in the war. -Freedmen's Bureau - agency to assist blacks in the transition from slavery to a free life. They helped with family's reunification, food, clothing, and education. In effect, many agents were injured and shot, and there was a sense of northern indifference -Rage in the South against the Freedmen Bureau highlights the Juxtaposition of the society in the South. The Fort Pillow Massacre: The war's worst atrocity against black troops occurred at Fort Pillow (This fort on the east bank of the Mississippi River north of Memphis, Tennessee, was the scene of a massacre of black Union troops as well as some white soldiers and officers by Confederate cavalry in April 1864.) in Tennessee on April 12, 1864. Confederates under the command of Nathan Bedford Forrest slaughtered 300 black troops and their white commander, William F. Bradford, after many of them had surrendered. (After the Civil War, Forrest gained notoriety as a founder of the Ku Klux Klan. Before the war he had been a slave trader.) The Fort Pillow Massacre became the subject of an intense debate in Lincoln's cabinet. But rather than retaliate indiscriminately—as General Order 11 required—the cabinet decided to punish only those responsible for the killings, if and when they were apprehended. But no one was punished during or after the war. Instead, black troops exacted revenge themselves. In fighting around Petersburg later that year, black soldiers shouting "Remember Fort Pillow!" reportedly murdered several Confederate prisoners. Captain Charles Francis Adams, Jr. reported, "The darkies fought ferociously. . . . If they murdered prisoners, as I hear they did . . . they can hardly be blamed." Confederate troops committed many other racial atrocities during the remainder of the war. On their own, Union commanders in the field also retaliated for the Confederate treatment of captured black troops. When captured black men were virtually enslaved and forced to work at Richmond and Charleston on Confederate fortifications that were under Union attack, Union officers put Confederate prisoners to work on Union installations that were under fire. Aware they were not likely to be treated as well as white soldiers if they were captured, black men often fought desperately. The black men were now allowed until the Emancipation proclamation because of the stereotypes that were in american culture. However, their bravery and pride the 54th regiments was the most memorable. White confederates killed and brutally murdered them on the spot, and they wanted to send a message to previous or current slaves in the south. 180,000 African Americans fought in the army and 1/6 died in the civil war. In Abraham final proclamation gave blacks the right to vote, but even after they still weren't a reality.

Final Emancipation Proclamation

Gave the rights to blacks to vote

black codes

In the aftermath of the civil war, in 1865 congress created the freedmens bureau the north wanted wage labor. The slaves wanted land so they can grow what they need for them and their families. After Lincoln died they created black codes which put slave in a position to put them but on the plantations with pay. A compromise arises sharecropping - a way of farming where the land owner pays the farm owner a wage in the form of crops. For slaves this meant that slaves could work without punishment, and former slave owners started to become shop keepers. They would lend tools to the slaves and they cotton prices fell causing them to fall in debt. -Two black codes and convict leasing

Benjamin Butler

allowed runaways to be freed

First confiscation Act

allowed runaways to be freed

Slave resistance

force grievances -Values and beliefs -inaccessible regions -broke tools, mistreated domestic animals

Jupiter Hammon, come to inspiration from the Great Awakening

was a favored slave living in Long Island, New York, when on Christmas Day 1760 he composed "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ, with Penitential Cries," an excerpt of which appears here. A Calvinist preacher and America's first published black poet, Hammon was deeply influenced by the Great Awakening's emphasis on repentance and Christ's spiritual sovereignty.

Black Churches

Arose during reconstruction and helped people during the Jim Crow

The Exodusters

*In May 1879 black delegates from 14 states met in a convention in Nashville presided over by Congressman John R. Lynch of Mississippi. The delegates declared that "the colored people should emigrate to those States and Territories where they can enjoy all the rights which are guaranteed by the laws and Constitution of the United States." They also asked Congress—in vain—for $500,000 for this venture. Nevertheless, black people headed west. Between 1865 and 1880, 40,000 black people known as "Exodusters" (Many people who moved west after the Civil War took advantage of the 1862 Homestead Act, which provided 160 acres of federal land free to those who would settle on it and farm it for at least five years. (Alternatively, a settler could buy the land for $1.25 per acre and possess it after six months' residency.) Life on the frontier was often bleak, dreary, and lonely. People lived in sod houses and relied on cow (or buffalo) chips for heat and cooking fuel as they struggled to endure. Railroads encouraged migration by offering reduced fares. Some western farmers and agents were eager to sell land, but some of it was of little value. Some white residents of Mississippi and South Carolina, which had large black majorities, were glad to see the black people go. However, the loss of cheap black labor alarmed others. Some black leaders urged black people to stay put. In 1879 Frederick Douglass insisted that more opportunities existed for black people in the South than elsewhere: "Not only is the South the best locality for the Negro on the ground of his political powers and possibilities, but it is best for him as a field of labor. He is there, as he is nowhere else, an absolute necessity." Robert Smalls urged black people to come to his home county of Beaufort, South Carolina, "where I hardly think it probable that any prisoner will ever be taken from jail by a mob and lynched.") moved to Kansas. Benjamin "Pap" Singleton, a charismatic ex-slave from Tennessee, persuaded several hundred to migrate. Six black men were instrumental in founding the Kansas town of Nicodemus in 1877. Named after an African prince who bought his freedom, Nicodemus thrived in the 1880s with a hotel, two newspapers, a general store, a drugstore, a school, and three churches. Several of the businesses were white owned. Edwin P. McCabe, a black native of Troy, New York, settled for a time in Nicodemus, and in 1882 Kansas voters elected him state auditor. By 1890, however, Nicodemus went into a decline from which it never recovered. Three railroads were built across Kansas, but each avoided Nicodemus, spelling economic ruin for the community. Edwin McCabe moved to Oklahoma and helped found the black town of Langston. Eventually more black people settled in Oklahoma than in Kansas. By 1900 African Americans possessed 1.5 million acres in Oklahoma worth $11 million. In 1889 Congress enacted legislation eliminating Indian Territory in Oklahoma, dispossessing the Five Civilized Tribes of their land, and dismantling tribal government. More than two dozen black towns, including Boley and Liberty, were founded in Oklahoma. There were nearly 50 black towns in the West by the early twentieth century, including Allensworth, California; Blackdom, New Mexico; and Dearfield, Colorado. Other black migrants settled in rural and isolated portions of Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Colorado. Many people who moved west after the Civil War took advantage of the 1862 Homestead Act, which provided 160 acres of federal land free to those who would settle on it and farm it for at least five years. (Alternatively, a settler could buy the land for $1.25 per acre and possess it after six months' residency.) Life on the frontier was often bleak, dreary, and lonely. People lived in sod houses and relied on cow (or buffalo) chips for heat and cooking fuel as they struggled to endure. Railroads encouraged migration by offering reduced fares. Some western farmers and agents were eager to sell land, but some of it was of little value. Some white residents of Mississippi and South Carolina, which had large black majorities, were glad to see the black people go. However, the loss of cheap black labor alarmed others. Some black leaders urged black people to stay put. In 1879 Frederick Douglass insisted that more opportunities existed for black people in the South than elsewhere: "Not only is the South the best locality for the Negro on the ground of his political powers and possibilities, but it is best for him as a field of labor. He is there, as he is nowhere else, an absolute necessity." Robert Smalls urged black people to come to his home county of Beaufort, South Carolina, "where I hardly think it probable that any prisoner will ever be taken from jail by a mob and lynched."

Tenant Farming

- A sharp decline in the price of cotton between 1865 and 1890 hurt small independent (yeomen) farmers in the South. Many lost their land and were forced into tenant farming and sharecropping. By 1890 most farmers in the Deep South, black and white, worked land they did not own. -The white tenant lives adjoining the colored tenant. Their homes are almost equally destitute of comforts. Their living is confined to bare necessities. They are equally burdened with heavy taxes. They pay the same high rent for gullied and impoverished land. . . . Now the Peoples' Party says to these two men, You are kept apart that you may be separately fleeced of your earnings. You are made to hate each other because upon that hatred is rested the keystone of the arch of financial despotism which enslaves you both. You are deceived and blinded that you may not see how this race antagonism perpetuates a monetary system which beggars both." -RENTERS Black farmers preferred renting to sharecropping. As tenants, they paid a flat charge to rent a given number of acres. Payment would be made in either cash—perhaps $5 per acre—or, more typically, in a specified amount of the crop—two bales of cotton per 20 acres. Tenants usually owned their own animals and tools. As Bessie Jones explained, "You see, a sharecropper don't ever have nothing. Before you know it, the man done took it all. But the renter always have something, and then he go to work when he want to go to work. He ain't got to go to work on the man's time. If he didn't make it, he didn't get it."

civil war

-(Slaves who escaped to the Union or were captured by Union troops early in the Civil War; these slaves were considered enemy property.)—enemy property—and put them to work for the Union. Soon, over a thousand slaves fled to Fortress Monroe. The white authorities may have thought of them as contraband, but it is doubtful that while crossing Union lines any slaves declared, "We are contraband." Rather, they were apt to insist, "We are free!" -However, it was the first significant effort by Union authorities to assure freedom to nearly four million people of African descent who, with their ancestors, had been enslaved for 250 years in North America. The Civil War was now a war to make people free. Black communities and many white people across the North celebrated. Church bells rang. Poems were written, and prayers of thanksgiving offered. Many considered it the most momentous day in American history since July 4, 1776. Frederick Douglass had difficulty describing the emotions of people in Boston when word reached the city late on the night of December 31 that Lincoln would issue the Proclamation the next day. "The effect of this announcement was startling beyond description, and the scene was wild and grand. Joy and gladness exhausted all forms of expression, from shouts of praise to sobs and tears. . . . A Negro preacher, a man of wonderful vocal power, expressed the heartfelt emotion of the hour, when he led all voices in the anthem, 'Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea, Jehovah hath triumphed, his people were free."' Well into the twentieth century, New Year's Day was commemorated as Emancipation Day, a holiday black Americans zealously observed. -The Emancipation Proclamation not only marked the beginning of the end of slavery but also authorized the enlistment of black troops in the Union Army. Just as white leaders in the North came to realize the preservation of the Union necessitated the abolition of slavery, they also began to understand that black men were needed for the military effort if the Union was to triumph in the Civil War. By early 1863 the war had not gone well for the all-white Union Army. Although Union forces had won victories in Kentucky and Tennessee and had captured New Orleans, the war in the east was a different matter (see Map 11-2). The Union's Army of the Potomac faced a smaller but highly effective Confederate Army—the Army of Northern Virginia—led by General Robert E. Lee. Confederate troops forced a Union retreat from Richmond during the 1862 Peninsular Campaign. Union forces lost at the first and second battles of Bull Run. Their only victory over Lee at Antietam was followed by a crushing Union loss at Fredericksburg. Like the decision to free the slaves, the decision to employ black troops proceeded neither smoothly nor logically. The commitment to the Civil War as a white man's war was entrenched, and many white northerners opposed the initial attempts to enlist black troops. As with emancipation, Lincoln moved slowly from outright opposition to cautious acceptance to enthusiastic support for enlisting black men in the Union Army. Although black men had fought well in the War for Independence and the War of 1812, they were legally prohibited from joining the regular U.S. Army. The Militia Act of 1792 also barred them from the state militias. In 1861 a few black men were able to join Union units and go off to war. H. Ford Douglas, who had a fair complexion, enlisted in the all-white 95th Illinois Infantry, a volunteer regiment. -Some Union officers recruited black men long before emancipation was proclaimed and before most white northerners were prepared to accept, much less welcome, black troops. In May 1862 General David Hunter began recruiting former slaves along the South Carolina coast and the sea islands, an area Union forces had captured in late 1861. But some black men did not want to enlist, and Hunter used white troops to force black men to "volunteer" for military service. He managed to organize a 500-man regiment—the First South Carolina Volunteers. (Some Union officers recruited black men long before emancipation was proclaimed and before most white northerners were prepared to accept, much less welcome, black troops. In May 1862 General David Hunter began recruiting former slaves along the South Carolina coast and the sea islands, an area Union forces had captured in late 1861. But some black men did not want to enlist, and Hunter used white troops to force black men to "volunteer" for military service. He managed to organize a 500-man regiment—the First South Carolina Volunteers.) The former slaves were outfitted in bright red pants, with blue coats and broad-brimmed hats. Through the summer of 1862, Hunter trained and drilled the regiment while awaiting official authorization and funds to pay them. When Congress balked, Hunter disbanded all but one company of the regiment that August. The troops were dispersed, unpaid and disappointed. The surviving company was sent to St. Simon's Island off the Georgia coast to protect former slaves. Although Congress failed to support Hunter, it did pass the Second Confiscation Act (The 1862 act freeing all slaves of rebel owners.) and the Militia Act of 1862, (The 1862 Act authorizing Lincoln to enlist black soldiers.) which authorized President Lincoln to enlist black men. General Rufus Saxton gained the approval of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton to revive Hunter's dispersed regiment and to recall the company that had been sent to St. Simon's Island. As commander, Saxton appointed Thomas Wentworth Higginson. Higginson was an ardent white abolitionist, one of the Secret Six who had provided financial support for John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry. He was determined not merely to end slavery but to prove that black people were equal to white people, a proposition most white people regarded as preposterous. Disposing of the unit's gaudy red trousers, Higginson set out to mold this regiment of mostly former slaves into an effective fighting force. On Emancipation Day, January 1, 1863, near Beaufort, South Carolina, the First South Carolina Volunteer Regiment was inducted into the U.S. Army and later became the 33rd U.S. Colored Infantry.

chattel slavery

-Yet, beginning during the early 1600s, the ruling elite made decisions that limited the apparent social mobility Africans enjoyed. They treated black servants differently than they treated white servants. This sentiment did not become universal among the white poor during the colonial period. However, it provided a foundation for what historian Winthrop D. Jordan calls the "unthinking decision" among the British in the Chesapeake to establish chattel slavery. In this form of slavery, Africans and people of African descent became their master's private property on a level with livestock. -A form of slavery in which the enslaved are treated legally as property. "Personal property" - of their master and lost their customary rights as human beings. Absolute legal ownership of another person, including the right to buy or sell that person. -Led by Nathaniel Bacon, it was primarily a class war and it was the 1st time that low income white people did not want to be aligned with American American indentures. This was the establishment of the artificial color line. They raided Jamestown and burnt tobacco productions to the ground. They targeted all Indians no matter if they were dangerous. The British then sent troops to stop the fight, but by then Bacon had died. However, he now started the social trend of lower income white people pushing away from being in the same class as African Americans. This caused black people to begin to have a slave status and it started the chattel slavery system. -Found in U.S. once a person was a slave their families were slaves too without bondage of freedom. They became property, including their offspring, started mid 1400. -As the eighteenth century passed, more black women became house servants. Yet most jobs as maids, cooks, and body servants went to the young, the old, or the infirm. Black women also wet-nursed their master's children. None of this was easy work. Those who did it were under constant white supervision and were particularly subject to the sexual exploitation that characterized chattel slavery. -Origins of black culture, common phrases and music of the southern states can be connected to the slavery ages (chattel slavery). Slave culture is a mix of many different ethnicities. Combination of Tribal African culture, when you think about the culture you think about language. African slave culture was a culture of survival, sprit of resistance. -Values and beliefs up came from resistance, when slaves were stripped from everything into chattel slavery. They incorporated Christianity and unique roots in church (Black music). Music was so important, the banjo came from Africa. Banjo history, there were many different string instruments. Akonting - closest to the banjo, animal skin stretched over the resonator. -Chattel slavery unique because ________. State of Florida - youngest of the southern states, slaves began looking for escape routes and those who attempt to previously escape but were caught had to wear _________. -Blacks were the primary reason for the economic development in the U.S.

The Elaine Massacre

217 men, women, and children were killed occurred from a farming meeting it was the deadliest confrontation in the state. -Newspapers played a huge role in anti-lynching, making people aware of these massacres, civil right organization, and the frequency of the events.

Jim Crow

Because confederates and whites were mad because blacks could finally be joyful. Whites burned down black schools, rapes, beatings, lynching, burned down churches. People were willing to go, black men were not treated equally in the legal system.

Railroad building

Black involvement in southern politics survived Reconstruction, but it did not survive the nineteenth century. Divisions within the Democratic Party and the rise of a new political party—the Populists—accompanied successful efforts to remove black people entirely from southern politics. Militant Democrats opposed the more paternalistic conservatives who took charge after Reconstruction. For the militants, these redeemers seemed too willing to tolerate limited black participation in politics while showing little interest in the needs of white yeoman farmers. Dissatisfied independents, "readjusters," and other disaffected white people resented the domination of the Democratic Party by former planters, wealthy businessmen, and lawyers who often favored limited government and reduced state support for schools, asylums, orphanages, and prisons while encouraging industry and railroads. Nor did the redeemer and paternalistic Democrats always agree among themselves. Some favored agricultural education, boards of health, and even separate colleges for black students. This disunity permitted insurgent Democrats and even Republicans to exploit economic and racial issues to undermine Democratic solidarity. Many farmers felt betrayed as the Industrial Revolution transformed society. They fed and clothed America, but large corporations, banks, and railroads dominated economic life. Wealth was concentrated in the hands of big industrialists and financiers. Farmers were no longer self-sufficient, admired for hard work and self-reliance. They now depended on banks for loans, were exploited when they bought and sold goods, and were at the mercy of railroads when they shipped their commodities. As businessmen got richer, farmers got poorer. A sharp decline in the price of cotton between 1865 and 1890 hurt small independent (yeomen) farmers in the South. Many lost their land and were forced into tenant farming and sharecropping. By 1890 most farmers in the Deep South, black and white, worked land they did not own. In response to their woes, farmers organized. In the 1870s they formed the Patrons of Husbandry, or Grange. Initially a fraternal organization, the Grange promoted economic cooperatives and political involvement. Grangers especially favored government regulation of the rates railroads charged to transport crops. By the 1880s, many hard-pressed farmers turned to Farmers' Alliances, which soon spread from the South into the Midwest and Great Plains. These organizations favored railroad regulation, currency inflation (to increase crop prices and reduce debt), and support for agricultural education. By 1888 many of them joined in the National Farmers' Alliance. *This caused an era of slave leasing, but the conditions were much worst than when they were slaves many died. They worked in coal mines, sawmills, railroad camps, and cotton fields of the emerging New South. *At least 100,000 African Americans were re-enslaved in the last decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth century. The convict lease system (Southern states and communities leased prisoners to privately operated mines, railroads, and timber companies. These businesses forced the prisoners, who were usually black men, to work in brutal, unhealthy, and dangerous conditions. Many convicts died of abuse and disease.) emerged as a key source of cheap labor in every former Confederate state except Virginia. Southern states and counties found that it was lucrative to lease prisoners—the vast majority were black men—to timber companies, coal mines, railroads, and plantation owners. The state or the county was freed of the responsibility of feeding, housing, and guarding inmates. Businessmen, industrialists, and planters paid the states and counties for the convict labor. South Carolina, for example, collected $3 per month for each leased prisoner. There was no incentive to maintain the health and strength of the laborers. Leased convicts endured appalling conditions. They were shackled and beaten, overworked, and underfed. They slept on vermin-infested straw mattresses and received little or no medical care. They sustained terrible injuries on the job and at the hands of guards. Diseases proliferated in the camps. Hundreds died. They had, in effect, been sentenced to death for petty crimes. As one employer explained in 1883, "But these convicts; we don't own em. One dies, get another." Leasing prisoners became such an attractive source of revenue for sheriffs, counties, and states that they simply rounded up black men and sent them into involuntary servitude. They were arrested for a variety of felonies and misdemeanors, ranging from murder and larceny to drunkenness, loitering, and vagrancy. Sometimes no charges were levied against them. Petty crimes or no crime meant virtual enslavement. As horrific as the convict lease system was for black men, it was worse for black women. In much smaller numbers than men, African American women were leased to businesses and agricultural enterprises. In states like Georgia they were forced into the same jobs and working conditions in mines, lumber operations, and fields as men. But unlike men, they were sexually abused, raped, and became pregnant while under the harsh domination of white guards and supervisors. Convict leasing became such a notorious scandal that most states outlawed it by the 1930s. *Railroads encouraged migration by offering reduced fares. Some western farmers and agents were eager to sell land, but some of it was of little value. Some white residents of Mississippi and South Carolina, which had large black majorities, were glad to see the black people go. However, the loss of cheap black labor alarmed others.

Colonization

Blacks being moved backed to Africa.

Slavery in America

By 1510 Spain had joined Portugal in the enlarged Atlantic slave trade, and a new, harsher form of slavery had appeared in the Americas. Unlike slavery in Africa, Asia, and Europe, slavery in the Americas was based on race, as only Africans and American Indians were enslaved. Most of the slaves were men or boys who served as agricultural laborers rather than soldiers or domestic servants. -Was invented, a way to create differences among people. These differences lead to pseudoscience between determining intelligence by shape of head. The modern-day race is An arbitrary classification with small differences, a combination of various physical characteristics, e.g., skin color, facial form, or eye shape. -Race became a social reality in North America during 1640-1700. The exponential growth of British Sugar production throughout the Caribbean produced a profound social impact. This expansion caused them to bring more Slaves. The population of slaves in the Caribbean more specifically in Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and Dominican Republic) had a slave population of 90-100% compared to the Chesapeake which had a population of 30-33%. -Africans did not invent slavery, nor did they envision as Europeans. Europeans made slavery about race and it was far larger and crueler than the Africans made it, by dehumanizing slaves.

Lincoln

Did not want to allow slaves to fight because of the political effect, he just wanted to save the Union.

The Fifthteen amendment

Gave blacks the rights to vote.

IDA B Wells

Got involved because her friend got lynched and it wasn't even with a rope, it was Henry Smith -Thomas Moss owned a store that threatens a white store, so a lynch mob cam and dragged him to be lynched. -Moss was a close friend with IDA B Wells, that is the reason she got involved -Wells was a crusader, anti-lyncher, women rights, and African American civil rights activist. She was a founding member of the NAACP -She was born into slavery, lost her parents to the yellow fever epidemic. She lived with her aunt after her college education of trying to be a teacher she transitioned to journalism. -After she reported her company was about Moss her company was burned to the ground, she stated: "A Winchester rifle should be in every Negros household." - Southern Horror: Lynch white women put her on the map, it was the driving force behind lynching blacks behind white women => really a fear that blacks would be economic competitors. Really challenged people's stereotypes about blacks. -People would be lynched for being drunk in public, not appearing to give whites way, failing to pay a debt, sexual assault. -She was the driven force to raising awareness like Fredrick Douglass, she did this in Europe, and was very effective. -She was under extreme threat so she had to live in Illinois for the rest of her life. -Showed steps that needed to be taken so she had to live in Illinois for the rest of her life. IDA B Wells - was also in the NACW. -NACW - They engaged with white women feminists who were very prejudiced. White women held black suffrages that excluded black women, and they had blacks follow in the back of the parades, and excluded them from the 1st women sufferage book. -Mobs often attacked black people who had achieved economic success. In Memphis, Thomas Moss with two friends opened the People's Grocery Company in a black neighborhood. The store flourished, but it competed with a white-owned grocery. "They were succeeding too well," one of Moss's friends observed. After the white grocer had the three black men indicted for conspiracy, black people organized a protest, and violence followed. The three black men were jailed. A white mob attacked the jail, lynched them, and looted their store. Ida B. Wells, a newspaper editor and a friend of Moss, was heartbroken: "A finer, cleaner man than he never walked the streets of Memphis." She considered his lynching an "excuse to get rid of Negroes who were acquiring wealth and property and thus keep the race terrorized and keep the n word down." Wells began a lifelong crusade against lynching. (See Profile: Ida Wells Barnett.) She wrote Strategies for Change by Ida B. Wells from Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All its phases [1892]: - She declares her commitment to the crusade against racial injustice. - She began her career as a teacher and later worked as a journalist. - Wells launched her campaign against lynching when three friends of hers were lynched in 1892. - She was better known than W. E. B. Du Bois and more ideologically compatible with Douglass than Booker T. Washington - However, Wells had a major problem: She was a women." Yet the difficulties of being a female leader at the turn of the century did not stop Wells from raising her voice in the debates of the period. - She demanded that the authorities bring lynchers to justice. - A meeting of white citizens in June, three months after the lynching, passed resolutions for the first time, condemning it. But they did not punish the lynchers. - The lesson this teaches and which every Afro-American should ponder well, is that a Winchester rifle should have a place of honor in every black home, and it should be used for that protection which the law refuses to give. When the white man who is always the aggressor knows he runs as great risk of biting the dust every time his Afro-American victim does, he will have a greater respect for Afro-American life. - A white man paid a colored boy to assault a white girl, which resulted in him getting lynched. - The story comes from Larned, Kansas, Oct. 1, that a young white lady held at bay until daylight, without alarming any one in the house, "a burly Negro" who entered her room and bed. The "burly Negro" was promptly lynched without investigation or examination of inconsistent stories. - The suggestion of the whites was that "brutal lust was the incentive, and as there are nearly 200 Negroes living within a radius of five miles of the place the conclusion was inevitable that some of them were the perpetrators." - Robberies since committed in the same vicinity have been known to be by white men who had their faces blackened. With summer temperatures rising and racial tensions escalating, Ida B. Wells anticipated a major conflict in the pages of the Chicago Tribune in early July. "With one Negro dead as a result of the race riot last week, another one very badly injured in the county hospital; with a half-dozen attacks upon Negro children, and one on the Thirty-fifth street car Tuesday, in which four white men beat one colored man, it looks very much like Chicago is trying to rival the south in its race hatred against the Negro." The Chicago riot began on Sunday, July 27, 1919—one day after black troops were welcomed home with a parade down the city's Michigan Avenue. Eugene Williams, a young black man, was swimming in Lake Michigan and inadvertently crossed the invisible boundary that separated the black and white beaches and bathing areas. He was stoned by white people and drowned. Instead of arresting the alleged perpetrators, the police arrested a black man who complained about police inaction. -Ida Wells Barnett and the Equal Rights League generated enormous publicity about the case. The NAACP appealed the convictions, and in 1923 the Supreme Court overturned them. *Ida Wells Barnett began life as a slave in 1862 and grew up during Reconstruction. As a young woman, she saw the worst indignities and cruelties that the Jim Crow South could inflict, but she fought back as a journalist, agitator, and reformer. Wells was one of eight children born to Jim and Lizzie Wells in Holly Springs, Mississippi. After the Civil War, she and her mother learned to read and write at a school for freed people. Her parents and one of her brothers died in the yellow fever epidemic of 1878. Sixteen-year-old Ida became mother and father to her five surviving siblings. She attended Shaw University in Holly Springs (now Rust College) and taught school in Mississippi and Tennessee. In 1884, a railroad conductor removed Wells from a first-class car. She sued the railroad and won a $500 settlement. "Dusky Damsel Gets Damages," a Memphis newspaper reported. But a higher court reversed the decision. Wells then took up journalism and wrote a weekly column for the Living Way. In 1889, she bought a one-third interest in the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight. She wrote about racial issues and criticized black educators for the quality of black schools. In 1892 her friend Thomas Moss was lynched with two other men for the crime of running a successful grocery store. Wells expressed her rage and horror in a fiery editorial, thus beginning a lifelong crusade against lynching. Wells blamed the white people of Memphis for her friend's murder and pointed out that more black men were lynched for challenging the myth of white superiority than for allegedly raping a white woman. She angered white people even more by writing that white women could be attracted to black men. She blamed white clergymen and their parishioners for tolerating lynching: "Our American Christians are too busy saving the souls of white Christians from burning in hell-fire to save the lives of black ones from present burning in fires kindled by white Christians." Wells moved to Chicago and helped draft a pamphlet that criticized the exclusion of black people from the local groups that organized the 1893 World's Fair. In 1895 she married Ferdinand Barnett, the owner of the Chicago Conservator. After a white journalist from Missouri wrote that black women were immoral, "having no sense of virtue and altogether without character," black women including Wells Barnett founded the National Association of Colored Women in 1896. In 1909, Wells Barnett was one of two black women who supported the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), although she later broke with the group because of its mostly white board of directors and what she considered its cautious stands. She also helped organize the Negro Fellowship League in 1910. Wells Barnett became an ardent supporter of black voting rights. She believed that if enough black men and women could vote, their political power would end lynching. In 1913 she helped found the Alpha Suffrage Club, the first black women's suffrage organization in Illinois, and was a delegate to the National American Woman's Suffrage Association meeting in Washington, DC. Ever an agitator, she found Booker T. Washington's philosophy too timid. She was influenced by the Universal Negro Improvement Association in the 1920s and praised Marcus Garvey as a black leader who "made an impression on this country as no Negro before him had ever done." She continued to write, campaign, speak out, and organize. She protested the execution of black soldiers after the 1917 Houston riot. She exposed the injustice 12 poor black farmers experienced after the Elaine riot and massacre in 1919. She supported A. Phillip Randolph and the formation of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. In 1928 she ran as a Republican for the state senate. Only death from kidney failure in 1931 ended her efforts to secure justice for black Americans.

Still

Had a huge impact on c

Fredrick Douglass

Had an impact on anti-slavery, union victory Fredrick Douglas raising awareness and was the most important leader in the nineteeth century, he was a author and a abolisnist. He was influential and lectured on topics, he was the son of a slave women and unknown white man born on Feb. 1818 on Maryland's eastern shore (Talbot county) -Raised by a grand mother and only got to see his mom 4 or 5 times before she died when he was 7. He was very intelligent and witness a horror of slavery his aunt was beat to death because she rejected a sexual assault. He worked in Baltimore county on ships calking, he had access to rich whites, and his wife made a sailor outfit for him which allowed him to escape to NY. Then, he participated in abolinist newspapers, started telling his story recollection his story. The newspaper was at the meeting and highered him on the spot. He was equal to a white person intellectually. (His speech career would go to all North cities. He published his book "Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass (1845). Then, published North Star his own newspaper work on abolism. Reform from 1840's to Jim Crow in the 1890's (Icon). He wrote why a Blackman should enlist which was a major role on why so many black men enlisted in the war. -had a major impact on the civil war; he educated president Lincoln on why it is important blacks fought. Primary political power in the U.S. Leaded by letting his two sons enlist Charles & Lewis served in the 54th Massachusetts regiment. He traveled thousands of miles to speak his thoughts. *He wrote "Why a colored man should enlist" 1) African Americans could learn by enlisting, e.g., knowledge of guns and survival techniques. 2) Show loyalty to the U.S. 3) Not being able to participate in a population that would make up 1/10 of the army. -Fredrick Douglass convinced Lincoln to change his perspective.

Nat Turner

Had impact on Northern Abolonists, and helped bring on the civil war. "next 30 years"

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Had influence on anti-slavery, abolitionist (anti-slavery) northern movement, and women suffrage. Sold 300,000 copies in a year 2nd most sold book in the world behind the bible

Reconstruction

Helped black schools organize, blacks could now testify and be judges in court e.g., Robert Smalls and Prince Rivers were elected in congress.

Special Field Order #15 (Forty acres and a mule):

Helped reconstruction

Freedmen's Bureau

Helped reconstruction, Helped black schools organize and black colleges,

Randolph

IDA B Wells supported A. Phillip Randolph and the formation of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. In 1928 she ran as a Republican for the state senate. Only death from kidney failure in 1931 ended her efforts to secure justice for black Americans. The southern states were erecting a segregated system called Jim Crow. Many blacks left their sharecropping jobs to join working on the railroads. They relied on blacks to repair and extend the railroads after the war. They fixed brakes and shoveled coal alongside the engineer. They loaded baggage and freight and on occasion drove the train. They earned 10-20% less than whites doing the same work. John Henry a former 6-foot slave who worked very hard. He went up against a steam drill with 2 20 pound hammers and he dug a deeper hole than the steam drill. Many blacks became caterers on the train for white passengers. They were all hired by the Pullman company to cut cost, but they still paid them good. Their trains had sleepers that allowed passengers to sleep overnight. George Pullman was the manager that hired all of the slaves and he hired more slaves the blacker they were. In the early 1900 century the Pullman company was the larger employer of Negroes, black loved the jobs and they loved George. They were able to have financial stability and attain some education from the intelligent travelers. The brotherhood tried to unionize negro workers to make it fair working. Randolph was the leader of the black union working for equal pay. They managed to pass the Railway Labor Act which promised prompt and orderly settlement of labor disputes. They finally went on strike 90% of the labor force participated but once the pressure was on 90% left. Mr. Pullman try to bribe Randolph to stop the brotherhood. Randolph though was so thin because he didn't have money for food denied the blank check. In 1937 they finally negotiated with the brotherhood. By the 1920s the Pullman Company, which owned and operated passenger railroad coaches, was the single largest employer of black people in the United States. More than 12,000 black men were porters on Pullman railroad cars. After founding the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1867, George Pullman decided to employ only black men as porters—on the assumption that prosperous white people were accustomed to being waited on by black servants. Furthermore, black employees could be and were paid less than white workers. Pullman porters toiled for upward of 400 hours each month to maintain the coaches and serve the passengers. Porters had to prepare the cars before the train's departure and service them after the train arrived at its destination, although they were paid only for the duration of the trip. They assisted passengers, shined shoes (they had to purchase the polish themselves), and arranged sleeping compartments. Considered mere servants by most passengers, porters had little time for rest. To add to the indignity, white travelers invariably referred to these black men as "George," no matter what their actual name was. Porters were paid an average of $67.50 per month—about $810 per year. But with tips that might average $600 annually, a porter could earn $1,400 in a year ($19,141 in 2016 dollars), a decent wage at the time. They had to buy their own uniforms during their first 10 years of employment. Although strenuous and time-consuming, Pullman employment was the most satisfactory work many black men could hope to achieve. Barred from business and industry, black men with college degrees often worked as sleeping car porters. As poorly paid as they were compared with many white workers, they still earned more than most black schoolteachers. Most of these Pullman employees regarded themselves as solid, respectable members of the middle class. It seemed unlikely that men as subservient and unobtrusive as the Pullman porters would form a labor union to challenge one of America's most powerful corporations. But they did. The key figure in this effort was A. Philip Randolph. In 1925 Pullman porters in Harlem invited Randolph to become their "general organizer" as they formed the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP). Randolph accepted. Randolph was a socialist with superb oratorical skills who had earned a reputation as a radical on the streets of Harlem. He was born in 1889 in Crescent City, Florida. He attended high school at Cookman Institute (later Bethune-Cookman College) and migrated in 1911 to New York City, where he attended City College and joined the Socialist Party. In 1913 he married Lucille Campbell Greene. She was a prosperous beauty shop owner who contributed financially to many of her husband's causes. With Chandler Owen, he founded the Messenger, a monthly socialist journal that drew the attention of federal agents because they regarded it as the only radical Negro magazine in the country. Randolph opposed American involvement in World War I. In 1919 Department of Justice officials arrested Randolph and Owen for violating the Espionage Act and held them briefly. They labeled Randolph the most dangerous Negro in America. Randolph was an improbable radical. He was handsome, dignified, impeccably dressed, and aloof. Save for his color, he could have been mistaken for the sort of Wall Street broker or powerful corporate attorney he detested. But blessed with a rich baritone voice, he "damned the classes and exalted the masses" and maintained an unwavering commitment to economic and racial change. He was one of the nation's foremost protest leaders for more than five decades. Randolph faced the daunting task of recruiting support for the brotherhood, winning recognition from the Pullman Company, and gaining the union's acceptance by the American Federation of Labor (AFL). There was considerable opposition, much of it from within the black community. Many porters were too frightened to join the brotherhood. Black clergymen counseled against union activities. Black newspapers, including the Chicago Defender, opposed the BSCP. But Randolph persevered with the assistance of Milton Webster, who became vice president of the brotherhood after Randolph assumed the presidency. With the slogan "Service not servitude," the two men recruited members, organized the brotherhood, and attempted to negotiate with the Pullman Company. Pullman executives ignored Randolph's overtures. They instead fired porters who joined the union, infiltrated union meetings with company agents, and organized the Employees' Representation Plan—an alternative company union that they claimed actually represented the black employees. Although the NAACP and the Urban League supported the BSCP, progress was slow. In 1928 Randolph threatened to call a strike against the Pullman Company, but he called it off after AFL president William Green promised modest assistance to the as-yet-unrecognized union. Green's offer simply saved face for Randolph. It is unlikely that a strike would have succeeded or that most porters would have followed Randolph's leadership and left the trains. The Great Depression of the 1930s brought layoffs and mass resignations from the brotherhood. The AFL barely responded to repeated charges of discrimination by Randolph, the NAACP, and the Urban League. The BSCP nearly collapsed. Not until the passage of legislation during President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the mid-1930s did the BSCP make substantial gains. Mr. Randolph - he was Dr. King's senior advisor, he asked Randolph for advice. -Randolph - The porters went to an outside person to make a union 5 black porters went to him Mr. Randolph had a direct relationship with the Chicago Defender because porters would lose their job if they attempted to create a Union. He was part of the big six and came up with the March of Washington. Randolph (1889 - 1979) was from Florida, he went to the 1st black college, Cookman college. He wanted to be an actor so he more out to New York in Harlen and continued at the NYC college. He created the Messenger which he believed was one of the most brilliant edited articles. He weaponized his newspaper propaganda was used. His 1st attempt to create a labor union was the elevator union, black people would control the elevator, but it fell apart because of the hostility of the mayor. He became a full advocate for the Pullman porters. A. Phillip Randolph - came in as a socialist advocating for taking down capitalism. It was about wages for the Pullman porter and was the broker for the March on Wallstreet with 1000's of blacks. This was so important it was a game of chicken with FDR. -Randolph got the Union recognized -Mario Von Leonton - play Ashley Toten who was beaten up -1937: Took 12 years for them to found the Union -The scandalous nature that women tried to come on to the porters. -Randolph: His labor unionization effort got him elected to the AFC-CIO in 1955. He was also the leader of the Negro labor council, and in 195 he received the medal of freedom from the president. He served till 1968 as the leader of the porter union, and served on AFL-counsel until 1974, but died in 1979. He was a Union and civil rights, leader.

The Great Migration

In 1900 AME Minister Henry McNeal Turner despaired for black people in America: "Every man that has the sense of an animal must see that there is no future in this country for the Negro. [W]e are taken out and burned, shot, hanged, unjointed and murdered in every way. Our civil rights are taken from us by force, our political rights are a farce." It is therefore surprising that more African Americans did not flee poverty, powerlessness, and brutality in the South. As late as 1910, 90 percent of black Americans still lived in the southern states. And of those who left the South, most did not head north along the old underground railroad route. The Great Migration to the northern industrial states did not begin until about 1915. Emigrants of the 1870s or 1880s were more likely to strike out for Africa; move west to Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas; or move from farms to southern towns or cities.

David Walker

Malcolm X type, and brought fear to people of power, and was a free African American born in a slave state, freedom did not shelter him from seeing things like a son forced to beat his mother to death. Walker was drawn to the abolitionist states, settling in Boston and started a thrift store. He utilized his business to invest in abolitionism. He wrote one of the 1st abolitionist pamphlets to revote against your master. He sent these pamphlets with clothing to slaves; authorities said he should be arrested to Otis, the mayor said he could not do anything about it, then Walker died from Tuberculosis. His pamphlet was called Walker's Appeal (clothing barrels) and when people caught on he began sewing it into the clothing: it was the most radical document saying "they want nothing from us, kill them because they would try to kill you." The goal of the appeal was to put pride and hope into the readers.

Migration within the South

Many black people left the poverty and isolation of farms and moved to villages and towns in the South. Others went to growing black neighborhoods in larger southern cities like Atlanta, Richmond, and Nashville. Urban areas offered more economic opportunities than rural areas. Although black people were usually confined to menial labor—from painting and shining shoes to domestic service—city work paid cash on a fairly regular basis, whereas rural residents received no money until their crops were sold. Towns and cities also had more entertainment and religious and educational activities. Black youngsters in towns spent more time in school than rural children, who had to work the farms. Black women had a better chance than black men of finding regular work in a town, although it was usually as a domestic or cleaning woman. This economic situation damaged the black family. Before the increase in migration, a husband and wife headed 90 percent of black families. But with migration, many black men remained in rural areas where they could get farm work, while women went to urban communities. Often these women became single heads of households.

Compromise of 1850

Negatively impacted abolonism and the underground railroad.

Tom "The Moor" Molineaux

Slaves were able to use their Ability to mitigate their lifestyle. Tom "The Moor" Molineaux used his ability, he was born as a slave in Virginia in 1782. He was made to fight against other slaves, betting took place, and this was bare-knuckle. He was victorious and gained his freedom through fighting, and $500. He fought Tom Cribb "The Black Diamond" 1st fight was in 1810, and went 28 rounds. Diamond was knocked out, he said racist things. Then, Tom through him down then, Mr. Cribb punch him in the throat (cheating). He won though and stayed in the UK, and drank all his winnings away becoming an alcoholic. His talents allowed him to get freedom which was uncommon but he was rated as a A1 prime hand.

The Fifteenth Amendment

The federal government under Republican domination tried to protect black voting rights and defend Republican state governments in the South. In 1869 Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment, (This constitutional amendment stipulated that the right to vote could not be denied on account of race, color, or because a person had been a slave.) which was ratified in 1870. It stipulated that a person could not be deprived of the right to vote because of race: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Black people, abolitionists, and reformers hailed the amendment as the culmination of the crusade to end slavery and give black people the same rights as white people. Northern black men were the amendment's immediate beneficiaries because, before its adoption, black men could vote in only eight northern states. Yet to the disappointment of many, the amendment said nothing about women voting and did not outlaw poll taxes, literacy tests, and property qualifications that could disfranchise citizens.

Anthony Johnson

The foremost example in early Virginia of a black man who emerged from servitude to become a tobacco planter himself is Anthony Johnson. Johnson was not the only person of African descent who became a free property owner during the first half of the seventeenth century. Free black men in the Chesapeake participated fully, they owned land, farmed, lent money, sued in the courts, served as jurors and minor officials, and at times voted. Yet, beginning during the early 1600s, the ruling elite made decisions that limited the apparent social mobility Africans enjoyed. They treated black servants differently than they treated white servants. This sentiment did not become universal among the white poor during the colonial period. However, it provided a foundation for what historian Winthrop D. Jordan calls the "unthinking decision" among the British in the Chesapeake to establish chattel slavery. In this form of slavery, Africans and people of African descent became their master's private property on a level with livestock. Anthony Johnson arrived at Jamestown in 1621 from England, but his original home may have been Angola. He was fortunate the following year to escape death in an Indian attack on Jamestown. He was one of four out of 56 inhabitants on Edward Bennett's tobacco plantation, where he labored, to survive. He was also lucky to wed "Mary a Negro Woman," who in 1625 was the only woman residing at Bennett's. The couple had at least four children. In 1635 Johnson's master, Nathaniel Littleton, released him from further service. Johnson, like other free men of this time and place, then scrambled to acquire wealth in the form of land, livestock, and human beings. He received his own 250-acre plantation in 1651 under the "headright system," by which the colonial government encouraged population growth by awarding 50 acres of land for every new servant a settler brought to Virginia.

Differentiation of ethnicities

The second generation of people of African descent in North America did lose their parents' native languages and their ethnic identity as Igbos, Angolans, or Senegambians. But they retained a generalized West African heritage and passed it on to their descendants. Among the major elements of that heritage were family structure and notions of kinship, religious concepts and practices, African words and modes of expression, musical style and instruments, cooking methods and foods, folk literature, and folk arts. -Origins of black culture, common phrases and music of the southern states can be connected to the slavery ages (chattel slavery). Slave culture is a mix of many different ethnicities. Combination of Tribal African culture, when you think about the culture you think about language. African slave culture was a culture of survival, sprit of resistance.

Whites perspective on black women

They were stronger than white women and at the beginning did much of the same work as black men. However, later indentured servants they became to work inside. They were often sexually assaulted.

Sharecropping (go to fall in debt)

To make matters worse, by 1866 bureau officials tried to force freedmen to sign labor contracts with white landowners—returning black people to white authority. Black men who refused to sign contracts could be arrested. Theoretically, these contracts were legal agreements between two equals: landowner and laborer. But they were seldom freely concluded. Bureau agents usually sided with the landowner and pressured freedmen to accept unequal terms. Occasionally, the landowner would pay wages to the laborer. But because most landowners lacked cash to pay wages, they typically agreed to provide the laborer with part of the crop. The laborer, often grudgingly, agreed to work under the supervision of the landowner. The contracts required labor for a full year, and the laborer could neither quit nor strike. Landowners demanded that the laborers work the fields in gangs. Freedmen, however, resisted this system. They sometimes insisted on making decisions involving planting, fertilizing, and harvesting as they sought to exercise independence (see Map 12-1). Thus, it took time for a new form of agricultural labor to develop. But by the 1870s, the system of sharecropping (The system following the Civil War in which former slaves worked land owned by white people and "paid" for the use of the land and for tools, seeds, fertilizer, and mules by sharing the crop—usually cotton—with the owner.) dominated most of the South. There were no wages. Freedmen worked land as families—not in gangs—and not under direct white supervision. The landowner provided seed, tools, fertilizer, and work animals (mules, horses, oxen), and the black family received one-third of the crop. There were many variations on these arrangements, and black families were often cheated out of their fair share of the crop. Without land of their own, they remained under white authority well into the twentieth century. In the aftermath of the civil war, in 1865 congress created the freedmens bureau the north wanted wage labor. The slaves wanted land so they can grow what they need for them and their families. After Lincoln died they created black codes which put slave in a position to put them but on the plantations with pay. A compromise arises sharecropping - a way of farming where the land owner pays the farm owner a wage in the form of crops. For slaves this meant that slaves could work without punishment, and former slave owners started to become shop keepers. They would lend tools to the slaves and they cotton prices fell causing them to fall in debt. -A sharp decline in the price of cotton between 1865 and 1890 hurt small independent (yeomen) farmers in the South. Many lost their land and were forced into tenant farming and sharecropping. By 1890 most farmers in the Deep South, black and white, worked land they did not own. -Most of these black farm families (and many white families) were sharecroppers. Sharecropping had emerged during Reconstruction as landowners allowed the use of their land for a share of the crop. The landlord also usually provided housing, horses or mules, tools, seed, and fertilizer, as well as food and clothing. In return, the landowner received from one-half to three-quarters of the crop. Sharecropping lent itself to exploitation. By law, verbal agreements were considered contracts. In any case, many sharecroppers were illiterate and could not have read written contracts. The landowner informed the sharecropper of the value of the product raised—typically cotton—and the value of the goods provided to the sharecropping family. Black farmers who disputed white landowners put themselves in peril. Although many sharecroppers knew the proprietor's calculations were wrong, they could do nothing about it. Also, cotton brokers and gin owners routinely paid black farmers less than white farmers per pound for cotton. A forlorn ditty in the late nineteenth century captured this inequity: 'A naught's a naught, and a figger's a figger— All fer de white man—none fer de n word!' Black men were forced to accept the white man's word. One Mississippi sharecropper explained, "I have been living in this Delta thirty years, and I know that I have been robbed every year; but there is no use jumping out of the frying pan into the fire. If we ask any questions we are cussed, and if we raise up we are shot, and that ends it." RENTERS Black farmers preferred renting to sharecropping. As tenants, they paid a flat charge to rent a given number of acres. Payment would be made in either cash—perhaps $5 per acre—or, more typically, in a specified amount of the crop—two bales of cotton per 20 acres. Tenants usually owned their own animals and tools. As Bessie Jones explained, "You see, a sharecropper don't ever have nothing. Before you know it, the man done took it all. But the renter always have something, and then he go to work when he want to go to work. He ain't got to go to work on the man's time. If he didn't make it, he didn't get it." CROP LIENS Many sharecroppers and renters were also indebted to a merchant for food, clothing, and farm supplies. The merchant advanced the merchandise on credit but took out a lien (Black and white farmers purchased goods on credit from local merchants. The merchant demanded collateral in the form of a lien on the crop, typically cotton. If the farmer failed to repay the loan, the merchant had the legal right to seize the crop.) on the crop. If the sharecropper or renter failed to repay the merchant, the merchant was entitled to all or part of the crop once the landowner had received his payment. Merchants tended to charge high prices and interest rates. They usually insisted that farmers plant cotton before they would agree to a lien. Cotton could be sold quickly for cash. PEONAGE Many farmers fell deeply into debt, which led to their virtual reenslavement. They were cheated. Bad weather destroyed crops. Crop prices declined. Landless farmers could not leave the land until their debts were paid. If they tried to depart without the land owner's permission, the owner swore out a warrant for their arrest and the county sheriff pursued them. If they were apprehended—and they often were—they were returned to the land. This was peonage, and it amounted to enslavement, holding thousands of black people across the South in perpetual bondage. Peonage (The system that forbade southern farmers, usually sharecroppers and renters, who accumulated debts to leave the land until the debt was repaid—often an impossible task.) violated federal law, but the law was rarely enforced. White juries acquitted landowners and merchants who were prosecuted for keeping black people in peonage. -Black Landowners: Considering the incredible obstacles against them, black farm families acquired land at an astonishing rate after the Civil War. Many white people refused to sell land to black buyers, preferring to keep them dependent. Black people also found it difficult to save enough money to purchase land even when they could find a willing seller. Still, they managed to accumulate land. A white Georgia farmer sourly commented that African Americans were desperate to get their own land: "They will almost starve and go naked before they will work for a white man, if they can get a patch of ground to live on and get from under his control." Some black families had kept land that had been distributed in the Carolina and Georgia low country under the Port Royal Experiment and Sherman's Special Field Order #15 (see Chapter 12). In 1880 black people on South Carolina's sea islands held 10,000 acres of land worth $300,000. By 1900 more than 100,000 black families owned their own land in the eight states of the Deep South. Black landownership increased more than 500 percent between 1870 and 1900. Most black people possessed small farms of about 20 acres. These small plots were often subsequently subdivided among sons and grandsons, making it harder for their families to prosper. But some black farmers owned impressive estates. Prince Johnson had 360 acres of excellent Mississippi delta land. Freedman Leon Winter was the richest black man in Tennessee, with real estate worth $70,000 in 1889. In Florida, J. D. McDuffy raised melons, cabbages, and tomatoes on an 800-acre farm near Ocala. Texas freedman Daniel Webster Wallace had a 10,000-acre cattle ranch. Few black people inherited large estates. Most of these landowners had been born into slavery. After emancipation, they managed to accumulate land—usually just a few acres at a time. -Oppression economic with sharecropping in the South in the North there was much better opportunities, the U.S. was the supreme manufacturer for W.W.1 5 million left from the north to go to war which is why these manufacturing jobs open.

The Fourteenth Amendment

To secure the legal rights of freedmen, Republicans passed the Fourteenth Amendment. (This amendment ratified during Reconstruction made any person born in the United States a citizen of the United States and of the state in which he or she lived.) This amendment fundamentally changed the Constitution by compelling states to accept their residents as citizens and to guarantee that their rights as citizens would be safeguarded. Its first section guaranteed citizenship to every person born in the United States. This included virtually every black person. In addition, it made each person a citizen of the state in which he or she resided, defined the specific rights of citizens, and protected those rights against the authority of state governments. Citizens had the right to due process (usually a trial) before they could lose their life, liberty, or property: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Eleven years after Chief Justice Roger Taney declared in the Dred Scott decision that black people were "a subordinate and inferior class of beings" who had "no rights that white people were bound to respect," the Fourteenth Amendment vested African Americans with the same rights of citizenship other Americans possessed. The amendment also threatened to deprive states of representation in Congress if they denied black men the vote. The end of slavery had also made obsolete the Three-Fifths Clause in the Constitution, which had counted slaves as only three-fifths (or 60 percent) of a white person in calculating a state's population and in determining the number of representatives each state was entitled to in the House of Representatives. Republicans feared that southern states would count black people in their populations without permitting them to vote, thereby gaining more representatives than those states had before the Civil War. The amendment mandated that if any state—northern or southern—did not allow adult male citizens to vote, then the number of representatives it was entitled to in Congress would be reduced in proportion to the number of men denied the right to vote. Democrats almost unanimously opposed the Fourteenth Amendment. Andrew Johnson denounced it, although he could not prevent its adoption. Except for Tennessee, southern states refused to ratify it. Women's suffragists felt betrayed because the amendment limited suffrage to males. Despite this opposition, the amendment was ratified in 1868.

Seth Conclin

White man who helped Still go helped some blacks escape from the South, but got caught and killed.

Songs

Work songs allowed them to make their work more bearable and helped blacks connect and sometimes secretly take to one another.

Andrew Johnson

Worst president revoked the special order #15 and was one of the leaders of white supremicist. He caused sharecropping and convict leasing.

Robert Smalls

a 23-year-old slave, fired the boiler on the Planter, a Confederate supply ship moored in Charleston Harbor. With the aid of seven black crewmen, Smalls sailed the Planter past Confederate fortifications, including Fort Sumter, to the Union fleet outside the harbor and to freedom. Smalls liberated himself and 15 other slaves, including the families of several crewmen and his own wife, daughter, and son. -urged black people to come to his home county of Beaufort, South Carolina, "where I hardly think it probable that any prisoner will ever be taken from jail by a mob and lynched.") moved to Kansas. -Plotted his escape aboard The Planter, 1862, he pulled the crew of about 12 out of Chealsey and sailed out of the harbor pasted 4 confederate checkpoints by disguising himself as a captain. He stole the ship, and it was not sunk by the naval blockade, the ship was packed with gun powder. - was elected in the house, born on a plantation, he was treated privileged, and he worked on ships. Lincoln authorized him $1,500, and he became captain of The Planter.

Walkers Appeal

increased a black abolinition, and helped bring on the civil war.

Slave trade was the most important industry, this was also agriculture

it was a 17 million industry and 350,000+ relied on it.

Omar Ibn

lived till 94

Gabriel

naturally suited for bondage, competitive

Demark Vesey

prison sentences and fines, this had effective on education laws to prevent blacks to learn and read

Slave codes (add till "mercy of prejudicial juries") Add Flurdy de le

were seen as precautionary measures designed for forestall the likelihood of slave insurrection, petty thievery, miscegenation, escapes, and countless other infractions associated with the frustrations of an oppressed people. Designed to control both slaves and masters. -The laws were harsher for blacks than for whites, the punishments often involved whipping or mutilation. Strict laws against instructing slaves to reading, writing, set type, or possess any sort of reading material were formidable legal barriers intended to prevent potentially seditious literature from reaching the bondsmen. They could not possess a weapon of any sort and could not congregate in groups of eight or more without a white chaperon in attendance. Between 1821-1861 most of Florida's slaves could be found working the cotton-rich plantations, or harvesting sugar. Florida's laws sanctioned branding, mutilation, and even death for certain crimes. Many master preferred to whip their slave with whips that didn't leave scars, so their value didn't depreciate. Slave codes were created to prevent rebellion because of the emergence of northern abolitionism. This crime was punishable by death and the codes also punish slaveholders who allowed run their slaves to fun away fines up to $100 were levied against any master. Once, captured the slave was to be held at a local jail at the owner's expense. Again, a sum of money was to be paid by the owner to whoever captured the slave. These codes were subjected by Britain and America, free blacks had to pay an annual head tax of $10, and had to have a white guardian represent them in legal maters. No slaves committed of crimes were allowed to enter Florida, and caught their owners would be as much as $250 and their were ordered to remove the slave from the territory. Slaves were denied rights to participate in a capitalist economy. They were forbid to dell labor, owning property, or trading without written permission of their owners. Whites were also fined $10 or thirty-nine lashes across the back for selling blacks liquor. Slaves basically not allowed to own anything, sometimes masters allowed slaves to keep a horse, a few pigs, or even a boat, but only at the owner's discretion. Florida law demanded that a master pay as much as $500 in order to recover a captured runaway. In addition, the unsuccessful runaway received the maximum number of "stripes" (100 lashes) allowed by law. White Floridians regarded slave stealing as a despicable practice. Whites convicted of this offense either paid a fine of $ 1,000 or received thirty-nine lashes. In either case the guilty party was branded with the letters "ss." If the offender were black, however, he or she could receive the death sentence. -Were laws, and was the great grandfather of Jim Crow. These codes were defined rights of slaves and put restrictions on slave owners. They started in 1640 in Jamestown and defined slaves as property and slaves were not allowed to own property. Limitations of black people taking part in the economy Florida made it difficult. It was a living document they would change and grow - purpose: it was born out of fear of the slave uprising. They were copy and paste - color line firmly is drawn. Status of a slave is followed from that of the mother. They were prohibited to read and learn, 3 Florida slave codes the U.S. territory in 1821, adopted slave codes. In 1860, Florida had only 140,424 people, of whom 44% were enslaved. The Florida slave codes made the law more difficult for the black population. Breaking them resulted in punishment, masters disliked imprisoning slaves because they could not work so they would just give them punishments. They would use whips that would not leave scars, so their value would not be demoted. The common # of whippings was 39, slaves could not own anything, and it made slave owners pay for their slave's imprisonment. Slave owners were fined $100 after they were captured from attempting to run away they were kept in jail. The code was written as if there was a slave abolitionist behind their back. Free blacks had to pay $10 a year and had to have a white guardian present them in court. Florida had the harshest slave codes in other locations - South Carolina adopted slave codes in 1712 from the British model in Barbados. British slaves had the right to one set of clothes a year. Sugar cane cultivation in Florida this was the impact of revolt such as Nat Turner's rebellion in 1831 in the state of Virginia, trying to rebell would result in death. Resisting the rules would result in wearing a collar, muzzle, or even getting salt in your wounds. These punishments were warning for all other slaves who tried to rebell. -certain factors had to be in play. Social resistance, and Nat Turners Rebellion. Influence on development of certain types of slave codes (education). People lashed out, and this occurred in a lot of societies that had oppression and goes back to the Roman empire Spartacus. English Peasent Revolt of 1831, was a class rebellion because of unfair treatment of different classes. -the slave codes that prohibited educating slaves would have been unnecessary. After slavery's end, some white people went out of their way to prevent black people from learning. Countless schools were burned, mostly in rural areas. In Canton, Mississippi, black people collected money to open a school—only to have white residents inform them that the school would be burned and the prospective teacher lynched if it opened. The female teacher at a freedmen's school in Donaldsonville, Louisiana, was shot and killed.

Troops

were segaragated throughout the war, black were paid less than white workers. They also did not want blacks to actual fight and actually do other war labor. Many confederates would commit war crimes by no letting blacks surrender. 180,000 black men fought in the war and 1/6 died. After, all this whites were still violent to black people. The blacks fighting in the war angered the confederates and gave arise to the radical white supremacist.

Monroe Work

work (Sociologist (1866-1945) the importance: difficulties blacks faced grew up on a farm and wasn't allowed to get to school until 23, he graduated in the top 3 of his class. He believed his education would benefit the black community Notable: published multiple versions of the Negreo yearbook seen as factual information of blacks and published multiple versions. -Dr. Work figured out how many lynchings occurred. Alaska, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had 0 lynchings. -1st WW1 when blacks manufacturing became available 1910-1920 the population growed the numbers all came from Mr. Works year book.

Redshirts

youth league, young southern men who were not able to participate in the war.