All Periods
Classical Context of Ancient Greece and Rome
Ancient Greece and Rome were incredibly revolutionary in their new forms of government, art, architecture, and design. In ancient Greece, the first democracy was founded in the city-state of Athens. This democracy consisted of the Assembly of all citizens, the Council of tribal representatives, and popular courts. Ancient Greece and Rome are responsible for many innovations that changed history, such as the ideas that underlie the modern scientific method, a focus on balance and the body in art, significant advancements in geometry, and advancements in civil engineering.
Classical Art and Architecture
Ancient Greek art and architecture served to promote religion, present beauty, and glorify Athenian society. Ancient Roman art and architecture focused on themes of power, military victory, and heroism. In sculpture, the Greeks invented contrapposto, a life-like stance in which the figure's weight rests on one leg. The resulting dip of a shoulder balances the rise of a hip to create a dynamic pose. In architecture, the Greeks focused on balance and symmetry. Greek temples featured columns, topped with a capital, which supported the entablature, a decorative area that featured painted or carved friezes. The triangular shaped roof ends contained more sculptures called pediments. Perhaps the most notable Ancient Greek structure is the Parthenon, which features Doric order columns. The Parthenon once housed a large statue of Athena covered in gold. Roman architects and engineers further developed the use of columns and arches and also pioneered the use of concrete. The Pantheon in Rome showcases the use of concrete faced with brick.
Romantic Influences on Contemporary Life
Art, music, and literature of the Romantic Period have created a lasting impression on the contemporary creative mind. The 1975 song "All By Myself", written and recorded by Eric Carmen, is an example of the Romantic Period's influence on contemporary music. Like much Romantic music, the melody and inner voices of "All By Myself" feature chromaticism, the movement or displacement of notes by a half-step. Chromaticism can often result in music that sounds emotionally unsettled. This is typical of music of the Romantic Period. Many who have performed "All By Myself" have capitalized on this feature in their performances
Classical Poetry
Classical poets addressed themes of heroism, reason, love, and fate. Two of the most celebrated works of classical Greek epic poetry are Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey, which use exalted language and celebrate the cultural values of the heroic age. Around the 6th century BCE, Greek epic poetry gave way to Greek lyric poetry, which explored everyday objects using more intimate language. Classical Roman poetry follows much of the form and content of Greek poetry while exalting the Roman Empire. The Greek poet Sappho explored human emotions, such as love and desire, in her poem "A Lament for Adonis."
Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Classical Period
Classical works modeled a relationship of cultural exchange and diversity. Greece and Rome's proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, known as "the incubator of western civilization," facilitated cultural exchange among the ancient civilizations in southern Europe, western Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The Greeks borrowed the proportions of the three-dimensional sculptures of the ancient Egyptians in developing the life-like male, human figure known as the kouros. The Greeks borrowed the alphabet of the Phoenicians and imitated Egyptian mythological creatures and artistic motifs in their artwork. The Silk Road provided access to Asia and brought the valuable Chinese good of silk to the Romans. In return, the Romans sent their glass to the east. The Silk Road also opened the door for Eastern religions—such as Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Daoism—to spread to Europe. Christianity also spread quickly along the same trade route.
Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Romantic Period
Cultural exchange and diversity during the Romantic Period stemmed from the European interest in exoticism, the glorification of cultural aspects from nonwestern civilizations. Due to improvements in transportation technology, Romantic writers, artists, and musicians traveled through the East in search of new inspiration In France, artists such as Antoine Jean Gros and Theodore Gericault made strong political statements and used exotic figures and locations in their paintings. French artists Eugène Delacroix and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres conjured exotic images drawn from the Middle East and Africa. In England, John Nash designed the Royal Pavilion, which reflected a new exoticism in the use of Mughal and Islamic architectural elements. In America, artists such as George Caleb Bingham and George Catlin depicted cultural aspects of the Native Americans. American composers of hymns and church music looked abroad for inspiration, drawing from the works of the great classical composers of Europe.
Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Enlightenment
Cultural exchange and diversity were key aspects in the Enlightenment pursuit of reason and scientific thought and the suppression of traditional biases. The rise of capitalism facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultural practices, which intellectuals used in shaping their philosophies. Enlightenment thinking emphasized the role that individualized thought could play in crossing all racial and religious lines. Many Enlightenment thinkers rejected the tradition of slavery, looking to reason and individualized thought. Slave narratives were published during this time, enriching the Enlightenment philosophies with a new viewpoint and experience. The music of the time period was also diversified by the popularization of spirituals, or slave songs, which often featured religious themes and even hidden messages meant only for fellow slaves. The Enlightenment's Influences on Contemporary Life The views of Enlightenment thinkers and writers have impacted our modern philosophy, particularly in the realm of politics. Political satire, which was popularized by Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, has continued to this day in the form of political cartoons and television shows that poke fun at various aspects of government.
Major Themes of Realism
Darwinism: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution due to natural selection shed new light on the development of humans as a species; Realists valued Darwin's empirical proof over religious faith. Scientific materialism is the philosophical view that nothing exists but the physical reality that can be seen through the natural sciences. Industrialization: Realists wanted to portray the realistic consequences of the Industrial Revolution, which exposed the large differences between the wealthy and the working classes. Industrialism in England and the United States, especially, was a subject for Realist artists and writers, who were focused on the difficult working conditions brought about by industrialization. Later in the period, Realists also tackled the issues of inequality and oppression caused by imperialism and colonialism. Individualism: Realism sought to portray individuality with accurate, scientific detail. Realists attempted to recreate people and existence as realistically as possible, and their approach was more logical, more objective, and more fixated on minute detail. Age of Doubt: The tension between the idealism of the past, the harsh new realities of the present, and the insecurity of the future helped shape a particular sensibility during the Realist Period that is characterized by both optimism and anxiety. In their most positive manifestations, social values among the middle classes during this time comprised an earnest sense of individual responsibility, propriety, and productivity. However, underlying 19th-century ideologies of progress is a competing attitude of foreboding regarding the dramatic effects of modernization
Philosophy of the Enlightenment
During the Enlightenment, reason, rational thinking, and observation were key to uncovering philosophical truths. Enlightenment philosophers were concerned with abstract concepts pertaining to the social realm, such as justice, morality, law, government, and basic human rights. They developed their theories in conjunction with scientific theories and modes of thinking developed prior to and during this period. Three prominent philosophical movements during the Enlightenment were rationalism, empiricism, and skepticism. Rationalists believed that human reason is the key to knowledge. Empiricists believed that all knowledge is derived through our senses and based on ideas and theories on testing, observation, and experience. Skepticism departed from both rationalism and empiricism in that it criticized our ability to perceive and understand the world around us, acknowledging the limitations of human reasoning.
Religion of the Enlightenment
During the Enlightenment, there was a dramatic shift away from traditional Judeo-Christian religious thought. Many intellectual philosophes, inspired by scientific discoveries in physics and biology, preferred deism, a belief system that credits God as the world's creator who established the natural law and order but who otherwise does not interfere with humanity. The philosophes embraced deism largely because it was a concept that appealed to the rational mind. Deism rejected the details of Christianity and believed in a deity who ordained the order in the universe and let that order operate. Deists did not practice worship or ritual, since they did not believe in divine intervention, but instead strove to understand the order that God put into place
Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Realist Period
During the Realist Period, European artists found inspiration from Japanese woodblock printing, which became popular with Japanese artists during the late 1600s and early 1700s. As with many other forms of Japanese art, printmaking organized itself into stylistic movements or schools. The first two of these schools were the Torii School and the Kaigetsudō School, both active starting around 1700. Perhaps the most famous Japanese woodblock print is Hokusai's "The Great Wave off Kanagawa," part of the artist's Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji series. Hokusai's creative influence was felt throughout the world, impacting the Art Nouveau style and Impressionist works of his European contemporaries and followers. Following the gradual disintegration of the Katsukawa School, the Utagawa School came to prominence in the mid-19th century. The term Japonisme was coined in the late 19th century to describe the influence of Japanese art on those of European or Western descent. A long list of artists embraced Japonisme, including Vincent van Gogh, Renoir, and Monet. These artists were drawn to the fantastic colors, natural scenery, and simplicity of ukiyo-e ("pictures of the floating world") prints. Since the beginning of the 20th century, two new schools of printmaking have flourished in Japan. The sōsaku hanga, or "creative prints," movement was a shift away from traditional collaborative printmaking, while the shin hanga, or "new prints" movement refocused on it.
Renaissance Religion
During the Renaissance Era, the Roman Catholic Church faced numerous dissenters to its authority, who were reacting to corruption within the clergy. A series of popular heretical movements emerged, proposing to do away with the institutional church. There were also more moderate reformers, like Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus, who criticized clergy corruption and sought reform within the Church itself. The most notable dissent with the Church, however, was the Protestant movement. The Protestant Reformation challenged the doctrine of papal infallibility and rejected the Catholic Church as a necessary intermediary between the faithful and God. However, disagreements among Protestants caused multiple sects to form
Classical Philosophy
Early Greek philosophers, around 585 BCE, started to make inquiries about physical nature that did not rely on their culture's mythologies for support. These philosophies dealt with ideas of existence, mathematics, change, and atoms. Socrates was the first well-known philosopher to widely use the Socratic Method, where questions and ideas were shared to solve problems in an open discussion. One of his students was Plato, whose student Aristotle was also an important philosopher. Together, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle greatly pushed philosophy and thinking forward.
Literature of the Enlightenment
Enlightenment literature focused on rational prose and social reform. The Enlightenment cultivated the novel, a longer form of prose that allowed for more complex plot and character development. This genre was a perfect vehicle for the period's theme of of sympathy. In novel form, authors had the literal space to develop characters richly and to devise intricate plots. Enlightenment literature often blended real life with philosophical or ethical reflection, making biographies, essays, and travel narratives very popular. The printing press popularized literature and made it available to people of all social classes. For this reason, much of what was produced was geared toward the newly literate, whose intellectual appetites were fed in public meeting places like the cafe. Popular authors and works of the Enlightenment included: Jonathan Swift, whose narrative Gulliver's Travels uses satire to critique human nature and overreliance on reason and to support Classical knowledge over modern. Voltaire, whose novel Candide uses satire to criticize outmoded social and religious institutions
Contexts: The Age of Exploration
From the early 15th to the early 17th century, Europeans embarked on maritime explorations around the world in order to satisfy their desire for foreign goods and to achieve geopolitical dominance over one another. Scientific innovations assisted this Renaissance Age of Exploration, such as improved ship design and navigational charts and instruments.
Key Concepts: Central Concepts in Humanities
Humanism can be defined as the study of the creative and intellectual contributions made by all cultures and as an ethical system that emphasizes human reason, values, and the scientific method. Myths are traditional stories of a people or culture that serve to explain some natural phenomenon, the origin of humanity, or customs or religious rites. These myths often offer practical and spiritual wisdom in addition to providing entertainment. Beauty can be defined as those qualities that give pleasure to the senses. An aesthetic experience is an experience of beauty that inspires a feeling of pleasure that is its own justification. For example, the beauty of the moon may cause us to enjoy the experience of looking at the moon just for the sake of looking at it. Archetypes are age-old models by which we comprehend human experience. The concepts of heroes, scapegoats, and heaven are examples of concepts that have been passed down through generations and have become part of our cultural subconscious. Aesthetic experience is an experience of beauty that inspires a feeling of pleasure, which is its own justification, and this experience is valued independently of others.
Classical Religion
In the Classical Period, there were many different religions throughout the world. The most prevalent were polytheistic ideas, seen especially in Greek and Roman civilizations. In Greece and Rome, polytheism, a belief in multiple gods, was the most common. In Greece, the primary gods included Zeus, Hera, and Poseidon. In Rome, religion and government were more deeply intertwined, wherein emperors became part of the pantheon of the deities.
Realist Theater
In the last half of the 19th century, Realist theater, like Realist literature, brought an emphasis on accurate depiction of ordinary life to the stage. Actors wore ordinary clothing that represented the status of the character, and scenery faithfully reflected common, everyday living conditions and locales. Props included the furniture, possessions, and "knick-knacks" that an acquisitive middle class would own. Dialogue was written to sound like regular conversation, while the use of soliloquies and "asides" diminished. Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House explores themes of feminism, societal obligations, inner psychological motivation and shame, and the unreliability of appearances through the use of techniques such as letters, authentic dialogue, and intricate stage directions. Themes included: Likeness to life Moral and social questioning Compassion for the human condition
Key Enlightenment Philosophers
Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the native peoples encountered through trade and colonization were, in some ways, morally superior, arguing that a person is at his or her best in wholly natural environments and is corrupted by the environments of society. Denis Diderot helped create the greatest encyclopedia in the 18th century. He wrote philosophical dialogues that explored the theory and consequence of materialism: the idea that the universe is entirely composed of matter and without a God. The Encyclopédie represented a fundamental principle of the Enlightenment: to accumulate, codify, and preserve human knowledge by providing rational information on important topics to the general public. John Locke was one of the most influential philosophers and political theorists in British history. Many current ideas about selfhood, identity, and the way the mind works come from Locke. Locke also wrote highly influential books on government, providing a basis for the American political experiment. Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer, philosopher, and feminist who argued for the advancement of women, affirming that women were capable of rationality and that they should be educated.
Introduction to the Enlightenment
Most historians date the start of the Age of Enlightenment in the West from the end of the 17th century. This "Age of Reason," which lasted through much of the 18th century, saw advances in science, philosophy, government, and the arts. There was optimism about the benefits for humankind from rationalism. There was a new willingness to question authority in all arenas of life. Scientific discoveries increased rapidly, as thinkers moved beyond received wisdom in astronomy, biology, human anatomy, and chemistry
19th Century Music
Music in the 19th century took on many forms, often experimenting with qualities like atonality, nationalism, and symbolism. Romantic: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky is representative of the classical Romantic style of music, well known for his ballets and symphonic works. He utilizes classical structure in order to fulfill the Romantic need for expression, using music to invoke symbolism of his personal life tormented by doubt and anxiety. His most famous ballets are Sleeping Beauty, Swan Lake, and The Nutcracker, and he is also known for the dramatic 1812 Overture. This style of music is characterized by symphonies with more woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments. Large orchestras, vocal soloists, and choruses contributed to large-scale dramatic works, such as ones composed by Gustav Mahler (Symphony No. 5). Impressionist: Musical impressionism is characterized by a more sensual experience, with tonal ambiguity that suggested a particular atmosphere rather than creating it. Notable composers of this style include Claude Debussy (Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun) and Joseph-Maurice Ravel (Bolero). Military March: American composer John Philip Sousa spearheaded the style that came to be known as the "march," employing a military and patriotic style to produce powerful, precise sounds that invoke a sense of order and might. His well-known compositions are "Semper Fidelis" and "The Stars & Stripes Forever."
Music in the Classical Period
Music in the Classical Period typically consisted of simple four note successions played as a perfect fourth, drawing similarities to the Middle Eastern tradition of music. The ancient Greeks and Romans played a variety of instruments, including the lyre, a stringed instrument similar to a harp. The Greeks used music in everyday life and were interested in the relationship between music and mathematics.
Major Themes of Romanticism
Nationalism: Due to key events like European colonialism, the French Revolution, and the establishment of the United States, many Western countries sought to distinguish their identities, leading Romantic artists to express their national identities with pride through their works. Exoticism: As cross-continental transportation became easier and colonialism became more widespread, Europeans became more exposed to nonwestern cultures that fascinated them. Exoticism was the artistic expression of that fascination, though often Europeans misrepresented the foreign and suppressed cultures they enjoyed. Revolution: Romantics generally supported revolution against tradition, political reform that would grant rights to oppressed groups and equality for all. Heroism: The Byronic hero, or Romantic hero, was the embodiment of the revolutionary thought and introspective concerns that Romantics faced in this era. Such heroes were gifted loners who challenged traditions and brooded on personal passions. Passion: Romantic artists explored the full spectrum of uninhibited human emotion and generally favored the strong sentiments of affection, sorrow, and romantic longing over the rational and logical. Individualism: Romantics celebrated and promoted the righteousness of human individuality and developed a newfound respect for the figure of the imaginative genius. Nature: Many Romantics found wisdom and solace in the natural world and sought to represent the strange emotions that occur when encountering the sublime.
Neoclassical Theater
Neoclassical playwrights turned to subjects based on classical myths. Neoclassical theater featured "the comedy of manners." The use of female actors in Neoclassical plays was a new convention in England that allowed playwrights to focus on the tragic interplay between men and women. Jean Batiste Poquelin, stage name Molière, was a leading French playwright. In his comedy Tartuf e, Molière uses satire to critique false religious piety and to highlight the contrasts between irrationality and reason.
Neoclassical Art and Architecture
Neoclassicism was an 18th century art and architecture movement that looked to Greek and Roman art for models of harmony, idealized realism, and reason. It shunned the ostentatious elements of the Baroque and Rococo styles and promoted the themes of order, progress, and civic virtue. Some of the key figures of the Neoclassical movement were: Jacques-Louis David, who painted scenes that emphasized civic virtue and civic morality; Angelica Kauffmann, who was one of the most popular portraitists of her time; John Singleton Copley, who created portraits and history paintings; William Hunter and Jan van Rymsdyk, whose drawings contributed to the study of the female reproduction process. Examples of Neoclassical architecture include the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Panthéon in Paris, and Monticello, Thomas Jefferson's home in Virginia.
Contexts: The Importance of the Renaissance
No appreciation of the Humanities is complete without understanding this era and its significance in the history of Western civilization. The Renaissance: witnessed the revival of classical art, literature, philosophy, architecture, and learning, spawned renewed study of the great works of ancient Greco-Roman civilizations, and produced among the finest artistic and intellectual achievements in the history of Western Humanities. The potential and talents of the individual became a significant focus in the Renaissance, including the idea of the well-rounded Renaissance Man. One of the most significant ideas to emerge from the Renaissance is the value of education, particularly in the Humanities. The catalyst for the classical revival was the belief that one could realize his or her full humanity only through classical education. This rebirth reasserted the superiority of ancient Greco-Roman creative and intellectual contributions
Realist Art
Realism: Represented the pendulum swing away from the emotionalism of Romanticism Focused on producing accurate and objective portrayals of the ordinary, observable world, with a focus on the lower classes and with a critique of the established social and political order Became popular just as photography was introduced as a new source of visual images Important French Realist artists include Gustave Courbet, Honoré Daumier, Édouard Manet, and Rosa Bonheur Important American Realist artists include Thomas Eakins and Henry Ossawa Tanner Photography: Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre invented the daguerreotype—a unique, detailed photographic image on a highly polished silver-plated sheet of copper. After he introduced his process to a fascinated public, photography emerged as both a medium of expression and as a powerful scientific tool. After Realism: Impressionism and Other Art Movements Impressionism: Impressionism was an art movement during the late 19th century that emphasized simplified composition and the effect of light and color to capture a painter's visual impression. The movement took its name from Claude Monet's piece titled Impression, Sunrise. Impressionists tried to capture their initial, fleeting reaction to whatever they observed at a given moment; they painted current subjects and landscapes; they used light and color; and they simplified their compositions, leaving out detail. Many Impressionist artists focused on the interaction between colors and sunlight and the way light and color could be seen by the eye. The innovation of storing paint in tubes allowed Impressionist artists to paint outside the studio, capturing the changes in natural light and its impact on the landscape. Important Impressionist artists include Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. Post-Impressionism: Post-Impressionism was an art movement during the late 19th century that followed the Impressionist art movement that came before. While Post-Impressionist artists borrowed the Impressionists' concern with color and light, they had a greater concern for expression, structure, form, line, and symbolic content than did the Impressionists. Important Post-Impressionist artists include Paul Cézanne and Vincent van Gogh. Art Nouveau: Art Nouveau was an art movement during the late 19th century and early 20th century that favored sinuous lines, curves, and organic motifs, such as plants and flowers. It often took inspiration from the unruly aspects of nature and represented a break with classical traditions. Aubrey Beardsley (1872-1898) was an English illustrator and prominent Art Nouveau artist. Beardsley's clear and uncomplicated images are offset by an erotic sensuality with creatures of fantasy and caricatures of decadence. Art Nouveau architects turned to asymmetrical shapes, decorative surfaces, and curved forms. They favored mosaics, stained glass, and an organic look mimicking plants and nature. Leading architects included Antoni Gaudí, Otto Wagner, Louis Sullivan, and Louis Comfort Tiffany. Architecture: American architect Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) was considered the "father of the modern skyscraper." Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel was a bridge builder, architect, and metals expert whose company was chosen to build Paris' most recognizable monument, the Eiffel Tower, for the 1889 World's Fair.
Realist Philosophy
Realist art, literature, theater, and music explored Darwinism, utilitarianism, and Marxism, as the artists, writers, actors, and musicians challenged the conventional forms and subject matter while exploring the role of the individual to society. Darwinism, utilitarianism, and Marxism all deal with the relationship between society and the individual. Darwinism is based in the idea that species have evolved through natural selection and the "struggle for survival." Utilitarianism believes in the rights of the individual as long as it does not interfere with the happiness and welfare of the society as a whole. Marxism is a social, political, economic, and philosophical theory developed by Karl Marx that highlights the role class conflict plays in the development of different social systems over time. Marxists believe that social unrest will inevitably overthrow capitalist systems.
Renaissance Art and Architecture
Renaissance painting, sculpture, and architecture departed from medieval traditions and reflected the merging of art and science. Several social and cultural factors impacted the arts in the Renaissance: Two of the innovations in Renaissance art were the widespread use of oil painting as a medium and the development of mathematical or linear perspective in painting. Classical humanism and the rediscovery of classical forms and principles inspired Renaissance sculpture. Renaissance architecture featured the revival of the dome and the fashioning of secular structures, including palaces, residences, theaters, and libraries. Some of the most notable artists of the Renaissance Period were Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa, Vitruvian Man, The Last Supper), Michelangelo (statue of David, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel), and Dürer (realistic paintings).
Realist Literature
Realist authors sought to describe life and human behavior as they were, without idealization or Romantic subjectivity. The transformation in everyday life was reflected in Realist literature, as authors sought to portray how life was lived during changing times. French Realists: Honoré de Balzac, a well-known figure of the Realist fiction movement, examined themes of money, power, gender relations, social mores, and family life in his novel The Human Comedy. English Realists: In England, Realist authors, like Charles Dickens, dealt with the growing concern with the plight of the less fortunate, exhibiting extraordinary attention to detail and observations in an effort to replicate the true nature of reality. Dickens' novels included Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, A Tale of Two Cities, and Hard Times. Russian Realists: Russian writers set works in Russia and used straightforward but copious factual detail, placing emphasis on character and atmosphere rather than on plot and action. Leo Tolstoy (Anna Karenina, War and Peace) examined damaging reality and consequences of conventional morality and war. American Realists: American Realist authors provided an expression of moral and psychic exhaustion caused by urbanization, industrialization, and the Civil War. Mark Twain (The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) challenged societal norms and prevalent racism; William Dean Howells (A Modern Instance, The Rise of Silas Lapham) divulged his concerns about race, labor issues, and women's rights; and Kate Chopin (The Awakening) explored the importance of female independence.
Major Themes of the Renaissance
Rebirth of Classicism: During the Renaissance, there was a rebirth of classical ideals, mainly humanism, rationalism, and balance, based on the belief that classical literary, scientific, and philosophical works provided additional resources for learning and living. Humanism: Humanism is an optimistic attitude that praises human abilities to be successful in their endeavors, whether in science, religion, art, politics, or behavior. The focus on humanity, human culture, and the human form was the impetus for the classical revival. Rationalism/Scientific Expansion: Many people in the Renaissance embodied a strong interest in rationalism and scientific inquiry, leading to deeper understanding of the world and technological developments in such areas as medicine, transportation, and warfare. Expansion of the University System: The Renaissance approach to education produced the ideal of the well-rounded individual who was not bound to any one discipline. As the university system spread across Europe, it represented a significant change in epistemology. Individualism/Self-fashioning: The notion of individualism became important during the Renaissance as artists sought public recognition and reputation. Artists and nobles represented their identity with choices in dress and behavior, a process known as self-fashioning. Reformation: Reformation took place in the form of Protestantism, sparked by Martin Luther's outspoken disagreement with many Church practices he believed were corrupt. Overall, reformation of the Roman Catholic Church was a very significant movement in the Renaissance that separated it from the Middle Ages
Renaissance Theater
Renaissance Theater slowly evolved from the informal roving troupes that were characteristic of the Medieval Period. Patronage of the arts allowed troupes to settle into a city, build a playhouse, and take up theater as a profession. As a result, works became longer, more complex, and critically discussed period themes. Playwrights used new literary techniques in their works. soliloquy was used to provide insight to a character's thoughts allegory treated abstract themes very concretely language, including the difference between dialect, blank verse, and prose, was used to differentiate between social classes Famous playwrights included: Shakespeare, who was a master wordsmith and who used confusion and misunderstanding to create the major events of the plot. He wrote the tragedy Hamlet. Marlowe, whose treatment of religion directly references the Protestant Reformation and the eternal struggle between good and evil. He wrote the historical tragedy Doctor Faustus. William Shakespeare William Shakespeare was one of the most influential figures in English and Western literature and is credited with writing 38 plays and 154 sonnets. The inevitability of fate and the power of miscommunication are particularly common themes in Shakespeare's plays. Because women were forbidden to act during Shakespeare's time, the female roles in his plays were performed by young men. Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets. The first 126 are addressed to an unnamed young man, while the rest of the sonnets are addressed to a mysterious "dark lady." Shakespeare wrote 38 plays throughout his lifetime, which are continually performed all around the world
Renaissance Literature
Renaissance literature experimented with a wide range of styles that reflected an emphasis on the individual's psychological complexity in addition to the social and moral structures of society that were more often the focus of medieval literature. Many Renaissance authors found themselves combining Christian and classical learning into Christian humanism in order to reconcile the many conflicts between the two. Machiavelli's The Prince is one of the best-known political treatises. His treatise advanced the abandonment of conventional morality for the sake of power and authority. The Prince is considered to represent the darker side of the Renaissance's belief in human possibility and potential. Castiglione's The Courtier explores the process of fashioning one's individual sense of self according to a set of socially acceptable standards. William Shakespeare would become the most famous writer in English by writing plays and poems that examine such human emotions as loyalty, ambition, love, hate, greed, and self-sacrifice
Renaissance Music
Renaissance music was more secular than the music of the Middle Ages, and it was characterized by the classical principles of simplicity, balance, order, and clarity, as well as by the use of imitation. One popular form of music during the Renaissance was the madrigal, a polyphonic vocal work that set a pastoral poem to music. It used a technique called "word painting," in which notes would ascend or descend depending on the literal textual meaning.
Philosophy of the Romantic Period
Romantic philosophers were significantly influenced by social, political, and philosophical trends that were popular during the Enlightenment. Some of the important philosophical movements of the Romantic Period include idealism, transcendentalism, and nationalism. Idealism states that reality is a mental construct, and therefore, the only knowledge we have of the world is knowledge of our mental experiences. There is no objective reality but rather a subjective reality as perceived by a human being, existing only in relation to that person's experience. According to transcendentalists, society and social institutions ultimately corrupt individuals, stripping them of their natural freedom. Transcendentalists believe that people must become free and self-reliant by returning to nature. According to nationalism, the political legitimacy of a state is derived from some inherent unity or cohesion among the people that live in the area governed by that state. This unity is the result of some commonalities shared by the people, including things like race, culture, and language. Key Romantic Philosophers: Among the important Romantic philosophers are Friedrich Nietzsche and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Contexts: The Romantic Period
Romanticism was a break from the intellectual framework of the Enlightenment and was a shift to a more expressive mode that emphasized the boldly heroic, the individual, the imagination, and the irrational. Romantic artists stressed passion, emotion, and exotic settings with dramatic action. Three major events that took place during the Romantic Period were the Industrial Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution: The Industrial Revolution: A time of tremendous industrial growth in Europe signaling a dramatic shift from an agriculture-based economy to one centered around industrialization, mechanized labor, and urbanization. The American Revolution:The American Revolution, encompassing the American Revolutionary War, resulted in the Declaration of Independence and established the United States as its own country. The French Revolution: A revolutionary movement that gained momentum with the storming of the Bastille in Paris in the summer of 1789. The French Revolution was a heated, bloody call for political change and an end to high taxes, food shortages, and the rising cost of bread. Because political change was pervasive during this time period, many of the Romantics embraced Prometheus, a figure from Greek mythology who defied the gods to give fire to humanity. For Romantic artists and writers, Prometheus was a symbol of freedom and autonomy. Another important figure for Romantics was the Byronic hero. Lord Byron provided a living model for Romantic heroism. The Byronic hero possesses great talent, passion, and intelligence, but is at the same time flawed. Like Prometheus, the Byronic hero defies authority, rebelling against social constraints in pursuit of individual interests.
Literature in the Romantic Period
Romantics sought new modes of representation and crafted innovative ways to signal their departure from previously held beliefs, traditions, and literary forms. As such, Romantic Literature is iconoclastic in nature; it sought to break down conventions and societal norms. Romantic literary themes included: a movement away from rationalism to embrace the imagination a focus on the superiority of nature a contemplation of the divine or higher moral purpose a focus on the self and introspection English Romanticism English Romantic poets expressed a love of nature, an interest in exoticism, a reveling in the senses, and an investigation into the darker side of human emotion and humanity in their works. Central figures of the English Romantic literary period include: William Wordsworth: He is one of the foundational English Romantic poets. His work articulates the beauty of nature and explores the craft of writing. He believed in writing in "common speech" to reach all members of society. His autobiographical poem, The Prelude, describes his own creative journey, demonstrating the introspection that characterizes Romanticism. John Keats: He is considered one of the core Romantic poets and is best known for his poetry, including "Ode on a Grecian Urn." In his work, Keats often found exceptional beauty in the ordinary. Keats drew heavily from historical themes and merged diverse concepts, such as love and death, in his poetry. Lord Byron: Famous for his flamboyant style and numerous love affairs, Lord Byron helped create the notion of the Byronic hero. The Byronic hero first appeared in Byron's epic narrative poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" and is best exemplified in his poem "The Corsair." American Romanticism American Romantic writers share their English counterparts' investment in nature, introspection, and the sublime. American Romantics, however, anchor their thought in distinctly American themes and American frames of reference. Herman Melville: He was a prolific American novelist, short story writer, and poet. His best known work is his epic novel Moby Dick; or the White Whale, in which Captain Ahab sacrifices all in a futile quest to dominate nature in the form of the elusive white whale, Moby Dick. Walt Whitman: He is often considered the Father of American poetry and was a key figure in the Transcendentalist movement. Whitman included Romantic themes in his work, such as a reverence for nature, an appreciation of the common man, and poetic expression that abandoned traditional forms. His work promoted egalitarianism His seminal work, Leaves of Grass, contains "Song of Myself," in which Whitman expressed his personal connection to diverse aspects of humanity. The Gothic Gothic literature sought to address larger Romantic themes in a darker way. While other Romantic writers celebrated the potential for harmony between nature and the human soul, Gothic writers explored what happens when there is disharmony. Mary Shelley: She was an English writer who began her career editing for her husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley. She became a respected author with her novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus In Shelley's story, scientist Victor Frankenstein uses his mastery of the sciences to create a living being in pursuit of the meaning of life. By attempting to master nature and to take on a divine power (that of human creation), Victor has created something truly terrifying. The Brontë sisters: The Brontë sisters were prolific English poets and novelists. Emily Brontë wrote Wuthering Heights, a Gothic novel about doomed love set on an English moor. Charlotte Brontë wrote Jane Eyre, in which the title character negotiates the limitations of class and gender. Slave Narratives Slave narratives combined reason, sympathy, and empathy to make a statement about the plight of slaves in the United States and to provide a narrative rallying cry for abolitionist action. Like their contemporaries, these writers appealed to emotion and logic to outline the importance of liberty, democracy, individualism, and the power of education, reform, and the imagination. Frederick Douglass: He became the most visible African American abolitionist of the era through his eloquent speeches and the publication of his autobiography The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. This autobiography detailed the abuse and inhumanity of slavery while accentuating the hypocrisy it represented in a nation that claimed freedom and Christianity as fundamental elements of its culture. Harriet Jacobs: She was an African American writer and prominent abolitionist speaker. She detailed the horrors of slavery in her narrative Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl in an attempt to inspire abolitionist actions. In her narrative, she declared her dream to create a home for herself and her children, a desire that 19th century female readers would have connected with strongly. Sojourner Truth: She was an abolitionist and former slave who advocated for African American women's rights. She brought the plight of African American women to the mainstream women's movement when she delivered her speech, "Ain't I a Woman?" (1851), which demanded that the rights of African Americans play a role in the political goals of the American women's movement.
Major Themes of the Neoclassical Period and the Enlightenment
Skepticism: The school of "rational skepticism" was prominent during the Enlightenment to ensure that philosophers reached conclusions based on reason, not prejudice. Rationalism: The philosophy of rationalism also put an emphasis on the role of reason as the key to knowledge. Empiricism: First developed in the Renaissance by scientists such as Francis Bacon, empiricism may be defined as basing ideas and theories on the direct experience of the senses, including experimentation, as opposed to knowledge gained from books. Order: Enlightenment thinkers and leaders sought to design political and social order that reflected natural laws and God's will. Deism: A shift in religious thinking also took place with the growth of deism, a belief system that credits God as the original architect of the universe's natural laws but who does not currently oversee the events of the world. Classicism: In the arts, a resurgence of classical ideals like harmony, realism, and reason inspired the Neoclassical movement
Classical Influences on Contemporary Life
The Classical Period's influences can be seen in the United States today in the political system, in architecture, and in the arts. The American political system is a representative democracy in which people have the right to vote. This system has influences from the Classical Period, including the ancient Greek idea of democracy and the classical Roman concept of the republic. In the United States, many monuments and national buildings echo architectural styles that were developed in the Classical Period. Great public buildings in ancient Greece and Rome, such as the Greek Parthenon and Roman Pantheon, inspired design elements that are present in the U.S. Capitol and Supreme Court buildings. Contemporary theater and film works are often inspired by classical Greek comedies and tragedies. For example, the American film Oh, Brother, Where Art Thou? is a modern retelling of The Odyssey.
Periods in order
The Classical Period: balance, truth/reason, democracy/republic, polytheism, humanism The Middle Ages Period (not covered in this course): religion, deference to God, crusades, pacifism, humility, feudalism, chivalry The Renaissance Period: rebirth of classicism, humanism, rationalism, scientific expansion, university system, individualism, self-fashioning The Baroque Period (not covered in this course): counter-reformation, divine right, absolutism, commonwealth, unification of the arts, world as a stage The Neoclassical Period: skepticism, rationalism, empiricism, order, deism, classicism The Romantic Period: nationalism, exoticism, revolution, heroism, passion, individualism, nature The Realist Period: Darwinism, industrialization, individualism, age of doubt
Contexts: The Age of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment heralded a new willingness to question authority in all areas of life. Scientific discoveries increased rapidly, and the questioning of the monarchy led to political reform and revolution. In religion, skeptics increasingly challenged the authority of organized religion and attempted to find a basis for morality outside religion altogether. The Enlightenment also saw the rise of deism, the belief that a God had created and designed the world but did not directly intervene in its affairs. This deist belief was also called the "watchmaker God," a reference to a watchmaker's role in creating a watch but relative neglect once completed and events set into action. Disciplines such as natural history, modern science, and natural law were all born out of the Enlightenment. Such ideas as the separation of church and state, religious tolerance, and free speech were also fruits of the Enlightenment. Thomas Jefferson drafted The Declaration of Independence. He served as the third President of the United States and founded the University of Virginia. The Declaration of Independence captures in a succinct and powerful way the relationship among humanism, Enlightenment philosophy, and political governance. It established the idea of a new nation that was a product of the philosophies of the era.
Realist Social and Political Contexts
The Realist Period saw profound social, political and economic changes in Europe and the United States. Rapid industrial growth modernized aspects of everyday life and polarized people and nations according to wealth, gender, class, and power. The Industrial Revolution The rapid economic growth in the West came with social consequences and led to a gap between rich and poor. This gap fueled economic disparity and class consciousness, which in turn provoked uprisings in both cities and rural areas and eventually led to competing ideas for social and economic reform. The dismal conditions of the poor were depicted in Realist art and literature of the time. Preoccupation with Physical Reality Artists, writers, and thinkers were increasingly preoccupied with recording physical forms and realistic details of ordinary people and places. Sympathetic and concrete portrayals of ordinary subjects contrasted distinctly with the exotic and heroic imagery of the Romantic Period. Scientific materialism and the emergence of photography contributed to the desire and ability to accurately record the physical world with forthright objectivity. Rapid Technological Change While 19th century industrialization brought certain societal ills, it also provided extraordinary technological advances that transformed artistic techniques, introduced new media, and provided greater audience access to art as a whole: The availability of paint in tubes enabled artists to paint subjects in their natural settings rather than in the studio. The invention of photography provided new forms of visual representation. Electric lighting enhanced theatrical performances. Advances in musical instruments enabled more expressive compositions. Expansion of educational opportunities for a growing middle class meant a more literate population reading the popular Realist novels and other works of the era.
Realist Influences on Contemporary Life
The Realist Period was marked by the introduction of Marxism, Darwinism, and utilitarianism as systems of thought Core Marxist ideas live in modern socialism in Northern Europe as well as in the remaining communist countries of China, Cuba, and North Korea (in theory). Darwin's theories of evolution are still prevalent in science today, as they form the foundation for new academic disciplines such as sociobiology The premises of evolutionary biology and sociobiology also get dragged into modern-day philosophical debates, and many religious communities refuse to accept evolution and natural selection as fact while science has embraced it. The utilitarian emphasis on happiness for the greater good continues to be reflected in public policy which justifies the use of taxes as a form of distributive justice to contribute to the overall happiness of society. The key points of utilitarianism can also be seen in movements to protect and improve the environment. Though most contemporary businesses are used to taking and using natural resources as if they were free and unlimited, this leads to overly wasteful consumption and the so-called "tragedy of the commons."
Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Renaissance Period
The Renaissance Period was a busy time of exploration and cultural exchange that resulted from vast improvements in trade and communication. The expansion of trade routes on land and sea allowed spices, precious gems, and fine silk to arrive from Asia. The beauty, color, and luster of Islamic glass and pottery inspired Italian glassmakers. African culture made an impact throughout Europe, as African artists carved hunting scenes and motifs on ivory for European royalty. African servants and slaves became a larger presence in areas of Europe. The Spanish "Golden Age" resulted from Spain's acquisition of gold and silver from the Americas. The discovery of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized mass communication throughout Europe.
Introduction to the Renaissance Period
The Renaissance, French for "rebirth," was characterized by a revival of classical art, literature, philosophy, architecture, and an emphasis on humanism. This cultural flourish overlapped the Age of Discovery and advancements in science, thus making science a legitimate source of knowledge. The overall atmosphere of change during the Renaissance proved conducive to artistic experimentation and innovation. As a result of urbanization, cities accumulated wealth and channeled some of this newfound wealth into funding the arts. Artists applied scientific principles to solve problems of perspective and devised new techniques for representing light and shade.
Art and Architecture in the Romantic Period
The artists of the Romantic Period mirrored the Romantic movement as a whole by celebrating the wild and irrational aspects of humanity. Romantic artists stressed passion, emotion, and exotic settings with dramatic action. There was a focus on heroic subject matters employing intense colors and loose brush strokes. Romantic painters also addressed political matters. Examples of this include Eugène Delacroix and his painting Liberty Leading the People. Other prominent artists of the period include Théodore Géricault, Francisco de Goya, J.M.W. Turner, and Caspar David Friedrich. The architecture of the Romantic Period demonstrated an embrace of Gothic Revival, a movement that celebrated the religiosity of older Gothic buildings. Romantic architects also experimented with different building materials, such as iron, steel, and glass.
Classical Music
The classical music genre refers to European music that was composed from approximately 1730 to 1820. The music of this period embraced the Enlightenment focus on balance, order, and structural clarity. Composers heightened the contrast between musical lines and enjoyed a greater depth and variety in orchestral texture. The period produced several of the most well-known composers in history. The most celebrated composer of this era was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who composed sonatas, symphonies, masses, concertos, and operas. Some of his most well-known works are Eine kleine Nachtmusik, Symphony No. 40 in G minor, and the opera Le Nozze De Figaro ("The Marriage of Figaro"). Joseph Haydn was another prominent classical composer with such works as Symphony No. 101 ("The Clock Symphony").
Classical Theater
The development of classical theater structure laid the foundations for theater as we know it today. Classical theater addressed period themes such as humanism, truth, balance, and the essence of life. Classical theater included such literary devices as foreshadowing, tragic irony, reversal of fortune, double entendre, discovery, and use of a chorus. Three common play genres were the tragedy, the comedy, and the tragicomedy. Satyr was a form of comedy. Sophocles and Aristophanes were two notable playwrights. Sophocles wrote the Theban Plays, and Aristophanes commonly explored gender in society. Oedipus Rex discusses a person's need to know the truth, using foreshadowing and irony. Lysistrata discusses gender relations and the woman's role in society using comedy and double entendre.
Renaissance Philosophy
The dominant Renaissance cultural and intellectual movement was Classical humanism, which emphasized the worth, dignity, and rationality of man. Renaissance humanism: emphasized not only scholarly achievement but also moral and athletic development encouraged the individual to engage with the world ("The whole glory of man lies in activity") rejected much of medieval thinking as irrelevant to a changing world Renaissance thinkers, like Niccolò Machiavelli, began to account for politics with a nonreligious realism. In The Prince, Machiavelli defended the principle that "the ends justify the means" in governance and statecraft. Classical humanism also stressed the individual's role in the social and political order by emphasizing general responsibilities of citizenship and respect for public duty. It held that participating in the political life of the community was an obligation.
Major Themes of the Classical Period
The major themes that emerged from the Classical Period included balance, truth/reason, democracy/republic, polytheism, and humanism. Classical artists and philosophers were concerned with harmony and balance in their works. The great thinkers of the time—including Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—engaged in pursuit oftruth through logic and reason. During the Classical Period, new forms of government known as democracy and republic were created that put the power of decision making into the hands of the people. The majority of ancient Greeks and Romans were polytheistic, believing in multiple gods who represented different facets of life. At the core of almost every endeavor was humanism—simply a focus on humans.
Music in the Romantic Period
The music of the Romantic Period replaced the restrained style of classical music with more expressive and emotional music. Romantic composers found inspiration in heroic and nationalistic themes. They wrote pieces that demonstrated an appreciation of nature, a turn towards the mystic and the supernatural, and an embrace of strong, irrational emotions over logic and reason. During the Romantic Period, orchestras expanded to include percussion and keyboard instruments in addition to woodwinds, brass, and strings. Opera dealt with Romantic themes as well and emphasized more elaborate solos. Key Romantic composers included Johannes Brahms, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss, Sergei Rachmaninoff, and Richard Wagner. Music in the Romantic Period
The Renaissance in Contemporary Life
The philosophy, arts, literature, and music of the Renaissance has influenced our modern concept of individual identity, our compassion for others, our sense of human rights, and even our way of solving problems with reason and science. Today we refer to a person who has broad knowledge and versatile talents spanning many intellectual and artistic disciplines as a Renaissance man or woman. The Renaissance Period's focus on science and the human form has led to markedly more successful medical practices and other scientific advancements. Our modern-day focus on education, particularly in the Humanities, can be traced back to the Renaissance ideals.
The Classical Period-Introduction to the Classical Period
Western Civilization traces its origins to classical Greece and Rome, a period that lasted approximately from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Both civilizations broke new ground in various fields, such as art, literature, science, medicine, government, law, architecture, engineering, history and philosophy. Between 480 BCE and 323 BCE, classical Greece made numerous advancements that would form the basis of Western Civilization. Some examples are the creation of the first democracy, the beginnings of Western philosophy, physical science, and drama and theater. The ancient Romans, building upon the Greek foundation, added their cultural contributions such as the works of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Cicero. The Romans also developed new forms of architecture and infrastructure, creating miles of roads, aqueducts, and arches. They also pioneered new methods of governance and legal systems that would later be a model. Finally, due to their presence throughout Europe, the existence of today's Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish) can all trace their roots back to Roman Latin. Classical Greece and Rome influenced virtually every following era of Western Civilization, including the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and contemporary culture. Classical Context of Ancient Greece and Rome Ancient Greece and Rome were incredibly revolutionary in their new forms of government, art, architecture, and design. In ancient Greece, the first democracy was founded in the city-state of Athens. This democracy consisted of the Assembly of all citizens, the Council of tribal representatives, and popular courts. Ancient Greece and Rome are responsible for many innovations that changed history, such as the ideas that underlie the modern scientific method, a focus on balance and the body in art, significant advancements in geometry, and advancements in civil engineering.