Anat Ch. 1 Pt 2
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Lower back between ribs and pelvis
Lumbar region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Arm
Brachial region
Organ in body cavity: Dorsal body cavities: Cranial cavity:
Brain
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Cheek
Buccal region
__ are considered to be the smallest "living" units of structure and function in our body.
Cells
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Breast
Mammary region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Upper cheek
Zygomatic region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Skull
Cranial region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Leg
Crural region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Elbow (answer may also be used to refer to the forearm)
Cubital region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Skin (or body surface)
Cutaneous region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Ankle
Tarsal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Side of skull
Temporal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Area around navel or umbilicus
Umbilical region
Although the body is a single structure, it is made up of trillions of smaller structures—each with its own functions. Atoms and molecules are often referred to as the __ level of organization.
chemical
Identify the levels of organization in the body from smallest to largest: (7)
chemical level, organelle level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organism level
The lower ventral cavities in Figure 1-5 include an abdominal cavity and a pelvic cavity. Actually, they form only one compartment, the abdominopelvic cavity, because no physical partition separates them. In Figure 1-5 a faint line shows the approximate point of separation between the abdominal and pelvic subdivisions. However, notice that an actual physical partition separates the thoracic cavity above from the abdominopelvic cavity below. This muscular sheet is the
diaphragm. It is dome shaped and is the most important muscle for breathing.
Anatomists learn about the structure of the human body by cutting it apart. This process, called __, is still the principal technique used to isolate and study the structural components or parts of the human body.
dissection
A hypothesis that has gained a high level of confidence is called a __ or __.
theory; law
Feedback loops such as those shown in Figure 1-11 are called negative feedback loops because
they oppose, or negate, a change in a controlled condition. Most homeostatic control loops in the body involve negative feedback because reversing changes back toward a normal value tends to stabilize conditions—exactly what homeostasis is all about.
The upper ventral cavities include the __, a space that you may think of as your chest cavity.
thoracic cavity
Another example of normal positive feedback regulation in the body is the activity of blood cells called platelets, (describe)
which become increasingly sticky in response to damage to a blood vessel. Circulating platelets rapidly cling to the damaged area and release chemicals that attract additional platelets which accumulate at the site of damage to form a blood clot. The blood clot forms to control bleeding. In each of these cases, the process rapidly increases until the positive feedback loop is stopped suddenly by the birth of a baby or the formation of a clot.
Outline summary: Levels of organization: B. The body as a whole is a unit constructed of the following smaller units (see Figure 1-2): (7)
1. Atoms and molecules—chemical level 2. Cells—the smallest structural units; organizations of various chemicals 3. Tissues—organizations of similar cells 4. Organs—organizations of different kinds of tissues 5. Systems—organizations of many different kinds of organs 6. Organism—organization of all systems together, forming a whole body 7. Microbiome—set of interacting communities of bacteria and other microorganisms that inhabit the human body; influences normal body function
To make it easier to locate organs in the large abdominopelvic cavity, anatomists have divided the abdominopelvic cavity into fourabdominopelvic quadrants:
1. Right upper quadrant or RUQ (right superior quadrant) 2. Right lower quadrant or RLQ (right inferior quadrant) 3. Left upper quadrant or LUQ (left superior quadrant) 4. Left lower quadrant or LLQ (left inferior quadrant)
Another and perhaps more precise way to divide the abdominopelvic cavity is shown in Figure 1-7. Here, the abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into nine abdominopelvic regions defined as follows:
1. Upper abdominopelvic regions—the right hypochondriac region, left hypochondriac region, and the epigastric regionlie above an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the ninth rib cartilages. 2. Middle abdominopelvic regions—the right lumbar regionand left lumbar region (also called flank regions) and theumbilical region lie below an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the ninth rib cartilages and above an imaginary line across the abdomen at the top of the hip bones. 3. Lower abdominopelvic regions—the right iliac region and left iliac region (also called inguinal regions) and the hypogastric region (also called pubic region) lie below an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the top of the hip bones.
However, negative feedback can abnormally turn into positive feedback, possibly causing a deadly shift in body function. For example, consider the role of blood pressure and the effect that severe bleeding may have on blood pressure. (describe)
A normal blood pressure is necessary to ensure that blood flows through blood vessels at an appropriate rate. When blood is lost, as occurs with severe bleeding, blood pressure drops. To compensate, the heart beats faster to try to restore normal pressure. Unfortunately, this increases the loss of blood, which causes a further drop in blood pressure and an even faster heart rate. The response is accelerated, and the amplification of blood loss caused by this positive feedback loop can rapidly turn deadly. Applying pressure to the wound can stop or slow the loss of blood and stop the positive feedback loop.
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Anterior torso below diaphragm
Abdominal region
Describe positive feedback loops
Although not common, positive feedback loops exist in the body and are sometimes also involved in normal function. Positive feedback control loops are stimulatory. Instead of opposing a change in the internal environment and causing a "return to normal," positive feedback loops temporarily amplify the change that is occurring. This type of feedback loop causes an ever-increasing rate of events to occur until something stops the process. An example of a positive feedback loop includes the events that cause rapid increases in uterine contractions before the birth of a baby (Figure 1-12).
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Forearm
Antebrachial region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Armpit
Axillary region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Wrist
Carpal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Head
Cephalic region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Neck
Cervical region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Fingers or toes
Digital region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Back
Dorsal region
Before leaving this brief introduction to physiology, we must pause to state an important principle: the ability to maintain the balance of body functions is related to age. (describe)
During childhood, homeostatic functions gradually become more and more efficient and effective. They operate with maximum efficiency and effectiveness during young adulthood. During late adulthood and old age, they gradually become less and less efficient and effective. Changes and functions occurring during the early years are calleddevelopmental processes. Changes occurring after young adulthood are called aging processes. In general, developmental processes improve efficiency of functions. On the other hand, aging processes usually diminish the efficiency of body functions.
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Face
Facial region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Thigh
Femoral region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Forehead
Frontal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Buttock
Gluteal region
Survival depends on maintaining relatively constant conditions within the body. __ is what physiologists call the relative constancy of the internal environment.
Homeostasis
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Groin
Inguinal region
Organs in body cavity: Ventral body cavities: abdominopelvic cavity: abdominal cavity: (7)
Liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, parts of large intestine
Organs in body cavity: Ventral body cavities: abdominopelvic cavity: pelvic cavity: (4)
Lower (sigmoid) colon, rectum, urinary bladder, reproductive organs
Organs in body cavity: Ventral body cavities: thoracic cavity: plaural cavities:
Lungs
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Nose
Nasal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Back of lower skull
Occipital region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Back of elbow
Olecranal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Mouth
Oral region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Eyes (2)
Oral region or opthalmic region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Palm of hand
Palmar region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Foot
Pedal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Lower portion of torso
Pelvic region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Area between anus and genitals
Perineal region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Sole of foot
Plantar region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Area behind knee
Popliteal region
Directional terms: Proximal and distal: (describe) (see Figure 1-4).
Proximal means "toward or nearest the trunk of the body, or nearest the point of origin of one of its parts." Distal means "away from or farthest from the trunk or the point of origin of a body part." For example, the elbow lies at the proximal end of the forearm, whereas the 71 hand lies at its distal end. Likewise, the distal portion of a kidney tubule is more distant from the tubule origin than is the proximal part of the kidney tubule.
__ plane—a cut or section runs along a lengthwise plane running from front to back. It divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides.
Sagittal
Organs in body cavity: Dorsal body cavities: Spinal cavity:
Spinal cord
__ and __ are terms used to describe the position of the body when it is not in the anatomical position. (describe)__
Supine; prone ; In the supine position the body is lying face upward, and in the prone position the body is lying face downward.
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Area above clavicle
Supraclavicular region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Chest
Thoracic region
AREA OR BODY REGION for EXAMPLE: Palm or sole
Volar region
Describe Frontal plane—
a frontal plane (coronal plane) is a lengthwise plane running from side to side. As you can see in Figure 1-4, a frontal plane divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior (front and back) portions.
Organs are larger and more complex than tissues. An organ is
a group of several different kinds of tissues arranged in ways that allow them to act as a unit to perform a special function. For instance, the brain shown in Figure 1-2 is an example of organization at the organ level. Unlike microscopic molecules and cells, some tissues and most organs are gross (large) structures that can be seen easily without a microscope.
Describe sagittal plane:
a sagittal cut or section runs along a lengthwise plane running from front to back. It divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides. The midsagittal plane shown in Figure 1-4 is a unique type of sagittal plane that divides the body into two equal halves.
Describe Transverse plane—
a transverse plane is a horizontal or crosswise plane. Such a plane (see Figure 1-4) divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower portions.
The upper ventral cavities include the thoracic cavity, a space that you may think of as your chest cavity. Its midportion is a subdivision of the thoracic cavity, called the mediastinum. The lateral subdivisions of the thoracic cavity are called the right and left pleural cavities. The lower ventral cavities in Figure 1-5 include an __ cavity and a __ cavity. Actually, they form only one compartment, the __ cavity, because no physical partition separates them.
abdominal; pelvic; abdominopelvic
To make it easier to locate organs in the large abdominopelvic cavity, anatomists have divided the abdominopelvic cavity into four
abdominopelvic quadrants:
Cells are considered to be the smallest "living" units of structure and function in our body. Although long recognized as the simplest units of living matter, cells are far from simple. They are extremely complex, a fact you will discover in Chapter 3. Tissues are somewhat more complex than cells. By definition a tissue is
an organization of many cells that act together to perform a common function. The cells of a tissue may be of several types, but all are working together in some way to produce the structural and functional qualities of the tissue. Cells of a tissue are often held together and surrounded by varying amounts and varieties of gluelike, nonliving intercellular substances. The varied properties of different tissues are explored in Chapter 4.
Systems are the most complex units that make up the body. A65 system is
an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs that can work together to perform complex functions for the body. All of the organs of the nervous system shown in Figure 1-2 function to monitor and regulate the overall functioning of the body.
The body portion that consists of the upper and lower extremities is the ________ portion.
appendicular
For example, with the reduced activity of the 84 body as one advances through older adulthood, many body organs and tissues decrease in size and therefore change in their functions. A degenerative process that results from disuse is called
atrophy
The body as a whole can be subdivided into two major portions or components: (describe)
axial and appendicular. The axial portion of the body consists of the head, neck, and torso or trunk. The appendicular portion consists of the upper and lower extremities (or limbs).
The two major cavities of the body are the: a. thoracic and abdominal b. abdominal and pelvic c. dorsal and ventral d. anterior and posterior
c
frontal plane also called
coronal plane
The excretion of larger than usual volumes of urine when the volume of fluid in the body is greater than normal is an example of: a. positive feedback b. negative feedback 100 c. normal fluctuation d. both b and c
d
Before leaving this brief introduction to physiology, we must pause to state an important principle: the ability to maintain the balance of body functions is related to age. During childhood, homeostatic functions gradually become more and more efficient and effective. They operate with maximum efficiency and effectiveness during young adulthood. During late adulthood and old age, they gradually become less and less efficient and effective. Changes and functions occurring during the early years are called __. Changes occurring after young adulthood are called __
developmental processes; aging processes; aging processes
A major body cavity that houses several internal organs forms during early development and subdivides into two large ventral body cavities. In a separate developmental process along the posterior aspect of the body, bony__ form that house organs of the central nervous system.
dorsal cavities
The dorsal cavities shown in Figure 1-5 include the space inside the skull that contains the brain. It is called the cranial cavity. The space inside the vertebral column (spinal column) is called the spinal cavity. It contains the spinal cord. The cranial and spinal cavities are called __ because they are located in a dorsal position in the body.
dorsal cavities
To accomplish such self-regulation, a highly complex and integrated communication control system is required. The basic type of control system in the body is called a
feedback loop.
Here, the abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into nine abdominopelvic regions defined as follows: 2. Middle abdominopelvic regions—the right lumbar regionand left lumbar region (also called __) and the umbilical region lie below an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of the ninth rib cartilages and above an imaginary line across the abdomen at the top of the hip bones.
flank regions
Here, the abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into nine abdominopelvic regions defined as follows: the right lumbar regionand left lumbar region (also called __)
flank regions
Outline summary: Balance of body functions: 1. The internal environment is a
fluid that must be kept stable by the operation of various organ systems (see Figure 1-10)
a __ plane is a lengthwise plane running from side to side. As you can see in Figure 1-4, a __ plane divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior (front and back) portions.
frontal (coronal)
Outline summary: Body regions: Axial region: contains (3)
head, neck, and torso or trunk
Discussions about the body, the way it moves, its posture, or the relationship of one area to another assume that the body as a whole is in a specific position called the anatomical position. In this reference position (Figure 1-3) the body is
in an erect or standing posture with the arms at the sides and palms turned forward. The head also points forward, as do the feet, which are aligned at the toe and set slightly apart. The broken line along the middle, or median, of the body demonstrates that the body has external bilateral symmetry (that is, the left and right sides of the body roughly mirror each other).
Here, the abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into nine abdominopelvic regions defined as follows: the right iliac region and left iliac region (also called ___)
inguinal regions
Discussions about the body, the way it moves, its posture, or the relationship of one area to another assume that the body as a whole is in a specific position called the anatomical position. In this reference position (Figure 1-3) the body is in an erect or standing posture with the arms at the sides and palms turned forward. The head also points forward, as do the feet, which are aligned at the toe and set slightly apart. The broken line along the middle, or __, of the body demonstrates that the body has external bilateral symmetry (that is, the left and right sides of the body roughly mirror each other).
median
Organs in body cavity: Ventral body cavities: thoracic cavity cavity with organs: (trachea, heart, blood vessels)
mediastinum
The upper ventral cavities include the thoracic cavity, a space that you may think of as your chest cavity. Its midportion is a subdivision of the thoracic cavity, called the
mediastinum.
The __ plane shown in Figure 1-4 is a unique type of sagittal plane that divides the body into two equal halves.
midsagittal
Besides using planes to cut the body into various sections, we sometimes use planes to describe
movement. For example, one rotates the head in a transverse plane, and one can move a finger along both a sagittal plane and along a frontal plane.
Sometimes it is helpful to make a cut along a plane that is not parallel to the planes we have already mentioned. Such diagonal cuts are made along __ planes
oblique
Here, the abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into nine abdominopelvic regions defined as follows: the hypogastric region (also called __)
pubic region
To facilitate the study of individual organs or the body as a whole, it is often useful to subdivide or "cut" it into smaller segments. This can be done with actual cuts in a dissection, or it can be done virtually, as in medical imaging in computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. To understand such a cut—also called a __—one must imagine a body being divided by an imaginary flat plate called a plane.
section
The idea of a feedback loop is borrowed from engineering. Figure 1- 11, A shows how an engineer would describe the feedback loop that maintains stability of temperature in a building. Cold winds outside a building may cause the building temperature to drop below normal. A __, in this case a thermometer, detects the change in temperature. Information from the sensor feeds back to a __ —a thermostat in this example—that compares the actual temperature with the normal temperature and responds by activating the building's furnace. The furnace is called an __ because it has an effect on the controlled condition (temperature). Because the sensor continually feeds information back to the control center, the furnace will be automatically shut off when the temperature has returned to normal.
sensor; control center ; effector
Although most terms used to describe gross body regions are well understood, misuse is common. The word leg is a good example: it refers to
the area of the lower extremity between the knee and ankle and not to the entire lower extremity.
Discussions about the body, the way it moves, its posture, or the relationship of one area to another assume that the body as a whole is in a specific position called the anatomical position. In this reference position (Figure 1-3) the body is in an erect or standing posture with the arms at the sides and palms turned forward. The head also points forward, as do the feet, which are aligned at the toe and set slightly apart. The broken line along the middle, or median, of the body demonstrates that
the body has external bilateral symmetry (that is, the left and right sides of the body roughly mirror each other).
The dorsal cavities shown in Figure 1-5 include the space inside the skull that contains the brain. It is called
the cranial cavity. The space inside the vertebral column (spinal column) is called the spinal cavity.
As a science, anatomy is often defined as the study of the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts. The word anatomy is derived from two word parts that mean "cutting apart." Anatomists learn about the structure of the human body by cutting it apart. This process, called dissection, is still the principal technique used to isolate and study the structural components or parts of the human body. Physiology, on the other hand, is the study of
the functions of living organisms and their parts. Physiologists use scientific experimentation to tease out how each activity of the body works, how it is regulated, and how it fits into the complex, coordinated operation of the whole human organism.
Here, the abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into nine abdominopelvic regions defined as follows: 2. Middle abdominopelvic regions—the right lumbar regionand left lumbar region (also called flank regions) and theumbilical region lie below an imaginary line across the abdomen at the level of__ and above an imaginary line across the abdomen (where?)__
the ninth rib cartilages; at the top of the hip bones.
The upper ventral cavities include the thoracic cavity, a space that you may think of as your chest cavity. Its midportion is a subdivision of the thoracic cavity, called the mediastinum. The lateral subdivisions of the thoracic cavity are called
the right and left pleural cavities.
The dorsal cavities shown in Figure 1-5 include the space inside the skull that contains the brain. It is called the cranial cavity. The space inside the vertebral column (spinal column) is called
the spinal cavity. It contains the spinal cord. The cranial and spinal cavities are called dorsal cavities because they are located in a dorsal position in the body.
Organs in body cavity: Ventral body cavities: thoracic cavity: mediastinum: (3)
trachea, heart, blood vessels
a __ plane is a horizontal or crosswise plane. Such a plane (see Figure 1-4) divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower portions.
transverse
Directional terms: Superior and inferior (Figure 1-4): Superior means "toward the head," and inferior means "toward the feet." Superior also means "upper" or "above," and inferior means "lower" or "below." For example, the lungs are located superior to the diaphragm, whereas the stomach is located inferior to it. (Check Figure 1-8 on p. 9 if you are not sure where these organs are.) The simple terms __ and __ are sometimes used in professional language as well.
upper; lower
A major body cavity that houses several internal organs forms during early development and subdivides into two large
ventral body cavities.
Directional terms: Anterior and posterior: (see Figure 1-4). Anterior means "front" or "in front of." Posterior means "back" or "in back of." In humans, who walk in an upright position, __ (toward the belly) can be used in place of anterior, and __ (toward the back) can be used for posterior. For example, the nose is on the anterior surface of the body, and the shoulder blades are on its posterior surface.
ventral; dosal