Anatomy & Physiology 1 Lab; Midterm Practical

Types of Vertebrae

Cervical = smallest Thoracic = medium (spinous process points down, book page 136) Lumbar = largest

Appendicular Skeleton

Composed of 126 bones 64 bones in the pectoral girdle and upper limbs 62 in the pelvic girdle and lower limbs

Cutaneous Glands

Composed of epithelial cells. Endocrine glands - Lose their connection to the surface as they develop. Secrete hormones. Exocrine glands - retain their ducts.

Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs

Function Attachment of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Attachment points for many trunk and neck muscles. Clavicle -Sternal end attaches to sternal manubrium -Acromial end articulates with scapula Holds arm away from the top of the thorax

Simple Columnar Epithilium

Function - Absorption. Secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances. Ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary actions Location - Nonciliated type line digestive tract. Ciliated type lines small bronchi, uterine tubes.

Simple Squamous Epithilium

Function - Allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important. Secretes lubricating substances in serosae. Location - Air sacs of lungs, kidney glomeruli, lining of heart, blood vessels

Dense Elastic Tissue

Function - Allows recoil of tissue following stretching. Maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries. Aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration. Location - Walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments around vertebral column, within walls of bronchial tubes.

Osseous Tissue

Function - Bones provide supports and protect; provides levers for muscle to act on; stores calcium and other minerals; bones marrow is site for blood cell formation. Location - Bones

Elastic Cartilidge

Function - Maintains shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility. Location - Supports external ear, epiglottis.

Cardiac Mucle Tissue

Function - Propels blood in circulation; Involuntary control. Location - Walls of heart

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Function - Propels substances or a baby along internal passageways Location - Walls of hollow organs

Stratified Columnar Epithilium

Function - Protection, Secretion. Location - Rare in the body, small amounts in male urethra and large ducts of some glands.

Stratified Cuboidal Epithilium

Function - Protection. Location - Largest ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.

Stratified Squamous Epithilium

Function - Protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion. Location - Nonkeratenized type forms moist linings of esophagus, mouth, and vagina. Keratenized type forms the epidermis of the skin (a dry membrane).

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithilium

Function - Secretes substances, particularly mucus by ciliary action. Location - Nonciliated type in males sperm carrying ducts. Ciliated type lines trachea and most of respiratory tract.

Simple Cuboidal Epithilium

Function - Secretion and absorption. Location - Kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface.

Transitional Epithilium

Function - Stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine. Location - Lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of urethra.

Hyaline Cartilidge

Function - Supports and reinforces; Serves as resilient cushion; resists compressive stress Location - Forms most of embryonic skeleton; covers ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of ribs; cartilages of nose, trachea, and larynx.

Fibrocartilidge

Function - Tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock. Location - Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joint.

Blood Tissue

Function - Transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, waste. Location - contained w/i blood vessels.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Function - Voluntary movement; locomotion. Location - In skeletal muscles attaches to bones and occasionally skin

Functions of Integumentary System

Functions: Protection Water loss regulation Heat loss regulation Excretory system Metabolic reactions Vitamin D synthesis Site for cutaneous sense organs

Mandible and Maxillae

Mandible -Mandibular ramus -Mandibular condyle -Coronoid process -Mental foramen Maxillae -Infraorbital foramen

Temporomandibular joint

Mandibular fossa and articular capsule

Parts of Nail 2 (Nail Bed, Nail Matrix, Lunele)

Nail bed - Extension of the stratum basale beneath the nail. Nail matrix - thickened proximal part of the nail bed containing germinal cells responsible for nail growth. Nail cells become heavily keratinized and die. Lunule (white crescent) - proximal region of the thickened nail matrix.

Head, Facet, Condyle, Ramus, Antrum and Sinus

Processes that help to form joints: Head - Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck. Facet - Smooth, nearly flat articular surface. Condyle - Rounded articular projection. Ramus - Arm-like bar of a bone. Cavities: Antrum - Chamber within a bone. Sinus - Space/cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane. PICS ON SLIDES CHAPTER 8

Tibia and Fibula

Tibia - thicker & medial bone Fibula - thinner & lateral bone

Knee Joint

Tibiofemoral joint Femopatellar joint Patella - kneecap Meniscus

Sternum and Ribs

True Ribs -Top 7 False Ribs -8-12 -10-12 = floating ribs Sternum -Contains xiphoid process at bottom

Characteristics of the Dermis

Areolar & Dense Irregular connective tissue Collagen and elastic fibers Variety of cell types Vascularized Lymph vessels and nerve supply

Hip Joint

Ball and socket joint Acetabular labrum - socket that connects to head of femur

Function of Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Langerhans Cells, and Merkel Cells

1. Keratinocytes -Produce keratin fibrils. Keratin - fibrous protein that gives epidermis its durability and protective capabilities. 2. Melanocytes - Produce melanin pigment. Melanin production increases when skin is exposed to sunlight *Freckle - concentration on melanin in one spot. 3. Langerhans cells - play a role in immunity. 4. Merkel cells - in conjunction with sensory nerve endings, form Merkel discs at epidermal dermal junction.

Long bones, Short bones, Flat bones, Irregular bones, Sesamoid bones, & Wormian Bones

1. Long bones - In general consists of a shaft with heads at either end. Composed predominantly of compact bone. Ex: femur and phalanges 2. Short bones - Cube shaped. Contain more spongy bone than compact bone. Ex: tarsals and carpals 3. Flat bones - Thin, with two layers of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone in between them. Many are curved. Ex: bones of the skull 4. Irregular bones - Bones that do not fall into one of the preceding categories. Ex: vertebrae 5. Sesamoid bones - Special types of short bones formed in tendons. Ex: patella 6. Wormian (Sutural) bones - Tiny bones between cranial bones.

Types of Synovial Joints

1. Plane - Nonaxial. Movement = gliding. (eg. intercarpal joints) 2. Hinge - Uniaxial. Movement = Flexion and extension. (eg. elbow) 3. Pivot - Uniaxial. Movement = Rotation. 4. Condylar - Biaxial. Movement = Flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction. (eg. knuckle and radiocarpal joints) 5. Saddle - Biaxial. Movement = Flexion, extension, adduction and abduction. (eg. Carpometacarpal joint of thumb). 6. Ball and Socket - Multiaxial. Movement = Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation. (eg. hip, shoulder)

Stratum Basale

1. Stratum basale (basal layer) - Lowest layer. Single row of cells immediately adjacent to the dermis. Cells constantly undergo mitotic division to produce millions of new cells.

Reticular Layer

2. Reticular Layer - deepest skin layer, made of dense irregular connective tissue, vascularized, contains: Sudoriferous (Sweat) glands Sebaceous (Oil) glands Pacinian corpuscles - pressure receptors

Stratum Spinosum

2. Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) - Several layers superficial to the basal layer. Cells undergo rapid cell division. As the daughter cells are pushed away toward the top layers, they gradually die

Stratum Lucidum

4. Stratum lucidum (clear layer) - Flattened dead keratinocytes with indistinct boundaries. Not present in regions of thin skin.

Sweat Glands (Eccrine vs Apocrine)

2. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands - widely distributed all over the skin. Pores - epithelial openings. Eccrine glands - produce clear perspiration consisting primarily of water, salts, and urea. Under control of the nervous system, part of the bodies heat regulating apparatus. Apocrine glands - axillary and genital areas. Secrete milky protein and fat-rich substance, also water, salts and urea, (nutrient source for microorganisms found on the skin).

Stratum Granulosum

3. Stratum granulosum (granular layer) - thin layer, cells contain abundance of granules.

Vertebral Column

33 vertebrae arranged in 5 regions -7 cervical -12 thoracic -5 lumbar -5 sacral (fused to form the sacrum) -4 coccygeal (fused to form the coccyx) *Are separated by intervertebral discs

Stratum Corneum

5. Stratum corneum (horny layer) - outermost 20-30 layers of keratinized dead cells. These cells constantly rubbing of and are being replaces by division of deeper cells.

Types of Movement

Abductor - moves a bone away from the midline of the body. Adductor - moves a bone toward the midline of the body. Depressor - results in downward movement. Dorsiflexor - points the toes upward, flexing the foot at the ankle. Evertor - turns the sole of the foot outward. Extensor - increases the angle of a joint. Flexor - decrease the angle of a joint. Invertor - turns the sole of the foot inward. Levator - results in upward movement. Plantar flexor - points the toes downward, extending foot at the ankle. Pronator - turns the palm downward Rotator - moves a bone around its longitudinal axis. Sphincter - decreases the size of an opening. Supinator - turns the palm upward.

Characteristics of Epidermis

Avascular Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium Four distinct cell types Four/five distinct layers

Parts of Nail (Body, Free Edge, Root, Nail Folds, Eponychium)

Body - visible attached portion. Free Edge - portion of the nail that grows out of the body. Root - Part that is imbedded in skin and adheres to the epithelial nail bed. Nail folds - skin folds that overlap the borders of the nail. Eponychium (cuticle) - thick proximal nail fold.

Parts of Neurons

Cell body Dendrites Receptive regions Axons Nerve impulse generators and transmitters

Sebaceous Glands

Cutaneous Gland Sebaceous (oil) glands - found all over the skin, except for palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Ducts usually empty into the hair follicle, or directly on the skin. Sebum - mixture of oil and fragmented cells, that act as a lubricant to keep skin soft and moist, and hair from becoming brittle. Blackheads - accumulation of dried sebum, bacteria, and melanin in the duct. Acne - active inflammation of sebaceous glands.

Dense Irregular Tissue

Dense connective tissue Function - Able to withstand tension exerted in many direction; Provides structural strength. Location - Fibrous capsules of organs and joints, dermis of skin.

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Dense connective tissue Function - Attaches muscles to bones or to other muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction. Location - Tendons, most ligaments

Meatus, Fossa, Groove, Fissure, and Foramen

Depressions and openings that allow blood vessels and nerves to pass: Meatus - Canal-like passageway. Fossa - Shallow, basin-like depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface. Groove - Furrow. Fissure - Narrow, slit-like opening. Foramen - Round or oval opening through a bone. PICS ON SLIDES CHAPTER 8

Long Bone Anatomy (Diaphysis, Periosteum, Volkmann's Canals, Medullary Cavity, Yellow Marrow, Red Marrow)

Diaphysis - Shaft. Periosteum - Fibrous membrane covering. Perforating (Volkmann's) Canals - Run into compact bone and marrow cavity from the periosteum, at the right angles of the shaft. Complete the communication pathway between the bone interior and its external surface. Medullary cavity - Central cavity of the shaft. Yellow marrow - Adipose tissue. Red marrow - Where red blood cells are formed. In adult, occupies spaces b/w trabeculae of spongy bone, to the interior of the epiphyses.

Mesenchyme

Embryonic Tissue Function - Give rise to all other connective tissue types. Location - Embryo

Parts of Hair (Medulla, Hair Shaft, Cortex, Cuticle, Hair Follicle)

Enclosed in hair follicles, found all over entire body surface, except for thick-skinned areas. Medulla - Central region. Hair shaft - Projected from the scalp surfaces. Visible above the skin. Dead keratinized cells. Cortex - Surrounds medulla. Cuticle - Surrounds medulla and cortex. Split ends - cuticle abrasion. Hair follicle - Epidermal and dermal cells. Contains inner epithelial root sheath. Enclosed by a thickened basement membrane, the glassy membrane, and a connective tissue root sheath.

Long Bones Anatomy 2 (Endosteum, Epiphysis, Articular Cartilage, Epiphyseal Plaste, Epiphyseal Lines)

Endosteum - Lines inside of the shaft, trabeculae of spongy bone, and canals of compact bone. Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Epiphysis - The end of long bone. Thin layer of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone in between. Articular cartilage - Covers epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum. Epiphyseal plate - Thin area of hyaline cartilage that provides for longitudinal growth of the bone during youth. Epiphyseal lines - Remnants of the epiphyseal plate, after the bone has stopped growing.

Joint Classification by Connective Tissue

Fibrous - Adjoining bones connected by dense regular connective tissue; No joint cavity. ( Synarthroses and Amphiarthroses) Cartilaginous - Adjoining bones united by cartilage; No joint cavity. (Synarthroses and Amphiarthroses) Synovial - Adjoining bones covered in articular cartilage, separated by a joint cavity and enclosed in an articular capsule lined with synovial membrane. (Diathroses)

Shoulder Joint

Glenohumeral Joint Glenoid labrum - glenoid is shallow socket, labrum is ring of cartilage. Rotator cuff - Muscles and tendons hold the shoulder in place

Papillary Layer

Layer of the dermis Papillary Layer- superficial dermal region, made of Areolar CT, capillary networks abundant, contains: Dermal papillae - uneven with fingerlike projections **Finger prints - unique pattern of epidermal regions that remain unchanged throughout life. Free nerve endings - pain receptors Meissner's corpuscles - touch receptors

Reticular Tissue

Loose connective Tissue Function - Fibers form a soft internal skeleton that supports other cell types including WBC Location - Lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen

Adipose Tissue

Loose connective tissue Function - Provides reserve fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs. Location - Under skin, around kidneys and eyeballs, within abdomen and in breasts

Areolar Tissue

Loose connective tissue Function - Wraps and cushion organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid. Location - Widely distributed under epithelia, packages organs, surrounds capillaries.

Nervous Tissue

Neurons: specialized to receive stimuli and conduct wave excitation/impulses to all parts of the body. cell body: contains the nuclei and most of the organelles cytoplasmic projections: dendrites & axon Neuroglia/Glial cells: support, protect and bind neurons.

Classification of Synovial Joints by Number of Axes

Nonaxial - no axes. eg. plane joint. eg. intercarpal joints. Uniaxial - 1 axis. eg. Hinge and Pivot Joints. eg. Elbow and interphalangial joints. Biaxial - 2 axes. eg. Condylar and Saddle Joints. eg. Knuckle and carpometacarpal joint of thumb. Multiaxial - Many axes; eg. ball and socket joints. eg. shoulder and hip.

Parts of Skull

Occipital Bone Foramen magnum Occipital condyles Sphenoid Bone Zygomatic bone Nasal Bone Frontal Bone Supraorbital foramen Parietal Bone Sagittal suture Coronal suture Temporal Bone Zygomatic process Mandibular fossa External auditory meatus Styloid process Mastoid region Mastoid Process Petrous region

Compact Bone Microscopic Anatomy (Osteon, Central canal, Osteocytes, Lacunae, Lamella, and Canaliculi)

Osteon (haversian system) - central canal and all the concentric lamellae Central canal (haversian canal) - runs parallel to long axis of the bone, carries blood-, nerves- and lymph vessels Osteocytes - mature bone cells, spider-like appearance Lacunae- chambers which houses osteocytes Lamella- concentric circles, surrounding canal, houses lacuna and osteocytes Canaliculi - tiny canals radiating outward from the central canal to the lacunae of the first lamella and then from lamella to lamella, connects to nutrient supply

Tuberosity, Crest, Line, Tubercle Epicondyle, Spine, and Process

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: Tuberosity - Large rounded projection that may be roughened. Crest - Narrow, usually prominent, ridge of bone. Trochanter - Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process. Line - Narrow ridge of bone that is less prominent than a crest. Tubercle - Small rounded process. Epicondyle - Raised area on or above a condyle. Spine - Sharp, slender, often pointed projection. Process - Prominence or projection. PICS ON SLIDES CHAPTER 8

Cartilages of the Skeleton

Review: 3 Types of Cartilage are: Hyaline Cartilage, Elastic Cartilage, and Fibrocartilage Cartilages of the Skeleton: Articular Cartilages Costal Cartilages Laryngeal Cartilages Tracheal & Bronchial Cartilages Nasal Cartilages Intervertebral Discs External Ear Cartilage

Parts of Hair 2 (Root, Hair Bulb, Papilla, Arrector pili)

Root - Portion of the hair enclosed in the follicle. Hair bulb - Collection of well-nourished germinal epithelial cells at the basal end of the follicle. Papilla - Dermal tissue protrusion into the hair bulb provides nutrition to the growing hair. Arrector pili muscle - Small bands of smooth muscle connect each hair follicle to the papillary layer of the dermis.

Scapula

Scapula - has no directs attachment to the axial skeleton but is loosely held in place by the trunk muscles. -Spine - deltoid muscle attachment -Acromion process - connects with the clavicle -Coracoid process - serves as attachment point for some of the upper limb muscles -Glenoid cavity - a shallow socket that receives the head of the humerus

Skeleton (Axial vs Appendicular) (Functions)

Skeleton - body framework, composed of bone and cartilage. Bones are connected at joints - articulations. *206 bones in the adult skeleton. Axial Skeleton - skull, vertebral column, ribs sternum Appendicular Skeleton - bones of appendages & girdles Functions: Support and protection as internal framework. Provides system of levers with which the skeletal muscles work to move the body. Bones store lipids and minerals (calcium). Site for hematopoiesis (blood cell formation).

Muscle Tissue info

Specialized to contract. Cells tend to be elongated, providing a long axis for contraction. Three Basic types: Skeletal-striations, voluntary Cardiac-striations, involuntary control, intercalated discs Smooth-involuntary control

Joint Disorders

Sprain - Ligaments reinforcing a joint are damaged by overstretching or are torn away from the bony attachment. Heal slowly and are painful. Dislocation - Occur when bones are forced out of their normal position in the joint cavity. Normally accompanied by torn or stressed ligaments and inflammation.

Joint Classification by Amount of Movement

Synarthroses - Immovable (eg. sutures in skull, tooth in socket) Amphiarthroses - Slightly Movable (eg. Intervertebral discs, between tibia and fibula) Diarthroses - Freely Movable (eg. plane joint, hinge joint, ball and socket)

The Foot

Tarsal bones (7) Metatarsals (5) Phalanges (14) Body weight is concentrated on two largest tarsals Calcaneus - heel bone Talus - between tibia & calcaneus

Foot Arches

The Arches The foot has two important functions: Weight bearing capabilities Propulsion ability These functions require a high degree of stability and flexibility. The arches of the foot are maintained by the shapes of the bones as well as by ligaments and tendons. The foot has three arches; Medial Longitudinal Arch is the highest and most important of the three arches. It is composed of the calcaneus, talus, navicular bone, cuneiforms, and the first three metatarsals. Lateral Longitudinal Arch is lower and flatter than the medial arch. It is composed of the calcaneus, cuboid, and the fourth and fifth metatarsals. Transverse arch is composed of the cuneiforms, the cuboid, and the five metatarsal bases.

The Arm

The Arm Humerus - long bone Head - fits into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula Greater & Lesser Tubercles - attachment for biceps muscles

The Forearm

The Forearm Radius - lateral bone of the forearm Ulna - medial bone of the forearm Radial notch - articulates with the head of the radius.

The Manus/Hand

The Hand Carpus - 8 carpal bones. Metacarpals - Numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb. Phalanges - Each finger contains 3 phalanges, except for the thumb which has only 2.

Pelvic Girdle

The Pelvic Girdle Formed by two coxal bones fused together. Bones are heavy and massive, and attach securely to the axial skeleton. The sockets for the heads of the femurs are deep and heavily reinforced by ligaments to ensure a stable, strong attachment. The ability to bear weight is more important than mobility and flexibility. Combined weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis. Female has wider opening/pubic arch than male The Coxal bone: 3 fused bones. Ilium - large flaring bone. Ischium - "sit-down" bone. Pubis - anterior portion of the coxal bone. *All three bones fuse at the deep hemispherical socket - acetabulum, which receives the head of the femur.

The Thigh

The Thigh Femur - Heaviest, strongest bone in the body. Head - Articulates with the hip bone at the acetabulum. Greater & Lesser Trochanters - Sites for muscle attachment. Patella AKA KNEE CAP- Enclosed in the tendon of the quadriceps. Guards the knee joint and improves the leverage of the thigh muscles acting across the knee joints.

Compact vs Spongy Bone

Two basic kinds of osseous tissue: Compact bone - smooth and homogeneous. Spongy bone - composed of small trabeculae (bars) of bone and lots of open space.

Skin Layers

Two distinct regions firmly connected together: 1. Epidermis - epithelium. 2. Dermis - underlying connective tissue. *Hypodermis - not considered part of the skin because its adipose tissue