Anatomy and physiology

Dense connective tissue

-Closely arranged fibres, fewer cells -more fibres, less cells 1)Dense irregular connective tissue -collagen fiber bundles arranged randommly -seen in dermis of skin 2)Dense regular connective tissue - collagen fiber bundle arranged in parallel -seen in ligaments and tendons

Endosteum

-Covers all internal cavities -has a single layer of osteoprogenitor cells -thinner than periosteum

Osteoclast

-Involved in bone resorption -Large branched motile cells -have 5-50 nuclei

Recticular fibres

-a type of collagen fibre -form network of branching and anastomose with each other -do not run in bundles

Mast cells

-abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply connective tissue -Produce histame to dilate small blood vessels as inflammatory response -can bind, ingest and kill bacteria

Adipose connective tissue

-aggregation of fat cells

Macrophages

-belongs to mononuclear phagocytic system -phagocytose foreign substances and damaged tissue

Bone Matrix

-calcium and phosphorus are abundant -amorphous calcium phosphate are found

Nervous tissue

-carries information from one part of the body to another part through nerve impulses

connective tissue

-connects, supports and protects the body organ while distributing blood vessels to other tissue

Loose CT

-consists of loosely arranged fibres and dispersed cells -less fibre but more cells -deep to the skin

Muscular tissue

-contracts and relaxed to make body movements and generate heat

Epithelial tissue

-covers the body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavity and form glands

Periosteum

-covers the external surface of bone -contains outer layer of collagen fibers.

Non-membranous organelles

-cytoskeleton -micro villi -cilia -ribosome -centrioles

Elastic fibers

-elastic becuz of elastin -stability becuz of microfibrils

Osteocytes

-flat almond shape cells -lie between lamellae -one lacuna has one osteocytes -radiating canaliculi can be seen

Plasma cells

-form B lymphocyte -secrete antibodies, proteins and attack foreigners -abundant in salivary glands, lymph nodes

Osteoblast

-forms bone -derived from osteoprogenitor cells -synthesize organic components of bone matrix -on the surface of bone tissue -Bone apposition - become osteocytes by surrounded with newly formed matrix (osteoid) -matrix is calcified by calcium salts

Reticular connective tissue

-forms internal stroma of soft organs -lymph nodes

Matrix

-has homogenous ground substance for connective tissue fibres to embed

Collagen fibres

-inelastic and has great tensile strength -run in bundles

Fibroblast

-large and flat cells with branching -present in all CT -moving through and secretes fibres and components of ground substance of extracellular matrix

Wandering/ Free cells

-lymphocytes -basophils -neutrophils -monocytes -plasma cells

Stratified Epithelia

-protect the underlying structure from mechanical wear and tear 1)Stratified squamous epithelium -composed of layers of cells with different shapes(representing new cells and mature cells) -columnar shape at the deepest layers, flattened on the upper layers, shed away. 2)Non-keratinised Stra Epi -protect drying from wet surfaces 3) Keratinised Stra Epi -forms tough and waterproof protective layer that prevents drying of the underlying live cells(skin) 4)Transitional Epithelium -pear-shaped -found in the lining of urinary bladder -allows stretching 5)Stratifies Cuboidal Epi -for protected, limited secretion and absorption -found on ducts of adult's sweat glands and part of male urethra 6)Stra Columnar Epi -protection and secretion -found on large excretory ducts of glands, small areas in anal mucous membrane

Hyaline cartilgae

-provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, flexibiility and support -weakest type of cartilage (can be fractured)

Elastic cartilage

-provides strength and elasticity -maintain the shape of structure

Endocrine Glands

-secretes hormones directlly into the bloodstream without a duct -regulate metabolic and physiological activities to maintain homeostasis by using hormones -EX:Adrenal glands, testes

Exocrine glands

-secretes products into ducts that releases onto surface of covering and lining epithelium -Ex: Skin -Produces sweat (lowering temperature), oil, saliva

Glandular epithelium

-secretion 1)Endocrine 2)Exocrine glands

Fixed cells

-stable Ex, fibroblast, mast cells, adipose cells and macrophages, pericytes

Adipose

-store triglycerides(fats) -found in the deep skin and organs like heart and kidney

Fibrocartilage

-support, joining structures together -strongest cartilage due to strength and rigidity

Bipolar neuron

1) 1main dendrite and one axon

Cells in connective tissues

1) Fixed cells 2)Wandering/free cells

Neuron

1) Functional unit 2) 3 distinct part- cell body, axon and dendrites

Types of cartilage

1) Hyaline cartilage 2) Fibrocartilage 3)Elastic fibrocartilage

Smooth muscle/visceral muscle

1) Lines inside of blood vessels and organs 2)Weakest muscle 3)helps in moving food along the digestive tract and maintaining blood circulation 4) involuntarily. 5)spindle shaped with one central nucleus 6)No distinct sarcolema

Interneuron

1) Locates completely in CNS 2)Establishes neuronal circuits between sensory and motor neurons and other interneurons

Mature connective tissue

1) Loose connective tissue 2) Dense connective tissue 3)Cartilage 4) Bone tissue 5) Liquid connective tissue

Sensory (afferent) neuron

1) Receives sensory output at dendrites and conduct impulses 2) locates in periphery of the body

Connective tissue

1) Structural support -cartilage and ligaments, holding the bones, tendons that attach muscle to bones 2)Compartmentalization -divides structure into compartments 3)meium for exchange -waste, nutrients and oxygen between blood and body cells 4)Defence and protection -phagocytic cells, engulf and produce antibodies against antigens 5)storage of fat

2 types of arrangement of collagen in osteoid

1) Woven (non0lamellar) bone -CF is deposited in irregular bundles then ossified 2)Lamellar bone -CF organised into characteristic lamellae found in compact and cancellous then ossified. -occurs when cartilage models are replaced by bone and in healing fractures

vertebral column -26

1) cervical vertebrae - 7 2) Thoracic vertebrae -12 3)Lumbar vertebrae -5 4)sacrum 5)coccyx

Cell body

1) contains nucleus(large and centrally located) and cytoplasm 2) abundant of RER

inside the cytoplasm

1) cytosol/ intracellular fluid -dissolved nutrients, ion, soluble and insoluble proteins and waste products 2)organelles -structures which perform specific functions

skeletal muscle

1) only muscle that can be consciously controlled 2)attached to bones, contacting of the muscles causes movement of bones 3)Has a large number of muscle fibres. 4)Every muscle fiber is embedded in connective tissue -arranged in bundle and the bundle is enclosed in a sheath (perimysium) 5) multinucleated

Unipolar neuron

1) only one process 2) dendrites and 1 axon fused together to form a continuous process that emerges from the cell body 3) dendrites act as sensory receptors

Cardiac muscle

1) pumps blood around the body. 2) stimulates its own contraction for heartbeat 3)signals from the NSystem control the rate of contraction 4) Strong and involuntarily 5)cross-stripes characteristic 6) a nucleus and 1/more branches 7)cells do not need to be stimulated individually, wave contraction spreads from cell to cell across the intercalated discs

Neuroglial cells

1)Astrocytes 2)Oligodendrocytes 3)Microglia 4)Ependymal cells

Nervous system

1)Central NS (brain and spinal cord) 2)Peripheral NS (all nervous tissue outside of CNS) -Somatic NS (Control voluntary actions) -Autonomic NS (controls involuntary actions) \\sympathetic NS (fight/flight) \\Parasympathetic nervous system (feed/breed)

Fibres of cartilage

1)Collagen 2)elastic

Most bone contain

1)Compact bone (composed of osteons) 2)Cancellous/spongy bone(composed of a sponge like network of trabeculae) 1)ends of long bone have spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone 2)Short bones: core of spongy bone completely surrounded by compact bone 3)Flat bone: 2 plates of compact bone separated by layer of spongy bone

Chromatin (Types)

1)Euchromatin 2)Heterochromatin

Function of bone

1)Gives a rigid framework for the body(skeletal system) 2)acts as anchorage for muscles 3)protect major viscera 4)stores calcium, phosphate and other ions 5)bone marrow produced blood cells

Lysosome

1)Helps in the defence 2)Cleans up and recycle the materials 3)Primary and secondary lysosomes

Mithochondria

1)Inner and outer membrane 2)numerous folds called cristae to increase the TSA/V of the matrix 3)Power house - produce ATP 4)Aerobic metabolism, oxygen is required 5)contains DNA in a large quantity(Nuclear DNA larger in size)

GA

1)Modify and realease enzyme and hormones through exocytosis 2)transport vesicles, secretory vesicles and lysosome 3)renews and modifies the cell membrane 4)forms special enzymes for use in cytosol

Nucleus(Control center)

1)Nuclear membrane -double layered in between is perinuclear space -connected to RER 2)Nuclear pores -chemical communication between cytosol -movement of ions and smol molecules -DNA and molecules are too big to pass through 3)Nucleoplasm -fluid content -Matrix: network of filament that provides support -has ions, enzymes, RNA,DNA nucleotides, RNA and DNA 4)Nucleolus -Synthesize RNA -Contains proteins

Motor (efferent) neuron

1)Originate in CNS 2)Conducts impulses to muscles and glands

Development of long bones

1)Ossification begins at a small aresas of ostrogenic cells/center of ossification in the cartilage model 2)followed by 8 weeks of gestation for the development of a bone collar 3)blood supply develops and the bone tissue replaces cartilage as osteoblasts and secrete osteoid. 4) around birth, epiphyses developing the secondary center of ossification 5) Medullary canal forms when osteoclasts break down the central bone tissue in the middle of the shaft 6)After birth, the bone grows in llength by ossification, cartilages become completely ossified when the growth is complete

bone tissue's cells

1)Osteoprogenitor cells 2)Osteoblasts 3)Osteocytes 4)Osteoclasts

Axon

1)Single, long elaborations 2)transmitter

Dendrites

1)abundant of mitochondria 2)Receiver

Cartilage

1)avascular(no blood vessels) 2)composed by chondrocytes, chondroblasts and highly specialized extracellular matrix which is solid, firm and flexible 4)covered by perichondrium(protective membrane) 5)has elastic and collagen fibre

Pseudo unipolar

1)axon splits into 2 branches

Ossification - Bone Formation Development of bone tissue (osteogenesis)

1)begin before brith 2)long, short and irregular bones develop from rods of cartilage and cartiilage models 3) flat bone develop from membrane models and sesamoid bones from tendon models 2 Process of bone development 1) Secretion by osteoblasts of osteoid, 2)Calcification of osteoid.

Function of muscles

1)body locomotion 2)Maintain posture 3)MT temperature 4)MT circulation, respiration, digestion 5)MT urination, childbirth, vision and organ protection

Neuromuscular junction

1)formed between a neuron and a skeletal muscle cell

bone's matrix

1)ground substance -proteoglycans -glycoproteins 2)fibres -collagen type 1

membrane protein

1)integral proteins(trans membrane proteins) 2)Peripheral proteins(inner and outer surface) 3)impermeable, permeable, selectively permeable 4)Active and passive permeability (Energy requirement) 5)Transport - diffusion, filtration, vesicular transport, carrier-mediated transport

Astrocytes

1)main supporting tissue of CNS 2)star shape with branching 3)abundant in blood vessels

membrane characteristic

1)phospholipid 2)bilayer 3)hydrophobic

Cell membrane/plasma membrane(Function)

1)physical barrier 2)control the over exchange of materials 3)sensitive to changes 4)maintain the structure of cell 5) composed of lipids, protein and carbohydrates

Ependymal cells

1)produce, monitor and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid 2)form blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier

Epithelial tissue(function, characteristic)

1)protection the underlying struction 2)secretion 3)absorption -closelypacked and the matrix is minimal a)simple - single llayer b)stratified - several layers

Ground substance

1)proteogycans- complex molecule that contains protein and carbohydrates 2)forms a meshwork filled with water, dissolved salts

Multipolar neuron

1)several dendrites and 1 axon 2) brain and spinal cord

types of muscle

1)skeletal(found attached with bonyskeleton) 2)Smooth(internal organ and blood vessels 3)Cardiac- in heard

Microglial cells

1)small cells with slender processes that give off numerous spine projections

Oligodendrocytes

1)smaller version of astrocytes due to few processes 2) form myelin sheaths on the axons inside CNS

Bone

1)specialized form of connective tissue 2) higly vascularized and mineralized 3) composed of bone matrix

types of simple epithelium

1)squamous epithelium -single layer of flattened cells -closely packed, thin and smooth -diffusion takes place ex: heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels (known as endothelium), alveoli 2) Cuboidal epithelium -cube shaped cells lying on the basement membrane -forms tubules in kidney and some glands -involves in secretion, absorption and excretion 3)Columnar epithelium -rectangular shaped on a basement membrane -forms the lining of the alimentary tract -have mixture of cells to absorb the nutrients and secrete mucus(secreted by goblet cells) 4) Ciliated epithelium -colummar cells that has cilia -propels the contents of the tubes and line in one direction to create wave like movement -found on the lining of uterus tubes and respiratory passages

muscle tone

1)state of partial contraction of muscles 2)Achieved by the contraction of a few muscle fibres at a timed 3)Skeletal muscle tone is essential for MTnance of posture of sitting and standing. 4)spinal reflexes causes the muscle to contract, this is stimulated by muscle stretching

Fibres

1. collagen 2.Elastic 3. Reticular

Muscle cells

=muscle fibres as it has much longer width

bands of skeletal muscle structure

A- dark band (contain myosin and actin filaments) I- Light band( contain actin filaments M-Bisecting myosin filaments Z band - bisecting actin filaments

SER

No ribosomes synthesis phospholipids, cholesterol, sex hormones stores and syntheses triglycerides,Ca and glycogen

2 primary cells type

Prokaryotic 5 eukaryotic

2 Types of nitrogen that contains the bases comprise the chemical structure of DNA

Purines- adenine and guanine Pyrimidines- thymine and cytosine

membranous organelles

RER,SER GA lysosomes mitochondria

RER

Ribosomes synthesis of protein, modification of protein and transport.

cytoplasm

between the cell membrane and nuclear membrane

Sacrolemma

cell membrane of muscle cell

Eukaryotic cells

cells with nucleus

Prokaryotic cells

cells without true nucleus smaller than eukaryotic (bacteria)

Sacroplasm

cytoplasm of muscle cells

Simple epithelium

enchances the absorptive and secretory processes

osteoprogenitor cells

has the potential to differentiate into osteoblasts

large proteoglycan molecules

tightly bind along with water to form a firm gel to give cartilage it's consistency