Anatomy and Physiology. Organization of the Human Body.

List three components of a feedback loop.

1. Receptor. 2. Control center. 3. Effector.

Explain anatomical position.

Anatomical position is body being in a specific stance: upright, erect, facing the observer, head level and eyes facing forward, arms at sides with palms turned forward.

In restoring homeostasis what system corrects repidly and what system corrects usually more slowly?

Nervous system - rapidly. Endocrine system - more slowly.

Latin name of body region for temple

temporal

Interstitial fluid

the fluid surrounding cells in the body. Constitutes a large part of the internal environment.

Latin name of body region for navel

umbilical

Latin name of body region for cheek

buccal

Physiology

science of body functions, how the parts work.

Anatomy

science of structure and relationships between structures

Explain metabolism.

Metabolism - the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body. This includes the breakdown of large complex molecules into smaller, simples ones. For example, food proteins are split into amino acids, then amino acids are building blocks for new proteins that make up muscles and bones.

Explain movement.

Movement - motion of the whole dy, individual organs, single cells and organelles inside the cells. Examples: coordinated action of muscles in movement; gallbladder squirts bile in gi tract when you eat to help digest fats; white blood cells move from blood to injured tissue to help clean up and repair; cell components inside the cells move around to carry out their functions.

Explain responsiveness.

Responsiveness - the body's ability to detect and respond to changes in its internal (inside the body) and external (outside the body) environment. Different cells detect different changes and respond in specific ways: nerve cells generate electric signals (impulses), muscle cells contract in response, which generates force to move body parts.

Latin name of body region for hip

coxal

Latin name of body region for skull

cranial

Latin name of body region for face

facial

Latin name of body region for forehead

frontal

Latin name of body region for nose

nasal

What are 6 levels of body organization?

1. Chemical level. Atoms, the smallest units of matter and molecules, two or more atoms joined together. 2. Cellular level. A combination of molecules. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism. Cells are made of organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes etc. 3. Tissue level. Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function. 4. Organ level. Organs are 2 or more different kinds of tissues put together in often a recognizable shape and have specific functions. 5. System level. System is related organs with a common function. 6. Organismal. Systems put together to make an organism.

Define the important life processes in humans (6):

1. Metabolism - the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body. This includes the breakdown of large complex molecules into smaller, simples ones. For example, food proteins are split into amino acids, then amino acids are building blocks for new proteins that make up muscles and bones. 2. Responsiveness - the body's ability to detect and respond to changes in its internal (inside the body) and external (outside the body) environment. Different cells detect different changes and respond in specific ways: nerve cells generate electric signals (impulses), muscle cells contract in response, which generates force to move body parts. 3. Movement - motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells and organelles inside the cells. Examples: coordinated action of muscles in movement; gallbladder squirts bile in gi tract when you eat to help digest fats; white blood cells move from blood to injured tissue to help clean up and repair; cell components inside the cells move around to carry out their functions. 4. Growth - increase in body size. May be due to: 1. increase in the size of existing cells. 2. increase in the number of cells. 3. the amount of material surrounding the cells. 5. Differentiation - a process when unspecialized cells become specialized cells. Specialized cells differ ins structure and function from the unspecialized cells they originate from. Example: unspecialized blood cells in bone marrow become specialized cells; a single fertilized egg grows into an individual different and similar from parents. 6. Reproduction - 1. the formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement. 2. or the production of a new individual.

List 6 main life processes.

1. Metabolism. 2. Responsiveness. 3. Movement. 4. Growth. 5. Differentiation. 6. Reproduction.

List glands in the endocrine system.

1. Pineal gland. 2. Hypothalamus Pituitary gland. 3. Thyroid gland. 4. Parathyroid glands. 5. Adrenal gland. 6. Pancreas. 7. Testis. 8. Ovary.

Explain receptor.

A body structure that monitors changes in the controlled condition and sends input (information) to control center. Input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals. Example of receptors: nerve endings in the skin that sense temperature.

Explain effector.

A body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response that changes the controlled condition. Almost every organ or tissue can act as an effector. For example, with a sharp drop of temperature, the brain sends impulses to skeletal muscles that cause people to shiver to generate heat and raise temperature.

Describe aging and some of the anatomical and physiological changes that occur with aging.

Aging is a normal process characterized by a progressive decline in body's ability to restore homeostasis. Aging produces observable changes in structure and changes and increases vulnerability to stress and disease. Examples of aging: wrinkled skin, gray hair, loss of bone mass, decreased muscle mass and strength, diminished reflexes, decreased production of some hormones, increased incidence of heart disease, increased susceptibility to infections and cancer, decreased lung capacity, less efficient functioning of the digestive system, decreased kidney function, menopause, and enlarged prostate.

How does cardiovascular system contribute to homeostasis?

Alternating contraction and relaxation of the heart propels blood throughout the body's blood vessels. As blood flows through the blood capillaries, the smallest blood vessels, nutrients and oxygen move into interstitial fluid and wastes move into blood. Cells, in turn, remove nutrients from and release their wastes into interstitial fluid.

Explain prone position.

Body lying face down.

Explain supine position.

Body lying face up.

List the major regions of the human body.

Body's major regions are head, neck, trunk, upper limbs and lower limbs.

Explain why blood glucose levels have to be maintained within a narrow range.

Brain needs a steady supply of glucose to keep functioning, low blood glucose levels may lead do unconsciousness and even death. Prolonged high blood glucose levels may damage blood vessels and cause excessive loss of water in urine.

What happens processes do not function properly?

Cell death may occur leading to organ failure and eventual death of the organism.

Respiratory system: components and functions.

Components: Lungs and air passageways, such as pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), and bronchial tubes leading in and out of them. Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air; helps regulate acidity of body fluids; sound is produced by air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords.

Endocrine system: components and functions.

Components: all glands and tissues that produce chemical regulators of body functions, called hormones. Functions: regulates body activities through hormones transported by the blood to various target organs.

Cardiovascular system: components and functions:

Components: blood, heart, and blood vessels. Functions: heart pump blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells, and helps regulate acidity, temperature, and water content of body fluids; blood components help defend against disease and mend damaged blood vessels.

Skeletal system: components and functions.

Components: bones, joints and associated cartilages. Function: to support and protect the body, area for muscle attachment, assists with body movements, stores cells that produce blood cells, stores minerals and fats (lipids).

Nervous system: components and functions.

Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sense organs such as eyes and ears. Functions: regulates body activities through nerve impulses by detecting changes in the environment, interpreting the changes, and responding to changes by bringing about muscular contractions or glandular secretions.

Reproductive system: components and functions

Components: gonads (testes or ovaries) and associated organs: uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, and vagina in females, and epididymis, ductus (vas) deferens, and penis in males, also mammary glands in females. Functions: gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism and release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes; associated organs transport and store gametes, mammary glands produce milk.

Urinary system: components and functions

Components: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Functions: produces, stores, and eliminates urine, eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood; helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids; maintains body's mineral balance; helps regulate red blood cell production.

Lymphatic system and immunity: components and functions:

Components: lymphatic fluid (lymph) and vessels; spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils; cells that carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others). Functions: Returns proteins and fluid to blood; contains sites of maturation and proliferation (rapid increase in numbers) of B-cells and T-cells that protect against disease-causing microbes, carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood.

Digestive system: components and functions

Components: organs of GI tract, including the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus; also includes accessory digestive organs that assist in digestive processes, such as the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Functions: physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes.

Muscular system: components and functions.

Components: skeletal muscle tissue, usually attached to bones. Functions: Participates in producing body movements, produces heat and maintains posture.

Integumentary system. components and functions.

Components: skin and associated structures: hair, nails, sweat and oil glands e.t.c. Function is to help regulate body temperature, protect body, eliminate some waste, helps make vitamin D, detects sensations: touch, pressure, pain, warmth and cold.

Explain differentiation.

Differentiation - a process when unspecialized cells become specialized cells. Specialized cells differ ins structure and function from the unspecialized cells they originate from. Example: unspecialized blood cells in bone marrow become specialized cells; a single fertilized egg grows into an individual different and similar from parents.

Explain homeostasis and disease and death.

Disease is a moderate disruption of homeostasis. Death is a severe disruption of homeostasis.

Distinguish between disorder and a disease.

Disorder - any abnormality of structure and function. Disease is a more is more specific term for an illness characterized by specific set of symptoms and signs. Specific diseases alter body structure and function in characteristic ways, usually producing a recognizable set of symptoms and signs.

Identify the position of lower limbs and list their anatomical structure.

Each lower limb is attached to the trunk and consists of the buttock, thigh (portion of the lip from hip to knee), leg (portion of the limb from the knee to ankle), ankle and foot.

Introduce feedback systems. Describe the components of feedback systems.

Ever body structure (including cells to systems) have one or more homeostatic devices that work to keep internal environment within normal limits. The homeostatic mechanisms are under control of two main systems: the nervous and endocrine. The nervous system detects changes and sends messages in the form of nerve impulses to organs that can counteract the change. For example, if body temperature raises, nerve impulses cause sweat glands to release more sweat that cools the body down as sweat evaporates. Endocrine system corrects changes by secreting molecules called hormones into the blood. Hormones affect specific body cells, where they cause responses that restore homeostasis. For example, the hormone insulin reduces blood glucose level when it is too high. Nerve impulses usually cause rapid corrections, hormones usually work more slowly. A feedback system (or loop) is a cycle of events in which a condition in the body is continually monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on. Each monitored condition: blood pressure, body temperature, blood glucose level is called a controlled condition. Any disruption that causes a change in controlled condition is called a stimulus. Stimuli can be internal and external:. Internal: blood glucose level that is too low. External: intense heat or lack of oxygen. Psychological stress may also disrupt homeostasis. Body reacts to disruptions quickly. The body usually can restore homeostasis quickly unless the disruption is serious such as serious food poisoning, prolonged heat exposure etc. 3 basic components of a feedback system: 1. Receptor. 2. Control center. 3. Effector. 1. Receptor. A body structure that monitors changes in the controlled condition and sends input (information) to control center. Input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals. Example of receptors: nerve endings in the skin that sense temperature. 2. Control center. The brain. It sets the ranges of values within which the controlled condition is maintained, evaluates the input and generates output commands. Output is info in a form of nerve impulses that is relayed from a control center to an effector. 3. Effector. A body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response that changes the controlled condition. Almost every organ or tissue can act as an effector. For example, with a sharp drop of temperature, the brain sends impulses to skeletal muscles that cause people to shiver to generate heat and raise temperature. Feedback systems can be negative or positive.

Identify the position of groin.

Groin is the area on the front surface of the body, marked by a crease on each side, where the trunk attaches to the thighs.

Explain growth.

Growth - increase in body size. May be due to: 1. increase in the size of existing cells. 2. increase in the number of cells. 3. the amount of material surrounding the cells.

Identify two anatomical structures of the head, indicate their position and list their components.

Head consists of skull and face. Skull is the part of the head that encloses and protects the brain. Face is the front portion of the head that includes the eyes, nose, mouth, forehead, cheeks, and chin.

Define homeostasis and explain its importance.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable body conditions. Homeostasis ensures that body's internal environment remains constant despite changes inside and outside of body. A large part of the internal environment consists of the fluid surrounding body cells, called interstitial fluid. Homeostasis is dynamic. It can change over a narrow range that is compatible with maintaining cellular life processes. For example, maintenance of blood glucose levels that have to stay within a certain range.

Explain diagnosis, then list and explain its components.

Identification of a disorder or a disease based on scientific evaluation of the patient's symptoms and signs, medical history, physical examination and sometimes data from laboratory tests. Medical history consists of collecting information about events that might be related to patient's illnesses, including the chief complaint, history of present illness, past medical problems, and social history. A physical examination is an orderly evaluation of the body and its functions. This process includes inspection (observing the body for any changes that deviate from normal), palpation (feeling body surface with hands), auscultation (listening to body sounds often using a stethoscope), percussion (tapping on body surfaces and listening to the resulting echo), and measuring vital signs (temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, and blood pressure). Common lab tests include analyses of blood and urine.

Compare the operation of negative and positive feedback systems.

Negative feedback system - reverses change in the controlled condition. For example, blood pressure regulating feedback system. If a stimulus causes BP (controlled condition) to rise, baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive nerve cells located in the walls of certain blood vessels) detect it, send impulse to brain (control center), which interprets and responds by sending nerve impulses (output) to heart (the effector). Heart rate decreases and, as the result, blood pressure decreases (response). This sequence of events is called controlled condition. This a negative feedback because effector - result (drop in bp) that reverses the effect of stimulus. Negative feedback systems regulate fairly stable conditions in body such as BP, blood glucose lvl, body temp. Positive feedback system - strengthens a change in a controlled condition. Normal positive feedback systems tend to reinforce conditions that don't happen very often - childbirth, ovulation, blood clotting. Positive feedback system consistently reinforce the change in a controlled condition, it must be shut off by some even outside the system. If not stopped, it can "run away" and produce life threatening changes in the body.

Autopsy

Post-mortem organ dissection to confirm or determine the cause of death. May uncover diseases and injuries, provides info about disease, info for statistical data, educates students, provides info for offsprings (such as congenital heart defects). Sometimes autopsy is legally required for example for criminal investigation. Sometimes autopsy is useful in insurance purposes.

Explain reproduction:

Reproduction - 1. the formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement. 2. or the production of a new individual.

Distinguish between the symptoms and signs of a disease.

Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer (for example headache or nausea). Signs are objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure (such as bleeding, swelling, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, a rash or paralysis).

Explain control center.

The brain. It sets the ranges of values within which the controlled condition is maintained, evaluates the input and generates output commands. Output is info in a form of nerve impulses that is relayed from a control center to an effector.

List anatomical structure of the trunk.

Trunk consists of chest, abdomen and pelvis.

Identify the position of upper limbs and list their anatomical structure.

Upper limbs are attached to trunk and consist of shoulder, armpit, arm (portion of the limb from shoulder to elbow), forearm (portion of the limb from the elbow to the wrist), wrist and hand.

Latin name of body region for head

cephalic

Latin name of body region for neck

cervical

Latin name of body region for groin

inguinal

Latin name of body region for breast

mammary

Latin name of body region for chin

mental

Latin name of body region for mouth

oral

Latin name of body region for eye

orbital or ocular

Latin name of body region for ear

otic

Latin name of body region for breastbone

sternal