ANSC 221 Final Exam

middle lamella and plasmodesmata

Plant junctions include?

all cells

Plasma membranes are a feature of......

X-inactivation

The coat color of calico cats is a result of _______

Nurse cells

Which of the following is primarily responsible for the maternal effect?

Meiosis

______ produces four haploid daughter cells

Mitosis

______ produces two diploid daughter cells

domain

A _______ is a portion of a protein with a particular function associated with the tertiary structure

karyotype

A ________ is an organized representation of the chromosomes within a cell

cytogeneticist

A ________ typically examines the chromosomal composition of a particular cell or organism

nucleotide

A base+sugar+phophate---->

nucleoside

A base+sugar----->

material inside cell packaged into vesicles and excreted into extracellular medium

Exocytosis

Transport larger molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides, and even very large particles

Exocytosis/Endocytosis

Codominance

In human blood groups, the fact that an individual can have an AB blood type is an example of ____

22

In humans, there are _______ autosomal linkage groups, plus an X and Y chromosome linkage group.

True

In linkage mapping, one map unit is equal to one % crossover frequency

small samples, large samples

Random sampling error is large for _______ and small for _______.

right

The DNA double helix is ____ handed

template strand

The DNA strand that is actually transcribed is termed the ________

ribosomes

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is referred to as rough because of its association with _________

heterozygous

Two different alleles

nicotinamide ring

Two electrons and H+ are incorporated into the..

Membranes

_______ are bilayers of phospholipids with associated proteins and carbohydrates

Exons

_______ are connected together or spliced and are the coding sequence

Pilli, flagella

_______ are for attachment and _____ for locomotion in prokaryotes

micro RNA

_______ are short RNA molecules that are involved in gene regulation in eukaryotes

Introns

_______ are the intervening sequences that are removed or excised.

proteins it makes

A cells response to hormones and other signaling molecules depends on the ...

DNA methylation, DNA methyltransferase

A change in chromatin structures that silences gene expression is ________ and carried out by the enzyme _______

False

A chi square value below the critical value means that our hypothesis is correct. (T/F)

maintain their shape and size

Animals must maintain a balance between the extracellular and intracellular solute concentrations to...

pyruvate

1 NADH is made for each...

signal amplification and speed

2 advantages of cAMP?

Motif

A ______ is a domain, or a portion of a domain, that has a very similar structure in many different proteins.

Kreb's Cycle

2C acetyl > series of redox rxns to yield 2 CO2 + 1 ATP (SLP) + 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 (X2)

glycolysis, kreb cycle, electron transport chain

3 Steps in cellular respiration?

-Enzymes: alters metabolism/other cell functions -Structure proteins: alters cell shape/movement -Transcription factor: alters gene expression, which changes the types and amounts of proteins in the cell.

3 common categories of proteins controlled by cell signaling

dermal, ground, and vascular

3 general kinds of tissues found in plants are?

codons

3 nucleotide sequences within the mRNA that specify particular amino acids

anchoring, tight, and gap

3 types of junctions in cells

Pyruvate Breakdown

3C pyruvate > 2C acetyl + CO2 + 1 ATP (SLP) + 1 NADH (X 2)

epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle tissues

4 types of tissue found in animals?

cell division, cell growth, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and formation of cell connections -- function to produce tissues and organs

6 processes of cells?

wild-type

A _______ allele encodes a protein that is made in the proper amount and functions normally.

True

A couple, both of whom display the recessive trait of albinism, are recruited for a study on the genetics of albinism. Their first child is normally pigmented, causing the scientists conducting the study to accuse the mother of infidelity and throw them out of the study. True or false, the scientists in this study are certain to have correctly accused the mother.

15

A diploid individual has 30 chromosomes. How many pairs of chromosomes would this individual have in each somatic cell?

30 chromosomes, 60 chromatids

A diploid individual has 30 chromosomes. How many total chromatids and chromosomes have in a cell in prophase of mitosis?

15 chromosomes, 15 chromatids

A diploid individual has 30 chromosomes. How many total chromatids and chromosomes have in each cell at the end of telophase II of meiosis?

Nuclear matrix

A filamentous network that organizes chromosomes

heterozygous, phenotype, incomplete dominance

A genetic cross of inbred snapdragons with red flowers with inbred snapdragons with white flowers resulted in F1-hybrid offspring that all had pink flowers. When the F1 plants were self-pollinated, the resulting F2-generation plants had a phenotypic ratio of 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white. The most likely explanation is: _______ plants have a different ______ than either inbred parent because of ________ of the dominant allele

Pleiotropy

A geneticist finds that a gene that gives werewolves long fangs also makes them extra hairy. This is an example of

7/16

A heterozygous pea plant that is tall with yellow seeds (Tt, Gg) is allowed to self-fertilize. What is the probability that an offspring will be either tall with green seeds, dwarf with yellow seeds, or dwarf with green seeds?

False

A high chi score value always means that our hypothesis is wrong. (T/F)

incomplete dominance

A homozygous 4 o'clock plant with red flowers is crossed to a homozygous 4 o'clock plant with white flowers. The F1 hybrid is pink flowered and the F2 plants segregate 1 red to 2 pink to 1 white. This is an example of:

1/3

A male Manx cat and a female Manx cat produce kitten. What is the probability that kitten has a non-manx?

collagen; controls

Animals make many different types of _____ fibers and differential gene regulation ______ the place in the body where they are made.

23.6, recombination

A map distance of 23.6 between two genes indicates which of the following? _____% of the offspring exhibit ______ between the two genes

False

A map unit or centimorgan is equal to a 10% recombination frequency.

epigenetic

A modification that occurs to a nuclear gene that alters gene expression without modifying the DNA sequence is called _______ inheritance.

epigenetic

A modification that occurs to a nuclear gene that alters gene expression, but not permanently, is called _______ inheritance.

B

A mouse heterozygous at the Igf2 locus is dwarf and has 50% dwarf progeny when mated to a homozygous Igf2- animal. Which statement about this animal is FALSE? A. This mouse must be a male. B. The Igf2- allele in this mouse came from its mother. C. This mouse expresses abnormal Igf-2 protein.

Loss of function

A mutation in which most of the protein coding sequence of the gene is removed is most likely to be which type of allele?

True

A negative interference value indicates that the first crossover event enhanced the occurrence of additional crossover events in the region.

50% of the females are white

A pair of co-dominant sex-linked alleles in mammals produce red pigment when homozygous or hemizygous for A1, white when homozygous or hemizygous for A2, and pink when heterozygous. If a pinked female is mated to a white male, we expect among the progeny:

Extranuclear inheritance

A pattern of transmission where all offspring have the same phenotype as their mother is consistent with which type of non-Mendelian inheritance?

1/4

A plant has a genotype AaBbCC. What is the probability of producing a gamete with the alleles ABC?

Repressor, silencer

A regulatory protein that decreases the rate of transcription is termed a ______. The sequence it binds is a ______

Activator, enhancer

A regulatory protein that increases the rate of transcription is termed a ______. The sequence it binds is a ______

two sister chromatids, centromere

A replicated chromosome is composed of ____________ held together at the ________.

dissociation constant (Kd value)

A signaling molecule (ligand) binds to a receptor w/ an affinity that is measured as a..

epistasis

A situation where alleles at one gene influence the phenotypic expression of alleles of another gene would be called

multiple alleles

A situation where there are more than two alternative forms of a given gene would be called:

Golgi

A stack of flattened, membrane-bounded compartments that has 3 functions: secretion, processing, and protein sorting

Chi square test

A statistical method used to determine goodness of fit (how close the observed data are to those predicted from a hypothesis)

metaphase, meiosis II

A student is looking at cells under a microscope. The cells are from an organism that has a diploid number of 14. In one particular case, the cell has seven replicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) aligned at the metaphase plate of the cell. Which of the following statements accurately describes this particular cell? The cell is in _______ of _______.

less energy; reduced

A substance that has been oxidized has ___ _____, whereas a substance that has been _______ has more energy.

Termination

A terminator is reached that causes RNA polymerase and the RNA transcript to dissociate from the DNA

dominant, recessive

A test cross is used to determine if the genotype of a plant with the dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous. If the unknown is homozygous, all of the offspring of the test cross have the __________ phenotype. If the unknown is heterozygous, half of the offspring will have the __________ phenotype.

homozygous recessive

A testcross is always performed between the individual that is heterozygous for the genes to be mapped and an individual who is __________ for the genes

Sex influenced trait

A trait that appears to be dominant in one sex but recessive in the other is called:

25%

A woman is heterozygous for an X-linked trait hemophilia A. If she has a child with a man without hemophilia A, what is the probability that the child will be a male with hemophilia A?

25%

A woman is heterozygous for an x-linked trait, hemophilia A. If she has a child with a man without hemophilia A, what is the probability that the child will be a male with hemophilia A?

All, 1/2

A woman who is heterozygous for an allele that results in X-linked pattern baldness marries a man who is nonbald. Which of the following would be true of their offspring? ___ of the females would be non bald, __ of the males would be bald

absence of oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the..

hold adjacent cells together. Attach cells to ECM through cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Anchoring junctions

Works like a rotor. Every time a proton goes through it, it switches it (adds electrons and O2) and attaches that phosphate onto ADP to make ATP

ATP synthase

rotary machine that makes ATP spin

ATP synthase is a..

Na+/K+ - ATPase. -Actively transports Na+ and K+ against their gradients by using the energy from ATP hydrolysis. -Na+ concentration is higher outside of cell and K+ is higher inside. -Each time this protein hydrolyzes one ATP molecule, it pumps OUT 3 Na+ and pumps IN 2 K+. -->Antiporter, electrogenic pump=export 1 net positive charge

ATP-driven ion pump

removed from CoA and enter the citric acid cycle

Acetyl group will later be...

Acetyl CoA and attached to oxaloacetate to form citrate/citric acid

Acteyl is removed from...

movement against a gradient w/ aid of transport protein. use ATP. Required for proteins and ATP. energetically unfavorable and requires input of energy Endocytosis/Exocytosis

Active transport

Purine

Adenine and Guanine are __________ bases

adhere cells to ECM.

Adhesive proteins like fibronectin and laminin help...

oxygen. O2 is consumed, CO2 is released. Also uses O2 to make ATP

Aerobic respiration uses..

glycosaminoglycans or GAGs

After proteins, the 2nd major component in vertebraes are...

Cell theory (cell doctrine)

All living organisms are composed of one of more cells Cells are the smallest units of life New cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division

Somatic, germ

Animal cells are of two types:

Proteome

All of the types and relative amounts of proteins that are made in a particular cell at a particular time and under specific conditions. _______ determines the characteristics of a cell

mutant alleles

Alleles that have been altered by mutation are termed ________

Actin filaments

Also known as microfilaments; long, thin fibers.

attaching amino acids to tRNAs

Aminoacyl tRNA synthesis are enzymes that catalyze:

allele

An ______ is an alternate form of a gene

incomplete penetrance

An individual carries the allele for polydactyly, but is normal. This is an example of __________.

heterozygous

An individual that has two different alleles of a particular gene is said to be:

homozygous

An individual who has the same allele of a gene on both chromosomes is said to be

All blood types are possible

An individual with type A blood and an individual with type B blood mate and have offspring. What blood type is not possible in their offspring?

synthesize larger molecule and macromolecules

Anabolic reactions require input of energy to..

faces air/extracellular region such as the lumen of the intestine

Apical side in epithelia in animals

programmed cell death in which nucleus and cytoskeleton break down and cell breaks into blebs

Apoptosis is the process of..

extrinsic/intrinsic pathways. The extrinsic pathway is stimulated when an extracellular signaling molecule binds to death receptors.

Apoptosis occurs via..

25%

Approximately ___ of all genes encode membrane proteins

C and d, c and D

Assume that genes C and D are located on the same chromosome. On one chromosome, alleles C and D are found, while the homologous contains alleles c and d. What would be an example of a recombination event? Alleles _ and _ together on chromosome and alleles _ and _ together on one chromosome

recessive, heterozygous

Assume that you find a gray male mouse, and two gray female mice. When you mate the male to one gray female, all the offspring are gray. When you mate the male to the other gray female, 3/4 of the offspring are gray, 1/4 are tan. Which statement fits these data best? Tan is _________, the male is ________

S phase, G1 phase

At the end of ______, a cell has twice as many chromatids as there are chromosomes in the _______.

All of the above

At the molecular level, type A and type B blood differ in which of the following characteristics? A. The antigens present on the surface of the red blood cells B. The type of sugar found in each type C. The antibodies that are generated against the other type of blood

All of the above

At the molecular level, which of the following best explain heterozygous advantage and overdominance? A. A heterozygous individual can produce more varieties of homodimer proteins B. The alleles produce two different proteins with slightly different functions C. The proteins produced by the alleles may provide a broader range of environmental tolerance, such as temperature ranges D. Infectious organisms may recognize only a specific functional protein

form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell

Autocrine signaling

Polydactyly

Autosomal dominant trait ; Affected individuals have additional fingers and/or toes; A single copy of is usually sufficient to cause this condition; In some cases, however, individuals carry the dominant allele but do not exhibit the trait

secretion of hormones into blood stream. Hormones move through plants via the vascular system.

In mammals, endorcrine signaling involves..

sex determination

In many animal species, chromosomes play a role in ________

1) Glycolysis 2) Pyruvate Breakdown 3) Ciric Acid Cycle 4) Oxidative Phosphorylation

Breakdown of glucose occurs in 4 stages:

faces inside the body toward the blood

Basal side in epithelia in animals

9:3:3:1

Based on Mendel's experimental crosses, what is the expected F2 phenotypic ratio of a cross between two individuals that are both heterozygous for two independently assorting genes?

phospholipid bilayer

Basic framework of a plasma membrane is a...

degrees of freedom

Before we can use the chi square table, we have to determine the ________ (n-1)

correct orientation to form ligand receptor complex. Is very rapid.

Binding occurs when the ligand and receptor collide in..

regulatory transcription factors

Binding of a small effector molecule such as a hormone, protein-protein interactions, and covalent modifications such as phosphorylation are three ways to modulate the function of __________________

feedback inhibition: product of pathway inhibits early steps to prevent over-accumulation of product

Biochemical regulation

Meiosis I

Bivalents are organized along the metaphase plate in _______: Pairs of sister chromatids are aligned in a double row, rather than a single row

Somatic cells

Body cells, other than gametes

B

Both X-linked genes and extranuclear inheritance produce different results in reciprocal crosses. How can you distinguish between them? A. Extranuclear traits can be transmitted from an unaffected mother to an affected son. B. Extranuclear traits can be transmitted from an affected mother to an affected offspring. C. Extranuclear traits cannot be transmitted from father to son.

False

Both parents usually imprint the same gene.

tertiary

Both the alpha-helices and beta sheets can be found within the __________ structure of a polypeptide

linkage

Both two or more genes that are physically connected on a chromosome and genes that are transmitted to the next generation as a group defines the principle of _______.

Plasma membrane

Boundary between the cell and the extracellular environment

catabolism

Breakdown of a molecule into smaller components

sense and respond to the environmental changes and to communicate with each other.

Cell signaling enables cells to...

False

In maternal effect inheritance, the phenotype of the mother determines the genotype of the offspring.

Glucose Metabolism

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

are CAMS that create cell-to-cell junctions, is a Ca2+ dependent adhering molecule

Cadherins

link cells to each other, whereas integrins link cells to the ECM.

Cadherins vs. Integrins

glycolysis, which enables the detection of tumors via positron-emission tomography (PET)

Cancer cells carry out...

Peroxisome

Catalyze reactions that break down molecules by removing hydrogen or adding oxygen, detoxification, and metabolism of fats and amino acids. Also breakdown of very long chain fatty acids through beta-oxidation

an occur between adjacent cells or cells that are far apart. Is usually a 3 stage process.

Cell communication

1. Direct intercellular 2. Contact-dependent 3. Paracrine 4. Autocrine 5. Endocrine

Cell to cell communication varies in the mechanism and distance that a signal travels. Signals are relayed between cells in 5 ways:

pectin

Cell walls are rich in?

tissues; organs

Cells are organized into _____ and tissues are organized into ____.

cell signaling pathways (Hormones)

Cellular regulation

feedback inhibition

Cellular respiration uses..

Prometaphase

Centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell, forming the spindle poles; Spindle fibers interact with the sister chromatids; The two kinetochores on a pair of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore MTs on opposite poles

secondary, alpha-helices, beta sheets

Certain regions of a primary structure fold into a __________ structure; two types are _______ and ________

nuclear membrane

Characteristic of prokaryotic cells: no true _______.

can be one cell thick or several cells thick, and they serve as protective coverings for various parts of animals and plant bodies.

Characteristics of the layers

a higher close concentration outside the cell

Chemical gradient for glucose:

energy stored in an electrochemical gradient is used to make ATP from ADP and Pi

Chemiosmosis

important in intervertebrates; exoskeleton

Chitin

DNA, proteins

Chromosomes are composed of ____ and _____

Interphase

Chromosomes are decondensed; By the end, the chromosomes have already replicated; The centrosome, the attachment point of the mitotic spindle, divides

Telophase and Cytokinesis

Chromosomes reach their respective poles and decondense; Nuclear membrane reforms to form two separate nuclei

homologous

Chromosomes that pair with each other in meiosis are called ________.

combinatorial control

Common factors contributing to ____________ are: 1+ activator proteins may stimulate transcription 1+ repressor proteins may inhibit transcription Activators and repressor modulated by: binding of small effector molecules, protein-protein interactions, and covalent modifications

Chromosomes

Composed of DNA and protein (chromatin)

Plasma membrane

Composed of an extracellular and intracellular layer of phospholipids. Membrane contains peripheral proteins Integral proteins span through the membrane

support body/connect tissues

Connective

structural support in animals and plants

Connective and ground tissues provide..

passage of ions and small molecules. It allows adjacent cells to share metabolites and directly signal to each other.

Connexton allows...

One cell has a membrane-bound signaling molecule that is recognized by the receptor on the surface of another cell. -->Neuron-neuron connection

Contact-dependent signaling

Transcription

Copying of a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence

no

Could a recessive mutation in humans be located on the X chromosome if a woman exhibiting the trait marries a normal man and has a normal son?

shrinking in a hyper tonic solution

Crenation

True

Critical values for the chi square test are larger when there are more degrees of freedom because each class of data is expected to show a small amount of variation (T/F)

dihybrid cross

Crossing individual plants that differ in two characters

mitosis; meiosis

Crossing over does not commonly occur in ______, but commonly occurs in ______.

False

Crossing over involves the physical exchange of DNA between sister chromatids.

far apart

Crossing over is more likely to occur between genes that are ____ on a chromosome

adenylyl cyclase; phosphodiesterase; AMP

Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a 2nd messenger formed from ATP by _____ _____, an enzyme in the plasma membrane. cAMP is inactivated by the action of an enzyme called ______, which converts cAMP to ___.

signals binding to cell surfaces are first messengers. Many signal transduction pathways lead to production of second messengers

G-protein coupled receptors

False

DNA methylation is a change in chromatin structure that induces gene expression

True

DNA methylation is a change in chromatin structure that silences gene expression

Gg, Gg

Dark green skin in frogs is conferred by a dominant allele, G. Light green skin is determined by a recessive allele, g. Two dark green frogs were mated and 3/4 of the progeny were dark green and the other ¼ were light green. What were the genotypes of the parents?

10-70%

Depending on cell type, ______ of membrane proteins may be restricted in their movement.

individual molecules remain in close association yet have the ability to move within the membrane

Describe the fluidity of membranes

Allele

Different version of the same gene

all cells contain the same genome but only express particular parts.

Differential gene expression

Apoptosis

Differential gene regulation involves all of the following except: A) protein-DNA interactions B) transcription factors C) RNA polymerase II D) Apoptosis E) Ligand-receptor interactions

Genomic imprinting

Differentially methylated domains (DMDs) are associated with which of the following?

Passive transport. movement of a solute down a gradient. A transport protein is not needed. This is how you get oxygen into your body and how you get rid of things you don't need (CO2)

Diffusion

cells adjacent to one another pass ions, signaling molecules, and other materials from one cytosol to the other via cell junctions. -->Used in cardiac muscle cells

Direct intracellular signaling

compresssion. They form gel-like component and proteoglycans occur in the connective tissue.

GAGs and preoglycans resist..

Functional regions (transcription factor protein regions), Structural characteristics

Domains are _________ Motifs are _________

True

Dosage compensation is not required for all X linked genes in mammals.

sex

Dosage compensation offsets the problems associated with differences in the number of ___ chromosomes in many species

differentiate

Due to gene regulation, cells ___________ into specialized types of cells

meiosis

During _____, haploid cells are produced from diploid cells

test, homozygous recessive

During a _______ cross, an individual with the dominant phenotype and unknown genotype is crossed with a ______ individual to determine the unknown genotype.

non-sister chromatids

During crossing over in meiosis I, __________ exchange genetic material

organic molecules are broken down without any net oxidation (w/o removing electrons) EX: lactic acid production in muscle cells and ethanol production in yeast cells

During fermentation..

Mendel's Law of Segregation

During gamete formation, the paired factors for a given character segregate randomly so that half of the gametes receive one factor and half of the gametes receive the other

Law of Independent Assortment

During gamete formation, the segregation of any pair of hereditary determinants is independent of the segregation of other pairs

G1 phase

During the ______ of Mitosis, a cell prepares to divide

G2 phase

During the _______, the cell accumulates the materials that are necessary for nuclear and cell division

meiosis I

During what phase of cellular division does Mendel's law of segregation physically occur?

Meiosis I

During which phase of meiosis does the segregation described by Mendel primarily occur?

stimulates epidermal cells to divide

EGF (epidermal growth factor)

Oxphos

ETC creates PMF (H+ gradient) + ATP synthase yielding 30-34 ATP

a different region

Each leafet faces...

Mitochondria

Each of the following are an integral part of the endomembrane system except: A) Nuclear membrane B) ER C) Golgi D) Lysosomes E) Mitochondria F) Vacuoles

stretch and return to original shape

Elastic fibers allow regions of body to..

more positive charges outside the cell and a higher Na+ concentration outside cell

Electrochemical gradient for Na+

Occurs over long distances in both animals and plants.

Endocrine signaling

plasma membrane invaginate (folds inward) to form a vesicle that brings substances into the cell Recepter-mediated endocytosis Pinocytosis Phagocytosis

Endocytosis

H+ electrochemical gradient or proton motive force converted to chemical bond energy in ATP

Energy conversion

electrons removed by oxidation are used to create energy intermediates like NADH -oxidized to make ATP -can donate electrons during synthesis reactions

Energy intermediates

found in all living species. Typically have two important domains: extracellular (which binds a signaling molecule) and intracellular (has catalytic function).

Enzyme-linked receptors

fight or flight hormone. Has different effects throughout the body.

Epinpehrine

cells joined together forming continuous sheets to cover or line body surfaces

Epithelial

interconnected

Epithelial and dermal tissues form layers of cells that are highly ..

False

Essential genes produce proteins that are always required by the cell.

plasma membrane; nucleus; conformational change. dimer; specific genes; transcription. translated; proteins; structure and function

Estrogen diffuses across the ______, enters into the ___ and binds to estrogen receptors. These receptors undergo a _____ _____. Estrogen receptors form a ____, bind next to ____ _____, and activate their ______. The mRNAs are then _____ into ______ that affect the ______ and ______ of the cell.

transcription factor-protein that regulates transcription of genes. Is intracellular

Estrogen is a..

False

Eukaryotic DNA is packaged around lipids to form compact loops.

ER membrane

Except for proteins destined for mitochondria, most transmembrane proteins go to where?

1000 Da

Experiments of Loewenstein and colleagues showed that gap junctions permit passage of substances with a molecular mass of less than....

TsiX

Expression of _____ would inhibit X-inactivation.

Intracellular catalytic domain. A signal molecule will bind to the extracellular signaling-binding domain (receptor) and activate the catalytic domain of the receptor.

Extracellular domains causes..

In animals: is a network of material that forms a complex meshwork outside of the cell. It is the bone and cartilage of animals. It supports and organizes cells and plays a roll in cell signaling. Plant: it is a cell wall. Is Woody parts of plants.

Extracellular matrix in animals? In plants?

passive transport: movement down a gradient w/ aid of transport protein

Facilitated Diffusion

length of the poly A-tail, destabilizing elements

Factors that can affect the stability of mRNA include:

food

Fatty acid building blocks madie via enzymes in the cytsol are taken into cells from..

occurs when the end product of a reaction interferes with the enzyme that helped produce it. is Done as a regulatory mechanism to meet the metabolic needs of the cell or organism.

Feedback inhibition

Homogametic

Females have two X chromosomes and are termed

citric acid cycle

Finally, acetyl-CoA enter the..

overdominance

For a certain trait, a heterozygous individual has a selective advantage as compared to a homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive individual. This is called ________.

B

For a trait known to be caused by a mitochondrial gene variant, there may be an occasional female that can transmit different phenotypes to her progeny on an apparently random basis. What situation might you suspect? A. She is heterozygous for this trait. B. She displays heteroplasmy for this trait. C. She displays a low rate of mutation. D. She is the product of a somatic mutation.

True

For alleles that display incomplete dominance, the phenotypic ratio expected in the F2 generation of a monohybrid cross would be the same as as the genotypic ratio. (True/False)

enough proton-motive force is created to produce a maximum of 3 ATPs

For each high energy electron pair that travels from NADH down the electron transport chain to oxygen...

2; NADH

For every one glucose in glycolysis, we make ___ ATP and ____

True

For genes that have multiple alleles, the relationships between those alleles can be a variety of types of dominant/recessive relationships (T/F)

True

For genes which have multiple alleles, the relationships between those alleles can be a variety of types of dominant/recessive relationships.

regulatory elements, TATA box, Transcriptional start site

For structural genes, at least 3 features are found in most promoters:

greater, likely, 15 mp

For the cross in the previous question, you get the following results. Calculate a chi square value using an expectation of independent assortment and determine if the genes are likely to be linked or not. Normal 350; variegated 63; colorless 57; variegated and colorless 330. A. The chi square value is _______ than the critical value; these genes are ______ to be linked. Calculate a map distance between these two genes.

1:2:1

For the following problem, use the following information. Pigeons may exhibit a checkered or plain color pattern on their feathers. In a series of controlled matings, the following data were obtained: P1 Cross F1 progeny Checkered Plain (a) checkered x checkered 36 0 (b) plain x plain 0 35 (c) checkered x plain 0 38 The F1 progeny were selectively mated with the following results. The P1 cross giving rise to each F1 pigeon is indicated in parentheses. F1 x F1 Crosses F2 progeny Checkered Plain (d) checkered (a) x plain (b) 0 34 (e) checkered (a) x plain (c) 14 17 (f) plain (c) x plain (c) 9 28 You decide to get more experimental data and cross a plain F2 bird from (d) with a plain F2 bird from (e). Based on what you have figured out, you would expect what genotypic ratio in the progeny?

A mixture of rose and single combed birds

For the following problem, use the following information. There can be several different types of combs on chickens and the illustration below shows some of these types. In a mating between a chicken from a strain that breeds true for a walnut comb and a chicken from a second strain that breeds true for a single comb, all hybrid progeny have walnut combs. When these hybrids were intermated, the following segregation was observed. Walnut 96 Rose 30 Pea 25 Single 9 If you were to testcross several F2 individuals with rose-combs, what would you expect to get?

Cytokinesis

Formation of a cleavage furrow

Used to analyze the interiors of phospholipid bilayers. Sample is frozen in liquid nitrogen and split w/ a knife.

Freeze fracture electron microscopy

other regions in cell via vesicles

From the ER, membrane proteins are transferred where?

True

From the promoter to the gene, you would expect the coding strand to run 5' to 3'

Plasma membrane

Functions include membrane transport in and out of cell (permeable), cell signaling using receptors, and cell adhesion

1. Receptor activation 2. Relay between receptor and protein kinase cascade 3. Cellular response 4. Activation of transcription factors

Functions of GF

found in cells of all eukaryotic species. Contain 7 transmembrane segments that wind back and forth on plasma membrane.

G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)

genotype, phenotype

In maternal effect, the ______ of the mother determines the ______ of the offspring.

-polysaccharides of repeating disaccharide units that give a gel-like character to the ECM of animals. -Highly negatively charge attracts positive ions and water -several dozen to 25K disaccharide units (typically 80) EX: Chondroitin sulfate (found in cartilage) and hyaluronic acid (found in skin, eyes, and joint fuild)

GAGs are.. some examples?

similar in structure to ATP except it has guanine as a base instead of adenine interact w/ G proteins to initiate a cellular response

GTP

Germ cells

Gametes (sperm and egg cells)

Haploid (n)

Gametes are typically ______.

Small gap between plasma membranes of cells at junction. Allow cells to directly communicate with each other

Gap junctions

True

Gene products produced by nurse cells are controlled by both alleles of the female.

turns on and off genes

Gene regulation

False

General transcription factors are required for the binding of RNA pol III to all rRNA genes.

Sex linked trait

Genes found on one of the two types of sex chromosomes, but not both

True

Genes on the X or Y chromosomes in human are NOT always inherited in a different pattern than are genes on the autosomes.

True

Genes on the X or Y chromosomes in humans are not always inherited in a different pattern than are genes on the autosomes.

structural genes

Genes that encode polypeptides are termed ______ and are transcribed into mRNA

False

Genes that show a dosage effect must be located on the X chromosome.

True

Genomic imprinting is an example of epigenetic inheritance.

Glycolysis

Glucose > 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP (SLP) + 2 NADH

False (cytosol)

Glycocalyx is central coordinating region for the catabolic an anabolic activities of eukaryotic cells.

Glycolipid: carbohydrate to lipid Glycoprotein: carbohydrate to protein (N-linked, O linked).

Glycolipid vs Glycoprotein

takes 6 C ring glucose and breaks that down into 2 pyruvate molecules with 3 carbons inside. Generates ATP. Can make ATP w/ or w/o O2

Glycolysis

Proteins/lipids that are covalently bound to carbohydrates

Glycoproteins/glycolipids

covalently attaching a carbohydrate to a protein or lipid. It can serve as recognition signals for other cellular proteins and plays a role in cell surface recognition.

Glycosylation is the process of...

excess of positive charges outside matrix.

Gradient charecteristics

a signaling molecule that promotes cell division

Growth factor

A and B

Imprinted genes: A. Provide an example of epigenetic inheritance. B. Are near differentially methylated regions. C. Are only transmitted by one parent.

chloroplasts

Heteroplasmy is associated with inheritance patterns involving

low probability

High chi-square values indicate a _________ that the observed deviations are due to random chance alone

meiosis; mitosis

Homologous chromosomes synapse during ______, but do not synapse during _______.

1) a protein begins synthesis into the ER, and the ER signal sequence is cleaved 2) polypeptide synthesis continues, and a hydrophobic transmembrane segment is made as the polypeptide is being threaded through the channel 3) polypeptide synthesis is completed, and the transmembrane segment remains in the membrane.

How are transmembrane proteins inserted into the ER membrane?

through receptor not expressing, different receptors for same signal, different affinities for signal, signal transduction pathways different, protein expression different

How can differential gene expression effect the cellular response?

through cell surface receptors: receptors found on plasma membrane.

How can large molecules pass through plasma membrane?

A and B

How could you verify that a gene you suspect to be X linked is actually located on the X chromosome? A. Set up reciprocal crosses. B. Set up a two point test cross with another gene known to be located on the X. C. Set up crosses between the F1 and both parental types.

Bc lipids and proteins can move relative to each other within the membrane

How is a membrane able to exhibit properties that resemble a fluid?

-length of fatty acyl tails (short tails=less likely to interact w/ each other= increase in fluidity of membrane) -presence of double bonds in acyl tails (double bond=lipis is unsaturated and creates kinks in the acyl tails which makes it more difficult for neighboring tails to interact= increase in fluid bilayer) -presence of cholesterol which tends to stabilize membranes. Effects depend on temperature

How is membrane fluidity affected by lipid composition?

CO2 is removed and acetyl group is attached to CoA to make acetyl CoA.

How is pyruvate made into acetyl?

fatty acyl tails are inserted into the hydrophobic portion of the membrane

How is the lipid anchored protein attached to the membrane?

1

How many Barr bodies would an individual with an XXY genotype possess?

8

How many gametes can be produced by an individual with the genotype AABbCCddEeFf?

4

How many types of gametes can be produced by an individual with the genotype AaBbCCddEEff

Chromosome theory of inheritance

How the transmission of chromosomes account for Mendelian patterns of inheritance.

True

Human blood groups are determined by antigens on the surface of red blood cells.

-pyruvate -lactacte

In glycolysis, under aerobic conditions, humans produce.. and in anaerobic conditions produce...

All blood types

Human blood type is determined by codominant alleles. There are three different alleles, known as IA, IB, and i. The IA and IB alleles are codominant, and the i allele is recessive. The possible human phenotypes for blood group are type A, type B, type AB, and type O. Type A and B individuals can be either homozygous (IAIA or IBIB, respectively), or heterozygous (IAi or IBi, respectively). A woman with type A blood and a man with type B blood could potentially have offspring with which of the following blood types?

autosomes, sex chromosomes

Humans have 46 chromosomes, 44 ______ and 2 _________

200

Humans have over ___ different cell types that are grouped into a few general categories

heterozygous advantage

Humans homozygous for the sickle cell allele have sickle cell anemia. A human that is heterozygous for the sickle cell allele is an example of _____________.

1/2

Huntington disease is a rare dominant trait that causes neurodegeneration later in life. A man is his thirties, who already has three children, discovers that his mother has Huntington disease though his father is unaffected. What is the probability that the man will develop Huntington disease?

False

Hydrogen bonding is the primary chemical bond holding a strand of DNA together

When the solute concentration is higher and the water concentration is lower on one side of the membrane

Hypertonic

When solute concentration is lower and water concentration is higher on one side of the membrane

Hypotonic

2

I do a chi square analysis of the offspring from my cross of a black mouse and albino mouse. If the black mouse was heterozygous I should have expected a 1:1 ratio, and I got 6 albino and 2 black mice. What is my chi square value?

black, true-breeding

I know that black coat color in mice is dominant to albino. Black mice get a higher prince at the pet store so I am disappointed when I cross a black mouse with an albino mouse and get 6 albino and 2 black mice in the litter. I expected all black. What mistake did I make? I assumed that my _____ mouse was ______.

29

If a cow has a diploid chromosome number of 60, how many autosome pairs are in a somatic cell?

Only 70% of the individuals who carry the allele for a trait express that trait

If a geneticist describes a trait as being 70% penetrant, what would they mean?

1/4

If a pea plant had the genotype WwGg and the W and G loci assort independently, what is the probability of producing a gamete that is WG?

1/4

If a pea plant has the genotype WwGg and the W and G loci are not linked, what is the probability of producing a gamete that is wG?

cis, trans

If a secreted protein were making its way from the ER to the outer surface of the cell, it would enter the Golgi through the _______ compartment and exit through the _______ compartment

sex-influenced inheritance

If an allele is dominant in one sex and recessive in another, it is an example of ___________.

independently

If the genes assort ______, then the predicted phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation would be 9:3:3:1 and 1:1:1:1

paternal leakage

If the sperm cell contributes mitochondria to the oocyte, it is called _______.

Anaphase I

If there is a picture of a cell with 2n=6, it is in _________

1/16

If two WwGg individuals are mated, what is the probability of producing WWGG offspring?

1/8

If two WwGg individuals are mated, what is the probability of producing WwGG offspring?

homologous, DNA, gene

If two chromosomes are __________, they look similar under a microscope, have very similar ____ sequences, carry the same type of ____, and may carry different versions of the same.

False

If two genes are linked, a double heterozygote will only be able to produce two possible types of gametes.

All of these

If you establish a dihybrid cross and find an unexpected phenotypic ratio in the F2, which of the following might you suspect? A) Epistasis B) Multiple genes affecting your trait of interest C) Linkage D) All of these

monohybrid, trait

If you have true breeding strains that differ only in a single character, how could you determine which trait for that character is dominant? Create a ________ for that character and see which _____ is present.

peroxisomes, hydrogen peroxide

In 1965, Christian de Duve discovered _______ within cells. These organelles are primarily involved in detoxification of by-products resulting from certain chemical reactions. One of the by-products ________, is broken down via enzyme called catalase

H+ flows through membrane embedded region.

In ATP synthase, enzyme harnesses free energy as...

6, 6

In Gap junctions, __ connexin proteins in one cell align with __ connexin proteins of an adjacent cell to form a connexon.

incomplete dominance

In ________ 1:2:1 phenotypic ratio NOT the 3:1 ratio observed in simple Mendelian inheritance

incomplete dominance

In __________ the heterozygote exhibits a phenotype that is intermediate between the corresponding homozygotes

assorting independently

In a chi square test to determine if two genes are linked or assorting independently, what is the default (null) hypothesis that is tested? The genes are ________

The genes are assorting independently

In a chi-square test to determine if two genes are linked or assorting independently, what is the default (null) hypothesis that is tested?

Epistatic interactions of the two genes

In a dihybrid cross of two heterozygous individuals, you expect a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the offspring, but observe a ratio of 9:7. What is the most likely explanation?

Interference

In a given mapping experiment, you expect that incidence of double crossovers is 3.5%, but you only observe 2.5%. This can be explained by ________________.

Variable expressivity

In a group of fruit flies homozygous for an allele that causes a reduced number of thoracic bristles, you notice that the number of bristles varies from about half the normal number to only a few bristles. This is an example of

Parental phenotypes

In a mapping experiment with three linked genes, which phenotype should occur most often in the F2 offspring?

Epistasis

In a rare blood type referred to as the Bombay phenotype, individuals are unable to attach the A or B antigens to their red blood cells. Individuals that are homozygous recessive for gene "H" have the Bombay phenotype and their blood type is type "O" regardless of their ABO genotype. This is an example of what extension of Mendelian inheritance?

expressivity

In a recessive disease of sheep, called Spider Lamb Syndrome, some lambs are born severely disfigured whereas some are only slightly affected. What is the term that defines such variability?

interphase

In actively dividing cells, G1 (Gap 1), S and G2 are collectively know as:

False

In an epistatic interaction, the genes must be located on the same chromosome.

all progeny red beaked

In bird species, blue beak is a sex-linked recessive trait; red beak is the alternative dominant trait. If a blue-beaked male is mated to red-beaked females, the progeny would consist of:

scurs, no scurs

In cattle, the presence or absence of scurs follows a sex-influenced pattern of inheritance. A heterozygous male has _______ and a heterozygous female has _______ .

shrinkage; swelling; pull away; expansion

In cells that lack a cell wall (animal cells), osmosis may promote cell _____ or ____. In cells that have a rigid cell wall (plant cells) hypertonic medium causes the plasma membrane to ___ _____ from the cell wall, whereas a hypotonic medium causes a little bit of _____.

9/16

In corn, a series of three independent pairs of alleles at loci A, C and R affect the production of pigment that leads to kernel color. If any one of the three pairs is in the homozygous recessive state, then no pigment can form in the kernel. Two corn plants with the following genotypes were crossed: AABbRr x aaBbRr What fraction of the progeny kernels will be pigmented?

All of the above

In dosage compensation: A. An X chromosome can be inactivated. B. Gene expression can be increased from a single X chromosome. C. Gene expression can be reduced from a pair of X chromosomes.

chromatin

In eukaryotes, the DNA-Protein complex is called ______

lipids

In eukaryotic cells, the cytosol and endomembrane system work together to synthesize most ____

True

In housekeeping genes, the CpG islands are unmethylated

the ATP synthase enzyme where the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP.

In oxidative phosphorylation, ATP is synthesized by...

True

In some cases, the type of dominance relationship observed depends on how the phenotype is defined.

Incomplete penetrance

In soybeans, resistance to sudden death syndrome (SDS) is inherited as a dominant condition. In some cases, individuals that are not resistant to SDS (but whose parents were) can pass the trait on to their progeny. This is an example of which of the following?

The electrons move through a series of proteins and the energy of those proteins is used to pump protons.

In the ETC (electron transport chain)

paternal, paternal

In the Igf-2 example, which chromosome is imprinted? Which is expressed?

we produce 2 ATP and add energy to NADH and FADH2.

In the Krebs Cycle/citric acid cycle...

electrons are finally transferred to oxygen and water is formed.

In the end of oxidative phosphorylation...

mother's genotype

In the gene that affects snail coiling, the ______ is responsible for the phenotype of the offspring.

c; a; y; b

In the rotation of ATP synthesis, H+ ions flow between the __ subunit and ___ subunit, causing the ___ subunit to spin and 3 conformational changes in the ___ subunits that promote ATP synthesis

Somatic cells

In which cells do erasure and re-establishment of imprinting marks typically NOT occur?

S phase

In which phase of the cell cycle are the chromosomes replicated?

M phase

In which phase of the cell cycle does the cell divide?

True

Incomplete dominance is an example of blending of phenotypes, not genotypes.

False

Incomplete penetrance indicates that individuals who possess a dominant trait always express the trait.

Meiosis

Independent assortment of chromosomes occurs during:

\bound to membrane. Can either be a transmembrane protein or lipid anchored protein.

Integral membrane proteins are proteins...

cytoskeleton

Integral membrane proteins may be bound to components of the ______, which restricts the proteins from moving laterally

group of cell-surface receptor proteins, 2nd type of CAMs, creates connections between cells and ECM. Do not require Ca2+ to function, extracellular domain to bind to ECM, intracellular domain for binding to cytoskeleton

Integrins

smooth ER

Involved in detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism, calcium balance, and synthesis and modification of lipids; lacks ribosomes

both an electrical gradient and chemical gradient

Ion electrochemical gradient

When there are equal water and solute concentrations on either side of membrane

Isotonic

70

It is estimated that ____% of human genes are alternatively spliced

sex-limited

Lactation in mammals only occurs in females; however both sexes have the same genes. This is an example of a ______ trait

Half of a phospholipid bilayer

Leaflet

False

Lethal alleles are always recessive

True

Lethal alleles may affect one individual differently than another

True

Lethal alleles may be caused by mutations in essential genes

True

Lethal alleles may have a late of age onset

True

Lethal alleles violate the rules of Mendelian inheritance.

the flow of ions across cellular membranes

Ligand-gated ion channels are receptors that allow...

All of the above

Linked genes: A. are located near each other on the same chromosome. B. violate the law of independent assortment. C. segregate together during meiosis.

covalently attached to an amino acid side chain within a protein

Lipid anchored protein

Microtubules

Long, hollow cylindrical structures that provide dynamic instability

a receptor has a high affinity for its ligand. When ligand concentration is above Kd value, most of receptors have ligand bound to them. The binding of a ligand to a receptor is usually very specific and alters the conformation of the receptor

Low Kd value indicates what?

high probability

Low chi-square values indicate a ________ that the observed deviations could be due to random chance alone

False (contain acid hydrolases)

Lysosomes contain many different types of alkaline hydrolases to break down proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids.

False

Male-pattern baldness is only an autosomal dominant trait in humans.

Heterogametic

Males have an X and Y sex chromosome and are termed

lethal

Manx cats are heterozygous for a dominant mutation that results in no tails, large hind legs, and a distinctive gait. The mating of two Manx cats yields two Manx kittens for each normal, long-tailed kitten, rather than three-to-one as would be predicted from Mendelian genetics. Therefore, the mutation causing the Manx cat phenotype is likely a(n) ________ allele.

CpG islands

Many genes contain ______ near their promoters. They are 1-2000 nucleotides long and in housekeeping genes they are unmethylated.

doubling the chromosome number

Meiosis provides genetic diversity in two ways: 1st is through independent assortment of chromosomes and the second is through _______________

selectively permeable plasma membrane. Structure and selectivity ensure essential molecules enter, metabolic intermediates remain, and waste products exit. Can be passive or active.

Membrane transport

True

Mendel's Law of Segregation is supported by a 1:1 test cross ratio (T/F)

False

Mendelian inheritance, sex-linked inheritance, and paternal inheritance are observed with extranuclear DNA.

Particular molecules enter while others leave, involving a series of organic molecules regenerated with each cycle (what the citric acid cycle is)

Metabolic cycle

gene, cellular, and biochemical regulation

Metabolic pathways are controlled by...

a series of different enzymes catalyze the attachment of phosphate groups to various sugars, beginning with a starting substrate and ending with a final product.

Metabolic pathways consist of..

the chemical reactions in a living organism

Metabolism is the sum of...

apoptosis

Microscopy studies of Kerr, Wylie, and Currie studied the effects of hormones on the adrenal cortex and discovered...

cristae. Mitochondria is a 2 membrane. Inner and outer membrane and inter-membrane space where the matrix is.

Mitochondria folds are called..

1/16

Polledness (P_) and black coat color (B_) in cattle are dominant to horns (pp) and red coat color (bb). What is the probability that the mating of a bull (PpBb) and cow (PpBb) will produce one horned, red calf?

B

Mitochondrial mutations in humans tend to affect some tissues more than others. Which is the most likely explanation? A. Some human tissues do not have mitochondria. B. Some human tissues have higher energy demands than others. C. Some human tissues can synthesize large amounts of ATP in the absence of mitochondrial function. D. Heteroplasmy and subsequent segregation often leads to a variegated phenotype.

diploid; haploid

Mitosis may produce a ______ cell, whereas meiosis produces _______ cells.

the gene is imprinted

Mono allelic expression of a gene occurs when:

Genomic imprinting

Monoallelic expression is associated with: A) X-inactivation B) Genomic imprinting C) Maternal inheritance D) Entranuclear inheritance

heterogamous

Most eukaryotic species are _______: these produce gametes that are morphologically different

diploid (2n)

Most eukaryotic species are _________

7-methylguanosine

Most mature mRNAs have a _______ covalently attached at their 5' end called capping

poly A tails

Most mature mRNAs have a string of adenine nucleotides at their 3' ends that is not encoded in the gene sequence called _______

small hydrophilic molecules or large molecules that cannot readily pass through plasma membrane.

Most signaling molecules are either..

H+ electrochemical gradient/proton motive force.

Movement of electrons generates a...

single organism composed of more than one cell, main benefit arises from the division of labor between different cell types. Usually have larger genomes=larger proteomes. Additional proteins for cell communication, arrangement and attachment of cells, cell specialization, regulating gene expression

Multicellularity

generates force that faciliates movement

Muscle

True

Mutations may be recessive because cells can increase the amount of functional protein produced from their remaining normal allele.

9/32

Polledness (P_) and black coat color (B_) in cattle are dominant to horns (pp) and red coat color (bb). What is the probability that the mating of a bull (PpBb) and cow (PpBb) will produce one polled, black male calf?

2 nucleotides, one with an adenine base and one with a nicotinamide base.

NAD+ is composed of...

high energy electrons that they're going to carry to the electron transport chain.

NADH and FADH2 have...

cytosol; hydrolyzed; E2 conformation outside outside Phosphate; E1 conformation; cytosol.

Na+/K+ -ATPase Pump 1st: 3 Na+ bind from ___. ATP is ______. ADP is released and phosphate (P) is covalently attached to the pump , switching to the __ _______. 2nd:. 3 Na+ are released ____ of the cell. 3rd: 2 K+ bind from ___ of cell. 4th: ____ (P1) is released, the pump switched to the __ _______. 2 K+ are released into ____. Process continues.

tRNA

Necessary for the translation of mRNA. Contains an anticodon on one end and an amino acid on the other

receives, generates and conducts electrical signals

Nervous tissue

Cytoskeleton

Network of three different types of protein filaments

45%

Neurofibromatosis is a condition in humans which is generally inherited in a dominant fashion. Assuming this disorder is 90% penetrant, what is the chance that a single child born to a father with neurofibromatosis and a mother known not to carry the mutation will have the disorder?

Paracrine signaling. They are molecules made in neurons that transmit a signal to adjacent cells and is released at the end of the neuron (synapse)

Neurotransmitters are a type of...

three (pol I, pol II, pol III)

Nuclear DNA is transcribed by _________ different RNA polymerases

Prophase

Nuclear envelope dissociates into small vesicles; Chromatids condense into more compact structures; Centrosomes begin to separate; The mitotic spindle apparatus is formed

phosphodiester bonds

Nucleotides are covalently linked together by:

human liver cells, with about 1000-2000 mitochondria per cell, making up 1/5 of cell volume

Numerous mitochondria are found in...

sugar, amino acids, and fatty acids

Nutrients used in cellular respiration are...

alternative splicing

One benefit of genes with introns is a phenomenon called _______

effects in different cell types

One hormone causes different..

False

Only proteins can be biological catalysts

DNA, divide, reproduce

Organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts are characterized as semiautonomous because: They have their own _______ molecule Can _______ and _______ on their own Depend on some of the other parts of the cell for some of their internal components

Tendency of water to move into any cell

Osmotic pressure

tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), Krebs cycle

Other names of Citric Acid Cycle?

start the cycle again

Oxaloacetate is regenerated to..

NAD+ (and along w/ hydrogen ion), resulting the formation of NADH.

Oxidation of organic molecules release electrons that bind to...

oxidation: removal of e- reduction: addition of e-

Oxidation vs. reduction

Metaphase

Pairs of sister chromatids align themselves along a plane called the metaphase plate; Each pair of chromatids is attached to both poles by kinetochore microtubules

15.626%

Phenylthiocarbamide tasting is dominant in humans. A tasting female with a non-tasting father marries a non-tasting male. If they have five children, what is the probability that only one will be a taster?

ampipathic molecules hydrophobic (water-fearing) region faces in hydrophilic (water-loving) region faces out

Phospholipids are..

hydrophobic interior

Phospolipid bilayer is a barrier to hydrophilic molecules and ions bc of it's...

A specific cell secretes a signaling molecule that INSTEAD influences the behavior of target cells nearby. Typically short in time. Usually, signal is broken down too quickly to be carried to other parts of the body.

Paracrine signaling

cAMP; epinephrine; glycogen breakdown; glycogen synthesis

Pathway that uses ___ is found in skeletal muscle cells responding to elevated levels of ______, which enhances the function of enzymes that increase _____ _____ and inhibits enzymes that cause _____ _____.

sex-influenced

Pattern or premature baldness in humans occurs in both sexes. However, in men it appears to be a dominant trait and in women a recessive trait. This is an example of a _______ trait

3 of the 3 types of membrane proteins. -noncovalently bound integral membrane proteins that project out -bound to the polar head groups of phospholipids. Bound via hydrogen/ionic bonds

Peripheral membrane proteins

white blood cells

Phagocytic vacuoles in protists and ________ for degradation

environmentally-influenced

Phenylketonuria in humans is an example of an __________ trait.

a cell wall composed of primary and secondary cell walls.

Plant cells are surrounded by...

Tightly woven together layers like animal epidermis. May be replaced by periderm with age -- bark

Plant epidermis?

3/16

Polledness (P_) and black coat color (B_) in cattle are dominant to horns (pp) and red coat color (bb). What is the probability that the mating of a bull (PpBb) and cow (PpBb) will produce one polled, red calf?

81/256

Polledness (P_) and black coat color (B_) in cattle are dominant to horns (pp) and red coat color (bb). What is the probability that the mating of a bull (PpBb) and cow (PpBb) will produce two polled and black calves?

wild-type alleles

Prevalent alleles in a population can be referred to as ______

Type of transporter that uses a pump (ATP) to transport a solute against an H+ electrochemical gradient

Primary active transport

ATP and NADH

Primary aim in cellular respiration is to make..

Mitochondria

Primary role is to make ATP; also involved in the synthesis, modification, and breakdown of several types of cellular molecules

False

Primary structure of a protein folds to form regular repeating shapes known as Beta sheets.

Primary: composed largely of cellulose Secondary: made after primary cell wall is thick and rigid

Primary vs. Secondary cell wall

transporters

Principal pathway for organic molecules such as sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides are?

Translation

Process of polypeptide synthesis

False

Prokaryotes typically have multiple linear chromosomes organized within the nucleus of the cell. (T/F)

Intermediate filaments

Protein filament intermediate in size and forms a twisted roselike structure

Post-translational sorting

Protein sorting with targeting sequences within proteins

rough ER

Proteins that contain a region called a signal peptide are most often translated directly into the lumen of the ________

ATP synthase

Protons flow through a protein known as...

hydrogen ions located in the intermembrane space

Protons in the ETC are...

pyruvate dehydrogenase to an acetyl group and CO2.

Pyruvate is broken down by...

ribose, uracil

RNA can be distinguished from DNA by the presence of the pentose sugar, ______ and nitrogenous base, _____

single

RNA is typically ________ stranded but complementary base-pairing may occur

Elongation

RNA polymerase slides along the DNA in an open complex to synthesize RNA

chemistry of the solute and its concentration. Gases and few small, uncharged molecules (O2, CO2 can passively diffuse across). Ions and large polar molecules diffuse slowly.

Rate of diffusion into a phospholipid bilayer depends on...

asexual reproduction, multicellularity

Reasons for mitotic division:

category of enzyme-linked receptors found in animals.

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

False

Regulatory elements are DNA sequences which bind transcription factors

activators, repressors

Regulatory transcription factors can either act as _________ to increase the rate of transcription or _________ to decrease the rate of transcription

Control elements, regulatory elements

Regulatory transcription factors recognize cis regulatory elements located near the core promoter called ______ or ______

Mitosis

Replication of the DNA and division of the Nucleus

Binomial expansion equation

Represents all of the possibilities for a given set of unordered events

releases; cellular activity

Respiration is one of the key ways a cell ______ chemical energy to fuel _____ ______.

All of the above

Sarah has chronic bronchitis and frequently ends up hospitalized with pneumonia. She has no family history of cystic fibrosis, a serious recessive genetic disorder which affects the respiratory and digestive tracts. She and her husband, Greg, have one child after undergoing fertility treatments to overcome Greg's infertility. They are surprised when the child is diagnosed with cystic fibrosis and the genetic counselor tells them that they each also have the condition, which causes their bronchitis and infertility. Which of the following explanations would be a reasonable explanation of their situation? A) There are several different alleles of cystic fibrosis, which cause differing forms of the disease. B) Although the underlying disease is genetic, the severity of the disorder is influenced by environmental variation. C) Cystic fibrosis displays variable expressivity. D) All of the above.

signal transduction pathways. These pathways are reversible once the signal is degraded.

Second messengers (cAMP), play a key role in ?

-Ca2- -Diacylglycerol(DAG) -inositol triphosphate (IP3)

Second messengers in signal transduction?

uses pre-existing gradient t o drive the active transport of another solute.

Secondary active transport

golgi, glycosylated

Secreted proteins are most likely to pass through the ________, particularly if they are ________ prior to being moved out of the cell.

spontaneous movement in the bilayer. Lipids can rotate and move laterally.

Semifluidity of the lipid bilayer

2 CO2, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

Series of steps releases.. ___ CO2, ___ ATP, ___ NADH, __ FADH2

False

Sex limited inheritance refers to traits that are located on the X or Y chromosome.

-agent that can influence properties of a cell -binds to a receptor to elicit a cellular response

Signal

-Second way for an activated G protein to influence signal transduction pathway -An alpha subunit can activate phospholipase C -Diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) made from plasma membrane phospholipid -Ca2+ channels in ER open -Variety of effect of Ca2+ on cell behavior

Signal transduction through diacylglycerol and inositol triphasphate is a...

divides

Signaling pathways influence whether or not a cell:

Simple: is composed of a single layer of cells (typically polarized) Stratified: is composed of multiple layers of cells

Simple vs stratified epithelium

Promoter

Site for RNA polymerase binding; signals the beginning of transcription

Gene

Smallest inheritable unit controlling a trait

electrons are transferred from one molecule to another. These can be used to make energy intermediates such as NADH

Some chemical reactions are redox reactions, in which..

quaternary

Some polypeptides associate with each other to a form a protein within a __________ structure

cytosol; linker proteins. Being bound to these filaments restricts movement of these proteins.

Some transmembrane proteins have regions that project into the _____ and are anchored to large cytoskeletal filaments via_____ _____.

1) Mitchondrial membranes may differ in permeability to protons 2) proton motive force may be used to drive other kinds of work (active transport) 3) estimate of 36 ATPs produced per glucose

Some variables that affect ATP yield include..

X-inactivation

The Lyon hypothesis attempts to explain the molecular mechanism of _____.

Receptor Activation: initial stage. Signaling molecule binds to a receptor in the target cell, causing a the receptor to activate and initiate a response that causes a series of proteins to create a signal transduction pathway

Stage 1 of cell communicaiton

Signal transduction pathway: activated receptor stimulates a series of proteins that forms a signal transduction pathway

Stage 2 of cell communication

Cellular response: signal transduction pathway affects the functions and/or amounts of cellular proteins, thereby introducing a cellular response

Stage 3 of cell communication

B and C

Statistical tests a. are useful to distinguish between competing hypotheses to explain a set of data. b. allow determination of how well a hypothesis predicts a set of experimental results. c. can provide a quantifiable measure of goodness of fit.

binds; receptor; aggregate; coat; bind; invaginates; coat proteins; vesicle Vesicle Protein coat fuses; lysosome Cargo; released; cytosol (plasma membrane folds inward to form a vesciel that brings substances into the cell)

Steps in endocytosis (receptor mediated response) One: Cargo _____ to ____ and receptors _____. The receptors cause ___ proteins to ___ to the surrounding membrane. The plasma membrane ____ as ____ ____ cause a ____ to form Two: _____ is released in the cell Three:_____ ____ is shed Four: Vesicle ____ with an internal organelle (______) Five. _____ is _____ into _____

vesicle; protein coat Vesicle; Golgi shed plasma membrane; outside (process in which material inside cell is packaged into vesicles and excerted into extracellular environment)

Steps in exocytosis: One: A ___ loaded with cargo is formed as a ____ ___ wraps around it Two: _____ is released from the Golgi, carrying cargo molecules Three: Protein coat is ___ Four: Vesicle fuses with the ___ ____and releases the cargo ____.

X-inactivation

The Lyon hypothesis attempts to explain the molecular mechanism of ________

CpG islands

Structural motifs found in transcription factor proteins include all of the following except: A) Zinc finger B) CpG islands C) helix-turn-helix D) Leucine zipper E) Helix-loop-helix

tensile strength (main protein found in bone, cartilage, tendon, and skin)

Structural proteins like collagen and fibers provide..

chromosomes

Structures within living cells that contain the genetic material are called?

rough ER

Studded with ribosomes; Involved in protein synthesis and sorting

enzyme directly transfers phosphate from one molecule to another molecule

Substrate level phosphorylation

Metabolism

Sum of all chemical reactions by cells

Forms thin fibers, often arranged in meshwork pattern. Allows for greater elasticity in tissues

Synthesis in Arteries, skin, internal organs

Forms a fairly rigid and thick fiber but is more flexible than type 1. Permits smooth movements of joints

Synthesis in Cartilage, discs between vertebrae

Forms a relatively rigid and thick fiber. Very abundant, provides most of the tensile strength to the ECM.

Synthesis in Tendons, ligaments, bones, and skin

Does not form long fibers, so proteins are arranged in meshwork pattern that provides organization and support to cell layers.Functions as a filter around capillaries.

Synthesis in skin, intestine, and kidney

Anabolism

Synthesis of cellular molecules and macromolecules

CoA molecule; glycerol-phosphate; acyl transferase; phosphate enzyme; choline; phosphotransferase; leaflet

Synthesis of lipids at ER membrane: 1) in the cytosol, fatty acid are activated by the attachment of a ___ _______. 2) the activated fatty acids bond to _____-_______ and are inserted into the cytosolic leaflet of the ER membrane via ___ _______ 3) The phosphate is removed by a _______ ________ 4) A _____ already linked to phosphate is attached via choline ____________ 5) Flippases transfer some of the phospholipids to the other ____.

smooth ER

Synthesis of phospholipids for biological membranes usually takes place at the membrane surface of the _________

true

T/F. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction

True

T/F. Proteins and fats can enter into glycolysis or the citric acid cycle at different points.

homogametic

Term used to describe that female mammals only produce gametes that contain the X chromosome?

Kreb Cycle; CO2

The 2C molecule is goign to go into the ___ ___ and the acetyl CoA carbon is given off in form of ____.

1. Relay proteins (adaptor proteins) that activate protein kinase cascade 2. Protein kinase cascade phosphorylates proteins in cell (like transcription factors) 3. Phosphorylated transcription factors stimulate gene transcription

The 3 general parts of signal transduction pathway are:

True

The U.S department of Energy Human Genome Project Information web site illustrates the size of the human genome by estimating that it would take "9.5 years to read out loud the more than 3 billion base pairs in one person's genome sequence."

chi square test

The ______ does not prove that a hypothesis is correct, it evaluates whether or not the data and the hypothesis have a good fit.

probability

The ______ of an event is the chance that an event will occur in the future.

nuclear pores

The _______ are features of the nuclear membrane that allow large macromolecules to move into and out of the nucleus

cytoskeleton

The _______ is a network of 3 different types of protein filaments that are responsible for eukaryotic cell structure and shape, organization of organelles, intracellular movement of macromolecules and cell movement

cytosol

The _______ is the region of a eukaryotic cells that is outside the cell organelles but inside the plasma membrane

sex chromosomes

The ________ are not homologous

ER, ER lumen

The ________ is composed of a network of flattened tubes called cisternae that enclose a continuous _________

transcription

The ________ of structural genes produces a long transcript known as pre-mRNA or hnRNA

translation

The ________ of the mRNA codons into amino acid sequences leads to the synthesis of proteins

primary

The ________ structure of a polypeptide within a protein sequence is its amino acid sequence

spliceosome, snRNPs

The _________ is a large complex that splices pre-mRNA and is composed of several subunits called _____ which contain small nuclear RNA and a set of proteins.

nuclear matrix

The _________ is involved in organization of chromosomes into chromosome "territories" within the nucleus

cytoskeleton

The _________ is responsible for cell structure and movement

stability

The __________ of mRNA can be regulated so that it's half-life is shortened or lengthened which will influence the mRNA concentration.

cotranslational

The ___________ sorting of ER, golgi, lysosomal, vacuolar, plasma membrane, and secreted proteins involved both sorting signals and vesicle transport.

differential gene regulation.

The amount of these proteins are controlled by ...

True

The backbones of the two DNA strands in a double helix run in opposite directions (one 5'-3' left-right, the other 5'-3' right-left)

False

The backbones of the two DNA strands in a double helix run in the same direction (one 5' to 3' left to right, the other 5' to 3' right to left)

False

The best way to identify an X-linked trait in fruit flies is that the trait affects one sex more often than the other.

silencer, down regulation

The binding of a transcription factor to a ________ decreases the rate of transcription. This is called _________

enhancer, up regulation

The binding of a transcription factor to a ________ increases the rate of transcription. This is called _________ and can be 10-1000 fold

alternative splicing

The biological advantage of ______ is that two or more polypeptides can be derived from a single gene

Anaphase

The connection holding the sister chromatids together is broken; Each chromatid, now an individual chromosome, is linked to only one pole

False (relatively short)

The core promoter is relatively long and consists of the TATA box, transcriptional start site and cell-type specific cis elements

Carl Woese

The currently accepted view for the phylogenetic classification of life was formulated by:

Marshall Nirenberg and Philip

The discovery that RNA molecules containing 3 nucleotides--a triplet--could stimulate ribosomes to bind a tRNA was made by _______ in '64

1/2 chinchilla, 1/2 himalayan

The dominance hierarchy is as follows: C> c^chinchilla > c^himalayan > c. What is the predicted phenotypic ratio for the offspring of a cross between a chinchilla rabbit heterozygous for the himalayan allele and a himalayan rabbit heterozygous for the abino allele?

protein kinases that phosphorylate proteins

The enzyme-linked receptors that have catalytic functions are..

aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetases

The enzymes that attach amino acids to tRNAs are known as _________ and there are 20 types

False

The extracellular and intracellular layers or leaflets are highly symmetrical in the plasma membrane

N-terminal (amino terminal end)

The first amino acid of a polypeptide chain has an exposed amino group said to be ________.

smooth ER

The functions of the _______ include detoxification and carbohydrate metabolism

codons

The genetic information is coded within mRNA in groups of 3 nucleotides known as _________

False

The genetic material must be able to contain an infinite amount of information

ATP (requires oxygen)

The gradient is used by ATP synthase to make...

True (even though the humane genome contains around 3.4 billion base pairs)

The human genome contains more than 2.4 billion base pairs and between 20,000 to 25,000 genes.

False (20-25,000 genes)

The human genome contains more than 3.4 billion base pairs and between 50,000 to 55,000 genes.

maternal inheritance

The inheritance of leaf pigmentation in the four-o'clock plant Mirabilis jalapa is an example of ____.

extranuclear inheritance

The inheritance patterns of genetic material that is not contained in the nucleus of the cell is called _______.

C-terminal (carboxyl terminal end)

The last amino acid has an exposed carboxyl group said to be ________

False

The mammalian mitochondrial genome is a linear chromosome

double crossover events

The middle gene of a three gene mapping experiment can be determined by examining the genotypes offspring that exhibit ___________

False

The mitochondrial genome encodes all proteins required to carry out oxidative phosphorylation

pleiotropy

The multiple effects of a single gene on the phenotype of an organism is called _______.

adenine, thymine

The nitrogenous base ________ is a purine whereas the use ________ is a pyrimidine

prophase

The nuclear envelope begins to break down in ______ of meiosis.

False (no nuclear membrane in prokaryotes)

The nuclear membrane is a single-membrane structure in prokaryotes and a double membrane structure in eukaryotes.

Phenotype

The outward appearance of an individual

Gene expression

The overall process by which the information within a gene is used to produce a functional product which can, in concert with environmental factors, can determine a trait

False

The overall structure and organization of the nucleus in a prokaryote is nearly identical to that of eukaryotes except in prokaryotes the DNA is a single circular molecule

Secretory pathway

The pathway from the ER to the Golgi to the plasma membrane is termed the:

True

The percentage of recombination associated with independent assortment should approximate 50%.

backbone

The phosphates and sugar molecules form the ______ of the nucleic acid strand

locus

The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called its _____

multiple allele system

The presence of a group of antigens that determine blood type is an example of a(n) ___________.

50 tusked males, 50 nontusked females

The presence of tusks is governed by a holandric gene in certain mammals. When a tusked male is mated to non-tusked females, among 100 offspring we would expect to find:

replicated chromosomes, daughter cells

The primary purpose of mitosis is to distribute the _________ to the two _________.

ribosomes, nucleolus

The primary site where ________ are assembled within the nucleus is called the _______

Sum rule

The probability that one of two or more mutually exclusive events will occur is the sum of their respective probabilities (either/or).

Product rule

The probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the product of their respective probabilities (both/and).

Exocytosis

The process by which large macromolecules are transported outside the cell via vesicle formation at the Golgi and subsequent fusion with the plasma membrane is called _______

gametogenesis

The process of forming gametes is called:

True

The product of a structural gene is mRNA and then a polypeptide

True

The product of a structural gene is mRNA and then a protein

Oogenesis

The production of egg cells

Spermatogenesis

The production of sperm

Initiation

The promoter functions as a recognition site for transcription factors. The transcription factor enables RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter. Following binding, the DNA is denatured into a bubble known as the open complex

catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy

The reactions involved in respiration are...

False

The rearrangement of alleles by the process of crossing over is called genetic linkage.

Overdominance

The recessive mutant allele that causes cystic fibrosis is much more frequent in Caucasians of eastern European descent than in other populations. Some scientists believe heterozygotes must have had a survival advantage during plagues such as cholera that occasionally swept through this population. What concept does this illustrate?

nucleotide

The repeating structural unit of DNA and RNA

cloverleaf

The secondary structure of tRNAs exhibits a _________ pattern.

Genotype

The specific allelic composition of an individual

incomplete penetrance

The term indicates that an allele does not always penetrate into the phenotype of the individual

Dominant trait

The trait that is seen in a heterozygous organism (hybrid)

genes, alleles

The two chromosomes in a homologous pair have the same _____ , but not necessarily the same _____

chromatids

The two copies of a replicated chromosome are termed ______

Helix-turn-helix, helix-loop-helix, zinc finger, leucine zipper

There are 4 different types of motifs:

20

There are ___ amino acids that may be found in polypeptides, each containing a different side chain, or R group.

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

There are four levels of structure in proteins:

Microtubules, intermediate filaments, actin filaments

There are three types of protein filaments in the cytoskeleton:

lethal

There are two types of Dexter cattle, short and long-legged. While long-legged are true-breeding, the offspring of matings between short-legged produce a ratio of two short-legged progeny for every long-legged progeny. What kind of inheritance is potentially involved?

fertilization

These gametes fuse with each other during ________ to begin the life of a new organism

chromatin

This complex of proteins and DNA is called:

Pyrimidine

Thymine and cytosine are __________ bases

"occulding junctions" forms a tight seal between adjacent cells and prevents ECM from leaking.

Tight junctions

A tissue is a group of cells that have a similar structure and function an organ is composed of 2+ tissues that carry out a particular function/set of functions

Tissue vs. organ

Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic

Tonicity

Sex limited trait

Traits that occur in only one of the two sexes

RNA pol I

Transcribes all rRNA genes (except for the 5s RNA)

RNA pol II

Transcribes all structural genes (mRNA) and some snRNA genes

RNA pol III

Transcribes all tRNA genes and the 5s RNA gene

domains

Transcription factor proteins have regions, called ______ that have specific functions

Initiation, elongation, termination

Transcription occurs in three stages, all of which involve protein-DNA interactions:

Ribosome, mRNA

Translation occurs on the surface termed the ________ which is composed of a large and small subunit formed from the assembly of proteins and RNA. The structure contains an aminoacyl site, a peptide site, and an exit site.. The ______ lies on the surface of the 30s subunit, the EPA sites are formed between the large and small subunits. The polypeptide chain exits in the 50s subunit.

concentration of solute is higher on one side of the membrane than the other.

Transmembrane Gradient

One or more regions are physically embedded in the hydrophobic region of phospholipid bilayer

Transmembrane protein

v-snares, t-snares

Transport from the ER via vesicles is the second step of cotranslational sorting. Vesicle budding is aided by coat proteins. Other proteins called _______ help specify the organelle the vesicle fuses with by recognition proteins called ______ on the surface of cellular organelles

(Also known as carriers) bind their solutes in a hydrophilic pocket and undergo a conformational change that switches the exposure of the pocket from one side of the membrane to the other (conformational changes transport solutes). Tend to be slower than channels. Can be uniporters, symporters, or antiporters.

Transporters

physically linked

Two genes that are located on the same chromosome are said to be _______.

homozygous

Two identical alleles

SRP protein/RNA complex

Two major functions of the _________________: Recognize the ER signal sequence and pauses translation. SRP binds to a receptor in the ER membrane, which docks the ribosome over a channel protein.

A and C

Two mothers give birth at the same time at a busy hospital. The son of couple 1 is diagnosed as having hemophilia, a disease caused by an X-linked recessive allele. However, neither of the parents is affected. Couple 2 has a normal son despite the fact that the father has hemophilia. Several years later, couple 1 decides to sure the hospital claiming that the newborns were switched at birth. Once again, you are asked to be a genetic consultant. What information can you share with the jury in regards to the allegations of couple 1? A) Because hemophilia A is X-linked recessive, the mother in couple 1 could be heterozygous even though she is normal. B) Nothing can be concluded unless both couples have a daughter to see if she has hemophilia. C) The X chromosome in male offspring is inherited from the mother, therefore even if the father has hemophilia he would not pass it to his son.

False

Typically, a recessive allele increases the expression of a functional protein.

Uniporters: single solute moves in one direction Symporter: two solutes move in dame direction Antiporter: two solutes move in opposite directions.

Uniporter Symporter Antiporter

a rigid cell all that provides support and structure

Unlike cells of bacteria, fungi and plants, animal cells are NOT surrounded by..

asymmetric

Unlike spermatogenesis, the divisions in oogenesis are _______

True

Variable expressivity means that the phenotype of a trait can vary between individuals.

golgi apparatus

Vesicles destined for exocytosis are typically derived from:

32-34

We can make up to ___ ATP.

Substrate level and Chemiosmosis

What 2 two ways of making ATP?

A or B

What are the possible blood types of the offspring of a cross between individuals that are type AB and type O? (Hint: blood type O is recessive)

A, B, and AB

What are the possible offspring from a type A mother and a type AB father?

occludin and claudin. They bind to each other to form a tight seal. They are not mechanically strong, not bound to cytoskeleton.

What are tight junctions made by?

cadherins and integrins

What are to two types of CAMs?

transmembrane proteins that provide a passageway for movement of ions and hydrophilic molecules across the phospholipid bilayer 2 classes: channels and transporters

What are transport proteins?

G2, G1

What change occurs in chromosome structure between G1 and G2 phases of interphase? Chromosomes of ___ contain two linear pieces of DNA while those in ___ only have one

-a long, linear core protein with attached GAGs.

What do proteoglycans consist of?

information, replicated, variation, transmitted

What four characteristics are essential for genetic material? 1. It must contain ______ to construct entire organism 2. It must be ______ reliably in order to be passed from parent to offspring 3. Capable of changes to account for known phenotypic ______ 4. Be ______ from parent to offspring

Very long molecules of DNA can be packed into a small space

What functional role is the three dimensional structure of DNA likely to accomplish?

Tsix

What gene appears to be controlled by the Xce?

Xist

What gene is most responsible for X-inactivation?

Xist, Tsix

What genes appear to be controlled by the Xic?

A cell is not well prepared to take up and metabolize sugar.

What happens when there is no glucose in the extracellular environment?

some of the glucose binds to receptors in the membrane which causes small changes in the intracellular and membrane proteins so cell can use glucose.

What happens when there is some glucose in the extracellular environment?

When ligand binds to receptor, creating a conformation change. Bc the binding of ligand to its receptor is a reversible process, the ligand and receptor can dissociate

What is Receptor Activation?

transmembrane protein that forms an open passageway for facilitated diffusion of ions or molecules across the membrane. Most are gated. Aquaporins. When a channel is open, a solute directly diffuses through the channel to reach the other side of the membrane.

What is a channel?

membrane proteins may be attached to molecules outside of cell (like forming extracellular matrix)

What is another reason some integral membrane proteins can't move

set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert energy from nutrients into ATP and then release waste products.

What is cellular respiration?

responding to change at the cellular level

What is cellular response?

Glycosylated nucleic acids

What is not a component of the plasma membrane? A) Glycosylated proteins B) phospholipids C) Glycolipids D) Glycosylated nucleic acids E) Cholesterol

diffusion of water across semipermeable membranes to balance solute concentrations (hypotonic to hypertonic). Type of passive diffusion.

What is osmosis?

metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing energy which is used to reform ATP

What is oxidative phosphorylatiof?

group of protein complexes and small organic molecules embedded in inner mitchondrial membrane. Can accept/donate electrons in a seris of rexod reactions.

What is the Electron transport chain (ETC)

Methylation

What is the primary molecular mechanism for imprinting a gene?

gamete formation in animals

What is the reason for meiotic division?

a channel in the outer membrane and an H+/pyruvate symporter in the inner membrane

What must pyruvate go through to reach the mitochondrial matrix to become a acetyl group?

2-dimensional, 3-dimensional

What reflects a primary difference between transmission and scanning electron microscopy? Transmission shows ____________ structure Scanning shows ___________ structure

phospholipid bilayer

What structural features of a membrane are major contributors to selective permeability?

Hydrogen (horizontally), phosphodiester (vertically)

What type of bond connects nucleotides?

Maternal inheritance

What type of inheritance is observed with extranuclear DNA?

3:1, 1:1, 1:2:1

What types of ratios are likely to occur when evaluating the segregation of two alleles at a single gene?

9:3:3:1, 1:1:1:1

What types of ratios are likely to occur when evaluating the segregation of two alleles at two genes?

ligands; into; concentration; ions transmission of signals; 2; Ca2+

When signaling molecules (_____) bind to this type of receptor, the channel opens and allows the flow of ions _____ the membrane, changing the ______ of the ___ in the cell. This is important in the ______ of _______ between neurons and muscle cells and between ____ neurons. It also allow the influx of ____ into the cytosol.

RNA splicing

When the introns are removed and the exons are connected

D

Which of the following is not one of the principles of linkage that Morgan obtained from his experiments? A. Genes that are on the same chromosome may be inherited together. B. Crossing over exchanges pieces of chromosomes and creates new allele combinations. C. The likelihood of crossing over occurring between two genes is dependent on the distance of the genes from one another. D. Genes that are on the same chromosome are always transmitted together as a unit.

when the ligand is released

When would the receptor no longer be activated?

in the extracellular leafet

Where are glycolipids?

in the cytosol and to actin or intermediate filaments

Where do CAMS bind?

in archaea. Involve attachment of carbohydrates to the amino acid asparagine in the polypeptide chain. Called N-linked because carbohydrate attaches to the nitrogen in asparagine.

Where does N-linked glycosylation occur?

only in the golgi. Addition of sugars to the oxygen atom of serine or threonine side chains in polypeptide. Is important for production of proteoglycans.

Where does O linked glycosylation occur?

Outside of mitchondria, in the cytoplasm/cytosol

Where does glycolysis take place?

mitochondrial cristae

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur in eukaryotes?

cytosolic leaflet of smooth ER

Where does synthesizing of lipids occur?

mitochondria

Where is extranuclear DNA located in mammalian cells?

M phase

Where mitosis occurs

Nucleolus

Where the ribosome assembly occurs

bound on surface to other proteins/lipids

Where will proteins be on the membrane?

unreplicated chromosome and chromatid

Which has the same amount of DNA:

Epigenetic inheritance

Which inheritance pattern is common to oogenesis, spermatogenesis, and embryogenesis?

Independent assortment

Which of Mendel's laws cannot be observed in a monohybrid cross?

splicing

Which of the following RNA modifications could best be described as "removal of intervening sequences"?

Homologous chromosomes separate during gamete formation

Which of the following accurately restates Mendel's law of segregation?

Nitrogenous base, deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group

Which of the following are key components of a DNA nucleotide?

A

Which of the following could NOT be used to describe a sex limited trait: A. This term refers to a trait controlled by a gene located on the X or Y chromosomes. B. This is a trait that occurs more frequently in one sex than another. C. This is an extreme example of a sex influenced trait. D. This trait is likely to be a secondary sex characteristic.

C

Which of the following events is LEAST likely to occur in a cross involving epistasis by both genes? A. A monohybrid has a different phenotype from either of the two parents. B. Two lines of true breeding white parents produce purple flowered offspring. C. A 9:3:3:1 ratio of F2 phenotypes is seen. D. All of these are likely to be seen in epistatic interactions.

D

Which of the following is NOT true of a maternal effect gene? A. It is located in the nuclear DNA. B. Maternal genotype affects offspring phenotype. C. It may control deposition of material into oocytes. D. It must be located on the X chromosome.

Enhancers

Which of the following is an example of a cis-acting element in eukaryotic transcription? A)Enhancers B) Transcription factors C) RNA polymerase II D) All of the above E) None of the above

A

Which of the following is not an event of anaphase of mitosis? a) The nuclear envelope breaks down b) Sister chromatids separate c) Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling chromosomes to the pole d) Polar microtubules push against each other, moving the pole further apart e) All of the above occur

D

Which of the following is not correct concerning epistatic interactions? A. They can be associated with enzymatic pathways. B. They produce variations in the expected 9:3:3:1 ratio of a dihybrid cross. C. They can result when a gene at one locus masks the expression of a gene at a different locus. D. They always result in a 9:7 ratio of a dihybrid cross. E. They are due to gene interactions.

B

Which of the following is the best example of overdominance? A. Two lines of true breeding white parents produce purple flowered offspring. B. Two lines of true breeding tomatoes that are susceptible to verticillium wilt (a fungal infection) produce offspring that are resistant to verticillium wilt. C. Two true breeding lines, one tall and one short, produce offspring of medium height. D. Two true breeding lines, one tall and one short, produce all tall offspring.

B

Which of the following statements about nurse cells are true? A. They are haploid. B. They are able to express both alleles present in the female. C. They are precursors of the embryo

C

Which of the following statements about the structure of DNA is incorrect? A) One complete turn requires 3.4 nm and 10 base pairs B) The backbones of each strand run in opposite directions relative to each other C) Each pair of nucleotides held together by 3 hydrogen bonds D) The width of the molecule is constant 2nm E) The DNA helix is right handed PUT LETTER

C

Which of the following statements regarding X inactivation in mammals is FALSE? A. The process is entirely random. B. X inactivation may occasionally occur in males. C. This process ensures a homogenous phenotype in heterozygotes. D. X inactivation occurs early in embryonic development.

B

Which of the following statements regarding epigenetic inheritance is FALSE? A. Epigenetic inheritance can be reset during gametogenesis. B. Epigenetic inheritance can temporarily affect an individual. C. Epigenetic inheritance does not involve a change in DNA sequence.

Chi-square test

Which of the following statistical tests is used to determine if two genes are linked or assorting independently?

Both RNA and proteins (specifically rRNA)

Which of the following would you expect if you took apart a ribosome?

both RNA and protein (specifically snRNA)

Which of the following would you expect if you took apart a spliceosome?

Chloroplasts

Which structure distinguishes plant cells from animal cells?

15 mp

While mapping two genes in Drosophila, you observe 30 recombinants among 200 total offspring. What is the distance between these genes?

Barr

Who originally identified a highly condensed structure in the interphase of nuclei?

it is energetically unstable bc the polar head group would have to pass through the hydrophobic region of the bilayer. Instead, the enzyme flippase uses ATP to flip phospholipids from one leaflet to the other.

Why does flip-flop not happen spontaneously?

Because it contains lipids, proteins, and carbohydrate molecules

Why is a membrane considered a fluid mosaic model?

, the electron is going to be added to other protons and oxygen that we breath in, which creates water!

With the build up of protons...

incomplete dominance

Yellow mice are intermated. The offspring are 15 gray and 31 yellow mice. The most likely explanation for this ratio is:

interference

You calculate map distances between genes A, B, and C based on all pairwise dihybrid crosses. When you perform the trihybrid cross to verify your results, you discover that, despite analysis of a very large number of progeny, you have only about half as many double crossover progeny as you expect. Which explanation is the most reasonable? You are seeing an example of __________

monohybrid, 3:1

You capture several interesting insects from a population in your yard. By inbreeding, you develop true breeding strains that differ only in the shape of their wings- one strain has round wings while the other strain has oval wings. How might you demonstrate that Mendel's principles apply to your insects? Set up a _________ cross and determine if your F2 results are predicted by a ______ ratio based on the law of segregation.

3 normal: 1 variegated and colorless

You cross a true breeding normal corn plant with a true breeding plant with variegated seed coat and colorless endosperm. You suspect the genes are linked, so you cross one of the resulting normal offspring to a true breeding variegated, colorless plant. What are your expected results if the genes are completely linked?

B

You develop an inbred strain of mice that display one of two distinct syndromes. What evidence might lead you to believe that these mice are mutant for a gene or genes affected by imprinting? A. The two syndromes occur randomly in the colony of mice. B. All mice of the same litter have the same syndrome. C. All mice have the same syndrome as their mother. D. All mice have the same syndrome as their father.

Lysosomes, acid hydrolases

_______ are the location where recycling of cellular macromolecules and organelles is carried out by _______

Purines, pyrimidines

_______ contain a double ring backbone, while _______ contain a single ring backbone

Nucleus

_______ is large and occupies 10-20% of cell volume

B

You find a pink geranium in your flowerbed of red geraniums. Seeds from self fertilization of this plant produce ¼ red plants, ½ pink plants, and ¼ white plants. When considering the visible phenotype, which explanation is most likely? A. The soil in which the pink plant was growing was deficient in a critical nutrient. B. The pink plant had a new mutation, creating an allele to which the wild type "red" is incompletely dominant. C. The pink plant had a new mutation, creating an allele which is incompletely dominant to red. D. The pink plant had a new mutation, creating an allele which is codominant to "red".

30% fewer

You have calculated the interference value for a given mapping experiment to be 30%. What does this mean? _______ double crossovers occurred than expected

C

You set up a cross between true breeding wild type male fruit flies and true breeding female flies with a yellow body color. You notice in the F1 generation that half the flies, specifically all the males, have yellow body color while the females are wild type (gray). Which of the following explanations is the most likely? A. Some of your females had already mated with yellow males before you collected them. B. Some of your parental flies must have had a new mutation in their germ cells. C. The mutation which causes yellow body color is on the X chromosome. D. The mutation which causes yellow body color is on the Y chromosome.

A

You set up a monohybrid cross between true breeding round winged and true breeding oval winged insects. Your F1 offspring have round wings, and you collect the following numbers of F2: round wings: 302, oval wings: 86. Which of the following is NOT correct? A) The critical value for the chi square calculation is 7.815. B) The chi square value for this calculation is 1.663 C) Mendel's rules accurately predict the outcome of this cross

Crossing over does not occur in male fruit flies

You set up the following dihybrid mapping cross in fruit flies. P e+e+ roro cq cq x ee ro+ro+ cq+cq+. After backcrossing F1 males to ee roro cq cq females, you get the following results: gray body, rough eyes, claret eyes 576; ebony body, smooth, red eyes 564. How can you explain this result?

False

You would expect individuals with type B blood to produce the anti-B antibody.

Mitosis, cytokinesis

______ and ______ ultimately produce two daughter cells having the same number and complement of chromosomes as the mother cell

Proteins; polysaccharides -strength, structural support, organization, and cell signaling. Proteins form large fibers, polysaccharides give a gel-like character.

______ and _______ are the major constituents of the ECM in animals. What are these materials involved in?

mRNA

______ encodes the sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide

Catabolic

______ enzymes break down large molecules into small ones.

Anabolic

______ enzymes synthesize molecules and macromolecules (construction of molecules)

tRNA

______ has two functions: 1. Recognizing a 3-base codon in mRNA 2. Carrying an amino acid that is specific for that codon

Epistasis

______ is when one gene can mask the expression of a second gene

Mitosis

______ produces daughter cells that are genetically identical

Meiosis

______ produces daughter cells that are not genetically identical

Endomembrane system

_______ is the network of membranes enclosing the plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes

translation, ribosomes

_______ of proteins is performed by ________ within the cytosol of eukaryotic cells

cytosolic, cytosol

_______ proteins are synthesized in the ______ and remain there due to the lack of a sorting signal.

trans

_______-acting elements are regulatory proteins that bind to such DNA sequences

tRNAs

________ are small noncoding RNA chains that transport amino acids to the ribosome. They have a site for amino acid attachment and a site called an anticodon

Independent events

________ are those in which the occurrence of one does not affect the probability of another

rRNA

________ is necessary for the translation of mRNA. Ribosomes are composed of both _____ and protein subunits

cis

________-acting elements are DNA sequences that exert their effects over a particular gene. Examples are the TATA box, enhancers, and silencers

Polar

_________ amino acids are hydrophilic and there are neutral, acidic, and basic amino acids

Non-polar

_________ amino acids are hydrophobic and they are aliphatic and aromatic amino acids

Nucleotides

_________ are covalently linked together by phosphodiester bonds

Transcription factors, general, regulatory

_________ are proteins that influence the ability of RNA polymerase to transcribe a given gene. There are two types: ________ and _________.

General transcription factors

_________ are required for the binding of the RNA pol to the core promoter and its progression to the elongation stage and are necessary for basal transcription.

Regulatory transcription factors

_________ serve to regulate the rate of transcription of target gens and they influence the ability of RNA pol to begin transcription of a particular gene.

Regulatory elements, enhancers, silencers

___________ are short DNA sequences that affect the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter. _________ stimulate transcription and _________ inhibit transcription.

Gene regulation

____________ is necessary to ensure: 1. Expression of genes in an accurate pattern during the various developmental stages of the life cycle 2. Differences among distinct cell types

Alternative splicing, spliceosome, splicing factors, inhibit, enhance

____________ refers to the phenomenon that the pre-mRNA can be spliced in more than one way. It produces 2 or more polypeptides with different amino acid sequences. The _________ recognizes the 5' and 3' splice sites and removes the intervening intron. _________ modulate the ability of spliceosomes to recognize/choose splice sites. Some _____ or _____ the ability of a spliceosome to recognize a splice site.

capping, poly A tailing

mRNA transcripts usually have 5' _______ and 3' ________

interference, 21-23

microRNAs (miRNAs) or short-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) cause RNA __________. It gives rise to small RNA molecules, typically _________ nucleotides. It silences the expression of specific mRNAs

Actin

microfilaments also known as _______

False

mtDNA contains all of the genes necessary for the complete function of mitochondrial metabolism.

17,000, circular, mitochondria, rRNA, tRNA

mtDNA is around _______ bp in length, is a _______ chromosome, multiple copies exist in each _______, and it mostly contains ____ and _____ genes.

27%

n a mapping cross, you determine that the recombination frequency between: loci Q and P is 12% loci Q and L is 15%. If locus Q is in between loci P and L, then the recombination frequency between P and L should be approximately:

G proteins (bc of their ability to bind to GTP and GDP).

receptors on GPCRs interact with intracellular proteins called..

alpha-helices, beta sheets

there are two types of secondary structures:

adherens junctions desmosomes hemidesmosomes focal adhesions

what are the 4 types of anchoring junctions?