Ant 210
two suborders of primates
2 suborders: lemur forms, loris forms, tarsiers, and anthropoids
When does writing first emerge in the archaeological record
3000 b.c.
ethnography
A description of a society's customary behaviors and ideas
culture history
A history of the cultures that lived in a given area over time. Until the 1950s, building such culture histories was a primary goal of archaeological research
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
A hominoid found in Chad dating to around 7 million years ago.
primate
A member of the mammalian order Primates, divided into the two suborders of prosimians and anthropoids
chronometric dating
A method of dating fossils in which the actual age of a deposit or specimen is measured. Also known as absolute dating
relative dating
A method of dating fossils that determines the age of a specimen or deposit relative to a known specimen or deposit
Homo ergaster
A species closely related to Homo erectus but found only in East Africa. Some scholars do not see enough difference between Homo erectus and Homo ergaster to count them as different species.
paleoanthropology
The study of human evolution
human paleontology
The study of the emergence of humans and their later physical evolution. Also called paleoanthropology
lithics
The technical name for tools made from stone
half-life
The time it takes for half of the atoms of a radioactive substance to decay into atoms of a different substance
unifacial tool
unifacial toolGot It!Not Yet A tool worked or flaked on one side only
Why are we so unsure about the adaptations of the earliest primates?
We still have very little fossil evidence of these animals
Cuneiform
Wedge shaped writing invented by the Sumerians around 300 b.c.
Sahelanthropus tchandensis
a hominoid found in Chad dating 7 million years ago
pierolapithecus
a middle miocene ape that has wrists and vertebrae that would have made it capable of brachiation, but also has relatively short fingers like modern monkeys
Which of the following is absent among hominoids?
a tail
artifact
an object made by human
What are two types of explanations that are sought out in science
associations & theories
what are the two types of explanations that are sought in science?
associations & theories
why is cross-cultural research more appropriate for testing hypothesis rather than single-site studies?
because phenomena in single cultures could be due to historical accident
the drying trend in climate
began about 16-18 million years ago and diminished the extent of African rain forests and gave rise to areas of savanna (grasslands) and scattered deciduous woodlands which favored characteristics adapted to ground living in some primates, including bipedalism
sexual dimorphism is characteristic of which of the following primate groups
cercopithecines
Some scholars argue that cultural relativists are acting hypocritically by __________.
claiming that tolerance is a universal principle
from one region to another most adaptive biological characteristics demonstrate which of the following?
clinal variation
why is the concept of race not useful for understanding human biological variation
clines do not alway coincide in ways that match racial categories
Ethnogenesis
creation of a new culture
which of the following can explain the physical variation seen in human beings
cultural practices, genetic differences and the interaction of genes and the natural environment
maldaptive customs
cultural traits that diminish the chances of survival and reproduction in an particular environment
adaptive customs
cultural tratis that enhance survival and reproductive success in a particular environment
The idea of "dual inheritance" sees human behavior as deriving from both __________ and __________
culture; genetics
Unlike ethnologists, ethnographers __________.
describe a given society based on their own fieldwork
what kind of natural selection accounts for increased bacterial resistance to antibiotics
directional selection
At present, archaeologists define the Neolithic in terms of the presence of __________
domesticated plants and animals
omnivorous
eating both meat & vegetatation
the worldwide spread of cultural features in particularly notable in which domain of human activity
economics
relationship b/t features and ecofacts
features may include ecofacts
foraging
food getting strategy that obtains wild plant and animal resources through gathering, hunting, scavaging
bilophodont
having four cusps on the molars that form two parallel ridges. this is the common molar pattern of old world monkeys
Taurodontism
having teeth with an enlarged pulp cavity
what is one reason why observed behavior sometimes differs from the ideal cultural traits of a society
ideal cultural traits may reflect behaviors from the past that have since changed
How are cultural constraints likely to affect the type of information ethnographers collect
informants may be more likely to discuss elements they view as traditional & customary
What is a characteristic of the city of Teotihuacan
it was laid out in a standard grid pattern
which of the following are characteristics of hominoids
large brains, long arms, short trunks & strong hands
What does adaptive mean in an evolutionary sense
leading to greater reproductive success in a specific environment
bipedalism
locomotion in which an animal walks on its two hind legs
How do mRNA and DNA work together
mRNA copies a portion of DNA and moves outside the cell nucleus to direct the formation of proteins
what were the disadvantages of bipedalism
makes it harder to overcome gravity to supply the brain with sufficient blood and the weight of the body above the pelvis and lower limbs puts greater stress on the lower skeleton
what two main groups of anthropoid fossils were found in the Fayum area dating b/t 35 million and 31 milliion years ago
monkeylike parapithecids & apelike propliopithecids
what role do mutations play in natural selection
mutations provide material for natural selection to work with
which of the following indicates a way in which the principles of biological evolution fail to completely explain culture change
people sometimes promote cultural practices that are known to have harmful consequences
what explanation for why people born at high altitudes do not suffer hypoxia is supported by recent scientific evidence?
people who live at high altitudes acclimatize to their environmental conditions
which of the following is reflected in primate dental patterns
primates are omnivorous
Ethnocentric
refers to judgement of other cultures soley in terms of one's own culture
which statement about jean baptiste lamarcks theory is correct
scientist have not found evidence to support his theory
Primates have a stronger sense of __________ and a weaker sense of __________ than other mammals
sight; smell
which changes to the climate had a significant impact on primate evolution during the Miocene
southern eurisia and eastern africa became drier due to continental drift
norms
standards or rules about what is acceptable behavior
when antrhopologists obseve that some "bundles" of traits are generally found together in certain kinds of cultures, they may conclude
that those traits are particularly adaptive to specific similar sets of circumstances
oligocene
the geological epoch 34 million to 24 million years ago during which definite anthropoids emerged
hominoids
the group of hominoids consisting of humans & their direct ancestors. it contains at least two genera: homo and australopithecus
theories
Explanations of associations or laws
what cultural practice compensates for the absence of lactase production in dairying populations
transforming milk into cheese and yogurt
the incidence of malaria tends to increase in areas where
tropical forests have been cut down for agriculture
taurodontism
Having teeth with an enlarged pulp cavity.
cultural ecology
The analysis of the relationship between a culture and its environment
excavation
The careful removal of the archaeological deposits; the recovery of artifacts, ecofacts, fossils, and features from the soil in which those deposits have been buried
cercopitehcoids
old world monkeys
which of the following contributes to the primates ability to grip
sensitive pads found on the heels and palms
common primate traits
skeletal, dietary, sensory, brain and developmental elements 2 bones in lower leg and forearm, collarbone, omnivorous eating patterns, flexible prehensile hands, forward facing eyes and vision, large brain, long matruation
parapithecids
small monkey like oligocene primates found in the fayum area of egypt
As an alternative to environmental circumscription, Carneiro proposed that _________ could lead to state formation
social circumscription
which of the following summarizes the visual predation theory for the emergence of primates
stereoscopic vision, reduced claws, and grasping hands and feet were better for catching insects
What factor, in addition to nutrition and disease, may be related to adult height?
stress in infancy
what are chromosomes
structures in a cell's nucleus that transmit traits across generations
playtyrrhines
the group of antrhopoids that have broad, flat bridged noses, with nostrils facing outward; these monkeys are currently found only in the new world
catarrhines
the group of antrhopoids with narrow noses & nostrils face downward. monkeys of the old world (africa, asia and europe) as well as apes and humans
Discuss the domestication of plants & animals in the Near east., Mesoamerica and elsewhere in the world
Domestication refers to changes in plants & animals that make them more useful to humans. Often, without human assistance, domesticated plants and animals cannot reproduce. Neolithic cultures reflect the presence of domestication The earliest evidence of domestication comes from the Near east at about 8000 b.c.
kenyapithecus
a ape like primate from the middle miocen found in east africa. it had very thickly enameled teeth and robust jaws, suggesting a diet of hard tough food. probably some what terrestrial
Compared to the historian, the archaeologist is __________.
more likely to study very ancient cultures
Until recently, the prevailing view was that humans were __________.
not present south of Alaska until after 11,500 years ago
Which of these is an example of ethnographic analogy?
observing the use of tools by contemporary societies to determine how they were used thousands of years ago
what is meant by the term meme as used by william durham
the unit of cultural transmission
how are andean head binding and jewish male circumcision similar
they are both cultural ways of physically differentiating one group from another
how are biological evolution and cultural evolution similar
they both rely on the principle of variability
how do scientific creationists reconcile natural selection with creation by god
they say that natural selection can create variation within a species that was created by God
how do anthropologists approach individual variation when studying a culture
they try to measure the parameters of individual variation
Why did african americans rarely drink milk in the 1960's
they were often lactose intolerant
why are omomyids considered tarsier like
they were small and had large eyes and long tarsal bones
How do states further the potential of an area to support a larger & denser population
through the creation of infrastructure
We know that domestication was present in Africa after 6000 B.C. What is still unknown about African domestication?
whether the first crops were indigenous or borrowed
which of the following is an ethical dilemma posed by ethnographic research
whether to publish details about cultural practices that readers may find objectionable
which of the following factors into whether a society becomes multicultural
whether voluntary resistance to the dominant group's cultural traits is permitted
anthropology
A discipline that studies humans, focusing on the study of differences and similarities, both biological and cultural, in human populations
Kenyanthropus platyops
A nearly complete 3.5-million-year-old skull found in western Kenya. It is thought by some scholars to be a species of australopithecine (and hence should not be regarded as a separate genus)
ethnographer
A person who spends some time living with, interviewing, and observing a group of people to describe their customs
prognathic
A physical feature that is sticking out or pushed forward, such as the faces in apes and some hominid species
statistical association
A relationship or correlation between two or more variables that is unlikely to be due to chance
atlatl
A spear propelled off a grooved board; named for the Aztec word for "spear-thrower."
historical archaeology
A specialty within archaeology that studies the material remains of recent peoples who left written records
Acheulian
A stone toolmaking tradition dating from 1.5 million years ago. Acheulian assemblages have more large tools created according to standardized designs or shapes.
hand axe
A teardrop-shaped stone tool characteristic of Acheulian assemblages.
soft hammer
A technique of stone tool manufacture in which a bone or wood hammer is used to strike flakes from a stone
Blade
A thin flake whose length is usually more than twice its width. In the blade technique of toolmaking, a core is prepared by shaping a piece of flint with hammer stones into a pyramidal or cylindrical from. Blades are then struck off until the core is used up.
variable
A thing or quantity that varies
__________ involves physiological adjustments in individuals to environmental conditions.
Acclimatization
Which three disciplines are used frequently by biological anthropologists?
Epidemiology, population biology, and human genetics
dryopithecus
genus of ape from the later miocen found primarily in europe. it had thin tooth enamel and pointed molar cusps very similar to those of the fruit eating chimps of today
cretaceous
geological epoch 135 millon to 65 million years ago, during which dinosaurs & other reptiles ceased to be the dominant land vertebrates, and mammals and birds began to become important
Ethnographic analogy
method of comparative cultural study that extrapolates to the past from recent or currents societies
Storage pits and grinding stones found in northern china indicate that _________ was an important part of the Neorlithic diet there
millet
how does cultural relativism affect the application of anthropology to real world problems
it encourages thoughtful understanding & respect when developing solutions to social problems
what is one reason publishing archaeological results is so important
it fosters historic preservation
What criterion did Henry Wright & Gregory Johnson propose as a way to determine whether or not a settlement was a state?
it had to have at least three levels of political administration
why do some revolutions fail to measure up to expectations
often the old regime is replaced with a new regime that is also repressive
anthropoids
one of the two suborders of primates; includes monkeys apes and humans
What is a dominant trait?
one which is always expressed in the presence of another variant
Barring ethical considerations, what is the best way to test the idea that facial features are influenced by environment instead of by biology?
raise genetically identically individuals in contrasting environments
Domestication
Modification or adaptation of plants and animals for use by humans. When people plant crops, we refer to the process as cultivation. It is only when the crops cultivated and the animals raised have been modified- are different from wild varieties- that we speak of plant and animal domestication
what does a scientist conclude when a hypothesis appears to be incorrect
something is wrong with the theory or the test of the theory
fossils
The hardened remains or impressions of plants and animals that lived in the past
Describe the environment of the Upper Paleolithic world
The period of cultural history known as the Upper Paleolithic in Europe, the Near East, and Asia or the Later Stone Age in Africa dates from about 40,000- to 14, 000-10,000 yeas ago An ice age dominated this period. Glaciers covered much of northern Europe and N. America and annual temperatures reached 50 degrees F. below today's temperatures. N. Africa was much wetter than today and S. Asia, drier
Lower Paleolithic
The period of the Oldowan and Acheulian stone tool traditions.
proconsul
the best known genus of protoapes from the early miocene
which of the following is an example of normalizing selection
the birth weights of babies level out
miocene
the geological epoch from 24 million to 5.2 million years ago
hominins
the group of hominoids consisting of humans & their direct ancestors
plesiadipis
the most well known of the plesiadipiforms, possibly an archaic primate
With whom do social relationships begin for all primates?
the mother
continental drift
the movement of the continents over the past 135 million years
globalization
the ongoing spread of goods, people, information and capital around the world
Identify features of Lower Paleolithic cultures
The stone tool tradition of Homo erectus are called Lower Paleolithic cultures. Lower Paleolithic tools and other cultural artifacts from 1.6 million - 200,000 years ago were probably produced by H. erectus The most well known tool tradition of this period is called Acheulian. It includes small flake tools, but hand axes and large bifacial tools are characteristics Evindence indicates that H. erectus are big game but may not have hunted those animals. Although H. erectus possibly used fire to survive in colder arears, no evidence confirms that H. erectus controlled fire. Evidence of ritual behavior is scant.
sociolinguistics
The study of cultural and subcultural patterns of speaking in different social contexts
cultural anthropology
The study of cultural variation and universals in the past and present
human variation
The study of how and why contemporary human populations vary biologically
stratigraphy
The study of how different rock formations and fossils are laid down in successive layers or strata. Older layers are generally deeper or lower than more recent layers
descriptive (structural) linguistics
The study of how languages are constructed
historical linguistics
The study of how languages change over time
biological (physical) anthropology
The study of humans as biological organisms, dealing with the emergence and evolution of humans and with contemporary biological variations among human populations
Occipital torus
a ridge of bone running horizontally across the back of the skull in apes and some homininds
Microlith
a small, razorlike blade fragment that was probably attached in a series to a wooden or bone handle to form a cutting edge
Atlatl
a spear propelled off a grooved board; named for the Aztec word for "spea-thrower"
Hand axe
a teardrop shaped stone tool characteristic of Acheulian assemblages
statistically signifigant
Refers to a result that would occur very rarely by chance. The result (and stronger ones) would occur fewer than 5 times out of 100 by chance
homo sapiens
All living people belong to one biological species, Homo sapiens, which means that all human populations on earth can successfully interbreed. The first Homo sapiens may have emerged about 200,000 years ago
explaination
An answer to a why question. In science, there are two kinds of explanation that researchers try to achieve: associations and theories
Orrorin tugenensis
An apparently bipedal primate dating 5.8 and 6 million years ago making it the earliest known hominin
Orrorin tugenensis
An apparently bipedal primate dating to between 5.8 and 6 million years, making it possibly the earliest known hominin
stratified
An archaeological deposit that contains successive layers or strata
Australopithecus sediba
An australopithecine from South Africa that dates to around 2 million years ago and has some Homo-like features.
cross-cultural researcher
An ethnologist who uses ethnographic data about many societies to test possible explanations of cultural variation to discover general patterns about cultural traits
features
Artifacts of human manufacture that cannot be removed from an archaeological site. Hearths, storage pits, and buildings are examples of features
laws (scientific)
Associations or relationships that almost all scientists accept
Relate the end of the Upper Paleolithic to climate change and the develpment of Maglemosian culture
At the end of the ice age, around 14,000 years ago, the climate began to become more temperate. Many large animals that Upper Paleolithic people relied upon for food went extinct , and at the same time new, warmer-adapted plants provided a rich, new food source Evidence from the Maglemosian culture of northern Europe shows adaptations from big game hunting to reliance on smaller animal food sources. Maglemosians used stone tools to chop down trees and use the wood from shelter and canoes Around the world, people began to use more plant foods and a broader range of resources overall. In many parts of the world, people began experimenting with domesticating plants and animals as they began to follow a more sedentary lifestyle
explain the evolution of Homo erectus
Homo erectus emerged 1.8 million - 1.6 million years ago. It had larger brain capacity than Homo habilis and essentially modern skeleton. What differentiates H. erectus most from modern humans is the long low skull with prominent browridges Homo erectus was the first homonin species to be widely distributed in the Old World. Some scholars reserve Homo erectus for those populations living outside Africa and call the African populations Homo-ergaster Another species of homonin lived at the time, Homo floresiensis, a mini form of Homo erectus found only on an island in Indonesia As Homo erectus evolved brain size increased, tooth and jaw size decreased and the tool use increased. Sexual dimorphism decreased, explained by pair bonding patterns Homo erectus was able to adapt to new environments very quickly and without apparent physical changes which suggests that the species primary mechanisms of adaptation were cultural rather than biological
Which of these is an example of a maladaptive trait?
Humans are prone to back pain and varicose veins because we walk upright.
How did Cuvier's theory of catastrophism conflict with early evolutionary thinking?
It held that disasters, like floods or earthquakes, completely wiped out species, and new ones were created to replace them.
How did Roberts's research provide support for Bergmann's rule?
It showed that the lowest body weights were found in areas with the highest mean annual temperatures.
indicator artifacts and ecofacts
Items that changed relatively rapidly and which, thus, can be used to indicate the relative age of associated items
toward the end of the Acheulian period, a technique developed that enabled toolmakers to produce flake tools of a predetermined size, which was called the __________ method.
Levalloisian
Discuss the anatomical characteristics of the Neandertais and the relationship b/t Neandertals and Homo sapiens
Most anthropologists agree that Homo erectus began to evolve into Homo sapiens after 500,000 years ago, but do not agree about how and when the transition occured. The mixed traits of the transitional fossils include large cranial capacities, together with low foreheads and large browridges, which are characteristics of H. erectus speciments Some scholars have suggested that the "transitional" fossils share common traits and may actually represent a seperate species - Homo heidelbergensis The Neandertals genetically distinct from modern humans, evolved in Europe by about 200,000 year ago. They were robust, with large brains and faces, and had a complex culture that used sophisticated stone tools and practiced possibly complex ritual behavior. The earliest definite H. sapiens, who did not look completely like modern humans, appeared about 160,000 years ago Homo sapiens have been found in many parts of the Old World - in Africa and Asia as well as in Europe
Why are most traits not simply a matter of dominant and recessive inheritance?
Most traits are influenced by the activity of many different genes.
ecofacts
Natural items that humans have used; things such as the remains of animals eaten by humans or plant pollens found on archaeological sites are examples of ecofacts
in order to research the health practices of a group of islanders in the South Pacific, a cultural anthropologist would ______.
Observe behaviors associated with diet, traditional medicine, and activity level
hypothesis
Predictions, which may be derived from theories, about how variables are related
Foramen magnum
Opening in the base of the skull through which the spinal chord passes in route to the brain
foramen magnum
Opening in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes en route to the brain.
Neolithic
Originally meaning "of the new stone age", now meaning the presence of domesticated plants and animals. The earliest evidence of domestication comes from the Near East about 8000 b.c.
primatologists
People who study primates
Ardipithecus ramidus
Perhaps the first hominin dating 4.5 million years ago. Its dentition combines apelike and australopithecine-like features and skeleton suggests it was bipedal
Ardipithecus ramidus
Perhaps the first hominin, dating to about 4.5 million years ago. Its dentition combines apelike and australopithecine-like features, and its skeleton suggests it was bipedal.
Sedentarism
Settled life
falsification
Showing that a theory seems to be wrong by finding that implications or predictions derivable from it are not consistent with objectively collected data
theoretical construct
Something that cannot be observed or verified directly
The city of Warka is associated with which ancient civilization
Sumer
Explain the relationship of Denisovans to Neandertals and modern humans
The Denisovans are known from a handful of skeletal fragments found at a single site in southern Siberia DNA recovered from those fragments revealed that they belonged to a unique species of hominin that had interbred with modern humans and contributed some of its DNA to us
sampling universe
The list of cases to be sampled from
Why are mtDNA and Y chromosome DNA so important for evolutionary genetics?
They are the only types of DNA that do not undergo recombination
Some people use the word "race" as an explanation of the quality of a culture. What is their argument?
They believe that "developed" nations are "white," while the "underdeveloped" nations are not.
What purpose might the caches of stone tools and stones for toolmaking left at various sites in East Africa serve for the hominins who made them?
They facilitated recurrent food collecting and processing at the site
Archaic
Time period in the New World during which food production first developed
Which of the following may have been the result of the development of complex agriculture at Ali Kosh
the population tripled b/t 5500 b.c. and 4500 b.c.
Prognathic
a physical feature that is sticking out or pushed forward, such as the face in apes and some hominid species
Burin
A chisel like stone tool used for carving and for making such artifacts as bone and antler needles, awls and projectile points
burin
A chisel-like stone tool used for carving and for making such artifacts as bone and antler needles, awls, and projectile points
How did the goals of archaeology change in the 1950s?
Anthropology was changing, shifting from historical particularism to a variety of new approaches.
Homo heidelbergensis
A transitional species between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.
The earliest stone toolmaking tradition, named after the tools found in Bed I at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, from about 2.5 million years ago.
A australopithecine, dating to about 2.5 million years ago
potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating
A chronometric dating method that uses the rate of decay of a radioactive form of potassium (40K) into argon (40Ar) to date samples from 5,000 years to 3 billion years old. The K-Ar method dates the minerals and rocks in a deposit, not the fossils themselves
radiocarbon (or carbon-14, 14C) dating
A dating method that uses the decay of carbon-14 to date organic remains. It is reliable for dating once-living matter up to 50,000 years old
operational definition
A description of the procedure that is followed in measuring a variable
theoretical orientation
A general attitude about how phenomena are to be explained
Society
A group of people who occupy a particular territory and speak a common language not generally understood by neighboring peoples. By this definition, societies do not necessarily correspond to countries
Levalloisian method
A method that allowed flake tools of a predetermined size to be produced from a shaped core.
occipital torus
A ridge of bone running horizontally across the back of the skull in apes and some hominids.
random sample
A sample in which all cases selected have had an equal chance to be included
microlith
A small, razorlike blade fragment that was probably attached in a series to a wooden or bone handle to form a cutting edge
hard hammer
A technique of stone tool manufacture where one stone is used to knock flakes from another stone. Flakes produced through hard hammer percussion are usually large and crude.
blade
A thin flake whose length is usually more than twice its width. In the blade technique of toolmaking, a core is prepared by shaping a piece of flint with hammerstones into a pyramidal or cylindrical form. Blades are then struck off until the core is used up
Mousterian tool assemblage
A tool assemblage that has a smaller proportion of large core tools such as hand axes and cleavers and a bigger proportion of small flake tools such as scraper
bifacial tool
A tool worked or flaked on two sides
indirect percussion
A toolmaking technique common in the Upper Paleolithic
Indirect percussion
A toolmaking technique common in the Upper Paleolithic. After shaping a core into a pyramidal or cylindrical form, the tool maker can put a punch of antler or wood or another hard material into position and strike it with a hammer. Using a hummer-struck punch enabled toolmakers to strike off consistently shaped blades
percussion flaking
A toolmaking technique in which one stone is struck with another to remove a flake.
Australopithecus bahrelghazali
An early australopithecine, dating to about 3 million years ago, and currently represented by only a single jaw. It is an interesting species because it is found in western Chad, distant from the East African Rift Valley where all other early australopithecines have been found
ethnohistorian
An ethnologist who uses historical documents to study how a particular culture has changed over time
sagittal keel
An inverted V-shaped ridge running along the top of the skull in Homo erectus
Which state served as a center of trade b/t Africa and Arabian Peninsula in the 1st millennium A.D.
Axum
Which scholar proposed the idea that male hominins needed their hands free to carry food back to females and babies, waiting at a home base
C. Owen Lovejoy
Homo habilis
Dating from about 2 million years ago, an early species belonging to our genus, Homo, with cranial capacities averaging about 630-640 cc, about 50 percent of the brain capacity of modern humans.
Why do brothers and sisters not look exactly alike?
Each fertilized egg gets a random assortment of genes from the mother and the father.
Homo rudolfensis
Early species belonging to our genus, Homo. Similar enough to Homo habilis that some paleoanthropologists make no distinction between the two.
fieldwork
Firsthand experience with the people being studied and the means by which anthropological information is obtained. Fieldwork usually involves participant-observation for an extended period of time, often a year or more
Australopithecus
Genus of Pliocene and Pleistocene hominins
What was one of the ways that Franz Boas brought about the end of the evolutionism period in early anthropology?
He was strongly opposed to "race" theory, and emphasized the importance of cultural context.
Describe early Homo species
Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis from about 2.3 million years ago have larger brains, smaller faces and teeth early Homo appears to have used tools and scavenged or hunted meat. the evolution of behavior seems to have played a role in physical changes
Cro-Magnoons
Humans who lived in western Europe about 35,000 years ago, were once thought to be the earliest specimens of modern looking humans. But it is now known that modern-looking humans appeared earlier outside of Europe; the earliest outside of Europe; the earliest so far found lived in Africa
Cro-Magnons
Humans who lived in western Europe about 35,000 years ago; they were once thought to be the earliest specimens of modern-looking humans.
Explain the relationship b/t broad spectrum collecting, sedentarism and population growth in terms of preagricultural developments
In the period immediately b/f plants and animals were domesticated, there seems to have been a shift in many areas of the world to less dependence on big game hunting and greater dependence on what is called broad-spectrum collecting The broad spectrum of available resources frequently included aquatic resources such as fish and shellfish and a variety of wild plants, deer and other game Climatic changes may have been partly responsible for the change to broad spectrum collecting In Europe, the Near East, Africa and Peru, the switch to broad spectrum collecting seems to be associated with more permanent communities. But in areas of Mesoamerica, domestication of plants and animals may have preceded permanent settlements
participant observation
Living among people being studied—observing, questioning, and (when possible) taking part in the important events of the group
sites
Locations where the material remains of human activity have been preserved in a way that archaeologists or paleoanthropologists can recover them
Why is it incomplete to simply call anthropology "the study of humans"?
Many other disciplines also study humans.
Australopithecines
Members of the genus Australopithecus
ethnographic analogy
Method of comparative cultural study that extrapolates to the past from recent or current societies.
Explain theories about the origins of modern humans and how they differed from earlier species
Modern looking humans differed from the Neandertals and other early H. sapiens in that they had higher, more bulging foreheads, thinner and lighter bones, smaller faces and jaws, chins and only slight browbridges Anthropologists continue to debate three theories about the origins of modern humans; the single origin theory, the multigenerational theory, and the assimilation theory
Hieroglyphics
Picture writing
holistic
Refers to an approach that studies many aspects of a multifaceted system
How do we know that australopithecines and paranthropoids were definitely hominins?
They have a parabolic dental arch and reliable evidence for bipedalism
describe Upper Paleolithic tools and cultures in Europe
The Upper Paleolithic tool kit is characterized by the preponderance of blades; there were also burins, bone and antler tools and microliths In many respects, Upper Paleolithic lifestyles were similar to lifestyles before. People were still mainly hunters, gatherers, and fishers who probably lived in highly mobile bands. They made their camps out in the open and in caves and rock shelters This period is also characterized by a variety of new developments; new tool making techniques, evidence of trade among groups, the emergence of art, population growth, and the new inventions such as the bow and arrow, the spear thrower and the harpoon
anthropological linguistics
The anthropological study of languages
Mesolithic
The archaeological period in the Old World beginning about 12, 000 bc. Humans were starting to settle down in semipermanent camps and villages as people began to depend less on big game and more on relatively stationary food resources such as fish, shellfish, small game, and wild plants rich in carbs, proteins and oils.
Evaluate competing scenarios for the disappearance of Neandertals
The area inhabited by Neandertals shrunk after about 60,000 years ago, and by about 30,000 years ago, Neandertals had disappeared Neandertals probably became extinct because they could not complete with modern humans, who were more efficient hunters and gatherers
Ethnocentrism
The attitude that other societies' customs and ideas can be judged in the context of one's own culture
applied (practicing) anthropology
The branch of anthropology that concerns itself with applying anthropological knowledge to achieve practical goals
archaeology
The branch of anthropology that seeks to reconstruct the daily life and customs of peoples who lived in the past and to trace and explain cultural changes
Neandertal
The common name for the species Homo neandertalensis
Middle Paleolithic
The time period of the Mousterian stone tool tradition
Evaluate scenarios for the migration of humans into the New World
The earliest remains of people in N. American date to about 14,000 years ago. Migrations of humans to the New World took place some time after the emergence of H. sapiens The prevailing opinion in that humans migrated to the New World over a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska in the area of what is now the Bering Strait, or by boat along the Alaskan coast By about 11,000 years ago, there were many people living in both N and S America The Clovis people created unique projectile points that have a single long flake, or "flute" knocked from their base to thin them and make them easy to haft. They lived by hunting big game animals, bison and mammoth Paleo-Indians had diverse ways of life, some hunting and following herds, some relying on fish and shell fish and others developing semi-sedentary riverine commiunities
Oldowan
The earliest stone toolmaking tradition, named after the tools found in Bed I at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, from about 2.5 million years ago.
Homo erectus
The first hominin species to be widely distributed in the Old World. The earliest finds are possibly 1.8 million years old.
Food production
The form of subsistence technology in which food getting is dependent on the cultivation and domestication of plants and animals
Pliocene
The geological epoch 5.2 million to 1.6 million years ago during which the earliest definite hominids appeared.
What did Franz Boas find in his study of the head shape of immigrants?
The head shape of second-generation immigrants of different groups were more similar to each other than to their parents, indicating some influence of the environment on head shape.
probability value (p-value)
The likelihood that an observed result could have occurred by chance
Describe the features of Middle Paleolithic cultures
The period of cultural history associated with the Neandertals is traditionally called the Middle Paleolithic in Europe and the Near East and dates from 300,000-400,000 years ago Assemblages of flake tools from this period are referred to as Mousterian and as post-Acheulian. A Mousterian assemblage proportionally has fewer large hand axes and cleavers and more small flake tools than an Acheulian assemblage Middle Paelolithic humans lived at least part of the year in caves and seem to have relied more on fire than earlier species. Some Moursterian sites show signs of intentional burial
Agriculture
The practice of raising domesticated crops
context
The relationships between and among artifacts, ecofacts, fossils, and features
An anthropologist using a holistic approach might examine which of the following?
The religious practices, dietary customs, clothing, and shared history of Iranian villagers
Rachis
The seed-bearing part of a plant. In the wild variety of grain, the rachis shatters easily, releasing the seeds. Domesticated grains have a tough rachis, which does not shatter easily
ethnology
The study of how and why recent cultures differ and are similar
Homo neandertalensis
The technical name for the Neandertals, a group of robust and otherwise anatomically distinct hominin that are close relatives of modern humans
prehistory
The time before written record
Why is understanding and respect of cultural and physical differences even more important today than in the past?
Through globalization, the world has become more interconnected
Epipaleolithic
Time period during which food production first developed in the Near East
Why do anthropologists study humans so broadly?
To test whether generalizations about humans apply to many times and places of human existence
pressure flaking
Toolmaking technique whereby small flakes are struck off by pressing against the core with a bone, antler, or wooden tool
Savannah
Tropical grassland
savanna
Tropical grassland
Describe Upper Paleolithic migration from Africa to Asia
Upper Paleolithic peoples spread throughout the world. The first cultures are found in Africa about 60,000 years ago, but had spread to South and East Asia by about 50,000 years ago to New Guinea and Australia by about 40,000 years ago In N Africa Upper Paleolithic peoples hunted large animals on grasslands. They lived in small communities located within easy access to water and other resources and moved regularly, probably to follow the animal herds. Trade took place between local groups In S. Asia peoples developed an increasingly sedentary lifestyle along the banks of freshwater streams
Civilization
Urban society from the latin word for "city state"
40Ar-39Ar dating
Used in conjunction with potassium-argon dating, this method gets around the problem of needing different rock samples to estimate potassium and argon
In many parts of the world, the adoption of broad-spectrum collecting is associated with
a decline in overall stature
Homo floresiensis
a dwarf species of hominin that lived on the Indonesian island of Flores until about 12,000 years ago and probably descended from an isolated Homo erectus population
diastema
a gap between the canine and first premolar found in apes
sivapithecus
a genus of ape from the later miocene known for its thickly enameled teeth, suggesting a diet of hard, tough, of gritty items. found primarily in western and southern asia and now thought to be an ancestrial to orangutans
eocene
a geological epoch 55 million to 34 million years ago during which the first definite primates appeared
vertical clinging & leaping
a locomotor patter characteristic of several primates, including tarsiers galagos. the animal normally rests by clinging to a branch in a vertical position and uses its hind limbs alone to push off from one vertical position to another
knuckle walking
a locomotor pattern of primates such as the chimp and gorilla which the weight of the upper body is supported on the thickly padded knuckles of the hands
carpolestes
a mouse sized arboreal creature living about 56 million years ago; a strong candidate for the common primate ancestor grasping hands and feet, nails on its big toes and poor death perception
Kenyanthropus playops
a nearly complete 3.5 million year old skull found in western Kenya. A species of australopithecine
fayum
a site sw of cairo, egypt, where the worlds best record of oligocene primate fossils has been found
Soft hammer
a technique of stone tool manufacture in which a bone or wood hammer is used to strike flakes from a stone
Hard hammer
a technique of stone tool manufacture where one stone is used to knock flakes from another stone. Flakes produced through hard hammer percussion are usually large and crude.
opposable thumbs
a thumb that can touch the tips of all the other fingers
Percussion flaking
a tool making technique in which one stone is struck with another to remove flake
Unifacial tool
a tool worked or flaked on one side only
adapids
a type of prosimian with many lemur like features; appeared in the early Eocene
omomyids
a type of prosimian with many tarsierlike features that appeared in the early eocene
revolution
a usually violent replacement of a society's rulers
Obsidian
a volcanic glass that can be used to make mirrors or sharpedged tools
The A. africanus fossil that Raymond Dart discovered was that of __________.
a young child
Name the theories that try to explain the development of biepdalism
a. may have increased the emerging hominin's ability to see predators and potential prey amid the tall grasses of the savanna b. it may have freed up hands, facilitating the transfer of food from one place to another c. may have been linked to tool use d. it may have made long distance traveling more efficient e. it may have enabled hominins to regulate body temperature in the hot and dry environments of East Africa no direct evidence proves any of these theories
diurnal
active during the day
nocturnal
active during the night
prehensile
adapted for grasping objects
Arboreal
adapted to living in trees
terrestrial
adapted to living on the ground
To what infectious disease would North American populations have the least natural resistance?
african sleeping sickness
Australopithecus garbi
an australopithecine dating to 2.5 million years ago
State
an autonomous political unit with centralized decision making over many communities with power to govern by force most states have cities with public bldgs; full time craft and religious specialists; an "official" art style; a hierarchial social structure topped by an elite class; and a gov't monopoly on the legitimate use of force to implement policies
Sagittal keel
an inverted V shaped ridge running along the top of the skull in Homo erectus
aegyptopithecus
an oligocene antropoid & probably the best known propliopithecid
brachiators
animals that move through the trees by swinging hand over hand from branch to brranch. they usually have long arms & fingers
quadrupeds
animals that walk on all fours
humans are classified as
anthropoids
propliopithecids
ape like anthropoids dating from the early oligocene, found in the fayum area of egypt
What is one of the primary challenges in ethnohistorical research
being able to distinguish facts from speculation
which of the following aspects is common among groups who come into being as a result of ethnogenisis
belief in a common ancestor
what was the most crucial change in early hominin evolution?
bipedal locomotion -emerged in Africa
Why do ethnocentrism & glorification of other cultures hinder effective anthropological research
both attitudes interfere with the accurate, objective description & explanation of a culture
The ideal cultural traits of a society __________.
consist of the ideas people have about how they ought to behave
Only __________ fossils have been found in North and South America
homo sapiens
From where do we derive most anthropological data?
ethnographic fieldwork
If you are trying to classify an unknown primate as either a prosimian or an anthropoid, what features should you examine?
facial features and ear mobility
What is the focus of molecular anthropology?
genetic mutations
Which of the following gives the human species the best chance for long term survival
genetic variability
what lasting influence has sir charless lyell had on anthropology
he influenced darwins theory of evolution & how anthropologists understand the fossil record
An anitquities dealer creates a display of Native American pottery from the 15th centery. What is missing from an archaeolgists perspective
history
pongids
hominoids whose members include both the living and extinct apes
what environmental attribute is associated with different nose shapes in humans?
humidity
Which of the following describes the Wari empire in the Andean region of south america
it was a large, militaristic empire integrating the Moche and Nazca states
which two traits seem to have favored by natural selection for populations living at higher latitudes
lactase production and lighter skin
when do the earliest definitive hominin fossils appear
less than 5 million years ago
prosimians
literally "pre monkeys" one of the two suborders of primates; includes lemurs, lorieses and tarsiers
which of the following was the most likely cause of the collapse of Cahokia
overuse of environmental resources
Identify the main trends in hominin evolution
physical changes in early hominins that led to the evolution of our genus, Homo, include the expansion of the brain, the widening of the female pelvis to allow birth of bigger brained babies and the reduction of the face, teeth and jaws increased brain size may be linked to the emergence of stone toolmaking and life in complex social groups. expansion of the brain and reduction of the face occurred at about the same time and were probably related.
sexual dismorphism
refers to a marked difference in size and appearance b/t males and females of a species
cerebral cortex
the "grey matter" of the brain; the center of speech & other higher mntal activites.
In which region did wild wheat resources likely lead to increased sedentism
the Anatolia region of the Near East
Which was the only area of the New World where early domestic animals were a significant part of the economy?
the andes
Cultural relativism
the attitude that a society's customs and ideas should viewed within the context of that society's problems and opportunities
what is one way an arcaeologist can tell which informants are the most trust worthy and accurate
the compare multiple answers from multiple informants in the population
Based on the evidence explaining the decline of earlier states, what factor is the most pressing consideration for today's civilizations?
the environment
what has been the principal reason for the rapid rate of cultural change since the 15th century
the expansion of western societies into other areas of the world
what makes a sex linked trait distinct from other traits
the expression of a sex linked trait is connected to the sex of the organism
hylobates
the family of hominoids that includes gibbons and siamangs; often referred to as the lesser apes
what species were involved in the transition from hominoids to hominins
the first hominins appeared around 6 million years ago Sahelanthropus 7 million Orrorin 58.6 million
insectivore
the order or major grouping of mammals, including the modern shrews & moles, that is adapted to feeding on insects
diffusion
the process by which cultural elements are borrowed from another society and incorporated into the culture of the recipient group
Acculturation
the process of extensive borrowing of aspects of culture int he context of superordinate-superordinate relations between societies; usually occurs as the result of external pressure
culture
the sets of learned behaviors and ideas that are characteristic of a particular society or other social group
subculture
the shared customs of a subgroup within a society
How do archaeologist use information about contemporary human cultures
to make predictions and connections to what may have happened in the past
what was the goal of the Human Genome project
to map the entire human genetic sequence
Pressure flaking
tool making technique whereby small flakes are struck off by pressing against the core with a bone, antler or wooden tool
describe the distinctive traits of hominins
undisputed hominins dating before 4 million years ago have been found in East Africa. These definently bipedal hominins are now classified in the genus Australopithecus the large number of other suggested australopithecine species indicates that diversity was prevalent among early hominins. All shared similar but diverse changing environments in eastern and southern Africa. One idea about the apparent diversity of the first hominins may reflect an adaptive radiation of bipedal hominins to these dynamic environments conditions the most well known australopithecine species include A. anamensis, A. afarensis, A. africanus
Which of the following may account for nutritional problems among food producers
unequal access to food among socioeconomic classes
Which of the following types of societies are likely to suffer the most from infectious disease
urban
which of the following indicates a better way for forensic anthropologists to work with local law enforcement agencies?
using local physical variations to help identify a victim's remains
