ANT3514C Module 4 Primates: Extant & on

Theories of Bipedalism

'Meerkat hypothesis, not testable, but plausible for being terrestrial + active • 'Culture bound' hypothesis for monogamous bonding. Fossil record does not support this scenario, and it is very difficult to test. • Not yet, and implausible as driver for origins of bipedalism. Must wait a few million years ... vISUAL surveillance, long distance walking, and male provisioning Energy-efficient locomotion (staying cool) Food gathering Predator avoidance Running after game Hunting Provisioning offspring To free the hands Tracking migrating herds Sexual display The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis

Homo naledi

'Neo' Homo naledi Omo 2 (very early Homo sapiens) Homo naledi New dates recently announced in April Note shallow slope of face (derived) • Molars get larger towards the back (primitive) • Small skull and brain size (primitive) • Round cranium and no large chewing muscle attachments (derived) • Prominent brow ridge (primitive, like Homo erectus) Discovered in 2015 by Lee Berger and colleagues in South Africa • Site: Rising Cave • Dates: 335 - 236 ka • 1.5 m tall • Body size, ca. 45 kg • Mosaic of primitive and derived features • Small brain, curved fingers, • Hands virtually humanlike Controversial idea that they buried their dead.

Hominoid Taxonomy

'New School' modern, clade-based taxonomy of the Hominoidea https://photos.app.goo.gl/tJ8Bd21ayW1myNQh2 https://photos.app.goo.gl/xsOxmCjhzv1AOUPs1

Parvorders: Platyrrhini vs catarrhini

- 2 natural groups both include monkeys - ~85% of all primates are 'monkeys' -monkey is a grade based term not a natural group -Catarrhines (apes (hominoidea) and old world monkeys (cercopithecoidea)) are sister taxas and are more closely related to each other than either is to Platyrrhini -Morphological differences -Platyrrhines 2-1-3-3/2-1-3-3 dentition, no ear tube -catarrhines 2-1-2-3/2-1-2-3 dentition, tubular ectotympanic -nasal morphology - platy=flat cata=down-flowing -Ear morphology platyrrhines annular ectotympanic -Platyrrhines may habe prehensile tails, whereas catarrhines do not -platyrrhines new world distribution

Parvorder: Platyrrhini

- diverse group -1 degree arboreal -3 families -neotropics

Infraorder: Tarsiiformes

-1 genus (4+ species) -Distributions Island Southeast asia -Phylogeny: Molecular data clearly place tarsiers in Haplorhini. Grade based systems include them in prosimii

Grade

-A group of organisms sharing characteristics/adaptations but are not closely related to each other -simians are an advanced grade of Primates (new world monkeys, old world monkeys,apes, and humans) -Prosimians lemurs, tarsiers & Lorises -Simians are an advanced grade of prosimians

Clade

-A group of organisms which are closely related by evolutionary descent, yet may not appear similar -Strepsirrhines Lemurs & Lorises -Haplorhines Tarsiers, new world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes, and humans. Tarsiers are more closely related to this group more than lemurs & Lorises -

Le Gros Clark's Definition of the order primates

-Based on a series on anatomical trends, emphasizing -Arboreal adaptations -Dietary Plasticity -Parental Investment

Carolus Linnaeus

-Birth of zoological nomenclature -Systema Naturae -Defined primates (included bats & flying lemurs) -Fore-teeth (cutting upper 4 parallel -Tusks (solitary one in each side) -Teets 2 pectoral -feet 2 are hands -nails usually flattened oval -food fruits except those who use animal food.

Family: Galagidae

-Bushbabies -Distribution Sub-saharan africa -Diet animal prey (insect inverts), fruit, gum, leaves social Noyau male range overlaps with >1 female range -Nocturnal -excellent vocal communication (highly specific) with prominent mobile pinna and derived (enlarged) middle ear -Body size small 80-1500g -Life span ~15 years -Reproduction birth singletons parks young while foraging -Intermembral index 52-69 low -Locomotion aboreal vertical clinging leaping --Eastern dwarf galago new genus (5 new species)

Order: Primates ~Anthropoidea

-Defunct suborder book should use simiiformes -Modern classification uses suborder haplorhini and infraorder simiiformes -Includes monkeys, apes (a grades based terms), and humans

Family: Lorisidae

-Diet:animal prey (insects+invertebrates), fruit, gum, leaves -nocturnal -Social Noyau Scent communication Nycticebus poisonous elbows -Body size small (210-1600g) -Life span ~20 years -Intermembral index 85-95 -Locomotion: VCL -Reduced 2nd digit hyperdivergent hallux and pollex

Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark (1895-1971)

-Distinguished anatomist, primatology, paleoanthropology

St. george jackson Mivart (1827-1900)

-English biologist and critic of charles darwin (in later years) -1873 Improved upon Linnean definition of the primate order (traditional definition) -2 suborders (removed bats & flying lemurs): Prosimii & Anthropoidea -

Thomas Huxley (1825-1895)

-Evidence as to Man's place in Nature 1863 -comparative anatomist -after on the origin of species

Anthropoid derived traits versus prosimian primitive traits:

-Fused frontal and fused mandibular symphysis -Postorbital closure -lacrimal bone in orbit -nails present -developed gestation -generalized dentition Prosimian traits: -smaller brain -infused frontal and unfused mandibular symphysis -Postorbital bar present but lacks bony partition -grooming claws -shorter gestation

2 new tarsier species

-Gursky's spectral -Jatna's -80 & 81st species since turn of the century - indonesia

Limbs and Locomotion

-Hands & Feet -Pentadactyly (5 digits on each limb) -Grasping ability with a divergent big toe (hallux) and thumb (pollus). Human hallux is exceptional -Hallux & pollux bear a nail & rest of digits primitively retain claws -retention of at least 1 nail on Hallux/Pollux

Sir Arthur Keith (1866-1955)

-Human Anatomist & Physical Anthropologist -Conservator at Hunterian museum at royal college of surgeons (1908-1933) _Big brains and intelligence occurred prior to bipedalism based on his read of the fossils British anatomist and physical anthropologist • Conservator at Hunterian Museum, at Royal College of Surgeons (1908 - 1933) • Strongly opposed Dart's notion of Taung skull • Believed brains to have evolved first in humans • Reconstructed Piltdown to his liking ...

Strepsirrhines

-Lemurs & Lorises -Inward wet nosed primates -Shared a # of derived features that none of haplorhines have: dental comb, grooming claw, modified talus (synapomorphies hard anatomy)

Primate 'traits' revisited

-Limbs & Locomotion -Teeth & Diet -Brains & Senses -Life History

Life History

-Long gestation period -reduced litter size (1-2 offspring) -Increased period of infant dependency, long learning period, and increased lifespan -tendency to live in large complex groups -Growth Curve shows humans compared to non-primate mammals & shows the growth spurt that occurs in non primate animals as compared to humans

Sherwood Sherry Washburn (1911-2000)

-NeoDarwinian approaches in Anthropology and Primatology -Call to arms in mid-20th century for anthropologists to address fundamental issues, holistically across disciplines -Comparative approach -student of hooton -father of the new physical anthropology

Order: Primates

-One of ~19 orders of extant eutherian (placental) mammals -Class Mammalia~animals w shared derived characteristics including hair, mammary glands, nurse young, etc). -4th largest order of mammals comprising ~6% of all species (~400 species) -Primates are generalized, mostly arboreal which makes them difficult to define.

Family cebidae Subfamily Aotinae

-Only nocturnal haplorhines -owl monkeys -small, live in small groups -large eye orbits -does not see in color -no prehensile tails

Mivart's Primate Traits

-Placental mammals -Unguiculate (possessing nails or claws) -clavicles -orbits encircled by bone -three types of teeth -brain always with a posterior lobe and calcarine fissure -innermost digit of at least 1 pair of extremities opposable -Hallus (big toe) w flat nail or none -Appendix (caecum) -penis pendulus -testes scrotal -2 pectoral mammae Issues with Mivart's Primate traits: many turned out to be wrong as primates share these with other mammalia -Brain with Calcarine fissure, Innermost digit of at least 1 pair of extremities opposable, Hallux (big toe) with a flat nail or none are characters that are unique to ORDER PRIMATES

Teeth & Diet

-Primates are heterodont (different types of teeth with different functions) -All primates have lost an incisor and premolar (from the primitive pattern) -Primitive pattern 3-1-4-3 --------- 3-1-4-3 -Derived Pattern 2-1-2-3 -------- 2-1-2-3 -Primates have an eclectic and sometimes specialized diet

grade Based Classification

-Traditional, old school classification

Primate taxonomy in the grander scheme

-We are: Heterotrophic, multicellular, once gill-slitted, skull-possessing, hairy milk producing, bug eating, omnivorous primates

Primate traits: Postorbital Bar

-all extant primates have a postorbital bar present -present in lemurs but absent in other mammals suchas raccoons -gibbon has bar and postorbital plate Brains & senses -increase in size and complexity of the cerebral cortex w increased density of neurons and speed of impulses -expansion in centers for memory, learning, and vision -reduction in olfactory bulb -greater emphasis in processing visual info -visual acuity -stereoscopic vision convergent sight -all primates share basic eye structure and visual info from each eye is transmitted to visual centers in both hemispheres of the brain -retina 2 types of photoreceptor cells w neurons that turn light into electrical signals -strepsirrhines have an extra layer in the retina tapeum lucidum -Haplorhines have fovea

Leonardo da Vinci

-anatomy 1506-1513 -dissections focused on biomechanics and emotion -anatomical work published by vesalius in De Humani corporis fabrica 1543

The human skeleton

-axial skeleton -skull -ribs -vertebrae -saccrum -coccyx Appendicular skeleton -shoulder girdle -pelvic girdle -upper limb -lower limb Saggital plane -left/ right down forehead Frontal/ coronal front/back at ears transverse upper/lower directional lateral away from midline medial toward midline proximal toward body distal away from body dorsal toward back ventral front cranial toward skull caudal away from skull Teeth & jaws lingual portion of tooth facing the tongue buccal portion of tooth facing the cheek medial toward midline lateral away from midline

Brains & Senses

-brains (large relative to body size) -see an increase in size and complexity of the cerebral cortex (neocortex) with increased convolutions (increased density of neurons & speed of nerve impulses -See expansion in centers for memory and learning & vision -Reduction in olfactory centers -visual acuity -All primates show greater emphasis in processing information with concomitant de-emphasis on sense of smell -eyes are oriented toward the front so primates can see in stereoscopic vision.

Family: Cebidae Subfamily cebinae

-capuchin and squirrel monkeys -omnivores -tool users -complex social groups - capuchin prehensile tails - squirrel monkeys lose prehensile abilities over time

Family cercopithecidae subfamily cercopithecinae

-cheek pouch monkeys -1 degree african in distribution except macaques -frugivores and omnivores broad incisors and cheek pouches more generalized than colobines -smaller group size than colobines except baboons and macaques -arboreal/terrestrial quadruped varied locomotion

Family: atelidae Subfamily Alouttinae

-diverse group -prehensile tails - large bodies -howler monkeys -1degree folivorous -large groups -howling call communication

Modern (clade based) classification of superfamily hominoidea

-family: Hylobatidae- Genus: Hylobates symphalangus -Family: Hominidae, Subfamily: Ponginae, genus: Pongo -Family: Hominidae, Subfamily: Gorillinae, genus: gorilla -Family: Hominidae, subfamily panini, genus pan -Family: Hominidae, subfamily hominini, genus homo

Pongo pygmaeus

-fist walkers slow quadrumanus climbers (1 deg arboreal) -shallow hip joint, long arms, hands, and feet -frugivorous and bark, leaves and insects -extreme sexual dimorphism males 2x size of females -throat pouch and flanged cheeks -noyau semi-solitary mothers & offspring tend to avoid other mother -males highly territorial forced copulation common more my unflanged males -reproduction birth every 8 years -largest tree dwelling mammal -critically endangered

Ways to study primates

-habituated well acquainted subjects w studier -wild subjects have no knowledge that they are being watched -captive primates

Family hominidae subfamily ponginae species pongo

-island southeast asia -orang=person utan=forest in malay -2 species recognized p. abelli in sumatra -lighter hair -longer faces -mustaches -longer coats and p. pygmaeus in borneo -darker hair -wider faces -no mustache :( -shorter coats

family cebidae subfamily callitrichinae

-marmosets & tamarins - polyandrous (female has 2+ partners opposite of polygamy) -twins -claws loss of 3rd molar 2-1-3-2/2-1-3-2 -body size: very small/ smallest monkey -no prehensile tails

Brains and Senses

-neocortex ~80% of brain mass -petrosal bone middle ear

Superfamily: Hominoidea

-no tail -dorsally placed scapula -broad chest/ thorax mobile joints

subfamily atelinae Family: Atelidae

-spider, wooly, wooly spider monkeys -large body size -1 degree frugivory -large fission-fusion group -hook shaped hands (derived hand morphology) -arboreal quadraped brachiation (aka gibbons) -high reduced pollux thumb -prehensile tails -most practice schizodactyly

Grades vs Clades

-suborders Anthropoids and Prosimians are gradistic divisions in the primate order. -Prosimians-Lemurs Lorises and Tarsiers -Anthropoids-Monkey's, Apes, Humans -Clade: Strepsirrhines & Haplorhines -Members of these groups share a common ancestor -Strepsirrhines: Lemurs and Lorises -Haplorhines: Tarsiers, apes, Monkeys, and Humans

Family Pitheciidae subfamily callicebinae

-titi monkeys -specious group ( 1 genus, 5 subgenera, ~30 spp) -generalized monkey -small to medium body size -diet 1 degree fruit and leaves flowers insects -monogamous low dimorphism -males are primary caregivers

Intro to the fossil record

-traces or remnants of organisms found in geological beds on earths surface paleontology a subset of geology fossils tell us about -phylogenetic tree, evolutionary events , setting in which fossil lived, events Georges Cuvier anti evolutionist Richard Owen (1804-1892) James hutton the rock cycle father of geology Charles lyell law of stratigraphic superposition Yefremov taphonomy describes how organic things became fossils -phylogeny paleoecology paleobiology -harder denser bones will be preserved -dry climates are best -few predators -rapid burial -bias in fossil record unavoidable there will always be loss of information fossil context depositional environment types volcanic, lacustrine or lake, fluvial or river, cave, fossil soil, alluvial fan reveals: age, paleoenvironmental indicators, paleogeography, post mortem depositional 3 rock types -sedimentary key 4 fossils deposited in layers (strata) accumulation and consolidation of sediments Stratigraphic sections -igneous volcanic

Macaques

-tribe papionini -asian distribution -varied tropical to temperate -arboreal and terrestrial quadrupedalism -omnivores -large multimale groups

Le Gros Clark's Primate Trends

1. Preservation of generalized limb structure w primitive pentadactyly 2. Enhancement of free mobility of the digits (esp Pollux & Hallux) 3. Replacement of sharp, compressed claws by flat nails; development of very sensitive tactile pads on the digits. 4. Progressive shortening of the snout. 5. Elaboration of the visual apparatus, with the development of varying degrees of binocular vision. 6. Reduction of the olfactory apparatus. These 3 are all linked and progress from prosimian through monkeys to humans. 7. Loss of certain elements of the primitive mammalian dentition. Preservation of a simple molar cusp pattern. 8. Progressive expansion and elaboration of the brain, especially of the cerebral cortex. 9. Progressive and increasingly efficient development of gestational processes. 10. Prolongation of postnatal life periods. 11. Progressive development of truncal uprightness leading to a facultative bipedalism.

Tempo + Mode of Human Evolution

A 'punctuated equilibrium' model. Most change in morphology (i.e., macroevolutionary change) takes place over geologically short time periods in small populations, such that transitional forms are unlikely to be fossilized. Morphology What was our tree like ? • Was it 'bushy' with lots of species, and species level selection pervasive ? • Was it slender, with few species, and selection concentrated on the level of the individual within populations? • Was there a SINGLE common ancestor out there on our family tree - THE MISSING LINK ? • OR was it more likely a bush ? • Phyletic Gradualism: - Uniform & slow • Punctuated Equilibrium - Rapid divergent speciation - Long periods of stasis - Gaps in fossil record attributed to rapid change

Late Miocene Homininae Textbook Late Miocene Hominins in Africa

A Comparison of Apes and Man The resemblances and differences between man and the closest of his living relatives, the four great apes, are shown in the drawing below. The sketches of the body have been drawn to scale and have been depicted here with all hair removed for unobscured comparison of the contours of the head and body.

Wrangham's model suggests that

A large patch of resources with an established territoriality leads to a one male unit

Which situation follows the Red Queen Hypothesis?

A plant species is being eaten by caterpillars evolves a new toxin to kill caterpillars. however, caterpillars who survive evolve an immunity

_________ is seen in some New World Monkeys, but not in any Old World monkeys.

A prehensile tail

Which of the following is a polymorphic trait in most human populations? HTC

ABO blood type

When considering early hominin "lifeways" based on evidence collected from fossil sites and assemblages, what can we infer?

All of the above

Primates

All share a common ancestor -A generalized order of animals, less specialized than many other mammalian groups -No one character or trait defines primates. it is a suite of characteristics -Human characteristics act as an extension rather than discontinuities, of a common primate pattern - (living nonhuman primates) are largely restricted tropical and subtropical regions.

Which of the following statements regarding dominance hierarchies is correct?

An individual's rank within the dominance hierarchy is not permanent

Humans Classified in the Linnean Hierarchy

Animalia Vertebrata Mammalia Archonta Primates Haplorhini Anthropoidea Catarrhini Hominoidea Hominidae Homininae Hominini Homo Sapiens

Foramen Magnum

Anteriorly-placed foramen magnum in humans posteriorly placed in pan

Ardipithecus

Ardipithecus spp. Two hominin species: • Ardipithecus kadabba • Ardipithecus ramidus • Both discovered by Tim White and team in the Middle Awash, Ethiopia Ar. ramidus (ARA-VP-6/500) Tim White in the field • Dated to: ~5.8-4.5 Ma Ardipithecus ramidus Discovered in early 1990s, first published in 1994 by Tim White et al. • originally named Australopithecus ramidus but moved to new genus, Ardipithecus very soon afterwards 15 years later ... • 2009 Science 326(5949):1-188. Unprecedented 11 peer-reviewed papers on same subject, 'Ardi' • 4.4 Ma • New female skeleton unveiled (with skull/dentition, pelvis, hands, feet, etc.) • 35 MNI Long upper limb • Divergent hallux • Hominin-shaped pelvis • Small canines with wear on tips No CP3 complex anteriorly placed foramen magnum long arms with abducted hallux small cranial capacity Brain size: 300-350CC Shortened pelvis suggests some bipedal locomotion mosaic of arboreal and bipedal locomotion Ardipithecus hominin features: • Gluteus maximus inserts on the femur, like humans' does • No honing complex in Ardipithecus teeth (canine shortened). • Thicker enamel in Ardipithecus teeth (red = thick, blue = thin) Ardi's Dm1 is like a chimp, single cusped Ardi's pelvis shows 'hominin' affinities to bipedality: • White arrows show greater sciatic notch, a bipedal feature. • Yellow arrows show anterior inferior iliac spine, a bipedal feature. • Blue arrows shows angled ischial surface, a 'climbing' feature. Ardipithecus ramidus • Ardi has an opposable hallux and a flexible hand • Curved phalanges Ardi's foot: • has an abducted (divergent) big toe (hallux) for grasping during climbing. not a sign of bipedality. • Its 'mid-foot' is stiff, like a human, which suggests inflexibility in grasping but good for bipedal propulsion estimated brain size (cranial capacity) falls between 300-350 cc Ardipithecus kadabba • Subsequent paper published 1st designated as subspecies, then promoted to full species (2004) Ar. kadabba • 5.8 - 5.2 Ma, Late Miocene • Ethiopia (Middle Awash) • Primitive traits • Slightly smaller Canine • Wooded habitat

South African Australopiths

Australopithecus africanus • Adult individuals discovered, ... a lot • human shaped neurocranium • brain size > chimp, and < human • small canines, big molars (cheek teeth) • undoubtedly bipedal (postcranial remains) • Key fossils from the 'Cradle of Mankind' • Sterkfontein • Makapansgat • Taung • Date: 3 - 2 Ma Paranthropus robustus Broom, 1938 Tiny anterior dentition • Very large molars • Heavy chewing muscles • Key sites include: Swartkrans • Kromdraii • 2 - 1.5 Ma Rising Star Cave (South Africa) • Cartoon illustrating the geological and taphonomic context and distribution of fossils, sediments and flowstones within the Dinaledi Chamber Australopithecus sediba • Lee Berger + Colleagues announced in 2010 • Date: 1.98-1.7 Ma • Cranial + postcranial • Adults + juvenile • Small brain: 430 cc • long arms • Traits of Homo: - Dentition - Broad frontal bone - Derived face - Derived pelvis Au. sediba Australopithecus sediba metrics for preserved teeth compared to other hominin spp. Relative length of thumb

The earliest australopith that dates to ca. 4.2 to 3.9 millions of years ago (Ma) is

Australopithecus anamensis

East African Australopiths

Australopiths - East Africa 2 related genera Australopithecus + Paranthropus spp. • Kenyanthropus (also in the mix, but not in your textbook) • Ca. 4.2 - 1 Ma • They were all bipedal • Large teeth, thick enamel, big chewing structures • Chimp-sized brains • Key countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, + Tanzania Australopiths - East Africa Mary at Olduvai Gorge Richard + Meave at Koobi Fora The Leakey Family Beginning in the 1930s, Louis and Mary Leakey were committed to searching for the clues to humankind. Richard and his wife Meave and their daughter, Louise, continue the legacy ...Louis + Mary Leakey made significant discoveries at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Paranthropus boisei O.H. 5 - 'Zinj' • discovered in 1959 by Mary Leakey • "robust" australopith - first named Zinjanthropus boisei • Very large cheek teeth • Small anterior dentition • a 'Human Cuisinart' Hadar, Ethiopia Hadar -- A.L. 129 (1A + 1B) • 1973 discovery • ca. 3.4 Ma • Key Features: - valgus - femoral condyles modified - patellar notch "raised" The next year (1974) Johanson and his team went back to Hadar in search of more fossils - they hit 'paydirt' 'Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds' was on the radio that night as they reviewed the remarkable assemblage of what was a single individual 'Lucy' (A.L. 288-1 • 1974 discovery • ca. 40 % complete (47 out of 207 bones) • all one individual • mature adult • 1 meter tall ' Hadar -- A.L. 333 The 'First Family' (A.L. 333-105) • Discovered in 1975 • 200+ hominin fossils • 13+ Individuals - MNI (9 adults, 4 juveniles) • "catastrophic" assemblage samples a group of "contemporaneous" individuals • life history data, etc... • ca. 3.2 Ma Hadar Stratigraphy 190 feetA.L. 288 ("Lucy") kada hadar 3.2 ma denen dora 96 feet A.L. 333 ("First Family") 3.24 ma sidi hakoma 256 feet A.L. 129 ('knee joint') 3.42 ma Fossil designations indicate specific discovery site. Lucy is labelled 'Afar Locality' (A.L.) 288 Donald Johanson I wouldn't shout down other people, but I would certainly make an argument in a way that was so forceful that some people refused to argue with me. - Donald Johanson Laetoli, Tanzania • 1978 discovery of footprints • 3.6 Ma • Fossils similar to Hadar findsConservation efforts have now covered the Laetoli trackways Australopithecus afarensis P3 has a single cusp (like Pan) Tim White, Richard Leakey, Bernard Wood, + Donald Johanson New species combined hominin assemblages from two sites: Hadar and Laetoli (... a great distance!) • 4-3 Ma • "tall" canine + diastema • Cheek teeth like A. africanus • thick enamel • tooth row shape unlike apes • Primitive skull + dentition Mary Leakey • bipedal Dikika, Ethiopia • Remarkably well preserved 3-year-old child of an Australopithecus afarensis Zeresenay Alemseged in the field at Dikika Australopithecus anamensis • Discovery in 1994 by Meave Leakey • Early Date: ca. 4.2 - 3.0 Ma ('oldest australopith') • Two sites near Lake Turkana (Allia Bay + Kanapoi) • cranial + postcrania remains • Postcranial Remains: • - advanced biped • - sexually dimorphic - Cranial Remains: A. anamensis fits morphologically 'between' Ardipithecus and later australopiths Australopithecus bahrelghazali • Discovery in 1993 • Central Chad • Bahr el Ghazal region • 3.4 - 3 Ma (fauna) • mandible fragment + P3 • Suggested 'derived' bicuspid P3 and divergent tooth row Australopithecus garhi • 1999 discovery • Asfaw, White and colleagues • 2.5 Ma Ethiopia's Middle Awash region • garhi = "surprise" • cranio-dental remains + postcranial remains (unclear 'direct' association • Cranium: - small brain - prognathic face - very large teeth • Post-cranium: - long legs - long forearms - < 5 ft tall Omo, Ethiopia • F. Clark Howell • Omo (S. Ethiopia) • Key Site just North of Lake Turkana • Usno + Shungura Formations • A. afarensis (very fragmentary finds) • P. aethiopicus TYPE specimen Paranthropus aethiopicus 'Black Skull' (KNM-WT 17000) • 1985 discovery • West Turkana (Kenya) + Omo (Ethiopia) • ca. 2.8 - 2.2 Ma • primitive "robust" australopithecine Kenyanthropus platyops Discovery in 1999 by Meave Leakey and her team • "flat-faced man of Kenya" • Date: 3.2 to 3.5 Ma - • West Turkana • contemporary with 'Lucy' • new genus - controversial • Not in your textbook.

taphonomy

BIAS in the fossil record is unavoidable. There will always be a loss of information from the present to the past. •It is why there is a dearth of gorilla and chimp fossils in the late Miocene.

Race Issues & Historical Contingencies

Biological 'Race' Genetic evidence demonstrates without question that Homo sapiens is objectively not that diverse compared to other extant apes • Most of our diversity is spread globally within all populations • Phenotypic concepts of 'race' are not genetically real Stereotyping • Biological Determinism is culturally rampant • Based on premise and false assumption that personality is fixed in the gene pool. On the Origin of Species (1859) a mechanistic view of the origins of life and mankind based on observed facts and logical inference W.E.B. DuBois (1868- 1963) Major 'player' in terms of anti - racist scholarship and debate. • Social justice advocate • The Souls of Black Folk (1903) • First to disentangle natural science and social science research to conclude that race was not a legitimate scientific category. • Health disparities between blacks + whites due to social, not biological, inequality. Ancestry vs. Race Ancestry - process-based concept that involves an individual's relationship to other individuals in their genealogical history • Race - pattern-based concept that has led scientists and laypersons alike to draw conclusions about hierarchical organization of humans, which connect an individual to a larger preconceived geographically circumscribed or socially constructed group. Louis Agassiz (1807 - 1873) I experienced pity at the sight of this degraded and degenerate race. - Louis Agassiz The Agassiz statue, Stanford University, CA -Post-Earthquake, 1906 + today Louis Agassiz (1807 - 1873) • Polygenist and antiDarwinian "Somebody—Dr. Angell, perhaps—remarked that 'Agassiz was great in the abstract but not in the concrete. Race and Racism Not everything that is faced can be changed, but nothing can be changed until it is faced. - James Baldwin Does phenotype reveal "race"? • Environmental factors (temperature, altitude, sunlight, etc.) • Socio-cultural factors (e.g., diet & nutrition, health care, access to educational/economic resources, etc.) Most of us can see differences in humans: skin color, eye color, hair are obvious. • We, and most others in the world, tend to use these traits to categorize people. • Morally, must understand the ramifications of our use of these categories and the harm they have brought and can bring. • We need to understand the difference between what is essentially a sociological view of race rather than a biological view of race. • In biology, 'racial groups' are used in comparison with that of other racial groups to investigate how people adapt to environments. An attempt at objective reality Race: Biology or Culture • Cultural, but conceptualized biologically. - Blood and race are symbolically intertwined • "Race" constructed from arbitrary physical characteristics - Skin color, hair color, skin, height, etc. - Different classification schemes for different purposes Race versus Ethnicity • Conceptions of ethnicity - temporary + temporal - religious, political and/or other symbols - maintain cultural heritage - not necessarily connected with physical or biological conceptions • Race and Ethnicity - Confusion, mixing, and substitution of terms - Ultimately incongruent Sociology: Race is used as a means of determining how a person should be related to or treated, either on a personal level or under some aspect of the law. Race is a modern construct; ancient societies did not typically divide people by phenotype, but rather by language, wealth, status, religion, or class. The Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) was created in 1941 in the United States to implement Executive Order 8802 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, "banning discriminatory employment practices by Federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work." Wikipedia (accessed 21 March 2016) Homer (~ 1200 - 850 BC Iliad and Odyssey acknowledges human variability throughout travels Herodotus (~484 - 425 BC) Argued in Historiae for environmental causes of variability between human groups Hippocrates (460 - 377 BC) Noted influence of environment on human variability in his Corpus Hippocraticum (Volume 1) Aristotle (384-322 BC Claimed environmental causes for human physical variation St. Augustine (AD 354 - 430) In De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos he wrote that all men born everywhere, no matter how strange they appear to us, are descended from Adam, i.e., are descended from a single ancestral stock Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) • Da Vinci questioned the environmental hypothesis in accounting for human variation, suggesting an early hereditarian argument based on the power of the mother's seed. Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564) Noted a relationship between race and the shape of the skull Carolus Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) Systema Naturae 1st ed. 1735 (before he was 30 years old) • Systema Naturae 10th edition (1758) • Subdivided humans according to Scala Naturae ('Great Chain of Being') based on perceived 'culturebound' differences in addition to differences in climatic and social conditions • Typological approach to race identifying "types" or subspecies within Homo sapiens Hoppius (1760) Anthropomorpha Linnaeus' student Hoppius published this woodcut from various sources.

Linnaean Hierarchy

Bolded Terms: -Kingdom -Phylum -Class -Order -Suborder -Infraorder -Parvorder -Superfamily (-oidea) -Family (-idae) -Subfamily (-inae) -Tribe (-ini) -Genus -Species

Genetic Diversity of Chimps + Humans

Box highlights genetic diversity of Pan paniscus + Pan troglodytes • Modern human genetic diversity is miniscule compared to that observed in Pan spp. • There are four biological races (=subspecies) of common chimps, but there are none for modern Homo sapiens. Lengths of the branches indicate 'genetic distance' • Humans as compared to the other great apes occupy very little 'genetic space' • This means that among humans there is very little genetic diversity (compared to our closest extant relatives)

Sir Arthur Woodward (1864-1944)

British Paleontologist - fossil fish, mainly • Keeper of Geology (1902 - 1924) at BMNH (British Museum of Natural History) • Worked with Dawson, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) and others at the Piltdown Site • Recovered 7 skull fragments, corpus of mandible with 2 worn molars in situ, artifacts (= "eoliths"), and fauna • Fauna suggested a Plio-Pleistocene age of the Piltdown vertebrate assemblage • Prepared first reconstruction of the find...

Miocene Hominoids

Catarrhines morphotype 2-1-2-3 large canine Hominoid morphotype mobile wrist, elbow and shoulder dorsal scapula victoriapithecids large and diverse group first bilophodont molars-shared derived trait first arrive in africa ~19mya predates colobus and cercopithecus split catarrhines evolution apes successful early monkeys successful late *abundant cranial and dental remains of apes* early catarrhine localities east african proconsuloids precursor to hominoids dental ape tail absent Afropithecus first apelike primate to leave asia griphopithecus diversity thick enamel robust jaw sister group to ponginae dryopithecus semi brachiation best known eurasian hominoid ouranopithecus similarities to dryo Sivapithecus pongo most popular eurasian gigantopithecus india/china pongo largest primate

Piltdown Hoax revealed 1950

Chemical analysis undertaken as skull did not fit with findings of the day, especially from South Africa • Flourine dating yielded different dates (i.e., ages) for cranium and mandible • Fossil braincase of a prehistoric human • 'modern' orangutan jaw (Pongo) Piltdown Hoax - Exposed ? • Trunk discovered at London's Natural History Museum • Marked with initials of "M.A.C.H." for Martin A. C. Hinton -- curator of zoology at the Museum at the time of the fraud • contains bones and stones stained and carved in same way as Piltdown bones and stones ... Piltdown hoaxer revealed 2016 charles dawson The Piltdown Hoax • setback 40+ years • deemed the "missing link" • Supported the 'brain's before bipedalism' scenario • Also supported a more "local" evolutionary scenario (i.e., over other scenarios based on finds from Java, Germany, + subsequently South Africa) • Racial bias towards evolution of intelligence in Britain.

Chimp-Human Comparisons

Chimpanzee • flexed knee (stance phase) • straight femora • poorly developed gluteal muscles • "waddling" gait Human • locked knee (stance phase) • inturned femora (valgus) • well-developed gluteal muscles • "striding" gait

Careful use of Analogues

Chimps: - Similar brain size to australopithecines - Precursor traits to human societies - Tools, Hunting, Food Sharing • Contemporary foragers: - Fully modern anatomically and culturally - What features represent historical universals? - Reconstructing ecology The Limits of Analogy • Behavior does not fossilize • Chimp "culture" is population specific • Human foragers are not living fossils • Stone Age Economics

If Paranthropus boisei and Paranthropus robustus are both descended from Paranthropus aethiopicus, this would make the robust australopiths a true ___________.

Clade

colobinae versus cercopithecinae

Colobines: -narrow interorbital breadth -narrow incisors -jaw deep -cusp relief high -limbs long legs -brain size smaller -leaf eating Cercopithecines -Broad interorbital breadth -broad incisors -narrow jaw -cusp low -tail variable -larger brain

Levallois Technique

Core is further prepared by radially removing flakes from the top surface A separating blow is struck at the neck of the core, flaking off the desired tool Once the core is prepared, several similarly sized sharp tools can be generated from a single core, or with minimal retouching of the core.

Paleoecological Context

Debated. • Stable isotope evidence (looking at differences between C3 and C4 vegetation, suggest to some that it is more 'open woodland' (<25% woody canopy) and to others, that it was more 'closed' • Likely 'wooded' but not as wooded as author's suggest. FORESTED ?? OPEN WOODLAND ?? • What is Ardi? Difficult to say. There is so little material for either Sahelanthropus and Orrorin to know what kinds of animals they were for sure. All results are tentative. • Researchers have strong opinions about Ardi with several possibilities: 1. It was a mostly bipedal human ancestor 2. It was a some-what bipedal chimp ancestor 3. It was a mostly bipedal ancestor to neither 4. It was not bipedal and likely a chimp ancestor

Suborder: Haplorhini

Derived features: -No moist rhinarium -No tapetum lucidum -advanced placenta -tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans

Orrorin tugenensis

Discovery published in 2001 • Date: 6.1 - 5.7 Ma • Tugen Hills, Kenya • Isolated teeth + postcrania (MNI = 5) Orrorin tugenensis First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino formation, Kenya Martin Pickford + Brigitte Senut Small molars with thick enamel (intermediate, in terms of occlusal morphology) • Canine large and pointed • cheek teeth smaller • Thinish enamel • Curved phalanx • Femur derived and suggests bipedalism Femoral neck heavier at base, like humans apart from chimps. thicker cortex inferiorly than superiorly on femoral neck • Obturator externus groove present (sign of bipedality) • elongated femoral neck • well-developed gluteal tuberosity Pickford and Senut have argued: Orrorin tugenensis is more similar to modern humans than the australopiths, based on their 'read' of the dentition and on 'derived' looking bipedal adaptations. 'Homo-like' dental features led authors to suggest that the Australopiths are not ancestral to humans

East African Rift Valley

Divergent boundary on land ('East African Rift') where African Plate and Indian Plate are moving apart (due to mid-oceanic ridge in the Indian Ocean). https://photos.app.goo.gl/ahLJDCLhB27aC0N62

Neanderthal Introgression

Draft genome sequenced primarily from Vindija, Croatia (40 ka) and also from Mezmaiskaya (65 ka) • Higher quality genome from proximal toe phalanx from Denisova cave in the Altai Mountains (>50 ka) This fossil from Denisova was first thought to be a Denisovan, but then they sequenced its genome. • Species was diagnosed to Homo neanderthalensis based on its genome Introgression first dated 47- 65 kya - Revised to 50-60 kya • Higher introgression found in East Asians than Europeans - Statistically unclear if South Asians are intermediate or same as Europeans • Introgression revised to 1.5- 2.1% with new sequence data • Not absolutely clear where introgression occurred Comparisons of genetic data to simulated data suggest there must have been either: - Two or more pulses - Or one pulse with different dilution events • Pulses and dilutions are used to explain regional variation in Neanderthal ancestry

The Neanderthal problem

ENGIS (Belgium) First Neanderthal ever found ! 1836 Trinil finds from the 1890s • Homo erectus discovered • Missing link in Southeast Asia, not in Europe • What to make of the Neanderthals from Europe ? Found in 1856 • Feldhofer Grotto • Neander Valley (Germany) Prof. Schaaffhausen Homo neanderthalensis King 1864 One form of "archaic Homo sapiens" or 'transitional hominin' - best referred to as Homo neanderthalensis • European - W. Asian Distribution • ca. 200 - 30 ka • Mousterian tool technology Homo neanderthalensis = a dead end. • Clearly 'inferior' to Homo sapiens pathology, idiocy, distinct species or even genus, outer limit of normal human variation

Geological Context

East African Rift Valley • Geologically very young (and active) s • One of three volcanos that are part of Mt. Kilimanjaro is 'dormant' ('Kibo'). • Snow-capped peaks on Mt. Kilimanjaro are melting at an alarming rate • South Africa less geologically very old (inactive) • Cradle of Humankind characterized by karst cave systems South Africa South African Fossils are found in association with limestone caves Sterkfontein little foot Robert Broom at Sterkfontein Depositional Environment Types Volcanic deposits • Lacustrine or lake deposits • Fluvial or river deposits • Cave deposits (typical of South Africa) • Fossil soils or paleosols • Alluvial fan deposits Late Miocene Major period of aridification at the end of the Miocene and into the Pliocene. Key hominin adaptations -- the major "novelties" • Chewing apparatus dominated by: • large cheek teeth (premolars & molars) • small-medium incisors • non-projecting, non-dimorphic canines • Somewhat enlarged & re-organized brain • Elaboration of material culture • Habitual bipedalism • "fragmented" habitat KEY )

Models of Human Origins

End Result: We trace most of our DNA to Africa, ~150kya But we all have different small bits from other places

Paleoecology

Environmental context is key to interpret fossils. • Must know what types of assemblages you are studying and if they represent the original community of plants and animals.

Eoanthropus dawsoni Woodward, 1912

Eoanthropus dawsoni Woodward, 1912 • "Dawson's Dawn Man" • dethroned Neanderthal's and "Java Man" from direct ancestry • Fauna indicated Late Pliocene - Early Pleistocene age .. early • In Woodward's reconstruction -- cranial capacity est. 1,070 cc (cm3) • Several "camps" did not accept authenticity and/or "association" of skull fragments and jaw • Others did not accept Woodward's reconstruction, including (Sir) Arthur Keith

Homo erectus

Eugène Dubois (1858 - 1940) Dutch paleoanthropologist + geologist • The Man Who Discovered the Missing Link • Worked on Java, Indonesia (1890-1900) • Key site: Trinil, along the Solo River. • Recovered brain case, mandible, limb bones - all new to science • Named genus + species: Pithecanthropus erectus DuBois 1894 • Inspired by Ernst Haekle (1865) Pithecanthropus alalus Haeckel believe 'missing link' would have been between Southeast Asia + Africa, in Lemuria Von Koenigswald worked 1936-1941 • Key sites: Sangiran + Modjokerto • Splitter -- many new species, Sangiran 2 • now all considered Homo erectus Von Koeningswald also worked at much later site of Ngandong Homo erectus Homo erectus Meanwhile in China • Davidson Black discovered 'dragon bones' and asked local where they came from • Named teeth Sinanthropus pekinensis • Key site: Zhoukoudian (Main Cave) • Excavated in the 1920s + 193 Zhoukoudian, China Franz Weidenreich • 1920s + 30s • material lost -- WW II • Weidenreich took over work after Black's untimely death. • Shipped all fossil material to USA during WWII but 'lost' • Zhoukoudian (= Choukoutien), dates to ca. 0.7 - 0. 4 Ma (700- 400 ka) Weidenreich (1943), and Coon a generation later, see 'clear' independent line to modern humans in island Southeast Asia fossil record Multiregional model or Regional Continuity" (No Displacement Population replacement model "Out of Africa" (Complete Displacement) Genetic replacement model"Regional Continuity" (Partial Displacement) Culture: • Acheulean Industry (excludes East Asia) • Bifacial hand axes and cleavers • Diversified tool kits • (Cooperative ?) hunting of big-game animals • evidence for simple shelters • earliest occupation of cave sites • evidence for controlled use of fire • Open question: language Throughout Africa from 1.8 Ma • First hominin outside of Africa (Out of Africa I) • Dates: In Asia ca. 1.8 Ma (e.g., Sangiran, Modjokerto) • Adapted to both tropical and temperate Climates

Oligocene Anthropoids

Euprimates nails grasping big toe generalized teeth Anthropoid derived traits fused frontal bone and mandible lacrimal bone in eye orbit nails postorbital closure prosimian postorbital bar but no backplate best synapomorphies are in the skull Fayum Depression egypt true anthropoids 75% of all known species of primates for this period -new strepsirrhine places darwinius as a strepsirrhine parapithicids ancestor to platyrrhini and catarrhini primitive postcranium propliopithecids ancestral catarrhine tube shaped innter ears and dimorphism ogliopithecids earliest skull of anthropoid primate complete orbital closure abroreal quad family saadaniidae diffult to say whether ape or old world monkey where do platyrrhines come from believed to have happened between 37-34 mya island hopping early fossil catarrhines branisella similar to apidium predates lca of all extant NWM panamacebus transitus first evidence of island hopping early fossil platyrrhine

Expensive Tissues + Bare Feet Running

Expensive Tissue Hypothesis • Refined by Leslie Aiello and Peter Wheeler, an attempt to explain the cooccurrence of larger brains and tools in a biocultural evolutionary context. Expensive Tissue Hypothesis Aiello and Wheeler (1995) Increase in absolute hominoid cranial capacity (cc) over time. Trunks of a chimpanzee, a human (center), and Au. afarensis showing the protruding rib cage in the latter (Schmi Early Homo has isotopic signatures (Sr/Ca ratios) resembling carnivores, not consistent with earlier australopiths Early Homo has isotopic signatures (Ba/Ca ratios) resembling carnivores, not consistent with earlier australopiths • Tools and the emergence of the genus Homo coincide around 2 Ma • Quite a bush in the Pleistocene epoch, in terms of numbers of huminin species • Starting around 2 Ma the brain begins to increase rapidly, possibly in a kind of feed-back loop involving tools, and higher quality diets

Choosing a mate who is attractive (sign of fertility) is more important to females than to males

False

Infraorder: Tarsiiformes Family: Tarsiidae genus: Tarsius

Family: 1 genus 4-6 species Old world- Island sE Asia very specialized, rat sized vertical clingers and leapers nocturnal insectivorous large eyes---orbits no moist rhinarium or dental comb -Diet insects, reptiles, birds, worms, faunivorous -intermembral index ~58 -social behavior: noyau system mainly (solitary males overlapping w several females other spp live in groups -locomotion vertical clingers and leapers (VCL) hyper specialized activity: nocturnal 100% arboreal -Large eyes, long ankles (tarsal bones )

Which is true about Paranthropus and tool use?

Finger morphology indicates Paranthropus may have been a tool maker/user

The Movius Line

First described by Hallam L. Movius (1948) • Line indicates different archaeological assemblages of stone tool technology. • West of line, fully developed Acheulean technologies. • East of the Line, incomplete development of Acheulean techonologies. Lacking many characteristic tool types. Why does the Movius line exist? - 3 main hypotheses • Asian Homo erectus left Africa before technology was developed, and therefore did not carry it to Asia. • Asian Homo erectus replaced certain stone tools with bamboo tools, which leave no archaeological evidence.Some have argued, Asian social networks were not well developed enough to maintain or produce full Acheulean tool kit. IN AFRICA • Louis Leakey 1st discovered • Sites: - Olduvai Gorge - East + West Turkana - Swartkrans - North African sites • ca. 1.8 - 0.6 Ma

Modern Human Genetic Diversity

Genetic Structure of Human Populations Rosenberg et al. (2002) Science 298:2381 • 377 highly variable regions of the human genome studied • 1056 individuals from 52 populations worldwide • Results: - 93-95% of variation within groups - 3-5% of variation between groups A, B, C, and D are hypothetical populations • When you try to bin people, everyone comes out as mixtures of two or more of them

Time Scales + Modern Human Diaspora

Genus Homo of the Quaternary Glacials + Interglacials Late Quaternary sea-level history had a significant impact on human populations past and present. • climatic conditions directly impacted biogeography and habitat of transitional hominins and modern Homo sapiens Major glacial events (n=11+) have even-numbered MIS. • Late Pleistocene glaciations were more intense compared to Early Pleistocene. • The 'Last Glacial Maximum' (ca. 27 - 24 ka) was the most intense glaciation with very low sea levels (ca. 130 m below present) THICKNESS of the ICE SHEETS at various urban locations in North America 21,000 years ago (compared with present-day skylines) Pleistocene Hominin Diversity hominin species in the Pleistocene • Occur at quite low population densities (Certainly compared to modern humans) • Modern humans remarkably adaptable and resilient to biocultural changes • non-modern hominin species, including some quite recent, also were resilient (e.g. H. neanderthalensis, H. floresiensis, H. naledi) • Our species evolved in Africa 200 ka and continues to this day, the only extant hominin on planet earth Early Modern Homo sapiens Homo neanderthalensis Contemporaneous in Europe, Middle East Homo erectus Contemporaneous in Southeast Asia Homo neanderthalensis There is clear temporal overlap between modern humans and Neanderthals in Europe, but Neanderthals likely went extinct by 30 ka. Homo sapiens of the Holocene Holocene epoch is divided into 'chronozones' defined by climatic fluctuations. • We are now in the 'Anthropocene' - argued to be the new epoch beginning ~ AD 1950. • Modern humans remarkably resilient with respect to biocultural adaptations to climate change. Holocene Temperature Variations Modern humans populated all continents (except Antarctica) by the 'terminal' Pleistocene (ca. 12 ka), which ends with a glacial 'bang' the Younger Dryas (12.9-11.7 ka) • Younger Dryas is a recent example of abrupt climate change. Evidence for global-scale shift towards glacial conditions that 'ameliorated' by start of the Holocene Modern Human Diasporas: An Austronesian Example Example of one modern human diaspora in prehistory. • The Austronesian Diaspora was massive in terms of its scale. • Although debated, it likely started out of southern China to Taiwan ca. 6-5 ka • Based principally on language group Human Polymorphic Variants Polymorphic variants within sampled populations. - darker color = unique to population - lighter color = shared across continental group - Light gray = shared across continental areas - Dark gray = shared across all continents

Family Hylobatidae suborder: haplorhini

Gibbons Intermembral index: Humerus + radius/Femur+ tibia -very brachiated long arms -4 genera of gibbons ( hylobates, hoolock, nomascus, symphalangus) -lesser apes -mainland & island southeast asia -siamang and hylobates spp are sympatric/ ranges overlap -Small body mass (5-11kg) -monkey like but specialized -true brachiators long forelombs and thumbs -good precision grip high IMI frugivorous siamangs omnivorous duets -monogamous -arboreal acrobats -territorial -fruit and leaves -up to 3 dependent offspring males =females in body size

Which are the largest living primates?

Gorillas

Gracile vs. Robust Australopiths

Gracile Australopiths • Australopithecus africanus • A. afarensis • A. anamensis • A. bahrelghazali Generalized jaws + teeth Robust Australopiths • Paranthropus robustus • P. aethiopicus • P. boisei Specialized jaws + teeth Robust australopiths Paranthropus spp. • Late Pliocene - early Pleistocene deposits (2.5 -1 Ma) • East + South Africa • massive molars • flat, broad 'dished' faces • poorly known postcranial anatomy • similar in body size to Australopithecus Robust australopiths Paranthropus spp. Hard object feeding - Sagittal crest - Large cheek teeth - Flared zygomatic arch - Dished face - Extreme postorbital construction • Woodland and open woodland habitat Massive temporalis + masseter chewing muscles Graciles vs. Robust Australopiths Gracile brow, protrusive jaw, cheek bone, region of bony ear tube, external auditory meatus Robust sagittal crest brow flat face bony ear tube Robust australopiths Paranthropus spp. Paranthropus aethiopicus - 2.7-2.5 Ma • Paranthropus boisei - 2.3-1.2 Ma • Paranthropus robustus - 2.0-1.5 Ma Au. afarensis • Pelvis oriented differently -- more "splayed" and horizontal • conical rib cage (inverted funnel -shape) • long arms, relatively short legs Mosaic Evolution: Different features may evolve at different rates or not at all The phalanges of Au. afarensis show significant curvature Scapula morphology more similar to that of arboreal or semiarboreal apes, rather than humans. Au. afarensis skeletal proportions are intermediate between apes and modern humans A number of large carnivores existed during the entire evolutionary history of the hominins. • Leopards, lions, and tigers in the Old World today are formidable "Stony Brook Group" Au. afarensis was adapted to both walking and climbing. ALL features are adaptations. "Midwest Museum Group" Au. afarensis was adapted to bipedalism ONLY, climbing features are 'leftovers' - vestiges of an arboreal past late 1970w Role of arborealism in early hominins Structuralist Perspective Evolutionary Change is Hard. Form takes 'primacy' function responds to form Selection one of many agents of change, other agents have larger relative roles Non-selectively active vestiges of arboreal past Facultative Climbers, But not selectively-active aspect of ecology Functionalist Perspective Evolutionary Change is Easy. Function takes 'primacy' form responds to functio Selection continually very active, other agents minimized Selectively active adaptations of arborealism Obligate Climbers, Selectivelyactive aspect of ecology

The division of the primate order into Anthropoids and Prosimians represents what type of classification?

Gradistic

Tarsiers are included in which suborder

Haplorhini

The Neanderthals

Homo neanderthalensis ca. 150 ka (200 ka) to 30 ka • highly robust cranials and postcranials • cold-adapted (not that simple - mainly younger time range) • mostly confined to Europe and Near East • significant temporal and regional variation • associated with Mousterian tool industry (not necessarily) Neanderthal Cranio-Facial Anatomy Large, arching browridges Big nose "Puffy" midface No chin Retromolar gap Amud 1 Low Forehead Large Cranial Capacity Occipital Bun Projecting Midface Post-cranial synapomorphies: Long collar bones Finger tips very broad Elbow and knee joints broadly delineated Unusual pelvis - very long pubic bone Degree of wear on incisors atypical for modern humans including Upper

Hobbits

Homo floresiensis Disc. 2000 • 18,000 years old • Homo floresiensis • Indonesia • Controversial find • ? species designation Liang Bua -- LB-1 • Primitive postcranial skeleton: - Afarensis like wrist bones (trapezium) - Humeral head torsion (110 ° v. 145-165° in modern humans - 'modern' pelvis - Re-wired brain

Archaeological Evidence

Homo heidelbergensis similar technology to H. erectus • Acheulean hand axes -- smaller, better made • See the development of the prepared-core technique ("Levallois") ca. 200,000 in Africa • Flake tools including blades A new tool tradition was developed by Homo heidelbergensis during the middle Pleistocene. • This replaced the Acheulean tradition with better points, and a system of 'mass manufacture' • Also allowed for more precise size control, enabling the tool maker to fashion tips for spears/projectiles, knives, and scrapers - See regional variation - different 'styles' but with the same technique Extensive evidence of large game hunting, especially in Europe. • Fossil spears have been recovered in Germany • Prehistoric horses and rhino bones exhibit cut marks H. heidelbergensis appears to have been the first hominin to create shelters, not just utilize caves. • This shelter is an artist's rendition of an archaeological site found in Terra Amata, southern France dated to ~400 ka 'Crown of stones' Guattari cave, Italy Neanderthal cannibalism at Moula-Guercy, France • ca. 100 ka based on: • comparative analyses of bone • spatial distribution • modification by stone tools • keletal part representation An ~400 ka Acheulian handaxe is the only one found among a pit of H. heidelbergensis remains. • Some have argued that this is a symbol, and thus represents a funeral rite. • Perhaps H. heidelbergensis buried their dead... Yet, in spite of what appears to be fairly advanced cultural traditions, there is no 'art' associated with H. heidelbergensis

Teeth and Jaw

Homodont - gators Heterodont- all mammals -primates have molars 3 cusp tribosphenic pattern -many primates have quadrate molars -apes and humans have y5 Heterodont primates have 4 types of teeth anterior dentition incisors and canines posterior dentition premolars and molars Crown: enamel, dentin, pulp Root: root canal and nerves Dental formula all living primates have lost p1 first premolar all living catarrhines have lost swcond premolar p2 Primitive pattern 3-1-4-3/3-1-4-3 derived pattern 2-1-3-3/2-1-3-3 Dental comb: strepsirrhine 2 incisors and 1 canine Dimorphic canines male has a much larger canine the bilophodont pattern is a shared derived trait synapomorphy in all old world monkeys high cusp relief adaptation for diet of leaves low cusp relief omnivorous

Origins of Bipedalism

How does the fossil evidence support different scenarios with respect to selection for bipedal locomotion ? what was the PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT for the first bipedal hominins?

Bipedal Adaptations

Humans have lengthened lower limbs + a lower intermembral index than chimpanzees. Modifications to the Pelvis: • Enlarged joint surface areas: • More weight passing through the joints • Humans have a short, broad pelvis, chimps have a long, narrow pelvis Full extension of the knee joint - "locked position" during stance phase Knee valgus: More efficient striding, less 'wobble' side to side. • Gluteal muscles rearranged - Chimps do not have 'butts' • This increases our hip stability and 'stride' during walking ('bipedal gait') bowl-shaped pelvis • rotated laterally relative to acetabulum Chimpanzees have a 'waddling gait' while humans do not, we do not wobble when we walk (usually) Phases of bipedalism heel strike stance phase, push off swing phase heel strike Stride length is push off to heel strike walking cycle is heel strike to heel strike 3 Key features of the foot: • Inclined 'hallux' or big toe • Shortened toes elongated mid and hind food • Development of arches (3 in humans) in association with very compact and stiff hind and mid foot Short toes, and long hind and mid foot. • Toes do not 'get in the way' during push-off • Human toes also more flexible in hyperextension • Human hind and mid food much stiffer to form platform Fossilized footprints show clearly 'human like' bipedal striding, with heel strike and toe off, with inline big toe and a large amount of weight going through the bid toe. Being bipedal is like constantly falling. It is extremely precarious. So why should an animal want to be so, ... even part-time? • There must have been some driver towards a bipedal lifestyle...

Traditional (grade based) classification of superfamily Hominoidea

Hylobatidae- Hylobates Pongidae - Pongo, gorilla, pan Hominidae- homo

Which statement about Sivapithecus is NOT correct?

It is clearly on the lineage of extant Gorilla

Which of the following is NOT true about Piltdown Man?

It is still used today as an example of brain size evolution in hominins

​Bipedalism: Mechanisms + Anatomy

Key hominin adaptations - the major "novelties" "chewing apparatus" dominated by: • large cheek teeth (premolars & molars) • thick enamel • small-medium incisors • non-projecting, non-dimorphic canines • somewhat enlarged + re-organized brain • elaboration of material culture • habitual bipedalism The assumption that humans are unique in their adoption of bipedal locomotion... ...is false Lots of animals adopt bipedal postures for various reasons

Bioarchaeology

Key subdiscipline—lots of specialties • Crosses over with paleoanthropology, forensics, biomechanics, paleopathology, bone chemistry, etc. • Study of human skeletal remains in archaeological (cultural) context • Training in both archaeology and biological anthropology strongly encouraged Activity Patterns • Cultural Modifications • Diet • Migration • Trauma and Warfare • Health - Non-specific - Specific Used to reconstruction the lifestyle of an individual or population Primary sources • Bones • Mummies • Bog bodies • Context Secondary sources • History • Literature Cultural Modifications Identity Paleopathology • Paleo (palaeo) = ancient • Pathos = suffering • Logos = study of • science of diseases demonstrated in remains from the ancient past • Trauma + Warfare With adoption of agriculture, there is an increase in infectious disease - Living with livestock - Living with refuse (sedentary) - Living in close quarters with other people - Living in malaria prone areas Infectious Diseases Tuberculosis Syphilis Leprosy Rickets . Metabolic Disorders Indicators of Systemic Stress during Growth Linear Enamel Hypoplasias Harris Lines The Osteological Paradox • individuals with changes to skeleton may have healthier constitution than those without changes to their skeleton... Subsistence • Isotopes - Carbon (13C/12C) and Nitrogen (15N/14N) stable isotope ratios • Terrestrial v. Marine animals • C3 or C4 vegetation • Dentition - Comparison of dental health (number of carious lesions, dental abscesses, etc.) can inform on changes in subsistence Migration • Strontium (Sr) and lead (Pb) levels change with geographic area - Differences between teeth and long bones can show migration

Which of the following is an example of a specialized form of terrestrial quadrupedalism?

Knuckle-walking

Molecular Clock

Late Miocene (~ 12-7 Ma) fossil record in subSaharan Africa is very poor - a dearth of hominid fossil material... • BUT, a key time period to explore divergence between humans and our closest cousins, the African apes. • Molecular clocks are best when used with the fossil record. • Most studies suggest divergence estimates: between humans + Pan 5-6 Ma between humans + Gorilla 6-8 Ma https://photos.app.goo.gl/WKcsSiQDkUz38l142 https://photos.app.goo.gl/38brOYqUM3ws6WSl1

Family: cercopithecidae subfamily colobinae

Leaf eating -asian distribution -less complex large groups -specialized digestive system -high cusp relief folivory arboreal quadrupedalism, quadrupedal leaping , semi brachiation

a primate with high shearing crests on their molars are more likely to be eating which type of food?

Leaves

Human Polymorphisms

Levels of Adaptation Skin Pigmentation • Body Shape + Body Size • Hair Form + Pigmentation • Skin + Fat • Physiology • Skeletal Variation Adaptation: • Genetic (evolutionary) change • Time period: generations • Adaptability: • Developmental change • Time: lifetime/childhood • Acclimation (acclimatization): • Plastic physiological change • Time: minutes/hours/weeks • Behavioral/cultural ABO and Other Blood Type Systems • Polymorphic: Two or more distinct phenotypes that exist within a population - Maternal-Fetal Incompatibility - The Human Leukocyte Antigen System

Traditional vs Modern Suborder Classification

Linnean: Infraorder Infraorder Parvorder Parvorder Extant Primates: Lemuriformes Tarsiiformes Platyrrhini Catarrhini Traditional Suborder: Prosimii Prosimii Anthropoidea Anthropoidea Modern Suborder:

Two views on the evolution of humankind ( early 20th cent)

Locomotion First- Ape into bipedal ape into intelligent bipedal ape into human Brains first Ape into intelligent ape into bipedal intelligent ape into human

NEW view on the evolution of humankind (mid-20th century)

Locomotion first ape bipedal ape intelligent bipedal ape human

Superfamily: Lorisoidea

Lorises and pottos -includes 2 major groups of prosimian primates -4 genera ~12spp 18 taxa -Asia + africa -galagos 'bush babies' -5+1=6 genera ~18spp 34 taxa -africa only -new genus discovered in 2017

Which is true of populations living at high altitudes compared to those living at sea level?

Low birth weights are more frequent at high altitudes.

Late Miocene

Major period of aridification at the end of the Miocene and into the Pliocene. smaller forest patch size in terminal miocene 5 ma

Paleoecological Context

Middle Miocene 14 Ma Miocene Earth. Continents nearly in place. But modern ocean currents not yet formed. https://photos.app.goo.gl/Js53JzLmjWjAYm7A3 https://photos.app.goo.gl/XwyASnSCyloWM2Ix2

Human Variation and the Concept of 'Race'

Mis-Notions of Race Monogenism • Polygenism • Social Darwinism • Biological Determinism • Eugenics • Xenophobia • 'Scientific' Racism • Races are ranked on various criteria judged to assess intelligence or moral standards • Rankings are used either to bolster the Scala Naturae or proto-evolutionary relationships • Rankings are highly subjective and loaded with potential for ethnocentric abuse, with the highest rank always being reserved for the race of the person doing the ranking. • Bias is everpresent with respect to race.

___________ evolution is the piece by piece emergence of a new form.

Mosaic

Ethics + Our Future

NAGPRA + Kennewick Man • Disc. 1996 • 9,000 years old • The Ancient One • Present-day Washington State • Controversial Find (NAGPRA) • Debated Affinities • Recently reburied Human Diaspora - multiple migrations out of Africa Louis Leakey and his son Richard were instrumental in shifting the focus of human origins to the Great Rift Valley of East Africa. Bob Campbell photograph of Louis Leakey and Glynn Isaac at Lake Natron, Kenya 1964 Order Primates It is easier to build strong children than to repair broken men. - Frederick Douglas

Tool use occurs in the following species

New Caledonian Crows Humans Chimpanzees Gorillas Capuchins

Homo habilis Leakey et al., 1964

Olduvai Gorge - Beds I and II - 2.0 - 1.6 Ma • "Handy Man" • Tool association • Passes "cerebral rubicon" • Reduced molar size • Stone tool maker Beds I and II are the lower two units at Olduvai Gorge, containing hominins -

Omomyoidea is the superfamily of euprimates that look like living tarsiers and so are considered to be the earliest Haplorhini

On the other hand, Adapoidea is the superfamily of euprimates that look like living lemurs and so are considered to be the earliest strepsirhines.

Which of the great apes is found only on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra?

Orangutans

Evidence for Tool Use

Osteodontokeratic Culture • Raymond Dart's notion of human too use • Based on finds from Makapansghat • 'Bone' Tooth' + 'Horn' • A. africanus fossils and associated fauna • Inspired by Robert Audrey's book African Genesis C.K. Brain • Taphonomic studies proved it was not a hominin-produced assemblage. Hominins were the hunted (and scavenged) Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya Archaeological site • Recently identified stone tool assemblage near the site where Kenyanthropus platyops was recovered. • Date: 3.3 Ma • 'in situ stone artefacts occur in spatiotemporal association with Pliocene hominin fossils in a wooded palaeoenvironment' (Harmand et al., 2015:310) • Predates Oldowan Tool Tradition by 700 ka Australopithecus garhi Antelope remains from nearby site with cutmarks • whether A. garhi or another hominin species is responsible ??? • meat/marrow eating at an early date -- "hallmark" in human evolution (technology, diet) Stone Tools • Stone tools confer an advantage to gaining access to difficult to get to places (e.g., bone marrow within the medullary cavity of long bones. • Bone marrow is nutrient rich. Brain food.

Chimpanzee Fossil Record

Pan Fossils Discovered •Date: 550-500 ka •Kapthurin Formation •Tugen Hills, Kenya •McBrearty et al. 2005 •4 teeth recovered

Missing Links + Hidden Agendas

Piltdown Gravels (Sussex, England) Charles Dawson was a lawyer and an amateur geologist • fossil remains first unearthed in Sussex gravel pit ca. 1908 • included two human skull fragments • In 1912, Dawson reported discovery of this important assemblage to the "Keeper of Geology" at the BMNH -- (Sir) Arthur Smith Woodward Pithecanthropus (Southeast Asia)Neanderthals (Europe) +

Mousterian Industry

Prepared core technique begun before Neanderthals, but elaborated on by them - core trimmed around edges to produce disk shape - then large flake struck from one face (known as Levallois technique) - flakes then shaped into number of specialized tools Chatelperronian tools from Laussel France • Probably associated with Neanderthals • similarities to Upper Paleolithic tools Modern Human CranioFacial Anatomy Reduced brow Canine Fossa Small Anterior Teeth Vertical forehead Definite Chin Qafzeh IX Neanderthal Tabun I skull Layer C >100 ka N KEBARA (ISRAEL) Neanderthal burial at Kebara cave, Israel ca. 60 ka Most robust Neanderthal known

homo habilius

Primates of the Cenozoic Era We are now in the Pleistocene, after ca. 2.6 M Key hominin adaptations -- the major "novelties" • Chewing apparatus dominated by: • large cheek teeth (premolars & molars) • small-medium incisors • non-projecting, non-dimorphic canines • Somewhat enlarged & re-organized brain • Elaboration of material culture • Habitual bipedalism • "fragmented" habitat KEY ) Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania World Heritage Site Famous Plio-Pleistocene site Leakey 'Type' site for P. boisei + Homo habilis

Order: Primates

Race is an outdated, gradebased concept that aims to place modern humans into hierarchical organization Homo sapiens is a polytypic species. • Homo sapiens is genetically homogeneous.

Who found the fossil that serves as the holotype for Australopithecus africanus?

Raymond Dart

Early Hominid Lifeways

Reconstructing behavior • Climatic/environmental changes • Diet Meat eating Food sharing Foraging • Social organization Sexual division of labor Home bases?

Bipedalism: Models + Theories

Remember our myth of Human Origins There was an ape that lived in the trees, but the rains stopped and the forest shrank. The ape left the trees in search of food. The leopard and hyena came upon the ape, but the ape picked up a stick and beat the predators back. Henceforth the ape used the stick to do many things, and so walked on two legs. And the ape fashioned tools from stones and became very wise. Soon with his weapons and wits the ape became man and took over the world

Which is a mechanical reason for having thick enamel?

Resistance to wear and crushingstress

Which statement most accurately explains the difference between robust and gracile australopiths?

Robust australopiths have much larger molars with thick enamel.

Which statement most accurately explains the difference between robust and gracile australopiths? Robust australopiths are better adapted for climbing.

Robust australopiths have much larger molars with thick enamel.

Which hominin was found in Chad?

Sahelanthropus

Racial Typologies

Separate and long histories of existence - Pre-evolutionary: established by Divine entity - Evolutionary: Races have long histories of separate evolutionary development. Two ways of looking at human diversity and variation: • Adaptationist Approach - Variation, a result of natural selection • Historical Approach - Variation, a pattern of population history and relationships Geography of Race • historical entities (pre - AD 1500) • Post - AD 1500) • increased - gene flow - 'replacement' - admixture Monogenism vs. Polygenism Monogenism • All 'races' descended from a common 'race' - single origin, Adam + Eve • Different 'races' are due to environmentally determined degeneration • At one time was supported with the biblical story of creation • In 1537, for example, Pope Paul III declared Native Americans to be human Polygenism • Multiple creation events result in observed human variation • Different 'races' are descendants of different 'Adams' • Reinforced by young earth creationism • Observed variation could not be explained in a single creation event • Used to justify slavery • Argument ended with On the Origin of Species (1859) 'Replacement' vs. Multiregional Evolution Regional Continuity • Long periods of evolution in different areas of Old World • Out of Africa = African 'Eve' Hypothesis • Modern humans are recent. Last common 'African' ancestor 200 ka Johann Blumenbach (1752 - 1840) German Anatomist, 'Father' of Physical Anthropology • On the Natural Varieties of Mankind (1775) • Monogenism (refuted the existence of 'wild men; and 'troglodytes' of earlier classifications • Proposed a system for classifying humans into five different 'races' based on the shape of the skull • Used skull from Caucasus mountains as 'perfect' European form - claimed four other 'races' were 'degenerated' from this group • Caucasoid (Europeans), Mongoloid (Asians), American (Native Americans), Ethiopian (Africans), and Malayan (Southeast Asians) Craniometry + Anthropometry Craniometry • measuring the bones of the skull. • In the 19th Century, this measurement was believed to be related to IQ Anthropometry • measurement of living human individuals for the purposes of understanding human physical variation. Samuel G. Morton (1799 - 1851) Anatomist + Physician from Philadelphia • 'Father' of Scientific Racism • Human races = species distinctions • Data collected based on cranial capacity (Larger brain > intelligence) Measurements didn't correct for body size • Polygenist, convinced of inferiority of African populations • Measured cranial capacity (volume of braincase) to assess differential worth • Very careful technician, published extensive list of measurements of cranial capacities Morton's Racial Rankings based on estimated brain size Francis Galton (1822 -1911) Social Darwinism = Biological Determinism • Sir Francis Galton (Darwin's half-cousin) - suggested that biological inheritance ('hereditarianism') more important than environment in determining an individual's character and intelligence. • Social reformers used Darwinism to advocate for government policies - people need to adapt to changing polcies ... 'reform Darwinists' • Most extreme form of this line of thinking was 'eugenics' - a term coined by Galton in 1883, from the Greek eügenáv, meaning well-born. • Nazi eugenics, etc. Franz Boas (1858 - 1942) German-born 'Father' of American four-field Anthropology • Taught at Columbia University (NYC) • Challenged the prevailing 19thcentury race-based, evolutionary approach to culture. • Argued for racial plasticity based on studies of immigrant populations over time Earnest A. Hooten (1887 - 1954) • American physical anthropologist at Harvard University • Helped develop 'Committee on the Negro' • Interested in criminal 'nature' as measured in skulls. • Non-adaptive traits (minutiae of human variation) to explain 'real' differences between 'races' • Three primary races, 7 composite races, 15 'sub-races' Carleton S. Coon (1904 - 1981) Identified 5 'races' • Threshold of Homo sapiens crossed multiple times • Some 'evolved' before others • UPenn Prof. Stanley M. Garn (1922 - 2007) Stanley Garn (1965) • Michigan Anthropologist • Did not like using physical traits to construct racial groups. • Identified 9 Geographical 'races': A collection of populations, separated from other such collections by major geographical barriers. Stanley M. Garn (1922 - 2007) Distribution of Garn's nine 'races' There are as many racial taxonomies as there are traits that can be imagined

Paleobiology

Similarly, when studying fossil taxa, you want to be conservative in terms of how you interpret the skeletal remains, to reconstruct the biology of the taxon in question.

More early Homo

Single Species Hypothesis • C. Loring Brace & Milford Wolpoff (University of Michigan) • 1960s + early 1970s • All anatomical differences between hominin species is Intraspecific variation, not Interspecific variation. • Only one species of hominin can exist at any one time. "Lumpers" vs "Splitters" Fewer Species More Species anatomical variation seen as : Intraspecific Interspecific 1960s Leakey discovery: Homo habilis, "the skilled human or handyman" • 1970s Leakey discovery: a more intact skull of H.habilis, KNM-ER 1470 - Cranial capacity of 775 cc Homo rudolfensis KNM-ER 1470 • Discovered in 1972 • Large flat face • Big brain - 775 cc • Big molars • 1.9 - 1.8 Ma Wolpoff (1964) • H. habilis is indistinct from A. africanus •Robinson (1965) H. habilis diagnostic features insignificant ... - Bed I = A. africanus - Bed II = early H. erectus • Leakey (1966)H. habilis direct ancestor to H. sapiens -- descended from A. africanus. H. erectus a dead end. KNM-ER 1813 KNM-ER 1470 Cranial capacity 510 cc 775 cc Browridge ('Supraorbital torus') Moderate to small None Face Small Large Posterior tooth size Small Large Homo ergaster • New species, Homo rudolfensis is erected to deal with the mess. Splitters are in action. • Richard Leakey, however, is strictly Homo sp.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

Skull and postcranials from site in Correze, France • Excavations 1908-1911 • 'Old man' of La Chapelle, ca. 50 ka

Which of the following is true for Ardipithecus?

Specimens were found in the rift valley.

Phylogeny

Study of evolutionary relationships of organisms. Anatomical, molecular, behavioral traits examined in both extinct and extant taxa phyletic transformation- Species A ~ Arbitrary point of division in gradual transformation~ into Species B Allopatric speciation- Species A branches off into species B, while species A still exists

Clade cercopithecidae

Subfamilies: Cercopitheinae and colobinae tribes of Cercopitheinae: cercopithecini and papionini

Hominoid Taxonomy 'Old School' traditional, grade-based taxonomy of the Hominoidea

Superfamily Hominoidea Family Hominidae Pongidae Hylobatidae Genus Homo Pan Gorilla Pongo Hylobates Common name Human Chimpanzee Orangutan Gibbon Gorilla

​Last Common Ancestor + Molecular Clocks

The 3 P's • Phylogeny • Paleobiology • Paleoecology

Edward Tyson ( 1650-1708)

The Anatomy of a Pygmy compared with that of a monkey, an ape and a man 1699 -father of modern comparative anatomy -chimp anatomy more similar to humans than monkeys

Denisovans

The Denisovans (Homo sp. Altai) Denisovans are an unknown populations (or species?) • Little morphological data - Other than an LM3 and a 5th distal phalanx • Found in Denisova Cave in Siberia • Mitochondrial genome from phalanx was first published in 2010 - Very soon after the Neanderthal nuclear genome - mtDNA from molar almost identical (only one base differs) The Denisovan mitogenome was basal to modern humans and Neanderthals • Denisovan diverged from modern humans about 1 Ma Denisovan nuclear genome Later in 2010, a draft Denisovan genome was published • Genetically, the Denisovans were a 'sister taxon' to the Neanderthals - Why the mtDNA signal different is unclear Denisovan introgression has been found in Australia, New Guinea (~5%) • Indicates Denisovans may have had a large range • Interestingly, a Tibetan adaptation to high altitude thought to have evolved in Tibet actually originated from Denisovan introgression into the ancestors of Tibetans

Out of Africa I

The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia Early Homo Homo habilis E + S Africa 2.4 - 1.8 Ma Homo ergaster E Africa 1.8 - 1.0 Ma Homo rudolfensis E Africa 2.4 - 1.8 Ma Homo erectus Old World 1.8 - 0.05 Ma Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia Small, diminutive Homo erectus - pre-Homo erectus? Hominins date to ~1.77 Ma • Plio-Pleistocene • Homo erectus (ergaster) • D2600 H. georgicus • Small cranial capacity (< 800 cm3) and short stature Oldowan-like/Mode I technology • Cores and flakes • Some cutmarks found on associated faunal remains Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia Shared with H. habilis: • D2700 • Postorbital constriction • Shallow palate • Thickened vertical mandibular symphysis, variable mental eminence • Most are size related, or are symplesiomorphies • Shared with H. erectus Crania similar in shape to H. ergaster • Supraorbital torus • Eminence at bregma with sagittal keel • Flexion of occipital • Single rooted upper PM • Reduction of distal tooth size • Best classification • Close to a "stem group" : Homo erectus (ergaster) • Closely associated assemblage, one species - H. erectus more variable than thought • Stem Group? - Possibly an intermediate between H. habilis and H. erectus Earlier dispersal from Africa - First humans to leave Africa were more H. habilis-like than previously believed - Not dependent on increased cranial capacity or Acheulean Tool Industry • No respiratory limitations on speech • Care for elderly/alternate food sources Significant number of sites in Africa with Homo egaster and outside of Africa with Homo erectus. • Your textbook does not differentiate between Homo erectus and Homo ergaster (and that is okay)

Last Common Ancestor

The Last Common Ancestor African Apes • Africa • Molecular Clock (9-5 Ma) evolution is a bush Increased diversity of hominin spp. ~4 -3 Ma

Transitional Hominins

The Middle Pleistocene (800-200 ka) The "Muddle in the Middle" - G. Isaac by the Middle Pleistocene (0.7 - 0.2 Ma) H. erectus is firmly established • Africa • Tropical Asia • Temperate Asia • Temperate Europe • replaced by "archaic Homo sapiens" • referred to as Homo heidelbergensis Suite of intermediate characters • previously 'archaic' H. sapiens or pre-sapiens • oversimplifies the evolutionary picture • Transitional Homo heidelbergensis Mauer Jaw - both primitive (robust) + derived (small molars) - for a long time, it was the oldest European fossil - 'Type' specimen - ~500 ka Relative to H. sapiens - Lower forehead - Large brow ridges - More prognathic face - Larger teeth - No chin - Smaller brain size - No/rare canine fossae Importantly, H. heidelbergensis is represented in Asia at two sites: - Dali ~230 - 180 ka - Jinniushan ~200 ka - This effectively means (that if you consider H. erectus and H. ergaster two species) H. heidelbergensis is the first 'panOld World hominin' Found 1984 • ~200 ka • Brain Size: 1300 cc (largest transitional in Far East) • contemporaneous with H. erectus at Zhoukoudian Canine Fossa indentation in the maxilla above the root of the canine • associated with modern humans, • Not observed typically in H. heidelbergensis Atapuerca, Spain Atapuerca, Spain (Simo de los Huesos ) • > 300 kyr • > 1300 hominid fossils • most complete middle Pleistocene assemblage • Assemblage shows extensive variation with H.erectus -like and H.sapiens -like mosaic. Date ~1.2 -0.7 Ma Most experts place in Homo heidelbergensis Gran Dolina Site in Spain • Early hominin in this assemblage, from site of Gran Dolina, is given name Homo antecessor Bodo, Ethiopia - ~600 ka - Earliest evidence of H. heidelbergensis in Africa - Skull shows cut marks!?

Which is the most accurate explanation for the remains that inspired Dart's "Osteodontokeratic culture"?

The association of Australopithecus africanus remains with the remains of other animals can be explained by the feeding behavior of large carnivores.

Why Did Hominins Become Bipedal?

The idea that tool use and carrying stuff led to bipedal apes is 'old school' and does not hold much weight in terms of fossil + archaeological evidence. Charles Darwin thought along these lines., as did many early scholars • Similarly, no evidence for systematic hunting with weapons on any appreciable scale (... bushbabies aside) Jolly's 'seed-eater hypothesis' - Careful use of analogy is best lesson here, but gelada baboons are not the ideal analogue • Plausible idea, but requires bulk of activity in mid-day sun in open area, and bipedalism likely occurred in more forested areas (e.g., Ardipithecus) • Hominoid orthogrady already presupposes foraging from ground-level into the trees seed and nut gathering, feeding from bushes, thermoregulation

Defining Hominin

The trait we use to distinguish the human line from Pan is 'bipedalism' • To be a hominin you must show features associated with bipedalism (adaptations) • Direct: Features showing clear adaptations for upright walking (postcranial, especially in legs and hips) • Indirect Features showing adaptations for upright posture, but not necessarily upright walking (cranial, and features of spine, or arms) (Less reliable, but suggestive...) Must consider what happens when a discovery is made. • How does one approach the interpretation of the new fossil (especially a hominin) • Having little material allows for a more 'straight-forward' interpretation. Where-as having a lot of material makes interpretations difficult. • Having little material makes errors in interpreting the material more likely, whereas having a large assemblage should make errors less likely. • When we discover a new fossil which does not seem to 'fit' our preconceived ideas about the evolutionary history of a lineage, should we: - Reconsider our ideas about the evolutionary history of the lineage? - Reconsider our taxonomic placement of the new fossil? • There are likely to be many 'apes' among the tangled branches of our family tree Hominins = Smart Bipeds WHY did selection favor big, expensive brains? • Technical intelligence = tool use and extractive foraging • Ecological intelligence = complex cognitive maps needed to exploit complex environment • Social intelligence = being politically and socially astute with the ability to deceive

Which statement is false concerning the australopiths?

They are only found in East Africa.

Hominoid, Hominid, Hominin

Traditional (grade-based)- Hominid = bipedal ancestors to humans- Hominoid = apes Modern (clade-based)- Hominin = bipedal ancestors to humans- Hominid = Humans, bipeds + African apes- Hominoid = all apes

Baboons

Tribe papionini baboons and macaques multimale/ multifemale complex groups complex hierarchy -marked sexual dimorphism -gramnivorous and omnivorous -models for human evolution -terrestrial -seeds

Developmental acclimatization occurs in high-altitude natives during growth and development.

True

In the Paranthropus grade model, Paranthropus robustus evolved from Australopithecus africanus.

True

Which social system is characterized by an alpha male and a harem of females and their kin?

Unimale polygny

Biocultural Coevolution

Variability Selection Hominin brain enlargement beginning with H. habilis and culminating with H. heidelbergensis is the fastest percentage growth of any organ in the history of life. Traits that allowed for Brain Expansion • Cooperative hunting/scavenging • Technology • Allomaternal Care • Efficient Bipedalism • Fat Storage • Cooking Social Organization Mountain Gorillas (polygynous) Owl Monkeys (monogamous) What makes monogamy work? • Cooperation • Cooperative Breeding • Teamwork • Alloparenting Human Variation and the "race" question • Homo sapiens is a polytypic species. • Homo sapiens is genetically homogeneous. The Modern Human Condition • Are we zoologically superior? • Do we control our own destiny? • Have we transcended biological evolution? Zoological Superiority: What's the yardstick? • Species longevity ? NO • Species diversity ? NO • Biomass ? NO • Control of Biosphere ? YES If evolution is active, how do we explain maladaptive behaviors? Short versus long term benefit • Inclusive fitness (sociobiology) • Primacy of cultural values (selection for reciprocal altruism) Triumph of Culture? Agriculture and Domestication Mass production • Urbanization • Specialization • Cultural Innovation • Disease • Malnutrition Population Growth 7 billion and growing • 1st spike: Stone Tools • 2nd spike: Agriculture + Domestication • 3rd spike: Industrialization • Pandemics • Famine • Policy • Economics ARE WE STILL EVOLVING? Cultural adaptation over biological adaptation • Culture creates novel environments • Environment still impacts biology heritable variation + differential survival and reproduction

'LCA' Morphotype

We are interested in reconstructing the Last Common Ancestor ('LCA'). What will a "protohominin" look like ? • Incipient, 'facultative' bipedalism • thick enamel • moderate canine reduction • reduced mesiodistal molar length • Shallow + thick, 'robust' mandibles • material culture ?? Teeth + Jaws Tooth Enamel - not a good "character" to use as a shared derived feature (i.e., a synapomorphy Loss of CP3 or sectorial premolar CP3 Complex: • Upper canine fits into the diastema where they slide past P3 • P3 has one cusp in apes • The CP3 complex acts as a tooth sharpener Mesiodistal molar length is reduced • Hominins have square molars (not rectangular) Shape of dental arcade changes with canine reduction and reduced dimorphism Ready made fossils • Highly heritable (phylogenetic information) • Sensitive to selection (functional information)

Family Hominidae Subfamily Gorillinae species gorilla

Western & eastern gorilla -largest living primate -critically endangered Gorilla gorilla (western) -shorter fur -brown/red hair on head -longer faces -broader chests Gorilla beringei (eastern) -llonger fur -darker fur throughout -shorter and wider faces -narrower chests gorilla gorilla -locomotion:knuckle walking as with chimps, weight on intermediate phalanges terrestrial quadrupeds bipedal possibility -leaves, herbaceous veggies, fruit, lots of variation -extrme dimorphism critically endangered -small groups 20 -unimale polygyny -folivores gorillas in the mist 1983 dian fossey rwanda fossey killed by poachers in 1985

. Homo ergaster

Who is Homo ergaster? • Proposed in 1975 (Groves + Mazák) • Diagnosed by molar size and reduction in premolar root number • As Homo erectus got messy, Homo ergaster served to tidy up. The splitters win: • Too big for H. habilis • Too derived for H. rudolfensis Homo ergaster in Africa • Homo erectus in Asia Nariokotome, West Turkana, Kenya • KNM-WT 15000 - most complete H. erectus fossil skeleton ever found • 1.6 Ma • 12-year-old boy • postcranial skeleton very "modern" • cranial capacity of ca. 880 cc cranial capacity ca. 750 - 1300 cc • very thick skull bones • thick brow • sagittal keel • large teeth • robust facial skeleton • stocky build and muscular Modern body proportion present in Nariokotome. Sagittal ridge • Nuchal torus • Pentagonal shaped rear view • Widest near base

The only nocturnal haplorrhine is

a platyrrhine (genus Aotus)

A sagittal crest is

an area along the midline of the skull where the temporalis muscles attach, found on paranthropus crania

Acclimatization refers to

an individual's short-term physiological responses to the environment.

Key Bipedal Features

anteriorly placed foramen magnum • lumbar lordosis • lengthened lower limbs • enlarged joint surface areas • short/broad pelvis • valgus femur • realignment of gluteal muscles • full extension of ("locked") knee joint - 'extensible' • arched, rigid 'platform' foot • adducted big toe ('hallux')

Most Platyrrhine primates are

arboreal

Traditionally, primate characteristics have been explained as the result of adaptation to ________ environments.

arboreal

Stephen Nash

art to promote conservation

Primate communication

autonomic communication emotion deliberate communication gestures communication displays aggression grooming submission reassurance affiliative behaviors reconciliation consolation sex friendship

The false belief that there is a relationship between physical traits and certain behavioral traits such as intelligence and morals is called

biological determinism.

The female dilemma hypothesizes that females living in multi-male groups need to both confuse and assure paternity

confuse assure

Encephalization

correlation between brain and body size humans are the exception

Eocene Euprimates

crown primates: adapoids strepsirrhines stem long snout small eye orbit diurnal frugivory holarctic cantius notharctids darwinius dental comb and grooming claw absent unveiling of new genus demonstrates convergent evolution and it is a strepsirrhine and omomyoids haplorhines crown primates dispersed westward from asia into n america very tarsier like le gros clark Evidence from paleocene primates leaping specialization grasping hands and feet orbitals opposable big toes* nail not claw generalized molars* crown primate specialized elongated ankle bone Primate origins Angiosperm exploitation strong evidence for grasping and a general more omnivorous diet massive ecological turnover at paleocene-eocene boundary clark fork basin wyoming

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

discovery led by Michel Brunet in 2002 • In North -Central Africa (Torros - Menalla, Chad) • Dates to 7 -6 Ma ('relative') based on fauna • Material includes: one crushed cranium and isolated jaw fragments and teeth • cf. Graecopithecus, Gorilla - Orbit shape, interorbital distance, nasal aperture, cresting, enlarged molars and premolars • cf. hominini - Small, apically worn canines, short basicranium, anteriorly -placed foramen magnum, moderately thick enamel, fairly big brain... Placement of foramen magnum suggests Toumai was 'intermediate' between Pan and later hominins. Canines supposedly show 'apical' wear Facial shape for reconstructed Toumai falls out with other later hominins and closer to humans Other interesting features Other interesting features: • Brain size: 320-380 cc • Chimps: 340-400 cc • Humans: 1100-1300 cc • Discovered in Chad, N-Central Africa • Only 1 other pre-Homo found in Central Africa cf. Australopithecus bahrelghazali How Big is Africa? • The continental United States of America is smaller than the Sahara Desert.

All of the following are features of the foot that allow for efficient bipedal locomotion except for which one? short toes

divergent big toe

The long arms of hominins like Au. afarensis and Ar. ramidus suggest that

either long arms are a retained ancestral "vestige", or these hominins spent some time in the trees ('mosaic evolution')

Primates that eat insects are typically larger than primates who eat fruit

false

Primates hunted

for bushmeats, medicinal use and live trade IUCN 25 most endangered primates -arboreal heritage makes them vulnerable to deforestation and human hunting Birute Galdikas orangutan foundation in southeast asia WWF Virunga mountains rwanda gorillas natural range satellite images tell about slashing and burning in their habitat gorilla gombe stream national park - jane goodall institute

The eugenics movement

formed the basis for notions of racial purity in Nazi Germany.

Primate diets

frugivore- fruit and reproductive part of plants folivore - leaves and non reproductive parts of plants insectivore/faunivore - insects or animal prey gumnivore treesaps and exudates gramnivore seeds and grains nectivore flower nectar omnivore anything goes

Sherwood Washburn notes on teeth

gorilla gorilla observations

Categorizing people on the basis of skin color is a valid approach to racial taxonomy.

has a long history and has been practiced by many peoples.

Hominins do not show a complex, which involves a relatively large upper incisor coming down to sharpen itself on the lower premolar.

honing, canine

Late Miocene African Hominoids

https://photos.app.goo.gl/IrUBPvk9noG2cLtA2 NAKALIPITHECUS nakayamai Kunimatsuet al., 2007 •Site: Kenya [Nakali]•Date: 10 Ma [9.9 -9.8 Ma] •Body Size: large (~ female gorilla) •Teeth/Jaws: large size but gracile mandibular body; thinner enamel than Ouranopithecus; hard-object diet (terrestrial?) •Closely related to European Ouranopithecusmacedoniensis •African origin of lineage (because earlier and more primitive than Ouranopithecus) •Assoc. primate fauna CHORAPITHECUS abyssinicus Suwa et al., 2007 •Site: Ethiopia, Afar [S. margin of Afar Rift, ChororaFmt.] •Date: 10 - 11 Ma •New species of African Ape microCT of Choropithecus molars. Teeth: gorilla-sized molars with derived shearing crests, and thick enamel. Basal member of the gorilla clade. -'Relatively flat cuspal enamel-dentine junction and thick enamel' suggests adaptation to hard and/or abrasive foods -Re. Enamel thickness, Choropithecusmolars are intermediate between apes + Australopithecus

With the relationships of apes sorted by genetic data, we now have a new term 'Hominins' that refers to which of the following?

humans and our closest (extinct) relatives

With respect to behavior, which of the following are factors in primate behavioral ecology?

individual group/behavior

all of the following are true about anisogamy except which one?

it explains why males invest more time into the caring of young

The discovery of the Middle Miocene Moropithecus is significant because:

it is early evidence for more upright posture and suspensory locomotion in hominoids

Australopithicus afarensis likely ate all of the following except:

large amounts of meat

Primate Culture

learned behavior passed from generation to generation food choice appropriate behaviors use and modification of objects more complex behaviors (tool use) termite fishing urban capuchin monkeys wooden hammer and anvil to open seeds/ sticks to get water bearded capuchin nut cracking divet macaques offer a good example of monkey culture innovations are transferred throughout group pan troglodytes in nigeria material culture kit stingless bee fishing sticks and probing sticks ant fishing wands and fishing rods jill pruetz chimps using sticks to hunt for galago

Primate traits

limbs & locomotion teeth & diet brains and senses life history primates are largely restricted to tropical and subtropical

Life history

long gestation period reduced litter size increased time of infant dependency long learning period large complex groups increased lifespan Body size in primates -diverse -generally strepsirrhines are smaller than haplorhines -terrestrial larger than arboreal -old world monkeys and greap apes have maked sexual dimorphism -large animals retain heat and require less calories per unit of weight -small animals have higher BMR than larger animals -insectivores smallest -frugivores intermediate size -larger primates greater energy stores they can survive times of scarcity -species w shorter life spans more advantageous on more variable environments -primate species have interspecific and intraspecific differences in social patterns -single pair of pectorally positioned nipples -pendulous testes and penis -progressive elaboration of placenta -ischial callosities and tuberosities are in all cercopithecidae

If you are a , you tend to view all variation as intraspecific variation and so there are few real species represented in your collection. At the other end of the spectrum, if you are a , you tend to view all variation as interspecific variation and so there are many species represented.

lumper, splitter

Ancient DNA

mDNA from Neanderthals? Differences in sequence from modern human samples Neanderthals show no affinity to any modern Common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans = 365-853 kyr 2 independent studies Feldhofer (ca. 40 ka) Mesmaiskaya Cave, Caucasus (29 ka) age of most recent ancestor of eastern and western Neanderthals = 151-352 ka divergence of Neanderthals and modern humans = 365-853 ka Svante Pääbo is a molecular anthropologist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany • His research group has been at the forefront of sequencing human ancient DNA • These genomes have revolutionized our understanding of human evolution, but not all the pieces have been put together Mitochondrial "Eve" mtDNA - Maternally inherited • Africans show greatest genetic variation • Human Origins ca. 285 - 143 ka Molecular anthropologists can extract DNA from fossils • Ancient DNA (aDNA) preservation is highly variable based on time and burial conditions - need organics preserved • Colder climates are often better - Many aDNA genomes (both archaic and modern) are from Siberia • No set boundary on age but anything >100 ka is 'unlikely' • Can focus on mtDNA (easier) or nuclear DNA (harder) Amount of variation in mtDNA in modern humans is low (1/10th that of chimpanzees) • modern humans evolved recently • humans passed through a population bottleneck • Africans display the greatest degree of variation in mtDNA Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is maternally inherited • Both males and females inherit it from mother - Only females pass it on. - No recombination! • All modern humans share a mitochondrial common ancestor - The mitochondrial Eve, 150-200kya in Africa Source: Cann et al. (1987) • Non-Africans are clearly a subset of Africans In 2010, a draft Neanderthal genome was published • Primarily came from three fossil bones from Vindija, Croatia • Very low coverage genome. • Very incomplete sequence The oldest aDNA to date comes from a 560-780 ka old horse fossil from Canadian permafrost • Given the limits of aDNA, it is unlikely that we will have genetic data on Australopiths and early Homo - Due to age (i.e., >1.8 Ma is too old) - And also due to geography (i.e., sub-Saharan Africa is just to hot for aDNA) At first, only small regions of the Neanderthal mitochondrial genome was sequenced - Only a few hundred bases • Neanderthal mtDNA was divergent from MH • First genetic evidence that Neanderthals were a separate species Clear separation of human mtDNA • Modern Human-Neanderthal mtDNA divergence ~350-700 ka • The mtDNA + the timing the branching event of the earliest African 'modern' human - Proves that Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis are separate and sister species

The smallest of the New World anthropoids are the

marmosets and tamarins.

Geographical, ecological, and social factors influence DNA.

mate choice.

dispersal

members of one sex leaves the group in which they were born philopatry tendency to stay in or return to natal group more common in females

Prosimian

old school pro-before simia-ape

Dominance Hierarchies

pecking orders advantages of high rank: males higher quality foods females more surviving offspring cons: stress and challenges

The human pelvis is cup or basin shaped. This means that compared to a chimpanzees, it is broad and short to receive weight of the upper body

pelvis, short

Behavior

phenotype -impacts reproductive fitness -adaptation interaction between genetic and environmental factors Behavioral Ecology -study of evolution of behavior -natural selection-physiological traits influences: diet body size bMR distribution of food resources physiology threats activity patterns humans

Social structure

primate sociality degree to which individuals in a population interact within groups gorilla unimale polygyny chimpanzee multimale-multifemale with female in charge

Which of the following is true for Orrorin tugenensis?

probably contemporaneous with Sahelanthropus

Early South African Discoveries

raymond Dart (1893-1988) Australian Anatomist • Chair of Anatomy, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa • Student of Arthur Keith (not fans of one another) • Neurologist • Interests in Anthropology Early Discoveries in South Africa • Raymond Dart receives a crate of bones gathered by an intrepid worker at a local limestone quarry at Taung. • Dart finds one skull in the crate of especial interest ... est ... Taung Child • Site in South Africa • Box of fossils came into Dart's lab • First African hominin discovery - Fall 1924 • Raymond Dart identified from "crate" curious finds including - endocast - skull - mandible Australopithecus africanus Dart, 1925 • Type Specimen, 'Holotype' or simply 'Type' • high forehead • no brow ridge • flat, orthognathic profile • Deciduous teeth. No observed diastema (CP3) either between the upper dec. canine or the lower dec. m1 • gracile build (cheekbones, mandible, brow ridge, etForamen magnum anteriorly placed • endocast ca. 405 cc (est. 450 cc in adult) Early Discoveries in South\ Africa • Cradle of Mankind circled. • Key locality for fossil finds from 1925 to the present-day (e.g., Homo naledi, Australopithecus sediba Robert Broom (1866 - 1951) • Scottish, trained as a medical doctor but with interests in paleontology • Paleontologist at Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, South Africa • Supporter of Dart's Taung child

Family: Pitheciidae Parv: Platyrrhini

subfamily pitheciinae -sakis, bearded sakis, uakaris hard object eaters seeds, nuts quadrapedal leaping no prehensile tail

An important component of Oldowan Chopper technology, often overlooked, was

the flakes removed from the core

Sherwood Washburn

the social life of baboons 1961 -research could inform on ancient and modern human behavior and adaption savanna baboons females are philopatric large complex multi male groups Clifford jolly -gelada baboons 1970 seed eaters hypothesis modeling human origins

Louis Leakey

trimates dian fossey jane goodall birute galdikas orangutans

Adopting orphans is a form of altruistic behavior

true

Primate habitats

understory, main canopy, emergent in a mature tropical rain forest

The robust autralopiths (genus Paranthropus):

were specialized for processing plant foods that require heavy chewing

Family Hominidae Subfamily Homininae spp pan

western africa and eastern africa humans share a common ancestor w pan -2 species recognized chimpanzees and bonobos -social: complex fission-fusion common chimpanzee pan troglodytes -central africa -3-4 subspecies -rainforests to dry savannahs -omnivorous -33-60 kg body size -tool use and learned behaviors -we share a last common ancestor with gorillas our closest primate relatives -well studied at gombe national park tanzania -knuckle walking phalanges -cooperative hunting -organized hunt by surrounding prey Chimp tool use termite fishing in the shadow of man jane goodall 1971 senegal tool usage tree branch to stab galago pan paniscus bonobo -little dimorphism -small heads -dark color from birth to adulthood -long legs relative to arms (low intermembral index) -knuckle walker bipedal -peaceful primate -male-female bonds -less hunting more sec gg rubbing same sex -critucally endangered

Evidence of Genetic Adaptation - 'positive selection'

• Clinal Variations - Skin Color - Hair Texture - Nasal Index • Balanced Polymorphisms: - Allele frequencies higher than would otherwise be expected • Sickle cell/Malaria • G6PD/Malaria • Tay Sachs/TB Clinal Effect + Skin Color Skin Color density of melanin in melanocytes dictates skin color. • Clinal Effect - variation in latitude correlates with darkness of skin. Darker skin: ↓ vitamin D absorption (prevents hypervitaminosis D, but risk of rickets at high latitudes); ↓ rates of sunburn, skin cancer + folate depletion; ↑ frostbite Lighter skin: ↑ vitamin D absorption (prevents rickets); ↑ skin cancer rates + folate depletion Clinal Effect + Stature Bergmann's Rule - body size increases with decreasing temperature Allen's Rule - relative size of exposed portions of body decrease with decreasing temperatures. Dark Skin (SPF 10) • Vitamin D absorption low • More frostbite Light Skin • Sun breaks down folate • Skin cancer problem Mismatch? Arctic Peoples = Darker than predicted Reasons? • Recent arrivals (~5ka) • Marine diet high in vitamin D • High reflectance of sunlight • Relaxed genes (reduced f(x) of melanin genes) Circumpolar Cold Adaptations Genetic - Different levels of vasoconstriction to the extremities protect against frostbite without losing too much heat • Cultural - Cold water fish are high in essential fatty acids (EFAs) which may increase blood pressure in the fingers High Altitude Stressors - Hypoxia (reduced available oxygen) - Intense solar radiation - Cold - Low humidity - Wind • Developmental Effects - Slower maturation - Greater lung volume - Relatively large heart The Moken 'Sea Gypsies' • Adaptation or Acclimatization? • Normal vision on land, but 2X as clear underwater. • Other children can be trained to constrict their pupils, but it is unclear whether or not the Moken have a genetic adaptation Human Origins • Origins in Africa (>160,000 years ago) • We evolved in a tropical climate • Ability to withstand cold due to physical and cultural adaptation or acclimatization STATURE • Selection for small body size when there are limits on availability of food resources. Lactose Intolerance • Lactose - Carbohydrate in mammal milk • Lactase enzyme allows us to digest • Adult Intolerance - Diarrhea, Cramps, Flatulence • Lactase Persistent Allele (autosomal dominant) • Bacteria!!! Make them do the wor Sickle Cell Anemia • This is a disease where the body cannot properly produce Hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying protein in red blood cells • Persons with the disease are homozygous recessive. Their blood does not flow properly, and are unlikely to reach adulthood. • Point mutation: - Sickle Cell Anemia Autosomal Recessive Inheritance • Sickle Cell Anemia is a co-dominant Mendelian trait controlled by a pair of alleles at a single locus. • This means that if two Heterozygous parents have children, 1/4 of their children are likely to die of Sickle Cell Anemia • Carriers - have both alleles in their genotype • Sickle Trait parents effectively trade 1 child for 2. Balanced Polymorphism • High mortality in homozygous Recessives (aa) • High percentage of carriers (Aa) in certain populations leads to heterozygote superiority for malarial resistance • Adaptation in one context is genetic load in another

Endurance Running Hypothesis

• If genus Homo emerged via meat-eating. How best to acquire that meat ? • Scavenging alone would have been insufficient to gain the quantity required. One unusual thing modern humans are particularly good at is running over long distances. During long pursuits in the hot African afternoon. Early humans may have had the advantage over game species adapted to quickly evading more conventional quick pursuit or ambush tactics of most African carnivores. • Several advantages: - Free hands to carry water - Naked skin to cool body via sweating - Numerous sweat glands - Cooperative efforts (many hunters) - Bipedal rate efficiency Kalahari peoples, tracking prey Endurance Running Hypothesis • Bramble and Lieberman (2004) proposed: - Persistence hunts were a major selective pressure in developing the genus Homo from the previous Australopithecus. Dennis M. Bramble Daniel E. Lieberman Endurance Running Hypothesis Endurance Running Hypothesis Bramble and Lieberman (2004) A long list of derived features in the human skeleton for cursorial purposes MUST be careful with analogies • E.g., Kalahari San 'man the hunter' have had it a lot • Tracking would be required (difficult) • Endurance running likely an exaptation? (i.e., all of features evolved for other reasons. • Costs of a failed hunt must have been deadly Endurance Running Hypothesis Umbrella Hypothesis: • explains many things at once. • Bramble and Lieberman's (2004) list of features. • Adding meat to diet • Sweating/Water/Thermoregulation • Teleological argument • Major backing from the hypothesis comes from the view that these things all work so well to do this behavior, that the behavior must have been the selective driver. Functions favored by Natural Selection Biochemical Machine Individual Parts No function. Therefore, natural selection cannot shape component parts. New functions emerge from combination of components Components originate with different functions Biochemical Machine Individual Parts Endurance Running Hypothesis But: • Explaining many features at once does not mean the explanation most parsimonious (simplest - Ockham's Razor) • Impossible to test as an 'hypothesis' • Further: • Using teleological arguments and developing umbrella hypotheses require hyper-adaptationist perspective. - (discounting role of constraints, exaptations, vestiges, etc.) Endurance Running Hypothesis Difficult to prove Umbrella Hypotheses. • teleological arguments have tremendous aesthetic appeal because they appear to explain many things all at once appearing to give it fewer moving parts. • However, just because they appear to explain many things at once is not evidence on its behalf. (e.g., Aquatic Ape)

Lumbar Lordosis

• In humans, the lower back is curved anteriorly (lordosis) while the thorax is more normal, curved posteriorly (a kyphosis) • The human spine also exhibits marked 'sacral flexion'

Mosaic Evolution

• Mosaic evolution is the piece by piece emergence of a new form. • In particular, we are interested in becoming human. - In the same way a mosaic is made by adding a single part at a time, the tinkering nature of the evolutionary process, adds (and removes) piece by piece. - This is how modern humans emerged.

Material Culture ??

• Possibly, but earliest stone tools seem to occur after origins of bipedalism • Not all material culture preserves • Non-human primates use tools • Lack of evidence does not mean it did not exist !! Expect the unexpected ...