ANTH 330 FINAL
What is a possible theory against the Homo naledi species?
Form of burials, it was thought they were only bringing their dead away from their camp sites (however, they had a very small brain, so amazing if species to share in religious/possible beliefs
Who is Marcellin Boule?
French scientist who did the first comprehensive look at Neandertals (published record in 1908) Shaped the negative perception of Neanderthals -reconstructed them as ape-like with a stooped posture and jetting face -saw them as brutish and subhuman -had them covered in fur with opposable big toes
Name some characteristics of the Oldowan stone tools.
Generally crude form-no consistency in chipping -No "mental template" (each tool is different) -Rocks on rocks chipping-no fine detail or chipping can result from this
Define Evolutionary Taxonomists.
"Lumpers" that see more of a transition Recognize fewer species Call them all "archaic" H. Sapiens who are all part of an unbroken lineage leading to modern humans
Define Cladists.
"Splitters" that see every change as a new species Recognize more species rather than less Looks at clusters of of features to group species Put them in their own species Homo heidelbergensis
List the changes seen in Neandertals due to non-masticatory tooth use.
"Teeth as tools"-teeth were being used as other than just chewing and have been worn down to pulp cavity The exceptional wear on incisors led to: -Shovel shaping -Long and low skull to increase loading on front teeth -Large brow ridge to absorb stress of vertical bite force in the absence of a high forehead -Limb robusticity (thick cortical bone, anterior-posterior bowing of limbs, systematic muscular hypertrophy (muscles extremely well developed)
Neadertal or Neanderthal?
"Th" is not pronounced in German like it is in English
How do we know the Oldowan stone tools are actually tools?
1. Where they were found-a low energy depositional environments or located uphill (This shows intention placement instead of at a bottom of a hill would indicate a possibility that naturally forces made the tools fall down off cliffs, or roll down hill) 2. How far the site is from tools source rock 3. Are the tools flaked in non random ways
When doe we first see the Australopithecus sediba in South Africa? Name their traits, distinguish between primitive and derived traits. Are they considered part of the early Homo species?
1.78-1.95 mya Primitive: 420 cc (small skull), long arms Derived: facial shape is homo, legs are long, teeth are homo sized, pelvis has efficient bipedality They are a potential candidate for homo
What do the earliest H. Erectus fossils found in E. Africa date to?
1.8 mya
When was Dmanisi dated to? What did species represent? Name the cranks and postcrania traits of this species. What other species morphology did this species share characteristics with?
1.8 mya It repressing the earliest travel out of Africa Cranium: small- 600-780 cc, size/shape face as the H. Erectus, brain size and teeth were similar to early Homo Postcrania: body size was between 4'7"-4'11"-more modern arms getting shorter, legs getting longer Combines features of early Homo and H. Erectus
What is Mousterian technology?
1st flake based stone tool culture Very symmetrical Prepared through Levallois prepared core technique
When doe we first see the Australopithecus garhi in Ethiopia? Name their traits, distinguish between primitive and derived traits. Are they considered part of the early Homo species?
2.5 mya Primitive: prognathic face, small skull 450 cc, long ape-like arms Derived: human-like leg proportions, thighs elongated as seen in homo They are a potential candidate for homo
When and where did the first stone tools appear?
2.6 million years ago at Gona, Ethiopia Accepted to be associated with early Homo but not impossible that Australopithecines used them
When doe we first see the Kenyanthropus platyops in East Africa? Name their traits, distinguish between primitive and derived traits. Are they considered part of the early Homo species?
3.5 mya (time of A. Afarensis) Primitive: small brain, thick molar enamel Derived: bipedality due to foramen magnum position, flat face with tall cheeks, small molars, more brow ridge development
Describe the total replacement model of human origins.
Aka. Out of Africa Description: modern humans arose in a single location, likely sub-saharan africa -occurred within 200,000 yrs or so --believes the appearance of Homo sapiens is a speciation event-modern humans replaced archaic populations after migrating out of Africa -Homo sapiens is a distinct and recent species -genetically outside of africa are a result of parallel evolution
When did H. Erectus China date back to? Name traits of skull and teeth.
800,000ya China was much colder so certain use of fire 915-1225 cc Cranial shape is long and low (high forehead, developed tori) Shovel shaped incisors, extra ridge of enamel
Why is there extreme variability amongst the early Homo species?
A few possible explanations: 1. Sexual dimorphism 2. Multiple species represented by fossils
What did the first stone tools offer?
A flexible response to a fluctuating environment They took the place of physical adaptations -Increase in brain size and shrinking molars was due to stone technology in early Homo
Describe the Levallois technique. (Basis for Mousterian technology)
A three step process to create a tool: 1. Flintknapper prepares a core with one symmetrical convex surface on one side 2. Flintknapper makes one flatter striking platform on one side of the core 3. Flintknapper hits the striking platform, knocking off a single sharp flake Multiple flakes can be struck from a single core=efficiency
What are the tools associated with Homo erectus? When do they appear?
Acheulian stone tools 1.5 mya
State the Bergmann's and Allen's rule.
Allen's rule: body form is more rounded and compact in cold climates Bergmann's rule: body size is larger in cold climates So, volume will generate heat while a short surface area contains the heat within the environment
The fossil evidence suggest a shift toward the anatomy seen in later Homo. Name the species that show a possible shift toward Homo.
Australopithecines: A. Garhi and A. Sediba Other species: Kenyanthropus and Ledi-Geraru finds
What species site found cut marks around the eyes indication cannibalism?
Bodo, Ethiopia
What types of raw materials were used in the Upper Paleolithic technology?
Bone Antler Shell First eyed needles (first tailoring of clothes) Harpoons
Expensive tissue hypothesis (bigger brains)
Brains are metabolically expensive, so if brain gets bigger something else had to shrink And so, it is believed that as we began to eat meat, easily digestible, we were able to have our guts shrink in size, allowing the brain to get bigger (metabolic saving in gut=more expense in brain)
Name some of the trends of the later Indonesian fossils found. (H.erectus)
Characteristics thought to reflect regional continuity with earliest modern Australians -overall robusticity -form of the brow ridges
Chine H. Erectus compared to Javan.
China: -increase in cranial capacity (Javan 900-1000cc, Chinese 1100-1000cc) (both higher than African however) -Chinese more lightly built-cranial bone not as thick as java-torus development is not quite as strong
Name the two possible taxonomies of the post-H. Erectus archaic hominids. (Controversial and unresolved because of differences to approach to the problem0
Cladists Evolutionary Taxonomists
What species is seen as a more transitional species from early Homo into H. Erectus?
Dmanisi
Name the glacial and interglacial periods.
Donau glacial -Waalian interglacial Gunz glacial -Gunz/Mindel interglacial Mindel glacial -Mindel/Riss interglacial Riss glacial -Riss/Wirm interglacial Wirm glacial
What are the commonalities shared by all H. Erectus species? (African, Javan, Chinese)
Common cranial pattern of: -long and low skull with thicker cranial bone -well-expressed system of the tori (cranial buttressing system) The overall anatomical pattern between each species is consistent Regional differences are subtle and fairly minor
When did fire first appear?
Controversial: (H. Erectus) -Bellomo-controlled use of fire at Koobi Fora (1.6 mya) -Swartkrans-burnt bones 1.5 mya -Chesowanja, Kenya-burnt soil 1.4 mya Evidence is difficult to interpret: -Fire could be naturally occurring-hard to differentiate between a controlled and natural fire
List the overall Post H. Erectus archaic traits (shared by Asian, African, European H.erectus)
Cranial: 945-1390 cc 11% increase over H. Erectus average Forehead height and breadth increases Braincase gets broader Rear of skull is rounded Face: Upper face is smaller than H. Erectus Smaller cheeks Driven by reduction in molars (smaller masseter muscles) Teeth: Front teeth broader than H. Erectus (incisors/canines become bigger) Back teeth reduce (greatest in molars)
State the Neadertal trends listing cranium, face, mandible, teeth, and postcrania features.
Cranium: Archaic=1250 cc, Classic=1550 cc (most 10% bigger than humans) Braincase is wider than skull base for first time Skulls are semi-circle in rear view More rounded Nochal torus reduced Occipital bun Face: Supraorbital torus Cheeks angled forward, face looks "beaked" Puffy looking cheeks Mid-facial prognathism Breadth/width of nasal aperture increases Nasal bone more angled and prominent Mandible: Retro-molar space (space behind wisdom teeth, reflecting facial projection) Chin becomes vertical, not receding Teeth: back teeth shrink Front teeth larger Shovel-shaped incisors Taurodontism "bull toothedness" Postcrania: "S-shaped" clavicle, barrel shaped torso, stocky body Shortened, distal segments Cortical bone thicker than homo Long bone shafts bowed in Anterior-Posterior plane
Describe the assimilation model of human origins.
Description: -modern morphology appears earliest in Africa -trends toward modernity may be initiated by gene flow from African populations -full modern morphology comes from local archaic populations assimilating genes from African populations into their gene pools -regional transitions toward modernity Key: non-African populations contributed to modern gene pool
Describe the Multi-regional evolution model.
Description: Not a speciation event Modern morphology evolved in several different regions around world Modernization trends due to gene flow Regional differences maintained by localized selection and genetic drift Most regional populations of archaic humans contributes to modern human gene pool So: Doesn't believe earliest modern human form to necessarily come from Africa Trends not primarily due to african influence Transitional sequences toward modernity are real Modern human around world is due to influence of preceding archaic populations
What are the functions of the Acheulian stone tools?
Difficult to determine: -edgewear shows use on plants and meat -Flakes and heavy core tools were good for butchering (maybe used on elephants) -Only stone used as raw material (no bone tools until much later)
When was the first migration out of Africa and where?
Earliest known is 1.8 mya at Dmanisi
What are the three time periods of which the Neandertals are broken into?
Early (120-80kya), Classic (70-40kyr), and Late (35-28kyr)
By 2.0 mya there is strong evidence for a split in the hominid record of two groups, what are they?
Early Homo and A. Boisei are shown in the E. African record
Name some of the ways in which the lineage leading to Homo was more generalized.
Exploited both savannah and forest resources Meat was also likely an importance resource Technology allowed flexible responses to environment
Name some of the trends of the later Chinese fossils found. (H. Erectus)
Fewer fossils than Indonesia-but multiple sites and broader time frame Morphology: -Larger cc (1120-1300cc) -thinner skull bone -expansion of rear brain case -lower foreheads with brow ridges that are still large -skulls still have cranial buttressing system
Explain the Upper Paleolithic technology
Goes through a variety of phases (first being Aurignacian) Stone tools are skillfully made Blade-based technology (twice as long as wide) Atlatl (spearthrower)-adds leverage to throw creating more energy for distance and lethality Mobility art-portable art probably ceremonial Cave paintings-dated 37,000 years ago in Spain-with hand stencils, animals, human figures- "creative explosion" in UP
What did the UP reflect?
Greater creativity and intellect of modern humans "Neural switch" something in brain changed with soft tissue between Neadertal population and modern humans (more complex)
What species does KNM-WT 15000 or commonly referred to as "They Boy" belong to? When does he date to? Name his characteristics.
H. Erectus 1.53 mya (teenager fell in lake, perfectly preserved) Pelvis/hip more primitive: flare of iliac blades, long femoral neck Derived: femoral head size is similar to homo, limb proportions are homo like, but the limbs themselves are robust/thick (primitive like)
What species do we associate with as the first migrates out of Africa? When and where?
H. Erectus 1.8 mya at Dmanisi
Name some important uses fire had.
Heat Light Cooking (accelerates shrinking of back teeth) Hunting/protection
As early humans spread to different parts of the world, we see regional differentiation. There is evidence showing different evolutionary trajectories in regional fossils in Asia. What two places are these fossils found in?
Indonesia (Java) China
The Asian trends for the H. Erectus suggests different evolutionary trajectories in the regional fossil samples of what two species?
Indonesian (Java) China
Where does the earliest expansion out of Africa appear to be in and when? Where did the migration go through?
Into Asia, specifically Indonesia (Java) about 1.5 mya The Middle East because Europe is still an ice age so it was too cold to travel into these areas and the predators were still about 6 ft tall
Is sexual dimorphism the reason behind variability amongst early Homo?
It may explain due to the fact males are commonly bigger than females HOWEVER Size differences reach gorilla levels-we wouldn't expect to see it this high Patterns of differences don't seem to fit dimorphism
Difference of Javan H. Erectus traits compared to African H. Erectus.
Javan have: -thicker cranial vaults and heavier built -Sagittal keels, africans don't -straighter supraorbital tours -angular torus, africans don't -larger, more projecting occipital torus -greater facial prognathism
Where is the earliest evidence of cavities in the fossil evidence located, name the site.
Kabwe (Broken Hill), Zambia (200,000-500,000 ya)
As early humans spread to different parts of the world, we see regional differentiation. List the African trends and give two example sites.
Kabwe (Broken Hill), Zambia: Difficult to date because in mine, but probably 200,000-500,000 ya Cranial (H. Erectus resemblance): Large brow ridge Flat, retreating forehead Max. Breadth of skull is low on braincase Face is large in all dimensions Molars equal to h erectus (More derived traits): Brain size 1280 cc Reduced nochal torus Cranial vault bone thinner Incisors/canines larger Bodo, Ethiopia: 200,000-500,000 ya Extremely robustly built Broad nose, huge face Thick brow ridge, low/long frontal bone
What sites show few evidence of empathy of the Neadertal species?
La Chapelle aux saints (lost all teeth, sever periodontal disease-osteoarthritis in spine, hip, feet, TMJ) Shanidar 1 (left eye orbit crushed, paralysis of right side-right arm amputated, stump was withered-severe arthritis in ankle)
What are the characteristics of Acheulian stone tools?
Large bifacial core tools (hand axes and cleavers) Shape is consistent and symmetrical with skilled craftsmanship ("mental template"-knew what the tools where supposed to look like and how they are used, making consistent tools looking similar)
Describe the Javan H. Erectus skull traits.
Larger brain (900-1000 cc) Heavy built skull: includes torus, thick cranial bone, sagittal keel, angular torus, thick and projecting supraorbital torus, thick occipital torus
As early humans spread to different parts of the world, we see regional differentiation. List the later Chinese trends.
Larger skill (1120-1200 cc) Thinner skull bone Expansion of rear braincase Lower forehead with large brow ridge Skulls have buttressing system Skulls have features showing long-term regional continuity: -sagittal keeling -flatter faces -malar notch -shovel-shaped incisors These features may link earlier H. Erectus with later modern Homo
What led to the development of larger brains 2.0-1.8mya?
Magill et. Al suggests the significant climate upheaval led to bigger brains Expensive tissue hypothesis
What does the expansion out of Africa indicate?
Meat has become an important part of diet because: -migrations reflects ability to follow prey -Difficult to migrate if plants are a key resource
Is the different fossil species found the reason behind variability amongst early Homo? What are the two species?
More generally accepted view. At least two species: 1. Larger is Homo rudolfensis 2. Smaller is Homo habilis (May share common ancestor or have different ancestry.
What are the names of the tools the Neadertals used?
Mousterian technology
Where there any wood or bone tools related to Oldowan stone tools found?
No direct evidence of wood tools, but some -some oldowan flakes have ear polish that is consistent with woodworking Some bone tools found in S. Africa (long bones with ear polish consistent with digging) These materials were probably used often, as they were easier to work with than stone tools, but preservation is much poorer for them than stone so hard to tell
Homo naledi, found in S. Africa, is another potential early Homo candidate. What do the fossils date to? Name skull/face, teeth/jaw, and postcrania features.
Not yet dated Skull/face: small skull 460-560 cc Small body Ape-like hands and shoulders BUT, shape of skull, teeth, legs are early Homo like
What are the first stone tools named?
Oldowan stone tools
As early humans spread to different parts of the world, we see regional differentiation. List the Indonesian trends. What is the species transitioning from and into to? Give and example of a site.
Overall robusticity Form of brow ridges (Transition from Java, H. Erectus) Example: Ngangdong, Java, Indonesia -assumed dates to 250,000 ya (river Terrace has reworked sediment making it difficult to date) -Larger brains that Javan H. Erectus (1150-1300cc) Like older Javan H. Erectus in: -Low/long skull -cranial buttressing system -Thick skull bone More advance in: -higher foreheads -back of skull larger/ rounder (bigger brain) Characteristics similar to early modern Australians
Name a few tools a flake can be fashioned into once struck.
Points Scrapers Denticulates-flake tool with succession of notches Others...
What tools is Dmanisi associated with?
Primitive Oldowan-like
What are the two hypothesis for the Modern Human Origins? What are the three key models?
Replacement Regional continuity Total Replacement (Out of Africa) Assimilation model Multi regional Evolution model
List the skeletal changes due to cold adaptations in Neadertals.
Short, stocky, "barrel-chested" body Short, distal limb segments Nasal complex: bigger nose for more internal surface used to warm and humidify inhaled air (lots of blood vessels to transfer heat to inhaled air) Mid-facial prognathism: nasal cavity positioned away from brain causing a retro-molar space, to preventing freeze dying of the brain Large frontal sinuses Puffy cheeks allow room for maxillary sinuses to be larger Brow ridges are hollow to allow more room for mucosa, allowing additional warming Brain size increases: large brains needed in large bodies Follows the Bergmann's/Allen rule to retain heat Brains rounder to minimize SA
Name the ways in which the Ngandong, Java, Indonesia H. Erectus are similar to the older Javan H.erectus. Then name the ways they are more advanced.
Similar: -generally low and long skull -development of cranial buttressing system -thick skull bone More advanced in: -higher foreheads -back of skull is larger and rounder because brain is bigger
What are the general Early Homo characteristics? Name the skull/face, teeth/jaw, and postcrania.
Skull/Face: no cresting, taller forehead and larger brain case, back of skull is rounder (smaller neck muscle attachments), faces are smaller and flatter Jaws/teeth: dental arcade is wider and more parabolic in shape, front teeth larger, back teeth smaller (premolars not molarized), mandible is more gracile Postcrania: body size is still small (some as small as Lucy 3'6" but largest is 5"), limbs more apelike (short legs, long arms), hands/feet more modern (hands show modern capabilities)
List the early H. Erectus traits. Skull/face, jaws/teeth, post-crania.
Skull: larger with higher forehead and brain case (800-900 cc), cranial buttressing system (skull better protected from damage-series of tori, supraorbital torus, occipital torus, skull bone overall thickened Face: flatter, less prognathic-brow ridge larger Jaws/teeth: jaw more tightly built, molars still shrinking Post-cranks: body size is modern, proportions modern (short arms, long legs), thick cortical bone in limbs, no climbing adaptations, obligated bipedal
While Neandertal burial activity is a controversial topic, they are the first hominids to systematically bury their dead. List a few examples of Neadertal burial sites.
Teshik-Tash (child buried with antelope horns tented over body) Shanidar (contained flower pollen laid out over grave) La Ferrassie (possible Neadertal cement army-adult male had grave goods (mousterian tools, exotic stone)-one place in triangular grave pit-deliberate mound arrangement in cave)
Which species was possibly thought to be associated with cannibalism?
The Post- H.erectus species of Bodo, Ethiopia
In the spring of 2016 a species was discovered, a new early Homo mandible. Although it is an unassigned species what is it similar to and when does it date back to?
The mandible dates to 2.8 mya It is similar to the H. Habilis species Although, shares similarities with east African Australopithecus chin
As early humans spread to different parts of the world, we see regional differentiation. When does this process begin and end?
The process starts 1.5 mya and continues until 25,000 ya
Were the early H. Erectus hunting?
They were obtaining meat-opportunistic small game hunting and scavenging Diurnal hunting niche-hunt animals at least active part of day when the predators wont be out Loss of body hair-when out in hot savannah it is more efficient to sweat during the day time
What caused the Neadertal trends?
Two key adaptive trends led to the cranial changes of Neadertals: 1. Adaptation to extreme cold 2.Non-masticatory tooth use
Who used the Upper Paleolithic technology and when did it appear?
Used by Homo Sapiens appearing 45,000 years ago
As early humans spread to different parts of the world, we see regional differentiation. List the European trends, name the derived and primitive traits, and what the species is transitioning from and into to. Name an example of this species.
We see a transition from typical H. Erectus features toward Neadertal features (features generally adapted to deal with significant cooler climates) Primitive: (similar to H. Erectus) low/long skull, thick cranial bone, well developed brow ridge and nuchal torus Derived: (similar to Neadertals) larger skull 1200-1300 cc, mid-facial prognathism (cheek/nose pulled forward), broad prominent nose Example: Atapuerca, sima de los Huesos, Spain -combines H.erectus and neadertal traits (probably ancestral to neadertal) -1125-1290 cc - min 200,000 ya, but probably 400,000-600,000 ya
Obviously, modern human populations today show significant variability by region. The question is when this variability arose?
We'll come back to this soon...
Does the early Homo species see variation amongst the population?
Yes, the population varies widely. Some of the largest skulls are 50% bigger than the smallest.