ANTH222 (Final review)
Upper Paleolithic Tool Technology
-Blade technology. -Pressure flaking. -Tool specialization. -More hafting. -Bone and ivory tools. -Regional differences.
Homo Erectus: Nariotokome
-Boy. -Size of pelvic girdle = small brain at birth. -parental care. -socialization
The following are known benefits of breastfeeding:
-Breast milk boosts babies immune systems. -Breastfeeding reduces the risk of post-partum depression among mothers. -Parents who breastfeed (or support their partner in breastfeeding) save money because they don't have to buy expensive formula. -Children who are breastfed are less likely to die of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome). -Babies who are breastfed grow up to be healthier and thinner on average.
Chronic disease
-Cardiovascular disease. -Cancer.
False statements about the Pleistocene-Holocene environmental transition:
-Climate change fostered the evolution of new megafaunal species.
Healthy Start: Breastfeeding (for baby)
-Complete nutrition. -Immune boost. -Less obesity. -Less disease. -Reduction in SIDS. -Bonding.
Upper Paleolithic Culture
-Cultural period: 40-10kya. -Best known from Europe. -Also known as: Paeoindian (North American) and Late Stone Age (Africa).
Genetic disease
-Cystic fibrosis. -Tay- sachs. -ALS.
Metabolic disease
-Diabetes.
How are American diets making us sick?
-Diabetes. -Heart disease. -Hypertention. -Stroke. -Osteoarthritis. -Sleep apnea. -Cancer.
Disease and human history:
-Different diseases emerged at diffrent times in the human species: Ancient: E. coli. Domestication of animals. Urbanization. Globalization. -"New" disease often more virulent (Severe) -Most adaptive diseases become endemic (Widespread)
Intensive hunting can:
-Disrupt herd social system. -Remove dominant, aggressive animals. -Encourage young animals to breed. -Foster docility.
First domesticated species:
-Dog! -Probably domesticated in East Africa. -Come from wolves. -Wolves could have been attracted to human trash.
Did homo erectus make fire?
-Earliest evidence in Thailand, 700,000 years ago -It wasn't just for cooking.
What should we eat?
-Eat a diverse range of foods. -Eat fresh foods. -Eat whole foods.
Acheulean Technology
-Emerged in Africa, spread with H erectus. -Foresight, planning, standardization. -Hand axes, cleavers, picks, flakes tools. -Signature tool: Acheulean handaxe.
Early Racial Classification systems:
-Europeans classified plants, animals, and humans. -First based (erroneously on skin color.
The following are used by archaeologists as evidence for greater sedentism:
-Expansion of population size. -Greater use of non-portable technology such as grinding stones. -Burial of the deceased in centralized cemeteries. -The construction of sturdier, longer-lasting dwellings.
Neandertal Symbolic Life: Burials
-First humans known to bury their dead. -Oldest underground burials: Tabun Cave, 90kya. -Some grave goods, flexed burials, stone caps, red ochre, flowers.
Fishing technology (AMH)
-First ropes, nets: Also for small games. -First-hook and harpoons.
Hunting and gathering (AMH):
-Flexibility. --Population must match resources: -Birth control. -Group fission. -Territory expansion. -Resources intensification: toward food collector.
La Chappelle-aux-Saints:
-France. -Old man. -Flexed Burial (Fetal position)
Homo Erectus: Subsistence
-Gathering, scavenging and hunting. -Zhoukhoudian remains: seeds, berries, eggs, large and small animals. -Butchering marks.
Genetics Vs, Genealogy
-Genealogical ancestry ≠ Genetic ancestry. -Gene sequences "go extinct".
AMH Environment:
-Glacial period: 75-11kya. -North covered in Ice: Sea levels lower, coastal sites now submerged. -Colder and drier. -Lots of large mammals to hunt.
Statements regarding the Pleistocene environment in which anatomically modern Homo sapiens lived in.
-Glaciers grow by sucking moisture from the atmosphere, so the climate tended to be drier than today. -Northern latitudes were covered in ice sheets (glaciers) that were a mile thick in some places. -The Ice Age climate was generally quite a bit colder than today. -Sea levels were much lower than today, exposing land that is now beneath the oceans.
Middle-Upper Paleolithic Cultural Transition:
-Grinding/Polishing techniques. -Personal adornment (Exotic materials). -"ART". -Diet Specialization. -Increased population density, and seasonal social gathering. -Great regional variation.
True statements about Acheulean handaxes.
-Handaxes are not often found in Southeast Asia because very little suitable stone is found in that region. -These tools were often resharpened by removing more flakes around the edge of the tool. -Microwear analysis of these tools indicates that they were used primarily (but not exclusively) for processing animal carcasses. -Handaxes were multipurpose tools, used for variety of activities like digging, scraping, woodworking, and perhaps throwing. -The Acheulean tool tradition indicates a much greater degree of foresight and planning than we see with Oldowan tools.
Not all animals can be domesticated:
-Hierarchical social bonds. -Not skittish. -Not territorial (live in groups)
AMH Subsistence
-Hunting and gathering. -Some specialization on one or two large species. -As populations grew, more use of smaller animals (Bird, fish).
AMH in Australia:
-In Australia by 50kya. -Open ocean crossing. -Oldest rock art. -Earliest cremation.
Domestication:
-Interdependence brought on by genetic change in target species. -Gradual process, began before neolithic. -Cultural activities related to planting, herding, and processing of domesticated plants and animals.
What is the significance of the Monte Verde site?
-It is the earliest widely-accepted human habitation site in the Americas.
Urbanization (aka "Civilization")
-Large numbers of people living in socially stratified cities, governed by a ruling elite that is empowered by a centrally organized political system ( A states).
Did Homo erectus and clothing.
-Likely necessary in cold climates. -Bone awls, needles.
Statements about the peopling of the Americas:
-Linguistic evidence suggests that the Americas were colonized between 20-30 thousand years ago. -The earliest accepted evidence for human occupation dates back to 14,500 years ago. -DNA evidence suggests that the Americas were colonized between 15-40 thousand years ago. -There were probably several migrations into the Americas.
Autoimmune disease
-Lupus, celiac, asthma.
The following factors leads to significant health disparities between rich and poor people in the United States and around the world:
-Many poor communities do not have access to doctors or medical facilities. -People living in poverty are more likely to be malnourished and therefore are more likely to get sick. -People who live in poor neighborhoods or communities are more likely to suffer exposure to dangerous toxins, like pesticides and heavy metals (like lead).
Statements about Homo sapiens in Australia.
-Modern humans colonized Australia sometime before 50,000 years ago. -The colonization of Australia required an open-ocean crossing over the deep-ocean Wallace Trench. -The oldest rock art known comes from Australia. -The earliest cremation is known from Australia, dating back to around 26,000 years.
Archaic Homo Sapiens Culture
-More sophisticated tools: *Levallois technique. *Tool diversity. *Long-distance. -6 foot wooden spears. -Skin-and-pole shelter. -Diverse diet. *Large game, small game, fruits, nuts, eggs, fish.
Stress and daily life implications of agriculture:
-More work, less free time. -Prone to catastrophic failure. -Population stress. -warfare.
The following lines of evidence can be used to track the domestication of plants and animals in the archaeological record:
-Morphological change, such as the shape of an animal's horns. -A denser distribution of seeds on the plant stalk. -A change in body size (large animals get smaller).
Middle Paleolithic Culture:
-Mousterian. -More efficient use of raw material. -Great tool specialization. -Hafted tools.
Shelter (AMH)
-Near water, food, often south-facing -Caves, rockshelters, open-air sites. -Well constructed.
Ornamentation
-Necklaces, ring, bracelets, anklet, etc. -Breaded clothing. -Shell and teeth ornaments. -Ivory, bone, stone beads.
Did Homo erectus build structures?
-No conclusive evidence. -They likely sought natural shelter like caves.
Did Homo erectus bury their dead?
-No evidence of intentional burial. -Gnawing and trampling marks indicate bodies were exposed. -No symbolic objects.
Primary centers of domestication:
-North America. -Central America. -South America. -Asia. -Mediterranean. -Africa. -Near East.
Genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence suggests that the first people to colonize North and South America most likely came from where?
-Northeast Asia.
Hunting and gathering (AMH)
-Not aimless wandering. -Seasonality and scheduling. -Foragers: daily food quest, rapid consumption, high mobility, broader diet. -Food Collectors: Storage of (seasonal) surplus, less mobility, narrow diet.
Did Homo erectus use language?
-Not capable of spoken language like us. -Sophisticated tools suggest greater symbolic communication. -Brain size increases over 30% over time. -Brain lateralization.
Transition to Agriculture:
-Occurred in many regions, independently. -Not inevitable. -Not always "better".
Neandertal settlements:
-Open air (with shelter), Caves, rock shelter.
These were innovations or trends that distinguishes the Middle Paleolithic from the Upper Paleolithic time periods.
-Population growth with evidence for seasonal social gatherings. -The emergence of representational objects that, in our own culture, we would refer to as "art". -The emergence of grinding and polishing techniques. -A proliferation of items of personal adornment made from exotic materials.
Characteristic of Neandertal crania:
-Receding forehead. -Very large brains. -Occipital bun.
Neandertal cranial anatomy:
-Round cranium. -Receding forehead. -Occupital bun. -Big nose, no chin. -Very large brains: -Smaller molars, and retro-molar space.
Homo Erectus: Hunting
-Schoningen, Germany: 8 spears, 19horsw skulls, 400,000 years old. -Spain.
Statements about the Pleistocene-Holocene environmental transition:
-Sea levels rose, submerging ancient coastlines and obscuring archaeological sites. -Climate warmed, causing glaciers to melt. -Climate change caused biotic zones such as tundra and boreal forest to move closer to the poles. -It took several thousand years for climate to stabilize and rivers to establish their present-day positions.
Domestication of cattle:
-Smaller. -More docile. -Less agile. -Complex coloration.
Infectious disease
-Smallpox. -STD's.
Statements about domestication:
-Some species, like dogs, may have "domesticated themselves". -Domestication requires a genetic change in the target species. -Domestication is a gradual process.
Statements about spear throwers.
-Spear throwers gave hunters greater distance and power. -The earliest spear throwers date to around 22,000 years ago. -The other word for spear thrower is "atlatl", a Nahuatl (Aztec) word.
The following theories have been proposed to explain the purpose of Venus figurines.
-Teaching tools. -Portraits. -Fertility symbols. -Self-portraits. -Toys.
What was and is used by hunter-gatherers to match their population size to the amount of food resources available?
-Territorial expansion. -Birth control. -Intensification of resource use. -Group fission (one group splitting into two).
True statements about the health implications of the adoption of agriculture for human societies:
-The adoption of agriculture with associated greater sedentism and an increase in community sizes increased the prevalence of infectious diseases. -We see less evidence for "mechanical stress" on the remains of agriculturalists than we do on hunter gatherers. -The teeth of agriculturalists exhibit less tooth wear, but more cavities. -With the adoption of agriculture, human societies experienced more nutritional stress than their hunting and gathering ancestors.
Possible theories as to why states emerged in some regions of the globe:
-The coordination of extensive irrigation systems required the emergence of a centralized state-like authority. -States may have emerged as a way to carry out efforts to acquire more territory (especially through displacement and warfare). -Forceful, charismatic leaders motivated and consolidated allegiances and support, often through claims of "divine" power. -States may have emerged as a way to coordinate long-distance trade for scarce resources.
Neandertal post-cranial Anatomy:
-Thick limbs, large joints, muscular. -Limbs shorter and bowed. -Barrel-chested and stocky (5'5", but 30% heavier than us). -Broad hands and feet. -Related to climate.
Domestic of Wheat/Barley:
-Tough rachis. -Long stalks. -More seeds per stalk. -Able to withstand different growing conditions.
When a group moves a lot throughout the year to exploit various resources they are said to practice:
-Transhumance.
Epidemiological Transition:
-Transition from infectious diseases to chronic, degenerative disease as caused of death. -Germ theory + sanitation + immunization.
New challenges:
-Waste disposal. -Infectious disease. -Social stratification.
Genealogical ( Vs. Genetic) Ancestry
-We have an exponential number of ancestors. -"Universal ancestor" - First person who is genealogical ancestor to all of us. -"Identical ancestors" - When majority of ancient gumans were all the common ancestors to all of us.
Early steps in domestication probably unintentional:
1) By-product of plant harvesting or hunting. 2) Human environments amenable to plants and animals.
The Middle Paleolithic occurred between:
125,000 and 40,000 years ago.
False statement about domestication:
All species are amenable to domestication.
What are entoptic phenomena?
Geometric designs and pulsating forms (as are frequently seen in cave/rock art) that are often seen by individuals in a state of trance.
False statement about the peopling of the Americas:
It is unlikely that the earliest human colonizers of the Americas came by sea, as they lacked the necessary seafaring knowledge and technology.
Did Ice Age climate meant that there were very few large mammals to hunt? (Y/N)
No
Does archaeological evidence indicates that Homo erectus intentionally buried their dead.
No
Were the earliest spear throwers used by Neandertals? (Y/N)
No
Did the transition to agriculture greatly improved the health and quality of life for all humans?
No it did not.
Did Neandertals use spear throwers (atlatls)?
No, they did NOT.
Who was Homo sapiens idaltu?
One of the earliest populations of modern humans identified in Ethiopia about 160,000 years ago.
Many infectious diseases (including smallpox, measles, and influenza) are "zoonoses", which means that they _____________.
Spread to humans through our close association with domesticated animals.
Medical Anthropology:
The study of human health and medicine in the context of culture.
A grave at Sunghir, a site located outside Moscow, contained the remains of two children, a boy and a girl, who were buried with 8-foot long carved mammoth ivory spears,15,000 mammoth ivory beads, bracelets, rings, and many tools. (T/F)
True.
In the past, (in Europe) Classification was based on skull shape. (T/F)
True.
Most anthropologists consider race to not be a biological reality. (T/F)
True.
The earliest known cities are found in what is now Europe. (T/F)
True.
Political economy:
Ultimate political/economic cause.
The following statements about the health implications of the adoption of agriculture for human societies is false:
With the adoption of agriculture, human life expectancy increased.
Can yon be someone's great, great, great, great, great grandparent without passing on any of your DNA to them? (Y/N)
Yes
Did Anatomically modern Homo sapiens and Neandertals in the Middle East share an area about the size of Indiana from about 100,000 to 40,000 years ago? (Y/N)
Yes
Did early Holocene hunters and gatherers broadened their resource base and started exploiting resources that gave a smaller "bang for the buck"?
Yes
Is sexual orientation an identity based on who a person is attracted to? (Y/N)
Yes.
Scientists believe that the most likely explanation for the small stature of Homo floresiensis is:
island dwarfism.
The adoption of agriculture meant that humans had ________ free time, and their subsistence systems were _________ prone to catastrophic failures.
less, more.
what happens when a society's social, political, and economic structures cause physical or psychological harm to a group of people within that society?
structural violence.
Humans gain adaptive immunity through:
vaccinations.
Healthy Start: Breastfeeding (for mothers)
- It's free. -Less breast cancer. -Birth control (But use backup) -Bonding. -Less post- partum depression.
AMH in Middle East:
- Primary Israel. -100-120kya. -overlap (Space and time) with Neandertals. -AMH's have some Archaic features.
Neandertal Speech and Language
--Ability to use spoken language: -Osteology - Hyoid bone, Hypoglossal canal. -Genetics - FOXP2 gene.
Shanidar I ("Nandy)
--Elderly: 40-50. --Disable: -Crushed skull. -Withered arm. -Withered leg. -Broken foot. --Evidence of care for disabled.
Neandertal Subsistence
--Hunted large mammals with hafted spears: - up-close-and-personal hunting. --Plants important, but problem of preservation. -Fat, fat, and more fat.
Life Pattern and Trade (AMH)
--Occasional aggression of groups: -Neandertals seasonal resource. -For marriage, trade, rituals activities. --Trade for exotic goods.
Shanidar IV ("The Flower Burial")
--Old: 30-45. --Clumps of pollen from wild flowers. -Under body and around head. --Buried in late spring.
Sewing
-19kya. -Tailored clothing: Gives warmth. -Sunghir, Moscow: 22kya, Hat, shirt, jacket, trousers, and moccasins.
Spear Throwing (Atlatl)
-22kya, Magdalenian. -Greater distance and power. -Often decorated. --Bow and Arrow: -Invented first in Africa.
Neandertals:
-400+ skeleton, 70+ sites. -Named for Neander valley, Germany. -Lived ONLY in Europe and Middle East 125-30kya.
Emergence of Archaic H. Sapiens
-400-200k: Brain size = Modern. -Challenges: too young for K-Ar, too old for C dating, and so much diversity.
Most anthropologists consider race to be:
-A cultural construct. -Flawed, but, by cultural necessity, still used by forensic anthropologists who must communicate with law enforcement and the public. -A classification system developed by European scholars
This is not used by archaeologists as evidence for greater sedentism:
-A reduction in status differences as seen in material culture.
The following line of evidence cannot be used to track the domestication of plants and animals in the archaeological record:
-A seed stalk that easily falls apart during harvesting.
Emergence of Archaic Homo sapiens
-AKA "pre-modern". -Middle pleistocene, 400-200kya. -Transitional between Homo erectus and anatomically modern (AM) Homo sapiens. -Change over time
Neolithic Revolution (Agriculture)
-AKA: Formative. Woodlands. Mississippian. - Sedentism. - Population growth. -Craft specialization.
Partial Replacement Hypothesis (Anatomically modern homo sapien II (AMH) )
-AMH evolved in Africa, then spread, interbreeding and replacing archaics. -Complex and gradual process.
3 types of Immunity:
-Adaptive- Vaccines, exposure. -Passive- Breast milk. -Innate- Genetic
Why does meat become more important as we evolve?
-Big brains require more calories. -Meat = more calories, more energy. -Positive feedback loop.
The "Partial Replacement" hypothesis proposes that_______________.
Anatomically modern Homo sapiens evolved in Africa, then spread to other parts of the world, interbreeding and then ultimately replacing existing populations of Archaic Homo sapiens in other regions.
Traits of early Archaic Homo sapiens
Ancestral traits: (like H.erectus) -Thick skulls. -Supra-orbital torus. Derived traits: (like am Homo sapiens) -Large brain size. -Parietals broader. -Smaller teeth. -Less robust.
Morphological change:
Animals: -Tend to get smaller. -Other changes (horn shape). Plants: -Denser fruit/seeds. -Easier to harvest. -More adaptable.
Given physical evidence that serious injuries healed years before the death of Shanidar I, a Neandertal whose skeleton was excavated from in Shanidar Cave in Iraq, paleoanthropologists deduce that:
At least some Neandertal societies cared for injured and sick individuals much like we do today.
Archaeological evidence for domestication:
Early signs: 1) Technological change. 2) Distributional change. Later signs: 1) Morphological changes.
Why did states emerged?
Ecological Theories: -Hydraulic theory. -Trade for scarce resources. -Land scarcity. Action theory: -Forceful charismatic leaders with "divine" power.
What statement does The Hygiene Hypothesis supports?
Environments that are too sterile and clean lower the tolerance of the immune system, leading to more asthma and allergies.
What regions have Neandertals been found?
Europe and Asia.
The earliest evidence for bow and arrow technology is known from Australia. (T/F)
False
The 700,000-year-old Kao Poh Nam rock shelter in Thailand provides compelling evidence for deliberate, controlled use of ________ .
Fire
Poverty and Health:
Health disparities -Access to care. -Likelihood of getting sick. -Malnutrition. -Exposure to toxins.
The size of the pelvic girdle of the mostly complete Nariokotome skeleton suggests what about the growth and development of Homo erectus?
Homo erectus babies experienced an extended period of infancy in which eyes and ears were open, likely aiding social learning in Homo erectus young. -Homo erectus infants, like modern human infants, were very immature at birth compared to other primates.
Health implications of agriculture:
Less: -Mechanical stress. -Tooth wear. More: -Infectious disease. -Nutritional stress. -Cavities. Shorter lifespan
Did Homo erectus wear clothing?
Maybe, it's unlikely Homo erectus could survive a Beijing winter without some type of covering, and a few bone tools have been found that may have been awls for working hide. But, we don't know for sure.
What is one explanation for why meat became a more important part of the Homo erectus diet?
Meat is a calorie-rich resource needed to feed the bigger brains of Homo erectus.
Disease complexity:
Proximate and ultimate.
Disease ecology:
Proximate cause of illness/disease.
The following is not a possible theory as to why states emerged in some regions of the globe:
The emergence of states is an inevitable stage in human evolution.
This was not an innovation or trend that distinguishes the Middle Paleolithic from the Upper Paleolithic time periods.
The invention of hafted tools.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Homo erectus exhibited handedness, and a majority of the stone tools from this time period were made by people who were right-handed. (T/F)
True
Early depictions of Neandertals as bent-kneed ape-men were flawed because they were based on interpretations of an elderly, stooped (osteoarthritic), and extraordinarily robust male Neandertal skeleton discovered around the turn of the 20th century. (T/F)
True
Fire was first used for warmth in the cold climates of East Africa. (T/F)
True
Injury patterns observed in skeletal remains suggests that Neanderthals participated in "up-close and personal" hunting that involved killing animals with close-range weapons. (T/F)
True
Many scientists use the fact that modern humans retain certain anatomical characteristics of Homo erectus fossils found in the same region to support the "Multiregional Hypothesis". (T/F)
True
Neandertals had bigger average brain size than modern humans (Bigger cranial capacities). (T/F)
True
Neandertals had much larger joints and were far more muscular than modern humans. (T/F)
True
Neandertals in the Middle East tend to exhibit a slighter (less robust) build than Neandertals in Europe. (T/F)
True
Several 6-foot-long wooden spears dating to about 400,000 years ago in Germany, plus the presence of the butchered remains of large animals at a contemporaneous site in Spain, suggest that hominins during this time period were capable of hunting large-bodied game. (T/F)
True
The "Recent African Origins" hypothesis was initially supported by a study of modern human mitochondrial DNA. (T/F)
True
The only Neandertal hyoid bone ever found is identical to those of modern humans, implying that Neandertals were at least physically capable of spoken language. (T/F)
True
There is evidence that Neandertals are the ancestors of any modern humans. (T/F)
True
Ultimately, all modern humans can trace our genetic and genealogical roots to Africa. (T/F)
True
While Homo erectus may have had sophisticated communication abilities, they were not physiologically capable of spoken language. (T/F)
True
