Anthro Chpt. 6,7,8,9, & Nuer

Procreation

A type of nuclear family where its members reproduce as a spouse and a parent; Members typically live in a dwelling of their own, separate from the household with their kinfolk; Ego creating a new family though some form of contractual marriage and lives separate from their parents and siblings.

Orientation

A type of nuclear family, characterized by the one they are born into, such as living with your parents and siblings.

Unilocal Residence

A type of residence system that can be have matrilineal and patrilineal residences; Monogamous couples live un a new place of their own.

Matrilocal or Uxorilocal Residence

A type of residence system where a couple lives in proximity to, or under the same roof as, the wife's family; It results in extended families; It is more common in matrilineal societies, which are usually less stable than patrilineal societies. Ex: Ju/'hoansi; Iroquois people

Patrilocality

A type of residence system where brothers stay in the fathers household, while the sisters are driven out by exogamy.

Secondary State

A type of society produced from contact with, or through the influence of pristine states. Or all other states who are not pristine.

Coco Beans

A type of special purpose money used by the Aztecs, in their bartering, or negative reciprocity based economy. For instance, for five of such item, they could exchange it for one piece of fire-starting pine bark.

Empires

A type of state that has asymmetric relationships with other states and demand tribute.

Free Listing

A useful technique for defining shared, learned cultural categories, or semantic domains [specific things such as plants, animals, relatives, bad words, fruits, et cetera], by measuring the unconscious ranking of familiar items.

Inca Taxation System

Acts as a redistributive economy. Its tax spilled into three main regions: Sun, Emperor, & Village. The village functioned through corvée labor, which was a part of the peasantry. They grew potatoes and other food that they would redistribute back to the emperor. They created a surplus from their advanced technologies, such as their irrigation system, use of fertilizers, and terraces that they built on the sides of mountains.

Government

Administration of the state.

John Frum Cult

A cargo cult in formed off the island of Tanna in Vanuatu. This group formed a religion based off a name from an American army tag that was left in the WWII wreckage. This group also used walkie talkies that they attached to bamboo sticks that they thought aloud them to communicate with deities.

Calusa

A chiefdom in Florida. They went extinct around the 16th century, between the 1520s and 1530s, due to the diseases [most likely smallpox] they caught from coming over to the U.S.

Acculturation

A collision of two societies, of which one dominates the other.

Sororate

A common practice in polygamy, where there is a rule that allows for a single woman may marry the widower of her deceased sister. And if a women dies prematurely, she is replaced by another who is equal to her, which is her sister.

Levarite

A common practice in polygamy, where there is rule that allows a man to marry his deceased brother's wife. It is principled upon the idea that a deceased man could continue to have children because he would be the social father of the offspring parented by his living brother.

Patrilocal or Viriloal Residence

A couple who lives near or under the same roof as the husband's kin; Results in extended families. It is more common in patrilineal societies. Ex: Communist China

Ralph Linton

A cultural anthropologist who thought that the nuclear family was the original, atomistic social unit of the human species, and that the nuclear family is a sociocultural universal. Levi-Strauss opposed this theory, and established the atom of kinship due to role of exogamy and taboos.

Ghost Lake

A millenarian movement of a Native American tribe, who though they gained invisibility from their ancestors. Many natives died in combat against colonizers who shot at them in their villages.

Periphery

A part of the modern world system as defined by colonialism; It was the sites of colonial exploitation, or the place in which subaltern populations lived in. Within this site, subaltern groups produced the raw materials for capitalist production through slave labor. It was made of thousands of societies in the Americas, Asia, Australia, & Oceania.

Egocentric View or Reductionist Perspective

A perspective on kinship, where one can comprehend society by starting from an atom, or minimal unit, of kinship, to see how an individual relates to his or her immediate kin.

Sociocentric Perspective

A perspective on kinship, where one can look at it from a synthetic vantage point, to see the entirety of it independently of the parts that make it up. Where the atom of kinship can be viewed in the larger context of a matrilineal society. Where it can be represented as a simplified diagram of society, and consists of two lines of descent that are simultaneously two exogamous groups.

The Forest Islands of West Africa (Extensive Agriculture)

A place a part of the Savannah, whose native inhabitants used extensive agriculture to expand the forested regions by planting or protecting specific trees, such as coffee, palm oil, rattans, fruit, et cetera. The people who practiced this technique, the Kuranko, Manika, & Kissia, expanded these trees local diversity overtime.

Temperate North America (Extensive Agricure)

A place that utilizes the extensive agricultural technique of long periods of cultivation and short fallow periods. Ex: Iroquois

Tropics (Extensive Agriculture)

A place that utilizes the extensive agricultural technique of swidden agriculture as its principle practice.

Megacity

A place with ten million or more people. There are currently, twenty in the world.

Policy of Apartheid

A policy founded by the Dutch East India Company; It refers to a policy of separateness, which allowed this core power to distinguish between themselves between the black natives, the Khoisan-speaking people; It is similar to the United-States's Jim Crow Laws, where it forced Africans to live in their black homeland, by creating segregation rules in public institutions, and required them to have passes in order to travel outside their own districts; Following boycotts in1994, the government of South Africa finally ended this policy, which allowed for people of color to be able to vote. The liberated people elected Nelson Mandela as their new president, who was imprisoned from his opposition to this policy.

Palm Oil

A recourse important to lubricate the engines during the Industrial Revolution. It attributes to one of the objectives to colonizing Africa.

Candomblé

A religion formed from Afro-Brazilian descendants. Its principle gods, or deities, were formed through the syncretism of Catholic and African-derived religions.

Ambilocal Residence

A residence system where married couples can live together either patrilocaly or matrilocaly.

Primogeniture

A rule that first-born males should inherit the leadership role of their cognatic clan.

Prophet

A shaman who has a vision.

Ethnic Boundary Marker

A social construct that allows for cultural and linguistic differences that allow people to distinguish themselves between groups.

Long House

Home of the Iroquois, which can be found in Colombia and Venezuela. Within this Iroquois household, the descent rules can be characterized based on how their parallel cousins are considered their sister or brother, and that their aunt's children, on their father's side, are considered their cross-cousins.

Ungulates

Hoofed animals who are mobile, such as camels, cattle, sheep, and goats. They are domesticated by pastoral nomads as a form of economic specialization.

Circumscribed Areas

Hostile environments that allow for the creation of pristine states from narrow enclosures within them.

Nuer Kinship

Individuals are related in a variety of ways: through direct, traceable lines of kinship, through marriage, or through a shared kinship relation to a third person. But, all village members are linked together in a web of kinship which forms a sense of community.

De Facto Leaders

Individuals in egalitarian societies whom may be held in high esteem and mediate conflicts because of their perceived generosity and wisdom; They may serve as informal or unrecognized.

Terra Nullis

John Locke's doctrine that justified British colonialism of indian lands, due to their lack of ownership, religion, government, and economic system. They were perceived to lack what Europeans believed to be the basis for a civilization.

Agnates

Male patrilineal kinsman.

Russo

Man who influenced the French Revolution by embodying the idea to destroy any inequality and the hierarchy. He approved chattel slavery because he said that their is no such thing as rich or poor. He said this based off the Native Indians who he said were not egalitarian. He heavily relied on the comparative method.

Monogamy

Marriage with one man and one women at a time, where childbearing created nuclear families. It attributes to freud's theory.

Exogamy

Marriage with outsiders, established in the atom of kinship.

Nuer Divorce

Nuer divorce generally results in the return of bridewealth cattle; the number of cows which need to be returned is dependent on the number of children the wife has bore for her husband. If the number of children is already substantial, perhaps three or four, no cattle may need to be returned, since the husband and his kin are thought to have received the children for which bridewealth was paid

Nuer Culture

Nuer do not have a markedly rich material culture. Usually naked, with no textile fundamentals. Has few well-developed forms of visual art, mask making or other types of wood carving.

Urbanization Revolution

Period of settling into villages, or nucleating into a pristine state. Also, it was during the time that intensive agriculture allowed for the production of food surplus.

Semi-Domesticates

Plant or animals that can be domesticated or wild. They are usually traced as weeds.

Sororal Polygamy

Plural marriages where the cowives are sisters.

Dowry

Refers to a payment of a bride's family; A type of inheritance going down a generational scale; It is limited to Euro-Asian societies that are small and fixed.

Extensive Agriculture

Refers to a society utilizing an extending land, where they cultivated only after a fallow or resting period. Farmers plant new fields and repeatedly relocate their most productive crops over time. Techniques include swidden/slash-and-burn, or shifting cultivation.

Patrilineal Descent

Refers to a society whose kinship lineage, or clan, is centered around the father and his brothers.

Surpluss

Refers to a type of tax produced by the peasantry.

Steamship

Technology important to the European colonization of Africa. Before its invention, Europeans couldn't reach Africa due to a lack of advanced technology.

Megafauna

Refers to big animals who disappeared at the end of the Paleolithic Period. It includes wooly mammoths, mastodons, saber-toothed tigers, giant ground sloths, etc. Their extinction can be explained by the Paul Martin's hypothesis.

Generality (General Purpose Money)

Refers to everything having a price, and can be bought or sold; Defined a transition from trading to the use of all purpose money in colonialism; Where payment is something portable, such as a wage.

Crow Terminology

Terminology system that hre relatives of the subject's father's matrilineage are distinguished only by their sex, regardless of their age or generation. The system is associated with groups that have a strong tradition of matrilineal descent.

Sudanese Terminology

Terminology that has a focus on kinsman; Relatives are always spoken with an emphasis on 'my father,' and never mother; There is no distinction between parallel or cross-cousins; It does not distinguish between the father and mother's descent lines; It makes up the Indo-Proto language; It also has the most terms, and is sometimes called descriptive based on having many cattle terms and patrilineal descent rules. . Ex: Ancient Romans & Nuer.

Matrifocal Families

Refers to families who are centered on co-resident women who are related to each other as sisters, mothers and daughters. The women help individuals cope with poverty because they make sharing essential services, such as childcare, easier. These families that are found in poor urban environments in the United States, the Caribbean, and Latin America.

Strata

Refers to having the most access to material wealth, power, influence, and prestige that is a measure of leadership in State societies.

Salient

Refers to how dominant or popular a word is in a free-list category. Folk generic would have a lot this.

Population Density

Refers to living in a city, and being a part of urbanization.

Centralized Authority

Refers to power coming from one place.

Missionization

Refers to the Spanish and Portuguese justification to conquer the new world. These countries set up offices of the Inquisition in the colonies in order to eradicate other religions and non-Catholic varieties of religion.

Ottoman Turks

Refers to the empirical group, who shut off the Silk Road during the late 1400s. Their act created a high demand for goods, such as black pepper. This brought about the European groups who wanted to avoid taxation, and who were skilled in navigation technology, such as the Portuguese, Italians, and Spanish, to advance in the Atlantic crossing to the Americas.

Circumscription

Refers to the enclosure of narrow, limited areas of arable land, or land suitable for growing crops, by large areas of desert or mountains. It is a part of the development of complexity.

The World System

Refers to the global framework of early modern colonialism. It consists of a European core, to which raw materials flowed from a periphery, which were the sites of colonial exploitation.

Ego

Refers to the individual whose network of kinship, family relationships, and descent lines are recorded and traced.

Millenarian Movements

Refers to the people seeking revolutionary change in religion and society. It attributes to the opposition that arose from the core-focused world system and colonial domination during the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

Postcolinialism

Refers to the period after the small number of European core countries, such as Great Britain and France, that controlled about 85% of the Earth's surface. It began shortly after WWII, in 1970, and after colonies got independence from core powers. The counties affected from colonial control, such as the Americas, Asia, or Africa, developed local elites, and, in some cases, conflicts based on ethnic differences. It also attributes to rapid growth of neocolonialism ideals.

Sympathetic Magic

Refers to the simulation of a desired reality, which attributes to the success of cargo cults.

Folkoristic

Refers to the social reconstruction of what an ethnic group's ancestors did. Its is a feature of ethnicity, where it can be based off a specialized occupation or profession.

Shifting Cultivation

The agricultural technique where farmers shift or rotate their activities among several fields. Sometimes they return after many years to the old fields, which have become overgrown; Refers to fallow or resting period, and it usually follows a swidden/slash & burn technique which is used in extensive agriculture.

Mechanical Soliarity

Societies where different individuals duplicate the work, activities, and social responsibilities for purposes such as kinship, marriage, and reproduction. The term was coined by Durkheim.

Iroquois Agriculture

Society that uses the extensive agriculture in Temperate North America, such as shifting cultivation, to cultivate three main crops: corn, beans, and squash. These crops define there belief system of Spiritual Sisters. There main crops originate from Mesoamerica, and they complimented each other nutritionally.

Intensification

Something that can take the forms of increasing inputs or extensive agrarian systems.

City

Something that must be at least ten thousand people per square mile.

Historical Ecology

The anthropological approach that examines relationships between humans and the natural world through time, such as the effects humans have had on landscapes and species diversity worldwide. It understands humans as agents of environmental change, but, it takes the position that humans are not naturally destructive.

The Comparative Method

The approach to taking living people and using them as models based on what an individual thinks is appropriate from the past condition of their society. It is critiqued for having no archeology to distinguish this.

Inca

The biggest empire in the world during the time of the Age of Discovery. They were located by the coast, between the Andes Mountains and Ecuador. Its emperor was considered to be a god. The main religion was the Religion of The Sun.

Mulattos

The children of mixed European and African heritage who lived in the colonial Americas.

Agriculture

The cultivation of domesticated crops sometimes accompanied by the rearing of domesticated livestock. Can be classified into four major forms: extensive, intensive, pastoral nomadism, and industrial. It emerged around 10,000 years ago, and allowed for the existence of state-level societies.

Paradox of Enrichment

The phenomena in state-level economies who use intensive agriculture. It states that by reducing biodiversity, which is causes by limiting the nutrients from fertilizers to only a few specific species, will create a large population of preferred domesticates and a handful of less desirable weedy plants.

Assimilation Policy

The policy that compelled Australian Aborigine children to learn English and discouraged traditional foraging practices. In some cases, children were separated from their parents, such the children in northern and central Australia who were indoctrinated into Christianity and Euro-Australian culture. It begun after Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770.

Wages

The price of work.

Pleistocene Overkill or Blitzkreig Hypothesis

Theory formulated by paleontologist Paul Matin. This view states that human hunting, combined with fire, significantly altered the megafauna population and large number of game animals by the end of the Paleolithic Period. Further, it explains the extinction of the megafauna in the Americas, which occurred after the arrival of bands from Northern Asia from the Bering land bridge. The animals they hunted had never been exposed to human predators and their formidable hunting weaponry, such as their clovis spear points, making them quick and easy target. The megafauna were killed in great numbers until they were completely extinguished.

Paramount Chief

The title of chief among chiefs, with great personal power in highly ranked clans, and links one or more villages or groups; Found in some ranked cognatic clan societies. Ex: Northwest Coast, in Polynesia, including Hawaii and Tahiti, in parts of Southeast Asia, and in parts of Japan.

Segementary Lineage Model of Society

The view of society consisting of various levels of inclusiveness, which are defined by kinship. Its can develope from matrilineal, patrilineal, or through a hierchy in unilineal, descent-ruled societies; It allows for cognatic clans.

Multinuclear Couple

Two or more nuclear families living together; Can also refer to matrilocal extended families.

Bilateral Descent

Type of descent system that recognizes kinship in both the mother or father's families; It allows for the formation of a kindred; It only allows for one type of descent, which makes them vulnerable to die out; It usually creates neolocal residences; If ego-focused it shapes a downward triangle, which distinguished between the father and mother's descent lines. They are relatively uncommon and can be found in the industrial societies of the Americas, Europe, Asia. Also, in small- scale, hunter-gatherer societies such as the Ju/'hoansi and the Inuit.

Unilineal Descent

Type of descent that can be traced through one sex only, either patrilineal or matrilineal. These societies usually have kin-based corporate groups.

Avunculocal Residense

Type of residence system where couples lives in the husband's uncle's household after marriage. These societies are more likely to be matrilineal than patrilineal; It allows for multilineal extended families. Ex: Trobiand Islanders.

Bilocal Residence

Type of residence system where half of a kinship group lives in matrilocal residences and the other lives patrilocaly.

Neolocal Residence

Type of residence system where monogamous couples who live in the same household of their nuclear families; Common to have bilateral descent; Ex: Inuits, Shoshones, and U.S. families.

Chattel Slavery (Test)

Type of slavery during colonialism

Chattel Slavery

Type of slavery where people are commodities. Slavery of the North West Coast. These slaves were shipped to the New World, such as the Caribean, Brazil, and the U.S. Forty percent died in travel.

Brideservice & Bridewealth

Types of payments going to another family outside the the paying member's family lineage.

Ghost Man Marriage

Women who are married to a deceased man's name.

Carl Woodrow

Wrote the Oriental Disposition, where he theorized that the ancient Chinese feudal state used intensification. He also discussed the Mandarins of feudal China, who did not work, and displayed power by growing out their fingernails.

E. E. Evans-Pritchard

Wrote three ethnographies important to the study of the Nuer people. He was the the first anthropologist to use the long-term fieldwork method of participant observation in Africa.

Nuer Bridewealth

Specific bride payment of 40 Cattle to the bride's family. After, the bride moves into the husband's household due to patrilocal residence and the embodiment of clan exogamy. Further, offering a Nuer women's hand in marriage makes it that not just anyone could offer a women's hand in marriage, where it was dependent on how much cows you had.

Nuer Household

Spread across an open area, within the general grouping of a village. The polygynous family is the center of Nuer economic life; the herding of cattle and the raising of crops are organized within the domestic group. Each wife has her own house and her own cooking fire to which she and her children belong; Female-centered families nested within a broader family group. The sons of different wives are in a position of competition for the family's cattle, which they will eventually inherit, and need to start families of their own.

State Ethnicity

Stands as something deeply political, which concerns agents, stakeholders, interest groups, and minorities. Its can affect a group's legal rights to land and resources. Also, it usually represents a minority subculture, rather than mainstream culture.

Subaltern

Submissive, subordinated type of population. It refers to the native americans in British colonialism who enculturated and acculturated these populations.

Delayed Reciprocity

Synonym for generalized reciprocity

Uxorilocal Residence

Synonym for matrilocal residence.

Virilocal Residence:

Synonym for patrilocal residence.

World Economic System

System during European expansion, where Africa acted as the primary source of slaves. These slaves were responsible for the sugar, tobacco, and cotton plantations in the Americas.

Reproductive Responsibilities

System that creates the modern role of kinship.

Corvée Labor (Other)

Tax on labor

Domesticates

Technique used in all forms of agriculture, in which the plant and animal is biologically changed due to human interference and artificial selection. They are changed so much that they cannot survive and reproduce without continued human assistance. Humans lived without them for 140,000 years, and their arrival allowed for a greater caloric surplus due to its overpopulation.

Segment

Any section of the entire kinship group, such as a clan or lineage.

Nuer Activities

Events and time are structured in flexible ways, governed not by rigid schedules but by the time requirements of particular tasks in relation to significant social events. Daily activities include: Care of livestock, the cultivation of land, and the need to hold meetings to discuss community issues.

Increasing inputs

Fertilizer, irrigation systems, plowing, fallow cultivation, farming through sunlight energy and muscle power; Intensification techniques in extensive agriculture.

Voluntary Complexification

First defined by Hobbes from his theory of the war against all, and states people were willing to give up part of their personal liberty, and submit to centralized leadership in the form of a king or dictator who ruled over them and who was supposed to protect them from random violence.

Ju/'hoansi

Foragers of Southern Africa have arrow-sharing functions as leveling mechanism, which allow them to ostracize bragging and make every hunter equal. In fact, the man who shoots a major game animal, does not own the animal. The owner is the man who made the arrow that killed the prey.

Nuer Male Self-Mastery Behavior

His relation to cattle should no longer be one in which he views livestock as a source of food, but rather one in which he has a paternalistic responsibility to oversee their well-being, to manage them for the good of the family, and to perform necessary cattle sacrifices.

Voluntary Theory of Pristine State

Hobbes' theory of the "War against All"

Sami

A Swedish reindeer herder. If a herder gets a low wage job, they are no longer considered this type of herder.

Fictive Kindred

A bilateral social unit that allows for new members to be neither a consanguineal or affinal relatives

Moieties

A binary division of descent. They result in two types of cousins: parallel and cross.

Affines

In-laws.

Transition into Agriculture (10,000 Years Ago; Adding Domestication)

Main meaning of Neolithic

Sachems

A Iroquois group of native americans who were beginning to develop a chiefdom at the time of colonialism, such as forming their own councils. They were divided up into six nations: Sinique, Testatarow, Mohawks, etc. During colonialism, they were confined to reservation camps and worked as corvée labor. When alcohol was introduced into their society their reservation camp turned into a slums and many were impoverished. They were saved by a prophet named Hanson Lake.

Hanson Lake

A Iroquois shaman who was embarrassed that his society became a slums. He had a vision that his society has to change the way they work, such as quitting alcohol and going back to their ancestral roots, such as beginning to hunt again. Also, he pushed that they adapt some aspects of Christianity and mix it with their own native religion through syncretism.

Fredrick Barth

A Norwegian ethnographer, who studied the pastoral nomads of Southwest Asia, whose farmers represent different ethnicities. He stated that ethnicity can define individual divisions of labor, which complement each other to better the economy and contribute to survival.

Tupinambá Millenarian Movement

A direct response to colonialism by a coastal Brazilian group. This group's prophets, or the shamans known as the karaíbas, urged people to abandon their livelihoods and their allegiance to their chiefs and shamans by making a pilgrimage to through the wilderness in search of a "land without evil." Their response attributes to the societies who were beginning to develop stratification, where colonial contact, powerful chiefs were beginning to emerge in this Brazilian society.

Taxation

A form of redistribution within a society.

Corporate Groups

A group of kinsmen who have certain recourses, a type of land, and who pass down their inheritance through a single descent line; Its descent system can be either patrimony or matrimony; They are formed through ambilineal descent; They exist for ritual purposes related to the life cycle, where membership is ascribed as a part of an individuals identity at birth.

Working Class

A group of people in a pristine state, who works for someone else other than their family through architecture. These people are willing to give up freedom for the comfort and security provided by the state.

Iroquois Descent Rule

A group that is matrilineal and it is divided between two sides of the family, organized in order to set up into a segment line.

Pristine State

A highly complex society with classes or castes and a political hierarchy; It that has enough authority capable of creating boundaries; They must be around for 5000 years, and have originated from no outside influence, or have came into existence without diffusion, in order to be recognized as one; Must have some level of ethnic diversity, population density, centralized authority, record keeping, working class, corvée labor, surplus production, stratification, taxation, and tribute; Six of these places formed around the same time frame, which was around the time of technological advancements.

Pair Bond

A lifelong, interdependent relationship between two individuals of opposite sexes; It is not universal in the human species.

Male Food Taboo

A man must not take food from an unrelated woman, nor prepare food for himself. He must not chew on both sides of his mouth, nor lick clean the sides of his bowl, lest he be subjected to public and private ridicule.To fail to adhere to these rules shows a lack of self-control, a lack of manliness.

Bridewealth

A marriage payment that consists of material goods given by the groom's family to the bride, in order to validate the transfer of the bride to the groom. Ex: 40 cattle given by a Nuer.

Nuclear Family

A married couple and their unmarried offspring residing together. It can be recognized as either one of orientation or of procreation, where each type determines household structure, and how people organize their shared living space affects the enculturation of the young.

Compulsory Complexification

A materialistic theory that states that the idea that environmental and technological conditions determine social structure and ideology in society. Also, that people do not choose to submit to a higher authority in the form of a state. Rather, they are forced or compelled.

Cakchiquel

A maya-speaking group of people, who were able to resist some of the destructive aspects of Spanish rule by using an arsenal of colonial weapons.

Quinine & Malaria

A medical advancement that allowed for European powers, who were mostly Britain and France, to colonize the interior African villages.

Bilateral Kindred

A social unit that is determined by bilateral descent groups. It consists of all of ones relatives, on both the mother and father's sides of the family; Only biological siblings share this, and it often acts as a an active network of mutually supporting relatives; It can only last for one generation, or one lifetime of an ego, which makes it unable to be considered a corporate group.

Aztecs

A society colonized by the Spanish missioners, lead by Hernan Cortés. The Spanish aimed to amass wealth from precious metals such as silver.

Chukchi

A society from Africa who allows for same-sex union marriages.

Communes

A society in that allows for polygamous marriages, which is due to them only having sex for procreative purposes, or to have children.

Agrarian Society

A society that uses nature for the production of domesticated food. These societies convert natural landscapes into profoundly cultural ones. They disturb the environment through seed concentration of non-domesticated trees by encouraging rapid reproduction, but, they did not profoundly alter large forested areas.

Cognatic Descent

A society where inheritance and descent can be conveyed through one, or both the matrilineal and patrilineal lineage line. Where each side of the family is of equal importance. These type of societies can be either bilateral or ambilineal.

Acephalous Society

A society with no central leadership such as headmen or chiefs. Ex: The egalitarian Munduruku of the Amazon Basin only have leaders who cannot coerce others to obey them.

Class Strata Society

A stratum of complex society that has more or less control over resources, technology, and land than other classes in the same society. Marriage is not prohibited between members of different titles, and it is possible to marry up or down on the socioeconomic scale; Groups in these societies may be either endogamous or exogamous, where members can sometimes be reclassified from one group to another, such as rich, poor, or middle.

Caste Strata Society

A stratum of complex society where group membership is ascribed, and an individual's status prohibits marriage between people of different groups. The members in each groups do tasks that are considered taboo by other groups in this society. Ex: Hindu Indian Societies where occupational specializations are ascribed.

Organic Agriculture

A sustainable architectural technique that used the soil from mounds, that was replenished by the decomposition of the old plants from the previous year. This enriched soil did not need to be maintained every year, and could also be used to reduce soil erosion.

Kinship

A system that is defined by having affines. And affines are created through marriage.

Tribute

A tax from outside the state.

Hawaiian Terminology

A terminology system, that sometimes called a generational system, which has the fewest terms. Members of the first ascending generation: everyone is "father" or "mother." In the ego's generation, everyone is either "brother" or "sister," such as their first cousins. It is principled on sex and generation. This system is closely associated with ambilineal descent. Ex: Pacific Northwest Coast Nootka

Theory of Environmental Circumscription

A theory of about the origins of the Pristine State, created by anthropologist Robert Carneiro who said that states came from hostile environment, such as deserts and outside river valleys. In these circumscribe areas, people were forced to stay in enclosements, or states, for protection. Also, in order for this state's political regime to function as a dominate society there must be a peasant class. It states that their is three factors necessary for the development of complexity: Circumscription, the existence of ethnically distinct and mutually antagonistic chiefdoms within recourse limited within recourse limited areas, and a population increase within ethnically distinct societies.

Chief or Big Man

A title held in ranked societies, where this person and his or her heirs control the labor of others, starting with extended family members, and then expanding out to include distant kin and even nonkin.

Divisibilty

A trait of money that utilizes the effect on payment in a price, or being able to allow it to be divisible into segments.

Chiefdom

A type of complex foraging society, that consist of interrelated families and clans living in multiple settlements that redistribute surplus and tribute to a chief; They are dependent on renewable recourses; Its authority creates no boundaries.

Ambilineal Descent

A type of descent system whose purpose is to perpetuate, or inherit, distinctions of rank, prestige, and material wealth; It allows for the creation of corporate groups, and cognatic clans; Its role in cognatic clans has a focus on ancestor descent. Ex: Kwakwakwak'wah, Indonesians, Aboriginal Hawaiians, & Incas. It is also the reason for the King of England and its dynasty.

Urban Revolution

After the Neolithic Period where industrialization arose.

Egalitarian Society

Age and sex are usually the primary criteria used to distinguish between people, where older people tend to have authority over younger people such as parental authority over children; Men usually take a more prominent role in warfare and in acquiring food more than women; Most societies hold some aspects of these societies such as family distinction between age or sex, and the presence of de facto leaders.

Broadcast Burning

Agricultural technique used by Australian Aborigines for hunting kangaroo in grasslands.

Domesticated Plants

Agricultural technique used in six continents. They originated as spices, such as cayenne pepper in Andean South America. Only later did food crops, such as the potato, become economically and nutritionally important. Some plants that ancient farmers cultivated ultimately lost the ability to reproduce on their own.

Intensive Agriculture (Test)

Agriculture that produces a surpluss

Nuer Terminology

All father's male relatives are uncles and cousins are termed as either male or female, with no distinction between parallel or cross-cousins. It also doesn't distinguish between the father and mother's descent lines due to bilateral descent.

Affinal Ties

Allegiances based on marriage.

Marriage

An alliance between two or more people, for the purpose of legitimating children.

Inca Army

An army that would unwillingly take lands and conqueror peaceful towns in the Andes.

Maku

An artificial scarcities society who tends to give the Tukano Ans and Arawakans a share of the hunt, while they later reciprocate with carbohydrate-rich plant foods from their gardens, such as manioc flour, bananas, sweet potatoes, and yams.

Trobriand Islanders

An avuncolocal residence society with matrilineal descent rules, where the tension between the father and son force the son out of the house, but, when he moves into his uncle's family his authority is still lessened by the uncle. Mallinowski's research on this society's marriage practices allowed him to challenge Freud's theory of monogamy.

Generalized Reciprocity

An economy found in simple hunter and gathering societies. It is based off equal trade, and it functions without a strong role of government authority.

Kindred

An ego-focused lineage; Characterized by a descent group thats formed from bilateral descent; Both males and females are taken into account.

Kuzko

An emperor who was considered a god, or a part of deity. Due to his divineness, no one was able to look at him.

The Breakup of Yogoslavia

An extremely lethal case of nationalist groups competing over territory and using ethnic differences to justify the genocide of those who did not share the same language, religion, and cultural history.

Diviner

An individual who can predict the future, such as rainfall.

Aurochs

An ox-like, aggressive animal who was the ancestor of modern cattle. They were humans throughout the Paleolithic Period and the last one died in Europe in the early 1600s.

Thomas Hobbes

Anthropologist who is famous for stating that "The life of men without government is nasty, brutish, and short." This statement is also a part of the foundation of political science. He countered David Humes by saying that he was wrong about the thirteen-colony indians because they are not in a state of 'War Against All.' He was critiqued upon his indian theory because no indian will want to steal or be aggressive because their society is too small.

Record Keeping

Artisans who were a part of the initial growth of a pristine state, and who scribed the government's taxation and infrastructures.

Neocolonialism

Attitudes and practices that promote postcolonial conditions.

Colonialism

Beginnings of the world systems, where humans have lived in it since the 20th C.E; The origins of generality after a trade economy. It began due to a search for precious metals, where upon imperial contact large amounts of acculturation and enculturation transformed or eradicated subaltern societies.

Diaspora

Being forced out of where you live. Ex: Nuer coming for Savannah in Sudan to Minnesota.

Consanguines

Blood relatives.

Capitalism

Buying and selling in market; A global movement in colonialism.

Feast

Event given to commemorate an event, usually the death of a revered elder, a marriage, or the recognition of a new heir. It was utilized from redistribution in ranked, chiefdom, or complex foraging societies whose chief/big man would gave away collected goods to gain a higher status.

Money

Can be divided into it two forms: special and general purpose. This tool was introduced in during early colonialism, where it was brought into the periphery of European colonies. This act changed the ways dominant and subaltern groups interacted and exchanged goods and services.

Strata Society

Can be either caste or class, which Morton Fried defined as a pristine state that occurred as a result of secondary states.

Oriental Disposition

Carl Woodrow's book, where he theorized about the ancient Chinese feudal states and their use of intensification.

Complex, Non-Kin-Based Society's Sexual Division of Labor

Characterized by an arbitrary division of economic functioned on the basis of one difference between sex. Its connection to reproductive responsibilities make women more likely to be in charge of childcare because of a role of culture.

Maximal Lineal

Characterized by being higher up in ranking and in the figurative pyramid of an ancestral cognatic clan. If someone of this status fought with an agnate of equal ranking, or especially with an agnate of higher ranking, then the whole clan could fall a part. This is due to the strong agnate, or patrilineal relatives' control and offense rule.

Double Descent

Characterized by having both matrilineal and patrilineal descent at the same time. Ex: Societies in Africa, Oceania, Asia, & the Americas.

Small, Kin-Based Society's Sexual Division of Labor (Hunter & Gatherers)

Characterized by sexes pooling their food recourses, which they give away portions of what they individually collected and hunted to various members of their band or camp.

Simple Hunter & Gatherers (Extensive, Generalized Reciprocity, & Egalitarian Societies)

Characterized by the foraging societies who do not produce a surplus, and who are egalitarian. They use generalized reciprocity in their economy, with a lesser sense of authority. Band and family organization structure camp life such that they have low population densities, and high mobility due to using up local food recourses. They may return to an original camp after a fallow from seasonal food availability. Ex: Tiwi aborigines.

Calusa (Test)

Chiefdom of southwest florida

Cross-Cousins

Children of siblings of the opposite sex

French Revolution (1989)

Class warfare that was principled upon the destruction of the nobility due to not wanting a synthetic representation. Its goal was to destroy any inequality and the hierarchy.

Nuer Villages

Communities linked together by ties of close personal relationship, mutual participation, and mutual support in a wide range of activities, common interests, and common destinies. Members fight together in the event of warfare. They are located on dry season cattle camps, where they often herd their livestock in common. Young men go together to community-wide dances in war lines.

Diffusion

Cultural borrowing.

Ju'/hoansi

Culture who has clicks as a part of their language, which is a type of phoneme called a contrasting sound.

Morton Fried

Defined four types of in inequalities in society: Egalitarian, Ranked, & Strata [Either Caste of Class].

Ambilineal

Descent rule of Cognatic Clan

Stratificaiton

Division of society into castes or classes

Ego-Focused

Downward triangle formed through bilateral descent.

Age of Discovery

During the time of chattel slavery and the French Revolution.

Redistributive Economy

Economy found in some ranked societies whose kin give their profit to their leader, with intentions that it will better society, and the chief/big man perceived generosity validates his status. Ex: Melanesia chief's feasts.

Nuer Economic Life

Economy is based on Subsistence Agro-pastoralism [The cultivation of maize and millet using hand tools and household labor, and the raising of livestock, including cattle, sheep, and goats.] Nuer sell crops, and particularly livestock, where production is primarily oriented towards household use.

Depopulation of Native Americans

Epidemics in such societies, from disease which was important to the beginnings on the African Slave Trade for the incorporation of chattel slavery for sugar mills and plantations.

Columbus' 2nd Voyage to The Americas.

Exhibition in 1493, that brought sugarcane from the Canary Islands to Hispaniola. This act initiated the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade, where slaves from Africa were brought to work on sugarcane plantations in the Americas due to the large population of Indians who died from epidemic diseases.

Portuguese & Early American Colonizers

Exhibitioners who could not get past the Ottoman Empire to colonize. They wanted silk and spices that came from Asia, but, in order to avoid taxation they founded the Americas.

Swidden or Slash & Burn

Extensive agricultural technique, where people burned forestry and planes in order to hunter, and or to plant domesticates like rice and other nutritional grains. The crops may then grow relatively unhindered by competition, and even improve soil conditions through the percolation of charred organic matter. This technique is also aided by shifting cultivation. Ex: Tropics

Complex Hunter & Gatherers (Ranked, Chiefdom, Agrarian, & Redistributive Economy Societies)

Foraging society who acts as a chiefdom or a type of ranked society; They often have economies based on redistribution; They are kin-based people who lived in semi-permanent settlements and produced surplus food; Most lived by coastal rivers that abounded in maritime resources; They also utilized a variety of roots, berries, fruits, and other plant products, without intensifying production; The technologies used, such as the harpoon, dip net, and bow and arrow, did not lead to the extinction of local recourses. Ex: Calusa people.

Corvée Labor

Forced labor

Mashpee Indians

Group of people from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, who were denied rights to their ancestral lands because they identifies as a tribe of Indians. They were not considered a tribe to the court, because they did not share a common race and territory, nor did they have had an established political structure.

Peasentry

Group of people who produce a surplus for the state, and cultivate just enough food and recourses for their family to survive.

Dinka

Group who are distantly related to the Nuer. They are not considered African.

Pastoral Nomads

Groups who are nomadic only during a season that makes them move to different pastures. They are dependent on rearing mobile livestock. Ex: Nuer

Ainu

Hunter and gatherers from the Northernmost part of Japan.

Maximal Complexity

In ranked societies, it is the combining of numerous villages that paid tribute to powerful chiefs who commanded them in warfare. Members of such societies have similar access to goods and services.

Nuer Dating

In the U.S. parents have little power to prevent dating and you cannot constantly monitor your child like in Sudan. Where, in Sudan, brothers and parents commonly monitor the activities of girls, and seek to avoid an appearance of promiscuity that would damage the reputations of both the girl and her family.

Money (Time Period)

Introduced during colonialism.

Hansom Lake Religion

Iroquois millenarian movement

Native Americans & Disease

Killed off 90% of the aboriginal population, who lived in North, Meso, and South America. They died out within the first 150 years of contact, which was due to the lack of immunity to Eurasian and African diseases such as smallpox, the common cold, measles, and many other viral, parasitic, and bacterial infections.

Extended Family

Large groups of conjoined nuclear families. They are joined through the unilocal residence system.

Urbanization

Living in a city.

Headsman

Local governors and tax collectors of the Inca Empire. They picked the eldest son was chosen from peasant families to limit ethnic diversity. The ones who were picked were sent to Kuzko to learn Inca customs and the Religion of The Sun.

Nuer Marriage Changes in Minnesota

Married couple has become an isolated social unit, rather than one embedded within a wide kinship network. Relates to the widespread absence of bridewealth: Absence of a wider kinship network in Minnesota. Many Nuer men have begun to cook in the United States, for themselves or their children, occasionally even with their wives present. If a couple in Minnesota does not send money to compensate for unpaid bridewealth, the wife risks being seen as little more than a woman who has eloped and left her family without bridewealth, rather than a proper, married one. The traditional context for conflict resolution, which is the broader kinship network, has diminished in significance. Girls were are young, by American standards, to be married at 14 or 15. These ages are, however, normal by Nuer standards; a girl is considered marriageable by the time she reaches sexual maturity.

State Endogamy

Marrying within the same socioeconomic group

Nuer Gender Roles

Mastery over fear is seen as the key element which differentiates men from women in Nuer gender ideologies. Men are centrally concerned with the care of cattle, overseeing the herding operation, and doing some herding themselves. Women's work centers on the home and includes cooking, child care, and milking.

Precious Metals

Materials that became the basis of the global monetary system, which replaced bartering and trading exchanges in European markets. It also financed Spanish and Portuguese exploration and conquest. The desire for these material goods, such as gold and silver, which were easily convertible into money as coinage, motivated the Trans-Atlantic exhibitions. It helped sustain European colonialism and the core-periphery relationship, from its low costing extraction through slave labor.

Industrial Agriculture

Mechanized agriculture, which uses fossil fuels in internal combustion engines, which were developed in 1850. Its constantly advancing such as the introduction of GMOs, or genetically modified organisms.

Syncretic Religion

Merging of two religions. It attributes to the many religions that were formed during Colonialism, where the subaltern groups rejected dominant core culture. These periphery groups simultaneously attempted to restore their ancestors' lifestyle, which they deemed superior to subaltern conditions.

Cargo Cult

Millenarian movements of Oceania; It was a modern response to colonialism, where native people were discouraged from practicing their own religion; The members of such movements preached a new form of liberation, where they believed that various ritualistic acts will lead to a bestowing of material wealth. This attributes to the belief that their ancient gods confused their societies with the European core powers who was granted such wealth and riches; Its success rate contributes to the involvement of sympathetic magic.

Gaar

Neur ethnic boundary marker, characterized by having six scars on a boys forehead that initiate them into manhood. Facing the knife without fear is considered by the Nuer to be their typical moment of self-mastery, which both defines their own manhood and differentiates them from Nuer women. A man gains the right to take part in cattle raids, but also the responsibility to protect the village from enemies

Sugar Mills

New sugar cultivation technology that was first used by the Portuguese in plantations of the coast of Africa. The Portuguese colonists later exported this technology to Brazil, who by the 16th CE, became the biggest producer of sugar in the world.

Simple Hunter Gatherers (Extensive Agricultural Impact)

Not as a profound influence on the environment than intensive agriculturalist, and their effects have sometimes enhanced productivity and even increase local diversity of the environment over time. The techniques used are swidden/slash & burn, seed concentration, and simple technologies such as dams.

Nuer Children

Nuer parents value physical strength and strength of will, and proudly cultivate these attributes in their children. Nuer children start to help around the home from an early age, and their work quickly becomes differentiated into male and female tasks. Nuer parents tend to promote independence and self-sufficiency in children from a very young age, such as eating at different time between the child and adult, and a lack of supervision.

Nuer Childbirth

Nuer women overwhelmingly have chosen not to have their husbands attend the birth. Where, childbirth is increasingly seen in American culture as the ultimate moment of togetherness for a couple, to the Nuer it is the typical context for the separation of male and female spheres.

Rice

Originating crop from China, in the Yangtze River Valley.

Wheat

Originating crop from Mesopotamia.

Maize

Originating crop from central Mexico

Potato

Originating crop from the Andes.

Nuer of Southern Sudan

Pastoral nomads whose cattle was important to bridewealth, affinal ties, a male's identity, their descriptive terminology. Their segmentary lineages are organized based on a patrilineal descent rule. They allowed for polygamous marriages.

Paleolithic Period

Period around 12,000 years ago, characterized by the evolution of humans without the use of agriculture; During the time of megafauna extinction.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Period beginning in the early 1500s where 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic. This expansion of Europe, and the implementation of the world economic system, was initiated by Columbus' sugarcane use. An estimated 1.5 to 2 million died on the voyage. Most went to the Caribbean and to Brazil, but a small percentage came to North America. Slave uprisings, especially revolts in Haiti, Barbados and Jamaica reduced the profitability. This economic system ended in 1840, but slavery itself continued in periphery societies.

Neolithic Revolution

Period characterized by the spread of intensive agriculture and domestication. Its origins began with cereal grain cultivation in Eurasia.

Industrial Revolution

Period of human evolution, characterized by the combustion of fossil fuels to carry out huge agricultural surpluses, in order to feed a large population. Its environmental impact creates greenhouse gasses.

Polygamy

Plural, or group, marriage that usually allows for larger groups to live in close proximity. It results in extended family households headed by one man and two or more wives and all their unmarried children. In the majority of societies who permit this union, usually the women divide up labor among themselves and corporate in various tasks for join prosperity, but, in some cases the first wife has seniority over the others. It practices sororal, levarite, and sororate. Ex: Mormonism.

Positivism

Principle of the enlightenment period, where the phrase, "Man is born free but everywhere his is in chains," pushed the idea that their is no such thing as slavery.

Political Anthropology

Principled on the questions: "Is it human destiny to live in a state?" & "Can states ever become egalitarian?"

Leveling Mechanisms

Principles found egalitarian societies, where each member of such society has the ability to make decisions for one's self and one's relatives, rather than appealing to a higher authority; It keeps all members of a group at about the same status in society. Ex: Ju/'hoansi foragers of southern Africa have arrow-sharing functions as leveling mechanism

Commodity

Raw materials that can be transformed into something else. It attributes to special purpose money.

Cognatic Clan

Refers to a kinship system that can be though of as a pyramid, with a founding ancestor, or apical ancestor, at its apex. All of the founding ancestor's descendants form the three outer triangular surfaces, and the base of the pyramid; They are formed through ambilineal descent; These groups favor masculine aithority, but they can be ruled by either men or women. Ex: Kwakwakwak'wah, Hawaiian Aborigines, & Polynesians

Brideservice

Refers to a man doing work and favors for his bride's family. The societies that embody this tradition consider what property a man owns to be whatever he can carry on their backs, which makes some indifferent to physical material wealth. Ex: Ju/'hoansi hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari Desert's marriage practices.

Conjugal Family

Refers to a nuclear family that acts as the smallest indivisible social unit of the human species. Defined by Ralph Linton.

Mormonism

Religion founded by Joseph Smith, who was driven out of his home town to Utah and was assassinated. This religion allows for polygamy.

Nuer Work/Wages

Rhythms of rural life in Sudan and even to conditions of migratory wage work in which some Nuer men had engaged. Work was not essential to their livelihood, and it was something that they could, and most likely would, abandon as they desired to do so. Indeed, assuming the responsibilities of family life would force young men to abandon their life of migrating to Khartoum for work.

Ascribed

Rule that one remains in the group status of one's birth for life; Common in caste societies

Endogamy

Rule that prohibits marriage between people of different castes; Common in caste societies.

Anadromous Fish

Salmon, dogfish, sea trout, et cetera, who spend part of their life cycle in freshwater and part in the ocean. These predictable resources allowed for the production of a surplus, which was utilized in ranked, chiefdom, or complex foraging societies.

Nuer Marriage

Serves to unite two extended families as much as it serves to unite a single couple. The most important aspect of the involvement of the kinship network is the payment of bridewealth cattle from the family of the groom to the family of the bride. Not only from the herd of the groom's father, but from a variety of uncles and cousins within the kinship network. The bridewealth goes not only to the bride's nuclear family, but also to many other members of her extended kin group. Nuer women typically marry between the ages of 15 to 17, while their husbands might be in their mid-twenties. A wife is still considered a girl until she has given birth to a child.

Artificial Scarcities

Shared goods of Egalitarian societies who are economically linked together, but are divided by speaking unrelated languages and exhibiting differences of costume, ritual, cuisine; They interact with one another in a large network of social and economic interdependence, where each group specializes in making certain goods that everyone else needs; The local bands or villages are not autonomous, instead they may owe labor and allegiance to a Big Man or a chief. Ex: The Maku's role between the Tukano Ans and Arawakans.

Maritime Recourses

Shellfish, sea mammals, fish, et cettera that was used by coastal complex foraging societies.

Shoshone (from Great Basin)

Simple hunter-gatherers studied by Steward

Extensive Agriculture (Test)

Slash-and-burn synoym

Ranked Societies (Semi-Complex Societies)

Societies that have more distinctions between people than egalitarian ones. They may have cognatic clans, which are ordered by prestige and power in relation to each other, from highest to lowest; These societies are centered around an individual sometimes called a Big Man or chief.; These societies are noted that they may have the ability to develop stratification.

Eskimo Terminology

Terminology that is a version of English, which is associated with bilateral descent. One set of terms is restricted to members of the nuclear family and not extended to collateral relatives, such as 'mother' only applying to an ego's mother. There is no distinction between cross and parallel cousins. There is an emphasis on ego, which isolates the nudear family and applies equivalent terms to the remaining relatives on both sides of the family. Niether the matriline or patriline is more important the other. It is used in societies with nuclear families, or small family units. Ex: Inuits, Ju/'huoansi, & Aztecs.

Iroquois Terminology

Terminology that is found widely in six continents. It is most structurally similar to the Dravidian, the key difference is that they call their mother's sister an 'Aunt,' and their father's brother an 'Uncle.' Also, it distinguishes cross and parallel relatives in the first ascending generation and cross from parallel cousins in ego's generation. Societies with these terminologies tend to prohibit marriage with any first cousin.

Dravidian Terminology

Terminology with the simplest terms and has a focus on identifying potential mates. Its marriage rules are found in its classification system. It is found widely in six continents. It is most structurally similar to the Iroquois, the key difference is that they call their mother's sister a 'Mother-in-Law,' and their father's brother a 'Father-in-Law.' Also, a female ego calls her male cross cousins 'husband' and her female cross cousins 'sister-in-law,' due to them encouraging first cousin marriages. It is sometimes said to contain a prescriptive marriage rule, one that prescribes, or recommends, a certain behavior. It distinguishes cross and parallel relatives in the first ascending generation and cross from parallel cousins in ego's generation.

Religion of The Sun

The Inca religion that prohibited questioning a person's divine right, such as the emperors'. Its nuns sewed clothes and uniform for the Inca Army.

Primal Genergy

The act of giving land to the oldest son through inheritance. Ex: In Ireland it was in place to allow for the breakup of corporate industry.

Enculturation

The domination of culture in a singular society.

Reciprocity

The economic principle in egalitarian societies.

Patriarchy

The father is the dominant force in a kinship system. It refers to men owning the property and inheritence in a family, which makes them the ruling power. Morgan stated that it arose only after matriarchy.

Melanesian Cargo Cult

The first cargo cult, which formed during the late 19th century. It was developed when Britain began to introduce Christianity into this society.

Apical Ancestor

The founding ancestor in a cognatic clan. In some cases, they act as chiefs. These chiefs' descent line is ambilineal.

Atom of Kinship

The idea that the incest taboo, is the extension of a person's notion of relatedness to a mother's opposite-sexed siblings, such as ego's mother's brother. This concept, developed by Levi-Strauss, goes beyond the maternal bond with the child and established a rule of exogamy which promotes cross-cousin marriage.

Mesitos

The offspring of Spanish fathers and indian mothers. Many lived in rural communities as farmers, and became the new Spanish subaltern class, or as a part of colonial peasantry.

Captain James Cook

The person who claimed Australia for Great Britain.

European Core

Wealth and power center.

Fertilizers

The intensive agricultural technique that made land more arable, or recourse efficient, because it continuously injects a high quantity of nutrients into the soil. It limits biodiversity in state-level economies.

Nuer Masculine Ideals

The man should be the ruler of the home, and his wife should unquestioningly act according to his will. Kin seek to keep the couple together both for the sake of the marriage and for the messy consequences for both families in the event of divorce.

Fraternal Polyandry

The marriage of one woman to two or more men, where the husbands are brothers. Usually, the eldest brother has the most authority in the marriage, and he is responsible for eliminating conflicts among the brothers that could erupt over sexual access to the same women. It is popular in Tibet societies, where it prevents the family-held lands from being subdivided into smaller parcels overtime.

Polyandry

The marriage of one woman to two or more men. It is a relatively rare form of marriage, which was common among land-owning families in Tibet. It also existed on the Malabar Coast of South India, and in pockets of South America, the Arctic, and Subarctic.

Syncretism

The merging of deities from distinct religious traditions. Refers to the Afro-American and Indigenous mixed religions created in colonialism.

Bering Land Bridge

The migration path that allowed for the extinction of the megafauna in the Americas, which occurred after the arrival of bands from Northern Asia who crossed it.

Nuer Milk

The most perfect, most complete food of the Nuer.

Folk Generic

The most salient category in a free-list. It is usually the first word an individual learns about that category. Ex: Mother or Oak

Matriarchy

The mother is the dominant force in a kinship system. Patriarchy was only recognized after this. The term was coined by Morgan.

Cargo

Wealth and riches

Artificial Selection

The process of domesticating plants and animals from their wild ancestors. For instance, people who harvested a useful wild plant might assist in the the reproduction of that variety due to its superior attribute that may better human purpose. They may nurturing its offspring, rather than the offspring of less desirable varieties who may die out or continue to grow wild.

African Intermediaries

The process of seizing land and its resources in Africa. Where European traders raided African interior villages for slaves, but, in some cases they exchanged them for iron tools, firearms, textiles, whiskey, tobacco, and cash.

Stratification

The segmentation of society into groups defined by their unequal access to material wealth, power, influence, and prestige. They are found in all states and empires. They can be either caste or class based.

Omaha Terminology

The system is associated with groups that have a strong tradition of patrilineal descent. In this system, relatives are sorted according to their descent and their gender. Ego's father and his brothers are merged and addressed by a single term, and a similar pattern is seen for Ego's mother and her sisters.

Minimal Complexity

The temporary union of two or more bands or villages for the purpose of organizing labor under a chief. Often this labor involves warfare and defense using non industrial technology.

Neur Marriage Ceremony

The three ceremonies betrothal, marriage, and consummation. Slaughtering an ox is the key act in the second step: marriage, where live oxen are not available to urban Nuer. Normally the blood of the slaughtered ox forms the covenant between husband and wife.

Multilinear Evolution

Theory founded by Julian Steward, and created his idea based on studying what the different, independently developed pristine states may have had in common. The similar steps to complexificaion resulted in the stratification of society. The only differences between each step were superficial: each had different religious beliefs, artistic styles, and ideologies. But, they all had some fundamental political and economic similarities that corresponds to intensive agriculture, which used irrigation, fertilizers, and other labor-demanding inputs, enabled production of food surpluses and control to such goods.

Hydraulic Theory

Theory founded by sociologist Karl Wittfogel, who theorized that the state arose to control water resources and manage irrigation in deserts where food could be produced only through intensive agriculture. Further, such control, or bureaucracy, needed a leader who could resolve conflicts over how water and other resources were managed and distributed. It is based on the premise that people in complex society require an administrative bureaucracy to redistribute wealth. Support of that bureaucracy required stratification of society, dividing those who labored in fields and irrigation works from those who did not. Ex: Communist china irrigation systems, and Inca record keepers.

Pleistocene-Holocene Transision

Theory that states the extinction of megafauna was do to the difficulties adapting to the rapidly changing climate and to changes in food availability.

Domesticated Animals

They are dependent on human management, and could go feral, or semi wild if not cared for.

Nuer Economic Goals of Young Men

They earn money for both to prepare economically for married life. They use cash/special purpose money to purchase livestock, clothing for himself and his family, and fancy dance regalia.

Leopard Skin Chief

Title allows him to be in charge of mediating between maximal lineage. Acts as a diviner, who can predict the future, such as rainfall, which is important to the safety of their cattle. Acts as a mediator of conflict who defends an opposing Agnates, or male patrilineal kinsman, such as the distantly related Dinkas. He determines whether the agnate is correct or not and helps maintain the segments of the blood feud. Acts as both a positive and negative shaman; Negative: Can put a curse on the opposing agnate if he thinks they are unreasonable. Positive: Respected divining abilities.

Special Purpose Money

Tool that is specific to a certain category, setting, and quantity. In the economies who use this system, bartering is the primary method of exchange. These items such as cacao beans, pigs, and cattle, acted as commodities, or raw materials that could be transformed into something else.

Seed Concentration

Used to make orchards, making the collection of fruit faster and easier; Used in extensive foraging societies. Ex: South American tropical forests.

Intensive Agriculture

Using the land and domesticates to continually use the resources of the land; The process of producing a surplus of goods or food; Refers to the origins of state formation, or stratification, where a society fixates in one place; It began with the neolithic revolution, where the spread of this brought more energy inputs per unit of land such as plowing, fertilizing, and architecture such as terraces and irrigation systems that must be continually maintained.

Nuer

splits their society based on Egalitarianism