Anthropology Chapter 6 (Warms)

reciprocity

A mutual give-and-take among people of equal status.

kula ring

A pattern of exchange among trading partners in the South Pacific islands.

leveling mechanism

A practice, value, or form of social organization that evens out wealth within a society.

cargo system

A ritual system common in Central and South America in which wealthy people are required to hold a series of costly ceremonial offices.

productive resources

Material goods, natural resources, or information used to create other goods or information.

What different systems of distribution are described in this chapter?

reciprocity, redistribution, and the market to redistribute goods and services and to provide patterns and standards for their consumption.

potlatch

A form of redistribution involving competitive feasting practiced among Northwest Coast Native Americans.

household

A group of people united by kinship or other links who share a residence and organize production, consumption, and distribution among themselves.

market exchange

An economic system in which goods and services are bought and sold at a money price determined primarily by the forces of supply and demand.

capitalism

An economic system in which people work for wages, land and capital goods are privately owned, and capital is invested for profit.

firm

An institution composed of kin and/or nonkin that is organized primarily for financial gain.

What is the relationship between population, social complexity, and specialization?

As societies become more populous and complex, the number of specialized jobs found in them increases. This is particularly true when societies are dependent on agriculture or industrialism. In preindustrial societies, like traditional India, kin groups may have rights or duties to perform specific jobs. Current-day wealthy societies have extremely high degrees of specialization. This creates great efficiency but involves changing notions of identity and often has heavy human costs.

How does the economic history of Belize reflect connections between economy and culture?

Belize has always been integrated into an international system of trade, from its earlier days exporting logwood and mahogany to its more recent foray into tourism. This has had a deep impact on consumption patterns as ideas of the proper ways to eat were closely linked with European notions of propriety.

economizing behavior

Choosing a course of action to maximize perceived benefit.

What is economics and what is economic behavior?

Economics is the study of how the choices people make combine to determine the ways their societies use their scarce resources to produce and distribute goods and services. Economists assume that people will generally engage in economizing behavior—that they will allocate their scarce goods and resources in ways that maximize their benefit.

negative reciprocity

Exchange conducted for the purpose of material advantage and the desire to get something for nothing.

redistribution

Exchange in which goods are collected and then distributed to members of a group.

generalized reciprocity

Giving and receiving goods with no immediate or specific return expected.

What are the defining characteristics of capitalism?

In capitalism, the owners of productive resources use them to increase their financial wealth. In capitalist societies, productive resources are held primarily by a small percentage of the population, most people sell their labor for wages, and the value of people's labor is always more than the wages they receive. Capitalism can be masked by other relationships, such as reciprocity.

How does the allocation of productive resources differ in foraging, pastoral, horticultural, and agricultural societies?

In general, as social complexity increases, access to productive resources becomes more restricted. In foraging societies, all people usually have access to all resources. Among pastoralists, ownership of animals is vested in families and kin groups. Among horticulturalists, people may control land in which they have invested labor. Among agriculturalists, specific individuals own many productive resources.

What are the chief characteristics of market exchange and where is it found?

In market exchange, goods and services are bought and sold at a money price determined by market forces. Market exchange is the most common mechanism of exchange in the world today and is found in most societies.

What is redistribution and in what kinds of societies is it commonly found?

In redistribution, goods are collected at a social center from which they are given out to the group in a new pattern. Redistribution occurs in many different contexts but is particularly common in societies that have bigmen, in chiefdoms, and in states. Some forms of redistribution act as leveling mechanisms, forcing wealthier individuals to disburse part of their riches to the rest of the community.

What is the organization of labor and what are its key elements in most preindustrial societies?

Labor must be organized in order for production to take place. In most preindustrial societies, labor is organized by gender and by household or kin group. Work that people both perform and receive helps establish them with respect in their social network and is often integral to their identity.

What are productive resources? Give some examples.

Productive resources are the things that members of a society need to participate in the economy, and access to them is basic to every culture. Such resources generally include land, labor, and knowledge.

capital

Productive resources that are used with the primary goal of increasing their owner's financial wealth.

Define reciprocity and describe different types of reciprocity.

Reciprocity is the mutual give and take of goods and services among people. generalized reciprocity, individuals at a close social distance give and take without expecting immediate or specific return. Balanced reciprocity involves individuals at a medium social distance and includes a clear obligation to return goods of nearly equal value to those given. The kula trade in the Trobriand Islands is an example. Negative reciprocity is characteristic of impersonal or unfriendly relations and involves attempting to get the better of a trade.

Where is resistance to capitalism found and what forms does it take?

Resistance to capitalism is found in almost all capitalist societies. people resist capitalism by owning productive resources that they use only for their own subsistence, avoiding wage labor and limiting their participation in the market.

bigmen

Self-made leaders who gain power and authority through personal achievement.

How are gifts and bribes related in Ukraine and in the United States?

The difference between gift giving and corruption can be difficult to determine. In Ukraine, people once gave gifts to doctors and teachers but understood these as demonstrations of gratitude rather than bribes, despite the role the gifts played in increasing the income of doctors and teachers and assuring the givers access to medical services and passing grades. In the United States, courts have held that if no specific quid pro quo can be demonstrated, large payments to politicians are gifts, even when the recipients provide many services to the gift givers.

balanced reciprocity

The giving and receiving of goods of nearly equal value with a clear obligation to return a gift within a specified time limit.

division of labor

The pattern by which different tasks are given to different members of a society.

economic system

The patterned way in which people produce, distribute, and consume food and other goods.

usufruct

The right of an individual or family to use a piece of land and pass that land on to descendants but not to sell or trade the land.

economics

The study of the ways in which the choices people make combine to determine how their society uses its scarce resources to produce and distribute goods and services.

What is UX and how does it involve anthropologists?

UX stands for user experience and refers to the ways in which people interact with products, services, and companies. Anthropological techniques are very useful in studying this. Many companies hire anthropologists to study the ways in which their products and services are used. This has made products more friendly and made businesses more money.