Anthropology Test 2 Ch. 7,8,9,10,11

Chronology of Hominin Evolution

-Although the first hominins appeared late in the Miocene epoch, the Pliocene (5-2 mya), Pleistocene (2mya-10,000 BP) and recent (10,000 BP - present) epochs are the most important)

Tools

-first evidence for hominin stone tool manufacture dates back to 2.6 m.y.a (in terms of actual tool remains). -evidence of intentional cutting of bones, indicative of the use of stone tools, as early as 3.4 m.y.a -bipedal locomotion allowed hominins to carry things.

If Earth's history =24 hours

Midnight: Earth originates 5:45 a.m.: earliest fossils deposited 9:02 p.m.: first vertebrates appeared 10:45 p.m.: earliest mammals 11:43 p.m.: earliest primates 11:57 p.m.: earliest hominins 36 seconds before 12:00 a.m.:Homo sapiens

-Early states and cities have 10 key attributes (cont.)

+Supported by the treasury, priests, civil officials, and military leaders made up of the ruling +Writing used for record keeping +Predictive sciences developed, including arithmentic, geometry, and astronomy +Sophisticated art styles developed, expressed in sculpture, paining, and architecture +Long-distance and foreign trade +Society reorganized on the basis of territorial divisions rather than kinship groups

State Formation in the Middle East: Urban Life

- First towns arose around 10,000 years ago in Middle East Jericho: settled by the Natufians around 11,000 B.P., unplanned with round houses and 2,000 people -Destroyed in 9000m BP and rebuilt later, with square, plastered homes - dead buried beneath the houses -Long-distance trade, especially of obsidian, important between 9500 and 7000 B.P. -Çatal Hüyük (Turkey) largest settlement of Neolithic age with 10,000 people (8000-7000 B.P.) -Houses so densely packed, residents had to enter from the roof -Residents operated in family groups without apparent political elite

Transition

-12,000-10,000 B.P. +Seminomadic hunting and gathering -10,000-7500 B.P. +Dry farming - without irrigation - (wheat and barley) and caprine domestication (goats and sheep) -7500-5500 B.P. +Increasingly specialized food production +Domestication of cattle and pigs, new crops +More productive varieties of wheat and barley, new crops added

"Toumai" (Sahelanthropus tchadensis)

-6 to 7 million-year-old primate skull (northern Chad) -May be the earliest hominin found -Human and apelike characteristics, chimp sized brain, hominin like tooth enamel (thicker than chimps) -Probably moved bipedally -Indicates that hominin evolution was not confined to East Africa's Rift Valley

Nonhuman Primate Communication: Sign Language

-A few nonhuman primates have learned to use American Sign Language (ASL) -Chimps and gorillas: rudimentary capacity for language -First to learn were Washoe and Lucy -After learning to sign, they would exhibit human traits such as swearing, joking, telling lies, and trying to teach language to others -Followed by Project Nim, with less impressive results

The Neandertals and Modern People (continued):

-Alternative view: Neandertals ancestral to modern Europeans +Evidence: fossils from sites in Western and Central Europe (e.g., Mladeč, l'Hortus, and Vindija) exhibit both Neanderthal robustness and modern features

Language Loss

-An indigenous language goes extinct when its last speakers die -When languages disappear, cultural diversity is reduced +Half of the world's linguistic diversity has been lost over the past 500 years +Of approximately 7,000 remaining languages, about 20% endangered and half are expected to disappear within the next century +In many areas, indigenous tongues yield to colonial language +Some researchers and programs are trying to document the last speakers of the most endangered languages through digital audio and video recordings

Anthropology Today

-Anthropologist's Son Finds New Species of Australopithecus +9 year old Matthew Berger, when chasing his dog into high grass, tripped over a log and stumbled onto the bones of a new hominid species that lived almost 2 mya +Ancient remains of a 4 foot 2 inch just a few years older than Matthew +Fossils as a surprising and distinctive mixture of primitive and advanced anatomy, and thus earned new species distinction, Australopithecus sediba +Human lower body, apelike arms, small teeth and more modern face of Homo, but primitive feet of Australopithecus +Most likely lived 1.78-1.95 mya, probably descended from A.africanus +Debate as to which genus it belongs in

Archaic H. sapiens

-Archaic H. sapiens encompasses earliest members of our species 300,000? to 28,000 B.P. +Also Neandertals (H. sapiens neandertalensis, 130,000 to 28,000 B.P.) + Brain size within modern human range + Lived during second and third glacials + Distribution of fossils and tools reflects increased tolerance of environmental diversity

Ardipithecus

-Ardipithecus kadabba, 5.8 - 5.5 m.y.a. -Some Miocene hominins eventually evolved into Australopithecus -Ardipithecus ramidus, 4.4 m.y.a (nearly complete skeleton found in 2009) -Pelvis transitional between arboreal climbing and bipedal locomotion, feet lack arch of later hominins -Lived in a humid, woodland site -Plausible ancestor for Australopithecus

Primate Call Systems

-Are stimuli-dependent; the food call will be made only presence of food; it cannot be faked. -Consists of a limited number of calls that cannot be combined to produce new calls. -Tend to be species specific, with little variation among communities of the same species of each call.

Early chiefdoms and elites (continued):

-Around 3000 B.P., 25 or so chiefly centers +Sufficiently separate and autonomous to adapt to local zones and conditions +Sufficiently interacting and competitive to borrow and incorporate new ideas and innovations as they arose in other regions +Warfare and attracting followers two key elements in state formation +The Zapotec state at Oaxaca eventually overshadowed Olmec area by 2100 B.P. +Developed distinctive art style, lasted until conquered by Spain

Attributes of States

-Attributes of states - more general list than Childe's, taken from Fagan 1996 -Controls specific territories +Much larger area than the territories controlled by kin groups and the villages in pre-state societies +Early states were expansionist - arose when chiefdoms conquered others, extending rule over larger territory -Productive farming economies supporting dense populations, often nucleated in cities, usually involving some sort of water control or irrigation -Used tribute and taxation to accumulate, at some central place, resources needed to support hundreds or thousands of specialists, had rulers, a military, and control over human labor -Stratified into social classes, most people commoners. Rulers stay in power by combining personal ability, religious authority, economic control, and force -Imposing public buildings and monumental architecture, including temples, palaces, and storehouses -Developed some form of record-keeping system, usually a written script

Settling the Americas

-Bering land bridge (Beringia) exposed during periods of glacial advance +Big-game hunters gradually migrate from northeast Asia into North America, following prey on land +Other ancient hunters entered along the shore by boat fishing and hunting sea animals +Successive generations of hunters followed game southward through unglaciated corridors or by boat down the Pacific coast -Early American Indians (Paleoindians) hunted large game, including horses, camels, bison, elephants, mammoths, and giant sloths +Clovis tradition: sophisticated stone technology based on point fastened to end of hunting spear (found in North America between 13,250 and 12,800 B.P.) +Non-clovis sites also exist +First migration(s) of people into Americas may date back 18,000 years (predating Clovis) +Monte Verde site in Chile dated to 13,500 B.P. +Migration to America may have preceded Clovis tradition

Tool-making traditions: coherent patterns of tool manufacture

-Best sources are rocks like flint that fracture sharply and in predictable ways when hammered - also quartz, quartzite, chert, and obsidian -Acheulian: tool-making tradition of H. erectus associated with Lower Paleolithic +Different from Oldowan in that the core was chipped bilaterally and symmetrically, converting a round rock into a flattish oval hand ax of about 6 inches, with sharper cutting edge +Evidence of mental template + Hand ax: modified core of rock + More complex than earlier pebble tools + Illustrates trends in the evolution of technology: + Greater efficiency + Manufacture of tools for specific tasks + Increasingly complex technology + Flakes used for light-duty tools, to make incisions for finer work + Will become more important as time and technology progress

The Mexican highlands

-Between 10,000 and 4000 B.P: foragers in the Valley of Oaxaca had a broad-spectrum economy +Dispersed to hunt during the fall and winter, but gathered together in late spring and summer to harvest wild cactus fruits and other seasonally available plants, including mesquite +Eventually began planting maize, and by 4000 B.P. maize had replaced the other wild plants people were harvesting +Simple irrigation permitted permanent villages based on maize farming by 3500 B.P. +Spread of maize farming resulted in further genetic changes, higher yields, higher human populations, and more intensive farming

Out of Africa I: H. erectus

-Biological and cultural changes enable new adaptive strategy - gathering and hunting + H. erectus pushed hominin range beyond Africa to Asia and Europe through population growth and dispersal +Perhaps the first Hunter- Gatherers -Paleolithic Tools +Three divisions of Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): +Lower Paleolithic: roughly associated with H. erectus +Middle Paleolithic: roughly associated with archaic H. sapiens, including Neandertals +Upper Paleolithic: associated with early members of anatomically modern humans

A. anamensis

-Bipedal hominin (northern Kenya, Maeve Leakey and Alan Walker in 1995) -Fossils from two sites date to 4.2 m.y.a. (Kanapoi) and to 3.9 m.y.a. (Allia Bay) +Molars have thick enamel and large, ape-like canines +Weighed about 110 pounds -May be ancestral to A.afarensis, but larger than either Ardipithecus or (later) Australopithecus afarensis

Mesolithic

-Broad spectrum revolution led to very rich and diverse regions for hunting and gathering -Knowledge comes from Europe, because of the rich history of archaeology -Characteristic tool type -microliths ('small stone') - small and delicately shaped stone tools -By 10,000 B.P. glaciers retreated and human range in Europe extended to British Isles and Scandinavia -People stalked solitary animals and fished -Meat preservation became increasingly important, bow and arrow development (rather than spears) for hunting water fowl, dogs domesticated as retrievers -Woodworking with axes, chisels, and gouges -Food production reached Western Europe only around 5,000 B.P (3,000 BCE) and northern Europe 500 years later -After 15,000 B.P. throughout inhabited world, big-game supply diminished and people pursued new resources +Also happened at Japanese site of Nittano

The First Farmers

-Broad-spectrum revolution: 15,000 B.P. in the Middle East and 12,000 B.P. in Europe +Exploitation of a wider range of plant and animal resources +Led to food production by 10,000 B.P. in the Middle East +Food production: human control over the reproduction of plants and animals

The First Farmers Overview

-By 5500 B.P., agriculture extended to Mespotamia (alluvial plain of Tigris and Euphrates rivers) and metallurgy and wheel were invented, habitation of small towns that eventually grow into cities, origin of the state -Neolithic revolution (Childe): describes origin and impact of food production +Neolithic: first cultural period in region in which first signs of domestication are present +Term coined to refer to new techniques of grinding and polishing stone tools +Transition occurs when reliance on domesticated foods reaches more than than 50% of 50% of the diet +Dependence on cultivation, sedentary life, and use of ceramic vessels

Cold-Adapted Neandertals

-By 75,000 BP the Würm glacial lead to extreme cold in Europe -Wore clothes, made tools, and hunted - Neandertal technology, Mousterian, improved during Würm glacial - Stocky build with large trunks minimized surface area and conserved heat - Massive nasal cavities expanded area for warming and moistening air -Evidence teeth used for various purposes

States in the Valley of Mexico

-By C.E. 1, complex settlement hierarchy in Teotihuacan +Urban planning, large-scale irrigation, status differentiation, complex architecture +Grew as a planned city built on a grid pattern, with the Pyramid of the Sun at its center +By 500 C.E. population of 130,000 (larger than imperial Rome) +After C.E. 700, rapid decline in size and power -Aztec period (C.E. 1325-1520) +Renewed agricultural intensification, population increase, and urban growth in Valley of Mexico

The Origin of Language

-Capacity to remember and combine linguistic symbols latent in apes, but evolutionary step necessary to transform this ability into language -Mutated gene (FOXP2) helps explain why humans speak - we have a different form of this gene than chimpanzees +Humans with the "chimp" version of this gene don't have the fine tongue and lip movements necessary for clear speech +Human version likely appeared ~150,000 years ago -Language offers adaptive advantage +Allows much more information to be stored within a group for that information to be transmitted easily

Social Ranking and Chiefdoms (continued):

-Chiefdoms: ranked society in which relations among villages as well as among individuals are unequal +Competition among chiefdoms led to primary state formation: states that arose on their own and not through contact with other state societies +As one chiefdom conquered its neighbors, integrated into a larger political unit +Middle Eastern states first appear in around 6000 and 5500 B.P. +Mesoamerican chiefdoms first appear more than 3000 B.P. +Archaeological marker: presence of wealthy burials of children too young to have achieved or earned prestige of their own, but who were born into elite families

Why States Collapse: The Mayan Decline

-Classic Maya civilization flourished between C.E. 300-900 +Last monument built in Copàn unfinished, C.E. 822 +Environmental factors include erosion and soil exhaustion +Food stress and malnutrition +Increased warfare +Now believe social, political, and military upheaval caused downfall

Use of lexigrams with orangutans and bonobos (cont.)

-Community included 50 acre wooded forest within a 300 acre woodland preserve, with locations named with lexigrams +Bonobos know the forest as well as humans know a village +Bonobos plan where they will go and what they will do when they get there, and they talk about these plans on the communication boards +Work with orangutans at the National Zoo Think Tank shows comparable skills, on the basis of meta-cognition, memory tasks, and self-awareness

Sign Language

-Cultural transmission of communication system through learning is fundamental attribute of language -Washoe and Lucy tried to teach ASL to other animals, including their own offspring -Productivity: use rules of language to produce new expressions -Koko, Washoe, and Lucy created new words from their language rules (e.g., drinkfruit for watermelon, waterbird for swan, finger bracelet for ring) -Displacement: language about things not present -Routinely used by apes (Koko expressed sadness about having bitten Penny three days earlier, used "later" for things she didn't want to do) -Koko, when asked to describe herself (human versus ape) signed "fine animal gorilla"

The Neandertals and Modern People

-Current view: H. erectus split into two groups +One group ancestral to Neandertals, another group ancestral to anatomically modern humans (AMHs) + AMHs evolved in Africa, Asia, Central Europe, or the Middle East, then colonized Western Europe and displaced Neandertals around 50,000 B.P. + Contrasts between the two groups + Neandertals with heavy brow ridges and slanting foreheads + Neandertal cranial capacity exceeds AMHs + Neandertals with larger jaws, providing support for huge front teeth, and faces were massive + Neandertal bones and skull more rugged, greater sexual dimorphism

Structure of Language

-Descriptive linguistics: scientific study of a spoken language - involves several interrelated areas of analysis +Phonology: study of speech sounds, considers which sounds are present and significant in a given language +Morphology: study of forms in which sounds combine to form morphemes - words and their meaningful parts +Lexicon: dictionary containing all of the language's morphemes and their meanings -Syntax: arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences

Advanced Chiefdoms

-Excavations at Tell Hamoukar (northeastern Syria) suggest advanced chiefdoms arose in northern areas independently of better-known city-states in Mespotamia -By 5700 B.P., Tell Hamoukar prosperous town, covering 32 acres and surrounded by a defensive wall -Evidence of large scale food production found at this site, perhaps indicating that elites were hosting and entertaining in a chiefly manner

Explaining the Neolithic

-Development of full-fledged Neolithic economy required settling down +Required several species of plants and animals, minimal set of nutritious domesticates +Middle East also had Mediterranean climate with closely packed environmental zones favorable to origin and spread of Neolithic economy +Mesoamerica required genetic changes to shift from teosinte to maize (coupled with lack of large domesticable animals leads to more gradual emergence of food production) +Neolithic economy and sedentism did not develop in east, southeast, and southwest of U.S. until maize diffused in from Mesoamerica

Black English Vernacular (BEV)

-Dialect of English spoken by the majority of black youth in inner city urban areas, most rural areas, and is often used in casual speech of adults - but is not spoken by all African Americans -Most linguists view BEV as a dialect of American English -Complex linguistic system with its own phonology and syntax -Clear phonological and grammatical differences between BEV and Standard English (SE) +Ex. BEV speakers are less likely to pronounce r than SE speakers, particularly r's between vowels - leads to different homonyms (Carol/Cal, Paris/pass) +Ex. BEV speakers more likely to omit -ed as a past-tense marker and -s as a marker of plurality +SE is prestige dialect but not linguistically superior to BEV - therefore SE has more "symbolic capital"

Gender speech contrasts

-Differences between men and women: phonology, grammar, vocabulary, body stances, and movements -Women may alter pitch, be more careful about uneducated speech -Lakoff (2004) American women's use of certain types of words and expressions reflects lesser power in society +Ex. "Oh dear," "Oh fudge." and "Goodness" as less forceful than "Damn" or "Hell" -Men use more terms related to sports -Women use more color terms and attempt to use them more specifically -Tannen: women use language and associated body movements to build rapport, social connections with others; men tend to make reports, reciting information that serves to establish a place for themselves in a hierarchy, as they also attempt to determine the relative ranks of their conversation mates

Genetic changes and domestication (continued):

-Domesticated (as opposed to wild) animals: +Smaller (easier to control) +Changes to 'defense mechanisms', such as horns +Other traits selected by humans (e.g., woolly coats in sheep) produced livestock that were better adapted to hot, dry alluvial lowlands, and from which wool could be obtained for clothing

Genetic changes and domestication

-Domesticated (as opposed to wild) crops: +Larger seeds +Higher yield per unit of area +Loss of natural seed dispersal mechanisms +Tougher connective tissue (axes) holding seedpods to the stem +More brittle husks

Americas

-Early Native Americans occupied variety of environments +Independently invented food production in three areas, eastern US, Mesoamerica, and the south central Andes +States based on agriculture and trade in Mexico and Peru +Lack of state development in eastern US until maize spreads -Animal domestication less important than in New World than Old World +Large game animals extinct or not domesticable +Domesticated New World animals included llamas, alpacas, guinea pigs, ducks, turkeys, and dogs -Three main staples:maize (corn), potatoes, and manioc (cassava) +Other crops: beans, squash, quinoa, goosefoot, marsh elder, and sunflower +The "three sisters" (as we in New Mexico know them) -maize, beans, and squash - the basis of the Mesoamerican diet

State Formation in Mesoamerica

-Early chiefdoms and elites -Olmec (Gulf Coast) chiefdoms flourished between 3200 and 2500 B.P. +Chiefly centers with large earthen mounds, plazas +Massive carved stone heads +Long-distance exchange networks linked regions of early chiefdom development -Chiefdoms evolved rapidly as a result of intense competitive interaction, rather than any one chiefdom

Social Ranking and Chiefdoms

-Egalitarian society: most typical among foragers, lacks status distinctions except for those based on age, gender, and individual qualities, talents, and achievements +Status distinctions achieved by individuals during their lives, rather than being inherited (ascribed) -Ranked society: have hereditary inequality, but not social stratification: sharp social divisions based on unequal access to wealth and power +Close relatives of the chief have higher rank or social status than more distant ones +Continuum of status which can lead to competition for leadership positions

The First Farmers and Herders in the Middle East

-Environmental zones: high plateau, Hilly Flanks, piedmont steppe, alluvial desert +Hilly Flanks: subtropical woodland zone that flanks Tigris and Euphrates rivers +Braidwood: abundance of wild grains, allowing foragers (e.g., the Natufians) to adopt sedentism, a sedentary life in villages +Natufians: collected wild cereals and hunted gazelles from year-round villages -Around 11,000 B.P. - drier climate, zone of abundant wild grains shrank +People adopted new subsistence strategy, including food production +Prior to domestication, favored Hilly Flanks zone had densest human population +Climate created vertical economy, where wild cereals ripened during different seasons at different altitudes (low altitudes in spring, middle altitudes in summer, and high altitudes in fall) +Food production probably emerged when people living in marginal areas (such as the piedmont steppe) attempted to duplicate artificially the dense stands of wheat and barley that grew in the Hilly Flanks by transferring wild cereals to well-watered areas, where they started cultivating.

Linguistic diversity within nations

-Ethnic diversity mirrored by linguistic diversity -All people engage in style shifts: varied speech in different social contexts -Diglossia: regular shifting between dialects (e.g., "high" and "low" variants of a language) +People use high variants at universities and in writing, professions, and mass media. Low variants for ordinary conversation with family members and friend +Speech patterns are considered "better" or "worse" because they are associated with socially ranked groups +The truth is, though, that different dialects are equally effective as systems of communication

Study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages

-Everyone alive today has mtDNA descended from a woman ("Eve") who lived in sub- Saharan Africa around 200,000 B.P. +Eve's descendants left Africa no more than 135,000 B.P., displacing Neandertals in Western Europe and colonizing the rest of the world +mtDNA variation greatest in Africans, suggesting they have been evolving the longest + Additional DNA comparisons (from Neandertal bones) support view that Neandertals and AMHs are distinct groups

The Varied Australopithecines

-Major hominin group of the Pliocene -At least six species: +A.anamensis, 4.2 to 3.9 m.y.a. +A.afarensis, 3.8? to 3.0 m.y.a. +A.africanus, 3.0? to 2.0? m.y.a. +A.garhi, 2.5 m.y.a. +A.robustus, 2.0? to 1.0? m.y.a. +A.boisei, 2.6? to 1.0 m.y.a.

Tropical Origins of New World Domestication

-Farming began in lowlands of South America (not highlands of Mexico and Peru) +Began around 10,000 years ago +Domesticated squash seeds found in Peru, dated to 10,000 years ago, evidence shows they were transported there, thus domesticated even earlier +Maize domestication (lowlands of Mexico) +Wild ancestor is teosinte +Selected for increases in number of kernels per cob, cob size, and number of cobs per stalk, tough axes and soft husks +Spread rapidly

Warfare and State Formation: The Zapotec Case

-First Mesoamerican state in Valley of Oaxaca -Early raiding among villages becomes warfare and conquest (330 and 20 B.C.E.) +Expansion through conquest plays key role in formation of a primary state by building administrative hierarchy +City served as center of polity from 500 B.C.E. to 700 C.E.

The Neandertals

-First discovered in Western Europe, but fossils with Neandertal-like features also found in Africa and Asia + Kabwe skull from Zambia dating to about 130,000 BP with Neandertal-like brow ridge + Paabo (2007): Identified Neandertal mtDNA at sites in Asia and Siberia (extended range) + May have reached areas around 127,000 years ago during warm period

The Elite Level

-First pottery dates back to about 8000 B.P., widespread throughout Middle East by 7000 B.P. -Halafian pottery (7500-6500 B.P.) +Widespread, delicate pottery style, first found in northern Syria +Low number indicates they were luxury goods +By 7000 B.P., elite level and first chiefdoms emerged -Ubaid pottery (7000-6000 B.P.) +First discovered in southern Iraq +Associated with advanced chiefdoms and maybe the earliest states in southern Mesopotamia

A. afarensis

-Fossils from Laetoli, Tanzania (3.8-3.6 m.y.a.),and Hadar, Ethiopia (3.3-3.0 m.y.a.) -Suggest hominins' common ancestry with the African apes is recent, no more than 8 m.y.a. -Certain features of dentition are similar to those of apes (sharp canines) -Evidence of powerful chewing; diet included tough vegetation -Lucy's Baby +3.3 million year old fossilized toddler uncovered in North Ethiopia +Remarkable for its age and completeness +No prolonged, dependent childhood +Walked upright but hints that ancestors had not completely left trees +As recently as 3 mya our ancestors had a mix of apelike and hominin features -Cranial capacity smaller than later hominins -Fossilized footprints at Laetoli (3.6 m.y.a.) and structure of postcranial features indicate that A.afarensis was bipedal -Marked sexual dimorphism -Structurally more robust than modern humans, arms longer than legs -Narrower birth canal, period of dependency; may provide indirect evidence for rudimentary cultural life

Anthropology Today Ch. 9

-Global climate change threatens Archaeology -GCC has resulted in weather patterns that are less predictable and more extreme, threatening archaeological sites in diverse locations +In the Alps glaciers have melted that have both uncovered new sites and rotted organic remains in existing sites +In coastal Peru El Niño events have flooded desert sites +In Greenland violent wave action is destroying coastal sites +In the Eurasian steppes tombs of Scythian nomads are in danger of thawing and rotting away as the permafrost thaws +In California's Channel Islands coaster winds, waves, storm surges, and rising sea levels are wiping out sites +In the Sahara Desert rising temperatures have killed vegetation and spreading Saharan sands are eroding sites

Gracile and robust australopithecines

-Gracile (A.africanus) and robust (A.robustus) lived in South Africa between 3 and 1 m.y.a. +Probably descended from A.afarensis +Hyper-robust group existed in East Africa +Some scholars: separate species (A.boisei); others: regional variant of A.robustus -Competing models of relationship +Separate species;graciles ancestral to robusts +Separate species overlapping in time +Represent continuum of variation in a single polytypic species

Food production and the state

-Gradual transition from foraging to food production -Effects of food production +Population increase +Resulting migrations +Forced people living in other areas to respond (e.g., in the Hilly Flanks people had to begin cultivating in order to intensify production) -By 7000 B.P. simple irrigation systems developed, tapping into springs -By 6000 B.P. - complex irrigation systems +Agriculture became possible in south, arid lowlands -Around 5500 B.P. - Mesopotamian state arose, a state society with an economy based on irrigation and trade

The Significance of Hunting

-Greater reliance on hunting and improved cultural means of adaptation (including tools) separated H. erectus from H. habilis and A. boisei +With changes in types of foods consumed, burden on chewing apparatus eased + H. erectus back teeth are smaller and front teeth relatively larger +Natural selection favored stronger skulls, and base of skull expanded dramatically +Tools reflect functional differentiation, with straighter edges and more sophistication + Allowed H. erectus to eat meat on a more regular basis and dig and process tubers, roots, nuts, and seeds more efficiently

H. habilis and H. ergaster/erectus:

-H. hablis dates to 1.8 m.y.a. + Leakeys: small brained A. boisei ((490 cm3) fossils and H. habilis (700 cm3) skulls from same time +H. habilis postcranial skeleton surprising in that it is much more apelike than expected - reflecting better climbing abilities than later hominins -H. erectus skulls dating to 1.6 m.y.a. show increase in brain size (900 cm3) and complexity and modern body shape and height -Recent hominin fossil finds in Ileret, Kenya +H. habilis and H. erectus overlapped in time rather than being ancestor and descendant +Split from common ancestor prior to 2 mya +Occupied different ecological niches - H. erectus sexual dimorphism greater than expected

Human Language

-Has the capacity to speak of things and events that are not present (displacement). -Has the capacity to generate new expressions by combing other expressions (productivity). -Is group specific in that all humans have the capacity for language, but each linguistic community has its own language, which is culturally transmitted.

Explains many (i.e., coastal Peru), but not all, cases of state formation

-Highland Papua New Guinea has experienced environmental circumscription, warfare, and dense populations but these have never led to state formation

Ice Ages of the Pleistocene

-Lower Pleistocene (2 to 1 mya) -Middle Pleistocene (1 mya to 130,000 BP) -Upper Pleistocene (130,000 to 11,000 BP) +H. sapiens appeared late in Middle Pleistocene and sole hominin of Upper Pleistocene +Lived during the second and third glacials (ice ages) and a warmer interglacials +Hominin fossils and animals known to occur in cold or warm climates give dates to glacial and interglacial periods

Historical Linguistics

-Historical Linguistics: study of long-term linguistic change +Features past languages reconstructed by studying contemporary daughter languages - languages that descend from the same parent language (protolanguage) and that have been changing separately for hundreds or even thousands of years +Protolanguage: original language from which a new language diverges +Historical linguists classify languages according to their degree of relationship +Languages change over time +Subgroups: languages within a taxonomy of related languages that are most closely related +Close relationship between languages does not necessarily mean that their speakers are closely related biologically or culturally, because people can adopt new languages +Anthropologists are interested in historical linguistics because cultural features sometimes correlate with the distribution of language families

Evolution and Expansion of H. erectus

-Important H. erectus sites: +Kenya: 1.6 m.y.a. +Dmanisi (Georgia): 1.75 to 1.7 m.y.a. - represent rapid spread into Eurasia, perhaps to follow meat (more primitive fossils than later forms elsewhere) + Indonesia: 700,000 B.P. to 1.6 m.y.a. + Zhoukoudian cave: 670,000 to 410,000 B.P. + Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and South Africa: 1 million to 500,000 B.P. at Olduvai + Ceprano, Italy: 800,000 B.P. -Dmansisi fossils bear stronger resemblance to H. habilis +Recent skeletal finds suggest Dmanisi population combined primitive skulls and upper bodies with more advance spines and lower limbs -Distribution of H. erectus fossils and stone tools indicates expansion into subtropical and temperate zones of Asia and Europe

Hydraulic Systems

-In certain arid areas, states emerged to manage systems of irrigation, drainage, and flood control (Wittfogel) -Hydraulic agriculture is neither sufficient nor necessary condition for state formation -Water control increased agricultural production -Irrigated agriculture fuels population growth, which leads to political systems to regulate production

The Denisovans

-In late 2010, based on ancient DNA evidence, a hominin group known as the Denisovans was identified as distant cousins to Neandertals +Lived in Asia from roughly 400,000-50,000 BP +Named from Denisova, a cave in southern Siberia where their traces were found +Entire genome extracted from a finger fragment and wisdom tooth +Split between Neandertals and Denisovans occurred around 400,000 years ago, with Neandertals spreading west and Denisovans heading east +Striking relationship with Melanesians, representing interbreeding between native Papua New Guinea residents (Papuans) and Denisovans +The wisdom tooth resembles neither Neandertals nor AMHs, with bulging sides and large, flaring roots

Other Early States

-Indus River Valley (Harappan) civilization - northwestern India and Pakistan +Trade and spread of writing from Mesopotamia may have played a role in its emergence +State flourished between 4600 and 3900 B.P. +At its peak, incorporated 1000 cities, towns, and villages, spanning 280,000 square miles +Urban planning, social stratification, and early writing system - major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro with residential areas and wastewater systems +State collapsed from warfare

Adaptive Strategies of H. erectus

-Interrelated biological and cultural changes increased human adaptability +Rugged, "modern" skeleton permitting long-distance stalking and endurance during hunt +Average H. erectus brain size doubled that of the Australopithecines - firmer commitment to hunting and gathering +Fire allowed H. erectus to colonize wider range of climates, protect against predators, and cook +Present at least by 800 kya

Anthropology Today Ch. 11

-Is there a "California accent" +Stereotype of "valley girls" +Professor Penelope Eckert from Stanford University is documenting linguistic diversity in California (Voices of California) +In each locale they test certain words that elicit specific pronunciations, including wash ("warsh"), greasy ("greezy"), and pin and pen, which are sometimes pronounced the same +One factor that determines accent is where one's ancestors came from, another is their own attitudes and feelings about the people around them and the outside world +Diversity in accents reflects both regional diversity and ethnic diversity +Also evidence of chain shifts, coordinated phonological changes evident in California's coastal Whites

Use of lexigrams with orangutans and bonobos

-Kanzi- 9 month old infant bonobo who played in the lab while the Rumaughs tried to teach his mother language +Spontaneously demonstrated productive competence for lexigrams and receptive competence for spoken English (emerging from passive observational exposure) +Utterances included grammar, syntax, and semanticity +Language skill enhanced his ability to learn other skills, such as the manufacture of Olduwan-type stone tools

Nonverbal communication (cont.)

-Kinesics: study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and facial expressions +Gestures, facial expressions, and body stances shaped by culture +Prevalence and meaning of nonverbal communication vary cross-culturally +Body movements communicate social differences -Language, which is highly symbolic, is the domain of communication in which culture plays the strongest role

Focal vocabulary

-Lexicon (vocabulary) influences perception -Focal vocabulary: specialized sets of terms and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups +Ex. Nuer of South Sudan with dozens of words for cattle (upwards bound of 400) +Vocabulary is the area of language that changes most readily +While language, culture, and thought interrelated, it might be more accurate to argue that changes in culture produce changes in language and thought than to argue the reverse -Cultural contrasts and changes affect lexical distinctions (e.g. peach versus salmon) within semantic domains (e.g. color terminology) -Semantics: language's meaning system -The ways in which people divide up the world - the lexical contrasts they perceive as meaningful or significant - reflect their experiences

Nonhuman Primate Communication: Call Systems

-Limited number of sounds produced in response to specific stimuli (such as food or danger) -Species specific, hard-wired sounds -Cannot be combined to produce new calls -Vocal tract of apes not suitable for speech

Language

-Linguistic anthropology illustrates characteristic interests in diversity, comparison, and change -Language (written and spoken) is humans' primary means of communication +Transmitted through learning (like culture) +Based on arbitrary, learned associations between words and symbols (and the things they stand for) +Allows discussion of past and future and shared experiences; only humans can discuss these temporal associations, benefit from experiences passed on through language

Explaining the Neolithic Geography and the Spread of Food Production

-Most crops in Eurasia domesticated once and spread rapidly in east-west direction +Could more easily spread east-west than north-south because of: +Common day lengths +Similar climates +Major axes of Africa and North and South America are north-south, which slows diffusion due to major climate shifts +Environmental barriers kept Neolithic societies more separate in the Americas, the Middle East, and Africa

Rise of Anatomically Modern Humans (Homo sapiens sapiens)

-Most scholars believe that AMHs evolved from an archaic H. sapiens ancestor in Africa and deny that Neandertals were ancestral to AMHs in Europe and the Middle East. -According to this view, AMHs spread to other areas, including Western Europe, where they replaced or interbred with the Neandertals. -Out of Africa II, and the search for "Eve"

Nonverbal Communication

-Much of what we communicate is nonverbal and reflects our emotional states and intentions -This can create problems when we use contemporary means of communication, such as texting and online messaging +Emoticons and abbreviations may communicate what would otherwise be communicated by the tone of voice, laughter, and facial expressions, but may often be misinterpreted

Population, war, and circumscription

-Multivariate theory of state formation (Carneiro) -Wherever environmental circumscription or resource concentration, increasing population, and warfare exist, state formation begins -Environmental circumscription may be physical or social +Physically circumscribed environments, e.g., small islands, river plains, oases, valleys +Social circumscription: neighboring societies block expansion, emigration, or access to resources

Language, Thought, and Culture

-Noam Chomsky: human brain contains limited set of rules for organizing language - universal grammar +All languages have a common structural basis +All humans have similar linguistic abilities and thought processes +People can learn foreign languages +Words and ideas translate from one language to another +All Creole languages share certain features - this further supports the idea that these languages are based on universal grammar

China

-Northern China (Yellow River): +Two varieties of millet cultivated by 7500 B.P. +Dogs, pigs, and possibly cattle, goats, and sheep domesticated by 7000 B.P. -Southern China (Yangtze River): +Rice cultivated perhaps as early as 8400 B.P. +Water buffalo, dogs, and pigs domesticated by 7000 B.P.

Other Upper Paleolithic Trends

-Number of distinct tool types increased, reflecting functional specialization -Increasing standardization in tool manufacture (cultural traditions about how to make tools) -Growth in Homo's overall population and geographic range -Increasing local cultural diversity (varied special- purpose tools made by local populations)

Oldowan Tools

-Oldowan pebble tools (2.5-2.0 m.y.a.) +Core and flake tools (around 1.8 m.y.a.) at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (more flakes than cores) +Core, choppers for pounding, flakes for cutting +Older stone implements (2.5-2 m.y.a.) found in Ethiopia, Congo, Malawi +Debate over identity of the earliest stone tool makers -A. garhi and early stone tools +Fossils from a new hominin species, A.garhi, dating to 2.6 m.y.a. found in Ethiopia in 1999 +Associated with remains of butchered animals +Stone tools also dating to 2.6 m.y.a. found at nearby site suggest that Australopithecines were toolmakers with some capacity for culture

Language, Thought, and Culture (cont)

-Other linguists and anthropologists take a different approach to the relation between language and thought -Sapir-Whorf hypothesis +Grammatical categories of particular languages lead their speakers to think in different ways (language limits though, or language determines thought) +Example - English structures things as past, present, or future; Hopi differentiates between events that exist or have existed and those that don't or don't yet exist; therefore Hopi think about time and reality in different ways? +Language shapes, but does not restrict, thought because cultural changes can produce changes in thought and language (contrary to Sapir-Whorf)

Anatomically Modern Humans

-Out of Africa II (continued): -Recent Fossil and Archaeological Evidence +Three anatomically modern skulls dated to 154,000-160,000 B.P. found in Ethiopia + Fossils and tools found at several South African sites further corroborate the idea that AMHs originated in Africa + Evidence of modern behavior (tool making)

Other Old World Farmers

-Path from foraging to farming followed independently in at least seven world areas (independent invention) +Crops and animals originally domesticated in the Middle East spread to northern Africa (including Egypt), Europe, India, and Pakistan (Indus River Valley) +By 9,000 B.P., people living at Nabta Playa (Egypt) year-round +Cattle first domesticated here, perhaps independently, by 11,000 B.P. -Around 8,000 B.P. communities on Europe's Mediterranean shores shifting from foraging to farming using imported species -Presence of domesticated goats, sheep, cattle, wheat, and barley in Pakistan around same time

Stratification and symbolic domination

-People use and evaluate speech in context of social, political, and economic forces -Speech habits help determine access to employment and other material resources -Because speech habits help determine access to employment and other material resources, "proper language" itself becomes a strategic resource and a path to wealth, prestige, and power -Linguistic forms take on power of groups they symbolize +Bourdieu: Linguistic practices as "symbolic capital" which people may convert into economic and social capital +As a result of "symbolic domination," even people who do not use a prestigious dialect come to accept its authority and correctness

Speech Sounds

-Phoneme: a sound contrast that makes a difference, that differentiates meaning +Number of phonemes varies among languages, as well as between dialects of a given language +We find phonemes in a given language by comparing minimal pairs, words that resemble each other in all but one sound (and have different meanings based on that single difference) +Ex. pit/bit, ball/call, cap/cup +Standard (American) English with 35 phonemes, at least 11 vowels and 24 consonants +Average number of phonemes 30-40, range from 15-60 -Phonetics: study of speech sounds in general, what people actually say in various languages -Phonemics: study of significant sound contrasts (phonemes) of a given language

Teeth

-advantageous for early hominins to have large back teeth and thick tooth enamel because of savana diet of fibrous, gritty vegetation. -rotary motion of chewing vegetation also favored reduction of canines and first premolars. -lost during subsequent of human evolution, further reduction with advent of fire.

The Urban Revolution

-Phrase used by V. Gordon Childe to describe the major transformation of human life and social institutions that come with agriculture and state development -Early states and cities have 10 key attributes +Larger, more extensive, and more densely populated +Composition and function - contained full time craftsmen, transport workers, merchants, officials, and priests +Each primary producer (farmer) had to pay a tithe or tax to a diety or divine king, who concentrated these in a central place, such as a temple or treasury +Monumental architecture, symbolize the right of rulers to draw on the treasury and to command a labor force

Orrorin tugenensis

-Pieces of jaw with teeth, isolated upper and lower teeth, arm bones, and fingers -Possible early hominin (Kenya) -Dated to 6 mya -Anatomical features suggest Orrorin climbed trees easily and walk on two legs (bipedalism)

State Formation in the Middle East

-Prior to the invention of metallurgy, raw copper was shaped by hammering +If copper is hammered too long, it hardens and becomes brittle, with a risk of cracking +Once heated, copper becomes malleable again (earliest metallurgy) -Metallurgy: knowledge of properties of metals, including extraction, processing, and manufacture of metal tools +Smelting: using high temperatures to extract pure metal from an ore +Where and when it was discovered is unknown +Rapid evolution of metallurgy after 5000 B.P. +Bronze Age: bronze )arsenic and copper or tin and copper) became common, extended use of metals +By 4500 B.P. golden objects were found in royal burials at Ur +Iron Age: high-temperature iron smelting mastered and spread rapidly after 3200 B.P

Anthropology Today Ch. 10

-Psuedo-Archaeology +The archaeologist's profession [reconstructs] lifeways through the analysis of material remains, in order to understand culture and human behavior +Heyerdahl diffusion +Mesoamerican development based on ideas borrowedfrom somewhere else, such as Egypt +Von Daniken- major human achievements created or assisted by extra-terrestrials +Archaeological record does not support +University of Michigan offers a course titled Frauds and Fantastic Claims in Archaeology +Plant and animal domestication, the state, and city life [...] were long-term, gradual processes, developments with down-to-earth causes and effects

...but did they disappear?

-Recent research reasserts that Neandertals did not, in fact, disappear or get displaced by anatomically modern H. sapiens who came out of Africa +Jeffrey Long (2010) analyzed microsatellite DNA in 2000 people and found evidence of two periods of interbreeding - 60,000 years ago in the Mediterranean, and 45,000 years ago in eastern Asia

Advent of Behavioral Modernity

-Reliance on symbolic thought, elaborating cultural creativity, thus becoming fully human in behavior and anatomy -Traditional view - modern behavior emerged recently, perhaps 45,000-40,000 years ago, and only after H. sapiens pushed into Europe + 'creative explosion' based on elaborate cave paintings -Recent discoveries - much older, more gradual evolution of modern behavior + African archaeological sites indicate gradual build up of 'behavioral modernity' from 300,000-30,000 BP +Examples: +Blombos Cave (South Africa), bone awls and weapon points more than 70,000 years ago (shaped then finely polished) +Katanda region (Congo) with barbed bone harpoon points dating back 90,000-80,000 years ago +Pinnacle Point (South Africa) with small stone bladelets, which could be attached to wood to make spears, and red ochre, a pigment used for body paint

H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis

-Remains of 780,000-year old hominins in Spain possible common ancestor of Neandertals and anatomically modern humans - Massive hominin jaw (500,000 years old) found in Heidelberg led to H. heidelbergensis, hominins (700,000-200,000 years ago) transitional between H. erectus, Neandertals, and anatomically modern humans -Distribution of archaic H. sapiens fossils and tools show Homo's increased tolerance of environmental diversity +Chance discovery on England's Suffolk seacoast shows that humans reached northern Europe by 700,000 BP, 200,000 years earlier than thought -Arago, France (200,000 B.P.) + Fossils have mixed features that seem transitional between H. erectus and the Neandertals

The First Farmers and Herders in the Middle East (continued)

-Sedentary village life developed before farming and herding in the Middle East because people needed to be able to store the wild grains that they harvested. -In the Middle East (as in Peru and Mesoamerica), the close juxtaposition of varied environmental zones allowed broad- spectrum foragers to use different resources in different seasons (vertical economy). -Seasonal migrations and trade linked environmental zones +Movement of people, animals, and products between zones was a precondition for the emergence of food production +Mutations, genetic recombination, and human selection led to new kinds of wheat and barley

Anthropology Today Ch. 8

-Sequencing the Denisovans +Genome comes from the pinkie bone of a girl who lived in Siberia between 82,000 and 74,000 years ago +She was a member of the extinct Denisovan group +Sequencing shows she is both a relative of Neandertals and a relative a AMHs, indicating interbreeding with both groups +Some intriguing genetic differences include genes involved with wiring the brain and ones that are known to be linked to autism +Study also shows that Native Americans and people in East Asia have more Neandertal DNA than those whose ancestors are from Europe

Gracile and robust australopithecines (continued):

-Sexually dimorphic -Teeth, jaw, face, and skull indicate diet increasingly focused on coarse vegetation -Overall robustness, especially in the chewing apparatus, increased through time -Cranial capacity only increased slightly -Made and used simple tools -Little increase in cranial capacity, but Australopithecine endocranial more human than apelike

Other Early States: China

-Shang dynasty arose in the Huang He (Yellow) River area of northern China around 3750 B.P. +Wheat was the dietary staple +Urbanism, palatial architecture, human sacrifice, and sharp division between social classes +Bronze metallurgy +Elaborate writing system

Early Homo: H. rudolfensis and H. habilis

-Skull KNM-ER 1470 demonstrated large brain (775 cm3) and very large molars became H. rudolfensis +Thought, perhaps, it came from a very large individual, but no postcranial remains +Brain size indicates Homo, molars indicate Australopithecus +Dating the skull is problematic - either 1.8 or 2.4 m.y.a. -Several kinds of hominins lived in Africa before and after Homo

Brains, Skulls, and Childhood Dependency

-brain size and skull size increased, especially with the advent of Homo. -human children have long period of childhood dependency due to skulls and brains.

Sociolinguistics

-Social and Linguistic Variation +Linguists and anthropologists interested in what people do say, rather than what they should say +Speech differences associated with social variation +Major differences among genders -Sociolinguistics: relationships between social and linguistic variation +Focus on features that vary systematically with social position and situation +Speech differences tell us a lot about social variation, such as region, education, ethic background, and gender +Variation within language is historical change in progress

Anthropologists study language in its social/cultural context

-Some reconstruct ancient languages by comparing contemporary descendants -Some study linguistic differences to discover the varied worldviews and patterns of thought in a multitude of vultures -Sociolinguists examining dialects and styles in a single language to show how speech reflects social differences -Explore the role of language in colonization and globalization

Long-distance trade routes

-Some states emerged at strategic locations in regional trade networks, such as at crossroads of caravan routes or in mountain passes or river narrows -Long-distance trade is neither sufficient nor necessary condition for state formation - can follow the formation of the state

Australopitahecines and Early Homo

-Split between Australopithecus and Homo occurred before 2 m.y.a. -Fossil sample of hominin teeth evidence of split :Smaller set -H.habilis (first species of the genus Homo) :Larger set -A.boisei (coexisted with Homo until around 1.0 m.y.a. :Occupied different ecological niches by 1.9 mya -Split between Australopithecus and Homo +Johanson and White: propose that between 3 and 2 m.y.a., A.afarensis split into two groups: :H.habilis- evolved into H. erectus by 1.7 m.y.a. :Various australopithecines (A.africanus, A.robustus, and A.boisei) :Fossil evidence that Homo and A.boisei coexisted in East Africa :H. erectus which appears to have lived contemporaneously with H.habilis between 3 and 2 mya :A.sediba (1.95-1.78 m.y.a.) presents mosaic of primitive and modern features

The Origin of the State

-State: form of social and political organization that has formal, central government and division of society into classes -Chiefdoms precursors to states -By 7000 B.P. in Middle East and 3200 B.P. in Mesoamerica, evidence of elite level -State formation has generalized rather than universal causes -Multiple factors contribute to state formation - although some appear to be common, no single one is always present

Mesopotamian States

-The Mesopotamian economy, based on craft production, trade, and intensive agriculture, spurred population growth and an increase in urbanism -Large populations were densely concentrated in walled cities +By 4800 B.P. Uruk, the largest early Mesopotamian city, numbered 50,000 residents -Secular authority replaced temple rule by 4600 B.P., with the office of military coordinator developing into kingship +Change shows up architecturally in palaces and royal tombs -By 4600 B.P., Mesopotamia had a well-defined class structure, with complex stratification into nobles, commoners, and slaves.

Homo floriensis

-Tiny humans inhabiting Flores, an Indonesian island 370 miles east of Bali, until fairly recent times +Few scientists imagined that a different human species had survived through 12,000 BP, and possibly even later +Very small skull - about 370 cm3 +Originally described as a downsized version of H. erectus +Faced unusual evolutionary forces, along with gigantic lizards (Komodo dragons) and dwarf elephants +Controlled fire, made stone tools more sophisticated than any known to be made by H. erectus, including small blades that may have been mounted on wooden shafts, allowing them to hunt elephants +Wiped out by a volcanic eruption around 12,000 BP +Ngadha people of central Flores and Manggarai people of West Flores tell stories about little people who lived in caves until the arrival of the Dutch traders in the16th century +Foot proportions and toe more similar to great apes than H. erectus

Advances in Technology

-Upper Paleolithic tool-making traditions traditionally associated with early AMHs +Emphasized blade tools +Blades hammered off a prepared core, as in Mousterian tradition, but blades are longer than flakes (4-6 inches) +More efficient than Mousterian techniques (amount of cutting edge derived) +Some composite and bone tools +Increasing technological differentiation, specialization, and efficiency: allowed humans to adapt to a wider range of environments

Rise of the State

-Uruk period (6000-5200 B.P.) established Mespotamia as "cradle of civilization" +No evidence of Uruk influence at Tell Hamoukar until 5200 B.P. +Economies managed by centralized leadership +Settlements spread north into Syria +Writing developed (first in Sumer) to keep accounts (cuneiform) +Writing and temples key roles in Mespotamian economy +Temples managed herding, farming, manufacture, storage, trade

Nonhuman Primate Communication

-Use of lexigrams with orangutans and bonobos -Began with the LANA (LANguage Analog) project at Yerkes in the 1970s -Could discriminate between symbols, arrange them grammatically, and create novel combinations -Much research conducted at Georgia State University, with Sue Savage- Rumbaugh +Uses keyboard developed by Duane Rumbaugh, with 384 noniconic arbitrary symbols. When apes press a key, a digital voice says the word, and the lexigram is displayed on a computer screen +Further research with social chimps showed they could communicate with each other, structuring interactions around statements of planned intent (could categorize, pretend, plan, comprehend, and respond to each other)

Theories on distinctions between states and chiefdoms

-Wright - states have at least four levels of decision making, whereas chiefdoms lack administrative specialization -States with four-level hierarchy of settlements, chiefdoms with no more than three -Spencer - limit of a chiefdom's range is half a day's travel from its center, whereas states can transcend such limits and carry out long distance conquest -Spencer - subjugation of polities in other regions, coupled with regularized tribute exaction, can bring about a transition from chiefdom to state -In Zapotec case, co-occurrence of Monte Albán with emerging Zapotec state supports expansionist model of primary state formation

Glacial Retreat

-Würm glacial ended in Europe between 17,000-12,000 B.P. -Tundra and steppe vegetation replaced by shrubs, forests -Reindeer and other large game replaced by more solitary animals -Shallower, warmer offshore waters, over the continental shelf, encouraged marine life to develop and allowed humans to utilize on sea and shore (marsh birds, etc.) resources -Although hunting remained important, southwestern European economies became less specialized as humans began to exploit a wider range of plant and animal life +Flannery: broad-spectrum revolution +Sets the stage for the eventual domestication of plants and animals, by greatly diversifying those available for consumption

Bipedalism

-upright two legged locomotion differentiates early humans from apes. -adaptation to open grassland/savana habitat +provides ability to see over long grass for food and predators and to carry items back to a home base. +exposes less body surface to solar radiation, which facilitates cooling and reduces moisture loss. +adaption may have predated this, however.

Hominin

=designates human line after split from ancestral chimps.

Hominid

=taxonomic family that includes humans and the African apes and their immediate ancestor.

Missing Slide

Ch. 8 pg 35