anthropology test 2
Lucy
In 1974, a team of paleoanthropologists, under the direction of an American, Donald Johanson, found an even more ancient species of australopithecine at the Hadar Afar Desert region of Northern Ethiopia. It was a 40% complete skeleton of an adult female whom they named ____. She had been only 3 feet 3 inches (1 m.) tall with a slender body weighing only about 60 pounds (27 kg.). She lived 3.2-3.18 million years ago. Johanson concluded that ____ was from a different species than had been previously discovered. He classified her as an Australopithecus afarensis (named for the Afar region). Many other specimens of this species and later ones were found in Ethiopia since 1974, but none is as complete as ____.
Olduvai Gorge
The oldest fossil hominins have been recovered from sites in East Africa, especially in the Great Rift Valley. One of the most important sites there is Olduvai Gorge in Northern Tanzania. It is only about 295 feet (90 m.) deep, but its neatly stratified layers of dirt and rock interspersed with easily datable volcanic ash and lava layers cover the last 2.1 million years of geological and evolutionary history. The remains of many australopithecines, paranthropoids, and early humans have been found at Olduvai. -Early hominin fossils from Olduvai Gorge are known mostly as a result of the many expeditions of Louis and Mary Leakey
Homo habilis Homo rudolfensis
The species of the earliest humans
third theory as to why neaderthals went extinct -love and lust
We mated with them and, in time, simply folded them into our species until they disappeared, swallowed up in the larger Homo sapiens gene pool. This may explain the origins of the red hair, light skin and freckles some of us sport. Neanderthals, unlike the slim, dark skinned interlopers from the south, would have evolved fairer complexions and lighter hair as a way to extract more vitamin D from the stingy sun of cold, northern latitudes.
4.5-7 mbp
When was the time of the earliest homonins?
-bipedalism was selected for because it made it easier to see long distances when moving over areas covered with tall grasses.(useful for scavenging for food and watching for predators.) -upright posture helps dissipate excess body heat -can walk farther because less energy due to longer strides -legs need to be sturdy enough to support 2.5 times their body weight when running -became poor climbers
advantages and disadvantages to bipedalsim
subsistance pattern or base
archaeologists use this to refer to sources of food and the way it is obtained. A clear measure of success in human evolution has been the progressive development of new food getting techniques and the inclusion of new food sources. These measures have made it possible for humanity to increase in numbers from a few thousand australopithecines in Africa three million years ago to perhaps hundreds of thousands of Homo erectus by a half million years ago.
-great site with well preserved fossils
box grove
bones of the pelvis, or hip region, were shortened and bowl shaped to help support the weight when standing upright.
changes in anatomy due to bidedalism
-apes have a parabola shaped teeth or "u" shaped -homonins have rectangle shaped -zygomatic arch
dental archaic
Apes/homonins 2 front teeth 1 canine 2 pre molars 3 molars Monkeys 2 front teeth 1 canine 2 pre molars 2 molars
dental formula between apes/homonins and monkeys
dmanisi republic of Georgia
found a skull dating back to 1.7 million years ago. -The skull fossil, called Skull 5, is the world's first completely preserved adult hominid skull Unlike other Homo fossils, Skull 5 combines a small braincase with a long face and large teeth. It was discovered alongside the remains of four other early human ancestors, a variety of animal fossils and some stone tools - all of them associated with the same location and time period - which make the find truly unique.
Ardipithecus ramidus-
found fossils from 28 individuals -included bones from the skull and teeth
Swartkranz cave, afar desert
found thousands of bones of around 30 homonins -many of the bones had chewing marks and at least one of the skulls had peculiar depressions reminiscent of punctures made by the canine teeth of a leopard
Foramin magnum
hold in the skull that the spine goes to the brian
zoukoutien
site in eastern china -found fossils from asking for dragon's bones, knowing that they were fossils -the site was occupied 780,000 years ago to about 500,000 years ago -they made fires due to the geological location of the site -cave was 21 feet deep -found berry seeds and fruit pits
stateopygia
store surplus calories as fat in the buttocks, stomache and breasts.(FEMALES)
Flores indonesia
- found fossils from about 12 individuals -one is a almost a complete female only 3 and a half feet tall -size of lucy instead of regular homo erectus -brain is half the size of homo erectus -100,000 and 60,000 years ago -either homo erectus or homo floresiensis -island dwarfing- dwarf elephants rhinos tigers a number of large mammal species that have become much smaller. -by the second iceage, sea level ffell far enough that Indonesia wasn't island, it was all connected, as the ice age ended it created the islands -this cause all these animals to become smaller because they cant eat as much food
Homo Habilis and rudoflensis(earliest humans)
-2 million years ago -second iceage hits -lots of extinctions -other species going through rapid change -brain begins to expand -450-800 cubic centimeters -happens in a short period of time (couple hundred thousand years) -first archeological record of tools and rocks that were intentionally modified
terra amata
-380,000 years ago site campsite -well preserved because they were camping at the sea shores and the wind preserved it quite well -found footprints hide prints -butt prints -found 20 huts -was a ring of rocks and next to it was the post hold where the wood was placed and stained the ground -holds the sticks together and tie them and rocks on bottom make the sticks stay in place, and some kind of roof -camp fire in the middle about 50 feet long and 20 feet wide for the whole group to get into -didn't make 20 in one year they came back to the site repeatedly over the year and built more animals hides to lay on sit on sleep on -they occupied the sight in spring and fall due to the plants that they ate -we know this because of the coprolite that they left behind (poop) -hunted elephants rhinos deer boars pigs rabbits -strategy to hunt an elephants are very different when compared to a rabbit -known as hunter gatherers -lice began around this time -we know most about archaic homosapiens in northern Europe because people in northern Europe were the first to practice archaeology -some of the first things they started to find were the tools they used back then
Earliest humans characteristics
-70-80 pounds same size as autralopithicines -flatter faces -2 million years ago brain expansion stop for 1.5 million years -hits 1000 cubic centimeters
how was the life of a hunter gatherer?
-a group of hunter gatherers is called a band, typically 2 dozen people. -humans have been hunter gatherers for about 99% of the time our species has been around -short work week, only about 15-18 hours per week -lots of leisure time -had a good level of nutrition -ate 150 different types of plants -over 100 different animals they ate -did not have any epidemic diseases -egalitarian societies, everybody is equal when it comes to social status -we are designed to live within small groups of people, the larger the group of people, the more aggression between eachother -life expectancy under 40
Orrorin tugenensis, kenya
-bones coming from 5 homonin individuals -about the size of a chimpanzee -capable of walking around on 2 legs - lived in a wooded environment(not rainforest)
Orrorin Tugenesis Kenya
-bones coming from 5 individuals -about the size of a chimpanzee -capable of walking around on 2 legs - lived in a wooded environment(not rainforest)
australopithecine brain and head anatomy
-brain 1/3 the size of modern humans -big molars and thick enamel but small front teeth -large and powerful jaw muscle to help chew seeds -flaring zygomatic arches -sagittal crest
Malapa cave-south Africa
-caves made in the ground due to the acidic rain -hundreds of these caves -trees growing around the caves because their roots link to the sides of the cave to get water -leopards carry prey to top of tree then drop into the death holes, that how they find so many fossils
shanidar cave
-dated to 50,000 years ago -oldest neandethals found in this cave were 40,000 years old -losts of archaeology evidence inside this cave -excavated in 1950s to find people still using the cave -the Neanderthals living in this cave buried the dead in the walls -found a fossil of a man who died from a spear impalement -first evidence of a homicide another buriel of a teenage boy, 13 or 14, his buriel was typical burriel -also known as a flexed burriel, the individual was placed on their side and knees drawn up to the chest, hand crossing chest, that way you don't have to dig as much -the teenage boy was layed on pine branches and covered his chest with red pigment. -Also drapped shell beads across his chest -covered him up with another layer of pine branches along with 8 different species of wild flowers - very human gesture -life expectancy was around 40 or lower -due to ill ness and infection being so untreatable --took care of eachother -the boy had his hand amputated -blind in one eye -and damage to the left side of the brain -the family still tried to keep him alive even though he couldn't hunt -people today who have ancestors that from Europe Asia and native American, 1-4% of their dna is from Neanderthals
Robust autralopithecines
-developed bigger jaws and teeth due to their diet. -only hominid that developed a bone on head to help support jaw muscles -around the 5 foot range and 50 pounds heavier than gracile
characteristics of modern humans
-dna fossil and archaeloigical evidence proves we started in afirca with population of 50 to 200 thousand peple -spread out and interbread with neadertals and other archaic homo sapiens -technology more complex bow and arrow spear and tool holders exetra -cave art
what happened to diseases as humans began to domesticate animals?
-epidemic diseases evolved, due to the decreased level of nutrition, lead to decreased level of resistance to diseases -low level of sanitation, people urinated and pooped in the streets, no garbage collection, if one person gets a disease, other people are more likely to get it, pathogens -increased number of people allow epidemics to happen for the first time -increased contact with animals, due to their blood from the butchering and dealing with manure when planting in the fields, if that animal has a pathogen you are most likely going to get it. -this is the root of viral diseases. Dogs, 65 diseases, sheep goats cattle, 46-50, pigs 42, horses 35, rats, moce 32, poultry 26.
torizalba and ambrona, spain
-found more remains of homo erectus -movements of mirgrations in this valley between these two archaeological sites -at each site, there had been evidence that the ground had been burned -there had been fires that swept through this valley repeatedly -done on purpose to trap animals migrating by encircling the animals with fire -very effective strategy, got tons of meat from it -very sophisticated behaviors ^homo erectus still btw -use the legs of the elephants to help maneuver to the next elephant to butcher. -cant eat raw meat because the cells are too tough and you don't get as much nutrirtion of of the meat when compared to cooking the meat. -fire extends the day and becomes a focal point of activity -cant only eat fruits and vegatables or we will starve because the cellular structure of lots of veggies are too strong
-Zafarraya cave
-found neaderthal skeletons, tools from about 27,000 years ago -found a skeleton of a child that was 24,500 bp -had a mix of human and Neanderthal features -about 4 years old
what were the adaptive traits of prosimians?
-hands -apes monkeys and prosimians have 4 hands -direct descendents of prosimians are still around and haven't changed much -opposable thumbs -power grip-ability to oppose your thumb to all four fingers at the same time -finger nails vision -stereoscopic vision- allows the image of each eye overlap therefore allow you too see three dimensions -binocular vision- ability to focus at different distances. -color vision-the ability to see color -brains begin to grow brain -Neocortex- lining of cells around your brain-where you stores learning associative memories -folds in brain is to increase the amount of space for the neocortex Foramin magnum- begins to move to the center of the skull instead of the back
-Gracile(thin boned) Australo(southern)pithecus(ape)
-ranged in size from about 4 to 5 ft tall and 50 to 100 pounds -not all fossil have enough to determine the sex -when studying fossil from austral, they have sexual dimorphism (males tend to be taller and bigger while females are thinner and lighter) -lived in lots of different environments -ate primarily plant foods -not predators -eaten by leopards -no indications of being hunters -no evidence of stone tools -long socialization period -no modern language abilities
video notes
-robert rule discovered an assortment of astralopithicene fossils -louis leke and his wife mary found stone tools scattered across the landscape they searched. -1959- teenage male found -odds of finding a hominid fossil is 1 in 10,000,000 -charles Darwin says we are mostely closely related to Africana apes -chimps and man split from common ancestor 4-5 million years ago
lucy
-she was very small 3 1/3 to 4 ft tall -50 pounds -her wisdom teeth had already come in so they realized she was a young adult -could tell she was a female from her pelvis -her brain was about the size of a chimp's -she was walking fully upright -she was alive around 3 million years ago
what happened to humans once they started to farm and domesticate animals?
-the mountains in the middle east got more rain than usuall and grew tons of wheat for humans to harvest -humans began to domesticate animals, you can have milk and meat whenever you need now -immigrate down into the tigris and euphrated river valleys for the good soil. And clean mater -people cant hunter an gather anymore because the earth can only support up to 3 to 4 million people until that population has to find more efficient ways to get food such as domestication -when people started to do agriculture, the work week rose to around 80 hour work weeks -lower nutrition due to less variety of foods -shorter people and more arthuritus -meat around once a month due to not having enough resources to support a multitude of animals -increase in population -specializaiton of labor, because a farmer can support up to 10 people, other people can specialize in other jobs such as pottery -technology increases -social stratification increases, if you can get control of the food, you can control the people and communities. -increased aggression, fir the first time communities build walls around them selves to keep others out, build weapons to kill other humans, warfare, due to surplus wealth and other people want it.
homonin dental adaptive traits
-the teeth in ¼ of your mouth 2 incisors -2 front teeth -1 canine -2 premolers -3 molers -cusp 2:1:2:3-Homonins and apes monkeys - 2:1:2:2 Dental Archaic -apes have a parabola shaped teeth or "u" shaped -homonins have rectangle shaped
Neandertals
-these are archic homosapiens living in Europe, 3rd ice age comes along, glaciers are too difficult to pass, formed all over what is now easter Europe -people surrounded by glaciers becomes its own species -more in 5 foot range -150 pounds very stocky -not fat, muscular -the bones and attachment points were stronger than modern weight lifters -didn't have much plants to consume so they hunted a lot. -short and stocky to converve heat -brains were slightly larger than modern humans -first fossil was found in 1856 in Europe in a place called the neander Tal(valley) hence the name Neanderthal, had no idea what they were dealing with -in 1908 they found a complete skeleton in a place called chapelle aux saint france -intentionally buried their dead loved ones so the archaelologists were finding complete skeleton sets and were preserved very well -found 2 problems with the individual found was arthuritus and rickets, cause by a vitamin D efficiency -due to the cold and wearing a lot of clothes and cloudy Europe weather. -isolated in western Europe and adapt to the cold climate
Homo erectus
-tools much more sophisticated -acheulean tools takes a lot of skill to make the tools, would break a lot if hit the wrong way -made all the way up to modern homosapiens -kenya, found a fossilized stream bed, hundreds of acheulean hand axes, -begin to hunt -get bigger -125 to 150 pounds -this is the species that gets out of Africa to Eurasia went up Nile valley and into the Arabian peninsula -the first species in our line of evolution to expand their range beyond tropical and subtropical environments into temperate climatic zones of the Old World where they encountered relatively cold winters.
Laetolli Footprints
59 footprints of bipedal hominins (presumably afarensis) in a now hardened volcanic ash layer. These individuals walked in two close parallel tracks across volcanic dust at least 3.5 million years ago. The footprints look almost like those of modern humans. They are narrow with a low arch, and they clearly show that the big toe was in line with the others. -Dates to 3.6 million years ago -A volcano erupted and spewed ash across the landscape -The animals that survived were walking around and then it rained making the ashes damp and made foot prints from the animals -Then the volcano erupted again and covered the footprints with more ash therefore preserving the footprints
-archaic homosapiens (human heidleburgensis)
800- 100 thousand years ago -brain expands to almost modern size -1,100-1,200 cubic centimeters up to 1,450 cubic centimeter brains -3rd ige age -more brain expansions -heavier brow ridges -bones of their face and skull were thicker -new technologies: way of creating stone tools (levaillois tools) 300,000 to 250,000 years ago use rock and pick to chip off pieces of rock to make dozens of tools from one rock -tools modified to chop wood -stone picks put into a hand to make wooden impliments -one implement was spears -germain archaeloical company found 3 spears dated to 400000 years ago boxgrove 500,000 years ago found tools for certain uses
earliest archaeological sites
Central place sites
saggital crest
ridge of bone extending from front to back, along the midline of the top of the skull. A ________ _____ serves as an anchor attachment for exceptionally large, strong jaw muscles. This skeletal feature is also present in large apes but not in Africanus or humans.
Difference between gracile and robust astralopithicines
Robust have bulkier bones and larger zygomatic arches (for the chewing muscles). Gracile is more orthognathic, while robust is more prognathic. Robust had much larger molars than gracile.
specie of homonin orginiating in Chad, Africa
sahelanthropus tchadadensis
(males tend to be taller and bigger while females are thinner and lighter)
sexual dimorphism
first theory as to what made neandertals go extinct -Murder most foul
The Cro-Magnon people, our direct ancestors (named, like Neanderthals, for the location in Europe where the first of their fossils were discovered), systematically wiped their burly cousins out. -When we crossed paths, hunting grounds and choice settlements were at stake, and so the Cro-Magnon, with their superior weapons, and possibly their superior planning skills, killed or enslaved whomever was unfortunate enough to get in their way.
Occupation of New Environmental Zones
The ability to use fire for cooking and heating may also have been significant in the successful colonization of colder regions. However, the first convincing evidence of regular fire use for these purposes does not come until 780,000-400,000 years ago, when Homo erectus were evolving into Homo heidelbergensis. The earliest suggestive evidence of fire being associated with humans was found at two sites in Kenya dating to 1.5 million years ago. In both cases, soil sediments appear to have been exposed to high temperatures.
-precision grip-humans only- ability to touch the tip of your thumb to the tips of the other fingers -humans are the only primates to develop feet
Traits only humans have
Oldowan tools
Used by earliest humans --core-if you take a rock, hit it with another rock, your gonna knock of some flakes, for the most park the flakes were the tools they were using. -also used the cores for the sharp edged that were made to bust into things and cut things -used to cut meat off of animal bones -no indications that they are hunting -they are scavenging -look for vultures in the morning to find the predator kills -ate the meet around the joints and marrow -crack open skull to eat brain -flakes used as knives
Louis and Mary Leakey
it was not until 1959 that they found their first early hominin fossil. Louis gave it a new genus and species designation, Zinjanthropus boisei (literally "East African man"). Using the then new potassium-argon dating method, the fossil was determined to be 1.75 ± .25 million years old. This was a startlingly early date when it was made public in 1959. Louis Leakey and Zinjanthropus instantly became international media stars, and both of their pictures were on the front page of newspapers around the world. Louis was also the focus of several television documentary programs. In the years after his death in 1972, Mary became well known as a paleoanthropologist in her own right.
what were homonins like?
lived in a woodland/grassland environment -first bipedal -1/3 brain size today -hunted and gathered -traveled and lived in small groups -saggital creat -zygomatic arches to help chew seeds and tough vegetables. -long infant dependancy period
early modern human culture-
lots of are(cave art/ rock art) -cave art is hard to get to, either extremely deep in the cave or the cave is at a hard to reach place. -carve a bowl use oil from animals and light it to see in the caves -hand negatives -small figurines(mainly animals but also humans/mostly female) -instruments -calendars
acheulean hand axes
prehistoric stone tool with two faces that is the longest-used tool in human history. It is usually composed of flint or chert.
same as earliest homonins
protohomonins
what are prosimians?
refer to the 'primitive' members of the Primates order, such as the bush babies, lorises, lemurs and tarsiers. -they are considered the pre-ape primates
second theory as to why neandertals went extinct -survival of the fittest
we out competed the Neanderthal for resources, food and land. The thinking here is we didn't murder them hand to hand and face to face, we wiped them out them in a long war of attrition by taking control of the best habitats and hunting grounds, and then killing game faster than they could, and in larger numbers.
tugensis, kenya tchadensis, chad , africa -first to be bipedal -swartkrans cave (afar desert) laetolli
what archaelogical sites belong to the earliest homonins? and what were they the first to do?
dmansisi, republic of georgia -first to use tools and have culture
what archeoligical sites belong to the earliest humans? and what were they the first to do?
tera amata shanadar cave zafarrya cave -first to bury the dead -first to show signs of a homocide
what archeological sites belong to archaic homosapiens/neandrerthals? and what were they the first to do?
hadar ethiopia (lucy) -malapa caves -oluvai gorge -first to walk upright
what archeological sites belong to astralopithicecines? and what were they the first to do?
zoukoutien, china -embrona, spain flores, indonesia -first to get out of africa
what archeological sites belong to homo erectus? and what were they the first to do?
before present and million before present
what does bp and mbp stand for?
the ability to walk on two feet
what is bipedalsism
gracile astralopithicene
what species did lucy belong to?
first to use art
what were modern humans the first species to do?
20,000 years ago
when did homo sapiens reach north america?
50,000 years ago
when did homospaiens reach austrailia?
54mbp
when did prosimians first evolve?
6-7 mbp
when did the ape homonin divergence occur?
800,000- 100,000 bp
when was the time of archaic homo sapiens
2 mbp- 300,000 bp
when was the time of homo erectus
150,000- present
when was the time of modern humans?
300,000-28,000 bp
when was the time of neaderthals
2.5-1.5 mbp
when was the time of the earliest humans?
4-2 mbp
when was the time of the gracile astralopithecines
3-1 mbp
when was the time of the robust astralopithecines
levaillois tools
which a carefully prepared stone core was made by removing chips from the top and sides. Whole flakes were then struck from the core to be refinished into a variety of specialized tools. In striking these flakes from cores, Neandertals had to have a certain cognitive ability and mental picture of what form they wanted to shape the flake in. -Neandertals also made innovations in their tool technology by being one of the earliest hominins to haft stone and flint points on the edges of wooden spears, creating effective hunting weapons. Other inventive ideas included setting the tip of a wooden spear on fire to make a sharp point, which was also used for hunting. Blocks or cobbles of flint and other brittle fracturing rock were percussion flaked on one side until a convex "tortoise shell" shape was formed. Then, a heavy percussion blow at one end of the core removed a large flake that was convex on one side and relatively flat on the other--i.e., a Levallois flake. This technique was first used by archaic humans in Africa around 300,000 years ago. It was perfected in the Mousterian Tradition by the Neandertals and some of their contemporaries.