Anthropology unit 3

In order to re-orient our thinking, we are first going to provide a definition of development that focuses on the values of the people who are going to be affected by the planned changed. From our course work in Unit 1, you can also observe that this involves the recognition of emic points of view.

An Anthropological Approach to development assumes that there are MANY kinds of useful changes humans can experience, and approaches development as a complex negotiation process about change that is in dialogue with the value system of the group of people who will be affected. This means taking into account the emic views and cultural values of those to be affected and then proceeding to investigate exactly how the proposed changes would work in the situation identified. In so doing, this approach prioritizes the views and needs of people who are the least politically powerful and most in need of change that has likely tangible benefits for them. It does not assume that the proposals or political rhetoric of powerful people contain ideas and practices that should be implemented in the world. It assumes that ANY proposal requires strong evidence that it will succeed and according to specified goals.

It is important to have the analytical skills to be able to understand the causes and effects of introducing new practices. This requires sound observation and reasoning skills, learned through experience or through professional/academic training.

As discussed in Lecture U Part 1, it is important to remember that no matter how well intentioned and sincere an advocate for a plan might be, those who advocate plans may not have the thinking skills to understand the effects of what they advocate and not comprehend the complexity of the repercussions.

From the perspective of World Health Research, leaders in India could have benefitted from studying news reports and national debates in the United States. Well documented in the United States were trends in mask wearing according to political party affiliation.

As early as December 2020 the United States media had shown the world the effects of the avoidance of behavior change that concerned wearing masks...

Down Sides of Globalization

As the ongoing tragedy in Ukraine continues, we can hope for the creation of new global strategies to reduce the possibility that national political leaders and terrorist organizations can use violent political action to impose their will on other peoples. As we witness the extreme injustice of the violent actions by Russia in Ukraine, along with those in many other parts of the world, we may renew our commitment to contributing to human progress, in the ways that are within our reach. In our examination of the phenomenon of globalization, we provided several examples of how interconnected individuals and regions of the world are. We stressed that these interconnections also imply interdependence. With our rapid communication systems, extensive world transport and travel systems, and tight economic linkages, when a change in one part of the globe occurs it takes a short period of time for changes in the rest of the world to occur. Unfortunately, you have experienced this phenomenon as described above, over what is now the last 3 years of the COVID-19 epidemic. For the last 9 months we have also experienced global disruptions in the agricultural cycle in Ukraine, which has been a major source of grain and plant cooking oil for many countries in the world. Many countries will continue to experience food shortages because of their high degree of dependency on Ukrainian agriculture. Already in West, North and East Africa some societies have also experienced malnutrition.

Last Tasmanian, continued

British settlers began making homesteads and fighting the Tasmanian people they encountered. The settlers developed a way of life dependent on raising sheep and selling wool on the international market. Tasmanians tried to defend their land but were killed by guns used by the British colonial army and by settler families. The British settlers developed negative views about Tasmanian people, characterizing them as violent and backward. Some settlers identifying with the Christian religion created a set of ideas that gave reasons for why the settlers should take the land of the Tasmanina people. One of the reasons, which we call a rationalization in the social sciences, was that because Tasmanian people were not using the land as God had intended and indicated in the Bible, the Tasmanian people did not deserve to have the land. A section of the Bible, they argued, urged humans to use land for agriculture and develop it that way. The colonists further rationalized taking the land by saying the Tasmanina people were not following God's command. Many Tasmanians on eastern side of the island fled to the interior and farther west, coming into conflict with other Tasmanian groups. Commissioned by the colonial government, Mr. Robinson, a clergyman from England, led a group of British colonists westward, trying to convince uncontacted Tasmanians to surrender to British forces. One Tasmanian woman named Tagunini went with them, acting as a translator. Mr. Robinson promised these newly contacted Tasmanians that if they came with the British forces, they would be given land of their own in another part of Tasmania and would not be harmed by the British government. Some of the newly contacted Tasmanians did surrender and they went with the British forces. However, The British government did not keep its promise, and instead placed

Applied Anthropology

Definition of Applied Anthropology - the use of anthropological research in order to directly address an issue or problem facing a community. In applied anthropology: - the issue or problem to be addressed benefits both from previous research conducted on the group in question (or on similar peoples) AND can involve new research designed to address the specific problem. Sometimes previous research has generated sufficient knowledge about a related problem and does not require much new research. - the research works with anthropology's definition of development, which as you areaware, focuses on how group members conceptualize and understand their needs in relation to an increase or improvement in their standards of life. - Moving forward from a discussion about the emic perception of the community, a plan for change will be developed. This plan can result from the group negotiating their ideas and needs with others who are not in the group (outsiders), who might have training and experience that can assist the group.

As we have emphasized in Unit 3, acknowledging our interconnectedness and making economic choices that work towards a more stable global society are necessary.

Economy and Society are Interdependent ALL People of the Earth are Interdependent

Inequality and Environment: Two Cases of Environmental Racism

Environmental Racism: the practice of government authorities and powerful businesses ignoring the harmful environmental effects of a given practice when the people affected are marginal/poor, are not (initially) aware of the negative effects of the practice on their lives, and are not organized in ways that can protest against the practice. This explains why undesirable and harmful activities in industry or government are usually located in the environment of marginal or economically disempowered people and not in the environments of middle and upper class people. Note that the term racism here is used to refer to prejudice or harmful discrimination, however it is expressed. It is not limited to the concept of "race" as a category of people who are believed to share particular physical or cultural characteristics.

Athens Farmers'Market helps support:

FoodSecurityfortheRegion SustainableAgriculture TheMaintenanceofSmallBusinesses(Farmers and other Businesses) TheDeliveryofHighQualityFoodsforAthens County Residents Economic Stability for Farmers in the County

development

In Euro-American societies and many other societies around the world, the word "development" is often used to describe a change that is positive and useful to a group of people or a country. In the United States when the word is used it is often associated with economic progress. In the United States and Europe it is often assumed, without investigation, illustration, or explanation, that "development" is good and helpful. In this lecture we will: Reveal some common misunderstandings that take place when the word "development" is used to describe a planned change. Provide a definition of development that will help us to ask questions to determine whether or not the people to be affected have been involved in the understanding, planning and implementation of changes that affect them. Provide a rational thought process that can be used to investigate the effects or results of the planned change, which can then assess which groups of people will benefit from the planned change and which groups of people will not benefit from the planned change. Question the political motivations of leaders or administrators who advocate programs and policies without having rigorously investigated the likely effects of these programs and policies on the variety of different people that will be affected.

Case 3: Trade and Economic Policies Linking Oaxaca, Mexico and Northwest U.S.A.

What are the harmful long-term results of NAFTA for Oaxaca people and for US citizens? For Oaxacans, the destruction of their agricultural economy and resultant extreme poverty, the necessity of undesirable migration and difficult labor conditions in the US, and the loss of family life that ruined many people's personal lives. U.S. citizens lost access to some stable wage employment and the US continued to lose strength in manufacturing. Many older US citizens who grew up in an era when the US took pride in manufacturing were distressed about this entire plan and did not ever support NAFTA.

Environmental Degradation and Global Interdependency: The Case of "The Hamburger Connection" in the 1990s

◦ The global interconnections among people and economic interests are well illustrated when we look at the exploitation of the Amazonian rainforest in Brazil. The government of Brazil considers it to be essential for the country's economic plan, and we see that this level of exploitation was made possible through global economic arrangements. Most of the forest products, and the cattle that was later raised on the degraded land, was sold outside Brazil. The entire process resulted in great environmental destruction. ◦ - The Amazon rainforest is dense and biodiverse. Biodiversity is a situation where there are many plant and animal species coexisting in one space. Changes in the environment will upset the balance and result in the loss of diversity, usually in ways that cannot be re- established.- The cheapest way to harvest forest products cut them by clearing all the trees, like a lawn-mower. Few trees are left standing. The result is extreme soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, and an empty space that can support very few plants or animals. If a process of select cutting were to be the norm, then trees would be left to hold the soil and be a home to plans and animals. - The country of Brazil was in the 1990s, and largely still, not committed to environmental health. Large corporate interests in lumber harvesting used the cheapest ways possible to cut the trees, as described above.- Like many other countries, Brazil's economic plans often disregard environmental health and concern with the long-term impact of a process or a policy. - Who gains and who loses from this kind of forest exploitation? The people who live near the forests and wish to continue living in a forest environment are often driven out. Some of these people in the past have been indigenous people who did not have the political power to stop

Many U.S. leaders in 2020 had publicly discussed the problem of the association between mask wearing and political party membership in the United States. The following quotation was among the most well-circulated.

"It's unfortunate that this became a political issue. It's not political. This is public health, and unfortunately we have not made that message clear enough to the American people, and people are dying because of it."GOP Sen. Mitt Romney, during an interview with CNN's Wolf Blitzer, quoted by McKenzie Stauffer,KUTV on Friday, December 4, 2020 A QUESTION TO GO DOWN IN HISTORY: HOW MANY FEWER HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES WOULD NOT HAVE DIED IF THE U.S. HAD THOROUGHLY IMPLEMENTED BEHAVIOR CHANGE BY THE SUMMER OF 2020?

Applied Case 2. HIV/AIDS Education in Kenya, Mijikenda People, 2001-2015. Anthropologist Diane Ciekawy and Community Health Worker Harold Kodo.

- According to many social scientists and public health experts, it was most important to teach people behavior change. In this situation it required teaching about and modeling how partners could discuss their sexual relationship, teaching about how to change engagement in risky sexual behaviors, promoting condom use, teaching about HIV testing, and teaching about how to develop greater individual responsibility for health matters that would also affect the health of other people.- It was widely understood among health experts that these behavior changes were difficult for people in Kenya to adopt. One reason was that most of the cultural practices did not involve talking directly about their sexuality. Talking about sex and sexuality was viewed to be unappealing and people feared being unappealing to their partners. Some people also found it difficult to admit to themselves ahead of time that they might be in a situation where sexual intercourse was possible or likely. Other people were uncomfortable reflecting on the ways in which their individual decisions and behavior could harm other people.

- The relocated farmers did not get access to electricity. People in urban areas of Thailand benefited by getting the electricity.

- After two years these farming families could not make a living selling rice, for it did not grow in that highland area. There were no other domestic crops to replace rice that would enable them to make the same living through agriculture. The families were poorer than ever before. Male household heads and older boys had to look for work outside the region, migrating to cities and towns. They had to spend most of their time away from their families who lived in the hills, and the jobs they got offered such low wages that they could save little money to send back to their families. - The farming families grew some crops to eat, but their diets were not as good as in the past. The male household heads and older boys' wages could not supplement the family household to buy better food. Some older girls went to cities searching for work, but found that the only ways of making a living involved prostitution or housekeeping for more wealthy families, but housekeeping jobs paid so little that they could not create savings to help their rural families. Members of these families never gained sufficient incomes to support themselves. The family units were split up and they did not have a quality family life, they lost economic self-sufficiency, and they had poorer nutrition. None of these families would have ever chosen to have this happen to them. Questions: What do you think were some of the other outcomes of this "development" project? What groups of people benefitted from this project? What happened to the farming families in the next generation? What do you imagine were health consequences for the relocated families and their family members who had to live elsewhere performing low paid wage labor? How did this project contribute to problems for the entire country of Thailand?

- The Kaya Elders, who are male Mijikenda religious practitioners initiated into a secret society, were concerned about the high incidence of HIV/AIDS in their communities. They were older men who viewed themselves to be cultural leaders and have a responsibility to their group. In Mijikenda culture they were traditional healers who were in charge of large-scale community health issues. They held seasonal rituals to protect the Mijikenda area from harm and to ask the supreme being to provide health and fertility to the group. These elders were also very well informed about HIV/AIDS because they regularly assessed and exchanged information with other leaders and because they listened to health programs on the radio. They did not have formal education and most were not literate, but they were very informed and intelligent. They also valued the practice of critical thinking.

- Having worked with Ciekawy and Kodo on topics concerning religion and health, the kaya elder group came to Ciekawy and Kodo in 1999, asking us to assist them to arrange for a particular kind of education. They wanted to learn about biomedical causes of the disease, as compared to the cultural ideas of the Mijikenda that focused on spirit causes of disease. The kaya elders understood that Mijikenda cultural ideas concerning disease and healing were not going to directly help them get rid of HIV/AIDS. - In 2001 Ciekawy and Kodo planned and arranged the first of what came to be 16 workshops on HIV disease transmission, biological causes of disease, recent medical treatments for HIV/AIDS, drugs designed to reduce mother to child transmission, the importance of getting an HIV/AIDS test, and the necessity of behavior change. - The workshops were constructed to have features that were like the male elder meetings they were already used to, with the addition of one biomedical expert each time, to introduce a particular issue. The workshops were also formed to allow the elders to absorb the information slowly and with room for questions and extensive discussion. - In the workshops the kaya elders identified several clear cultural problem the community faced: men in their communities were resistant to talking about and adopting behavior changes concerning sexuality, did not favor the use of condoms, and avoided going to clinics to be tested for HIV/AIDS unless they already experienced noticeable symptoms. The kaya elders thought that with education about the biomedical cause of the disease, combined with their leadership position as kaya elders, they could be effective educators in their communities. They also understood that unless they had biomedical knowledge, their ideas would not be as well respected among young people wh

Case 3: Trade and Economic Policies Linking Oaxaca, Mexico and Northwest U.S.A.

- In the 1990s the U.S. developed an integrated set of economic plans to boost various segments of the US economy, called NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement). Many are still in place. - One aspect of the plan was to get other countries in NA to reduce import taxes on US foods. - The U.S. also provided subsidies to US large scale farmers, creating a system for them to sell US corn at low prices to other countries. The idea was that US farmers would still have a good income because the US gov made up the production cost and foreign sale price difference. This corn was then sold at a very low price to Mexico, a country where corn is a main staple. - Another aspect of the plan was to create agreements for U.S. companies to conduct manufacturing abroad, and many US businesses were urged to relocate to other countries like Mexico where labor costs were low. Many U.S. companies did so, closing US factories/businesses and moving to Mexico. - Before the 1990s, in Oaxaca, Mexico farmers had a stable domestic income from the production and sale of domestic corn. - After a few years of NAFTA, people in Oaxaca could not sell their corn as low as U.S. corn imports. The result was that they could not make a living as farmers, and were forced to search for work in the U.S. There were no other forms of work for them in Mexico, as many were/are in very difficult economic situations throughout the country, and the Mexican state does not have a welfare system. - In order to have any income, Oaxaca household heads and young men have had to migrate under dangerous conditions to the U.S. Most of the work they have had access to is in agriculture, mostly planting and picking crops. It is common for them in Washington State to pick berries, and in California to pick grapes, asparagus and other fruit. In 2012 the total inc

◦ As world citizens we can also ask, Whose earth is it? The answer is that the earth is a collective resource for humanity NOW and in the FUTURE. The large number of trees that are lost each year result in reducing the quality of air on the entire globe.- If species go extinct this is a loss to current and future human beings. Future generations can be deprived of the opportunity to appreciate species that are endangered or go extinct. The possible value to scientific research of plant and animal species that are endangered or go extinct can also be lost. - After these forest resources are taken, there are two more economic activities that some people engage in, on the former forest land. For the next few years crops can be grown on some of the land, but the soil has lost fertility and is not good to use for agriculture for long. Then, after a few years of crops, it is possible to graze cattle.

- In the 1990s, much of Brazil's cattle meat raised under the above conditions was sold on the international market. It was frozen as ground meat and sold to large multinational hamburger restaurants common in the U.S. Many people in the US who bought hamburgers in fast food restaurants ate this ground beef. Some of the people were actually opposed to the idea of cutting down rainforests and would not have wanted to support this process, but they were not aware that their hamburger meat came from Brazil.- Groups concerned with destruction of the rainforest publicized their concerns to U.S. citizens. When the origins of this meat came to be public knowledge, many people petitioned the restaurant chain not to buy from this source. Eventually most US hamburger chain restaurants discontinued buying hamburger meat from Brazil. Another argument against buying from Brazil was that it contributed to making a large carbon footprint. Q: How can greater effort be made to produce and consume some products in the same region, reducing transport costs and using fuel? Can human beings be better organized to be less wasteful and thus protect the environment in which they live?

- In the United States many citizens know that the agricultural industry heavily relies on labor from people from Mexico, but most citizens do not know how low the wages are for these Mexican migrants. Most US citizens are also not aware that it is very difficult for these workers to get access to health care while they are in the U.S.

- In the US anyone who has eaten or bought agricultural products over the past 30 years has benefitted frombuying agricultural goods at low prices. Many American citizens think this is "normal." In the United Statesthese agricultural products would be much more expensive if workers were paid even minimum wage. - In the United States many citizens have been subjected to political rhetoric that presents Mexican laborers in negative or pejorative terms. By making general negative statements about Mexicans, or by characterizing them in negative terms when there is a news incident that involves Mexican migrants, politicians can cultivate angry emotions among American citizens and shape American citizens' belief systems in ways that do not match the reality of this complex situation. - Most U.S .agricultural product businesses over the past 30 years have used the labor of people from Central or South America, and the pickers both have legal papers and no papers. This continues today. Reference: Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States by Seth M. Holmes. Questions: What are the harmful long-term results of NAFTA for Oaxaca people and for US citizens? Could some aspects of this large-scale set of plans been scaled down or modified so as to not have destroyed the domestic corn market in Mexico? Was the resultant increase in the flow of Mexican people to the US in search of low paying agricultural jobs something some US agricultural businesses might have welcomed? Was the destruction of the domestic corn market in regions of Mexico something that agricultural analysts and social scientists would have predicted? In the next lecture we will examine and illustrate the practice of Applied Anthropology.

- The practice the Fore people had was to take parts of a deceased person's brain matter(removed by cutting through the skull of the deceased) and put it into a soup that was heated and eaten by close relatives in order to incorporate the body of the deceased into the bodies of relatives. Women relatives of the deceased primarily worked on the body preparation and children played nearby.

- Lindenbaum thought that either eating the deceased brain remains, or the behaviors that were associated with removing the brain matter (resulting in bleeding and exposure to brain tissue carrying the disease) caused the spread of the disease. She advocated for education that would explain the biological problem to the Fore, encourage them to stop the funeral practice of removing cranial material from the deceased, and perhaps create a substitute ritual that involved little preparation of the body. - the Fore initially were resistant to the idea of changing their customs but soon discussed it among themselves and agreed to change their cultural practices, because they had observed that in the past the public health experts had helped them to deal successfully with other health problems. - after the implementation of behavior changes, over a relatively short period of time (lessthan a decade), the disease "kuru" was no longer detected in the populations.

Case 2: Turtle Marketing "Opportunities" in Nicaragua

- On the coast of Nicaragua live people who are the Misquito ethnic group. In the 1980s they subsisted on a combination of farming, raising a few animals like chickens, and fishing for large turtles. They did not harvest many turtles each year, but did keep local fish markets supplied with affordable turtle meat for the local population. - A multinational corporation from the US came to Central America and offered Nicaragua the opportunity to sell their turtle meat at regional ports to be picked up by large boats with freezers that would take the turtle meat to North America. Most of this meat would be made into snapper soup. - Many local Misquito fishermen decided to take turtle meat to the multinationalcorporation's boats (instead of the local market) and were pleased to receive 5-6x the price they used to get locally for turtle meat. This high price was also an incentive for them to turtle fish more than they had before. - The relatively small number of local Misquito fishermen families that sold turtles to the multinational corporation had high incomes for 4-7 years, but then they saw a sharp reduction in the number of turtles in the ocean. These families were then unable to engage in fishing for turtles for a living; they had over-exploited the resource. - Government health surveys showed an increase in protein deficiency among adults, children and infants. The study eventually concluded that it was due to the lack of affordable local turtle meat that used to be a regular part of all people's diets. Unfortunately, some children from the ages of 3-10 suffered irreversible effects: they were under-size, more susceptible to illness, and had reduced cognitive function due to protein deficiency.

More examples and elaboration on Social Suffering

- Patterned forms of bullying by students in elementary school that target particular kinds of people according to features such as gender performance, ability or different ability, physical appearance, speech patterns, etc. - Patterns of language including name calling by students in high school that separate out students according to how much money their parents make or how frequently they wear clothes that appear to be expensive and rank as high fashion. - People who are born into a lower caste in a caste system that are prohibited, formally and informally, from interacting with people in other castes and prevented from gaining access to education and better jobs. - Children of people who are poor who must work instead of going to primary school. - People who are economically disadvantaged who work for a living but cannot afford nutritious food and suffer more illness/disease than people in more resourced classes. - People who are economically disadvantaged who cannot find work except for jobs that are physically dangerous or cause illness, and live in a society that does not require work safety standards. - In Things Fall Apart, some Ibo people face barriers to the enjoyment of life because the Ibo religious and legal system places them in positions where they do not have freedoms others have or because they are thought to have harmful spirit influences, they are subjected to harmful restrictions.

Case 1: Hydroelectric Dam in Thailand

- What groups of people benefitted from this project? People in Urban Areas of the country who were not from the dislocated group and Political Officials who took credit for creating and implementing the project. - What do you imagine were health consequences for the relocated families and their family members who had to live elsewhere performing low paid wage labor? The diet of families living on the new land was of a lower quality than before, when the were rice farmers. The family members who migrated lived on a very slim budget and could not rely on food from their farms, so their diet decreased in quality as well. The entire net income for the household was less than before, so all members were less able to afford medical care. - What do you think were some of the other outcomes of this "development" project? The younger family members who migrated worked under stressful conditions and did not make a living wage. Some of the younger women entered into prostitution because they saw no way out of their cycle of poverty, and because they wanted to send money back home to their families.

- After the initial widely-publicized news about COVID in the United States, government, NGOs and local institutions developed education messages concerning social distancing, wearing masks, using quality masks, social isolation if experiencing COVID symptoms and going for COVID testing if symptomatic. These messages explained that making these changes in human behavior would reduce the chances of contracting the disease and reduce the chances of a COVID positive person spreading it to others.

- Quick and widespread adoption of behavior change faced several obstacles in the United States. One was that some U.S. citizens were not receptive to the ideas and knowledge of trained medical experts in the medical field. A second obstacle resulted from resistance among some U.S. citizens to learn about and practice changes in their behavior such as wearing masks and social distancing that would slow the spread of the disease. Related to the first and second obstacles was the lack of clear support for quality scientific information and behavior change coming from some local community officials, some national political leaders and some national government officials. - Another underlying problem the U.S. faced concerning the adoption of behavior change was that segments of the U.S. population did not understand or accept the aims of public health. As you recall, concerning a communicable disease, Public Health involves the study of and the implementation of behaviors that reduce disease transmission. Public health is dedicated to the entire society's well being, not just specific individuals or specific communities. It encourages people to examine how their behavior affects many other people's lives, not just their own life.

More Cultural Dynamics

- Some people responded to the Covid 19 pandemic with anger and frustration. As months went by, some continued to respond by refusing to learn about the complex nature of the threat, insisting that the threat had been portrayed to be more serious than it was, denying the harsh reality of the number of deaths in the U.S., and rejecting social distancing behaviors and mask wearing as an unnecessary limit on their personal freedom. Some people who associated not wearing masks with the views and expectations of their political party did not wish to be seen with masks in fear of facing social ridicule from family and friends. - Even after the United States had restricted and controlled the flow of people from other countries who entered the U.S., some political leaders and officials in the United States gave speeches that associated immigrants to the United States with a high potential for bringing COVID 19 into the country and infecting the U.S. population. These and other xenophobic messages resulted in a comparatively large number of attacks by U.S. citizens on people who were thought to be "outsiders." - For most people in the U.S., the COVID 19 pandemic has been a very upsetting and difficult experience. Not only have many people witnessed the suffering of loved ones who contracted the disease, and the loss of family members who died from the disease, but they also have faced economic decline, the loss of primary and secondary school face-to-face education leading to education gaps, disruptions in health care, changes in job opportunities, and the inability to actualize important plans they had previously made.

Cultural Assumptions and Cultural Perspectives

- The cultural background of some people in the U.S. positioned them to be resistant to comprehending the aims of public health. Many people in the U.S. are enculturated through a series of ideas that emphasize individual freedom, competition, self-sufficiency and individual choice. For some people in the US, it is difficult to move from ideas that focus on their own control over their own lives, to ideas that concern making choices that have implications for people they may not have a personal relationship with and especially those living far away in another society within the country. - In addition, some people in the US interpret a government's implementation of public health rules as an imposition on them by a particular political party, instead of this implementation being the responsibility of all governance systems. - While initially resistant, some people in the U.S. reflected upon and implemented mask wearing and social distancing, for they needed time to think through how to make these changes in their lives. Because they were used to seeing friends/family and engaging in close contact with them, they found it difficult to re-make boundaries for social distancing, decide not to engage in some kinds of interactions, and learn how to group with selected people in order to make a smaller social unit without social distancing. None of these changes were ones they would have wanted to make.

- Could some aspects of these plans been scaled down or modified so as to not have destroyed the domestic corn market in Mexico? Yes, but neither the elite groups in Mexico nor those in the US were concerned about this issue. Shorter term business interests and shorter term increases in segments of the economy on both sides of the border were the main goals of those who promoted this economic package. Many people in the US benefitted from a rise in stock market investments and aspects of the ag sector growing corn,further overtaking many people's concern for what would happen in the longrun.

- Was the resultant increase in the flow of Mexican people to the US in search of low paying agricultural jobs something some US agricultural businesses might have welcomed? Yes, many were aware this would happen and welcomed the low cost labor from Mexican people. - Was the destruction of the domestic corn market in regions of Mexico something that agricultural analysts and social scientists predicted? Yes, many trained professional analysts knew this would happen and made their research results known, but political leaders on both sides of the border did not wish to seriously discuss the issue. In the US the issue was addressed on news programs and newspapers. We now move on to examine and illustrate the practice of Applied Anthropology.

Case 2: Turtle Marketing "Opportunities" in Nicaragua

- Were the Misquito people aware of the likely results of these likely health changes as a result of their changed economic practices? No. - If the Misquito people had wanted to take advantage of the "opportunity" to sell on the international market, what else could they have done to both protect their important natural resources and protect the health of their communities? They could have limited the number of turtles taken form the ocean. - What role could the government of Nicaragua have taken in order to protect both natural resources and citizens? A government organization could have advised the communities about how to limit turtle fishing and suggested alternative sources of protein for daily consumption. The government could have refused to allow the multinational corporation to have access to local turtle meat at all. The benefits to local people, other than a minority of turtle fishermen and their families, were few.

- How did this project contribute to problems for the entire country of Thailand? Displaced farmers moving to urban areas offering low paying jobs contributed to the larger problem of the growth of urban slums and health problems associated with population density and poverty. Thailand lost the agricultural production the farmers once contributed to the health of the domestic economy along with decreased country self sufficiency in food production.

- What happened to the farming families in the next generation? Many of the younger people who migrated stayed in urban areas. They then lived farther away from their community and lost the benefit of raising their own families around their parents and community members. The third generation grew up not knowing their grandparents and their parents' cultural community. They experienced many of the problems of urban poverty.

Before examining the following case studies it is important to remember some of what we have learned about enculturation, human thought and human behavior:

- When people have ideas shaped by their enculturation (which they often do not subject to thought, and prefer to consider to be "normal" or "natural"), it is often difficult for them to question these ways of thought. We can understand that because of some of the features of enculturation, people can be taught to NOT see some things, NOT understand some things, and go into DENIAL about aspects of their world in order to preserve the existing system and conform to learned social expectations. - As we have observed several times in examples used in class, just because an idea or a behavior is a deeply embedded part of a cultural pattern or way of life, this does not mean that it is the most healthy, or that it has the best effect, for the individual or the group. Just because people are attached to ideas and behaviors does not mean that they lead to positive individual or group outcomes. - Just because an individual is deeply attached to particular ideas, behaviors and other people who support particular ways of thinking and acting, does not mean that the particular ideas and behaviors are based on clear cause and effect observation and sound reasoning skills. Human beings believe all kinds of things that are not true. Some things people believe have no negative consequences for themselves or others. Some things people believe have disastrous consequences for their own and others' well being. - Even when people learn about new cause and effect relationships from scientific research, they might not be able to accept and implement the behavior changes that they need to make in order to avoid a problem. Behavior change is not necessarily easy for people to think about or implement. With these perspectives in mind, we will examine a cases from the Kenya Coast.

Applied Case 3: Covid 19 Virus in the United States, 2020-22. Critical Reflections on the Need for Behavior Change. You are the anthropologist... how did you explain the need for behavior change to people you know over the last two years?

- Worldwide, the Covid 19 virus is so prevalent that it is has been termed a pandemic. - Not having the benefit of adequate public health teaching about Covid 19 ahead of the spread of the disease worldwide in late 2019, nor about its distribution in the United States in early 2020, in March 2020 the majority of the U.S. population had to quickly confront the fact that their lives were being affected by the pandemic. Many tried to learn about what was known about the biological mechanisms of the virus and the transmission of the virus. Many remained in a state of denial about the spread of the virus and its severity in the United States. - After the initial widely-publicized news about COVID in the United States in March 2020, measures were taken to regulate or close down schools, health centers, workplaces and other spaces where COVID could easily spread. Many people in the U.S. understood the serious threat of this disease while others did not. It soon became clear that some people were more vulnerable to the disease than others, and that among those who contracted the disease some were much more likely to have serious symptoms and die. - In the United States and across the globe people experienced a great deal of anxiety and fear about the nature of the virus and because there was not yet a vaccine to reduce the severity of the disease when contracted.

Later Discovery

- about 30 years later scientists experimented on tissue samples taken from Fore people who died from kuru which were preserved in laboratories. Along with other recent scientific discoveries, they found that "kuru" was actually not caused by a virus but by a prion. - Look up "prion." It is not an organism, but a misfolded protein that has harmful effects once it is in the body of an animal. Another example of a disease caused by a prion is Mad Cow's disease. It is difficult to deactivate or do away with prion material, and it cannot be destroyed using common practices used to kill bacteria such as boiling and exposure to heat. - Note that the behavior changes that were necessary for both the removal of prion and virus material were basically the same, which is why the original incorrect idea about the cause still brought about the intended results. Q: Without knowledge about the Fore's cultural practices, what do you think the public health medical team would have advocated for Fore people to do to stop the disease? How long might it have taken? Could it have spread to other populations or the entire country?

How Can We Support Social Sustainability and Economic Sustainability? Two Ways:

1. "Shop Locally, Think Globally": reduce the role of larger dominant forces on local economies and political values, reduce carbon footprint, allow people to operate their own small businesses rather than be forced to leave their home areas to find work in less secure conditions of wage labor. Examples: 1. Small Scale Farming in Athens: the Athens Saturday Market 2. Athens Food Stores, Businesses and Local Restaurants Advantages: Supporting farmers in SE Ohio allows them to make a living where they already live, allowing them to build the communities they value. Supporting these farmers creates regional food security. Supporting these farmers reduces transport costs and dependency on external economic and social systems. The community maintains greater control over itself and its future.

Applied Case 1. Eliminating the Fatal Disease "Kuru" among the Fore People of New Guinea, 1970s. Anthropologist: Shirley Lindenbaum.

A group of indigenous people called the Fore in the Highlands of New Guinea had a diseasethey called "kuru," which they thought was caused by sorcery. The symptoms were fatigue,loss of muscle use, extreme muscle degeneration, physical instability, mental confusion and eventual death. - People of all ages had kuru, even children, but more women than men had kuru. - The country's public health specialists took samples from those affected and decided that it was probably a degenerative nerve disease. (Look up "degenerative nerve disease;" some examples are MS and Lou Gehrig's disease). The public health officials were not sure what caused it, but they assumed that it was communicable and wanted to stop the spread. But not knowing the cause, it was difficult for them to figure out how to train the Fore people to change their behavior so they would not spread or contract the disease. Some scientists thought it was a virus that could be spread by human physical contact, and this became the dominant hypothesis concerning the cause. - Lindenbaum, a medical anthropologist who had worked with a similar group of people in New Guinea, hypothesized that whatever was the cause, the disease transmission was probably through a specific cultural practice. This practice involved endocannibalism. - Endocannibalism refers to the practice of consuming treated body parts of a deceased person as part of a death passage ritual. -

Diane Ciekawy Discusses Upcoming Plans for Additional Workshops with Leading Kaya Elder

After workshop exercises, Ciekawy engages one of the leaders of the kaya elders in a discussion about the best ways to encourage more kaya elders to come to the workshops and when future workshops will be held. This leader of the kaya and Ciekawy are viewed to be the appropriate people to plan future activities. Ciekawy's gender identity is not an impediment to the kaya elders in this kind of discussion. Among other things, Ciekawy learns from this discussion that when holding workshop, the kaya group would prefer to have it on a different day than it is usually planned, so that it does not conflict with some of their plans to conduct rituals in the Mijikenda area. Because Kodo is viewed as a high status Mijikenda man and is also a local authority connected with the government, the kaya elders were reluctant to ask Kodo to change the day of the next workshop. We can learn from this event that Ciekawy's status as a respected outsider has particular value in local communities, and that because of her outsider status the kaya elder views her to be more approachable than Kodo when it came to negotiating changes concerning the workshop dates . In this situation, the kaya elders did not wish to go against the decision Kodo made, which is a culturally shaped behavior applied to a respected member of their community, having to do with what they consider to be their obligation to respect Kodo's decision even though it was not the optimal time for them. From the above discussion you can also observe something that is very important to know about gathering anthropological data and doing fieldwork. In any cultural community, conversation about some matters is more easily made with cultural insiders, and conversation about other matters is more easily made with cultural outsiders or non- members.

A useful approach

As discussed in Lecture U Part 1, an Anthropological Approach to development assumes that progress in the quality of human life require a planned and complex negotiation process about the proposed change that is in dialogue with the value system of the group of people who will be affected. This means taking into account the emic views and cultural values of those to be affected and then proceeding to investigate exactly how the proposed changes would work in the situation identified. In so doing, this approach prioritizes the views and needs of people who are the least politically powerful and most in need of change that has likely tangible benefits for them.

In the United States....what are some examples of culture loss?

As you are aware, many aspects of Indigenous People's culture has been lost over the past 300-400 years. What aspects have survived, and among which ethnic groups? Today one example can be found among New Mexico Pueblo Indians. They have maintained strong oral traditions that transmit their history and knowledge of many aspects of culture. Many do not know their native language or only parts of their language. We can say that the language itself is under threat or loss. But some communities have worked on programs to teach their language to young people. This is also called language revival. Many Pueblos have adopted junior and high school programs where their indigenous language is one of the subjects.

What act of rebellion do the Ibo leaders of Umofia take? Identify what action some of the Ibo leaders eventually took. Was it successful? What do each of the main characters Okonkwo and Nwoye stand for in an analysis of culture change? As we discussed earlier, Okonkwo stands as the main symbol of Ibo culture. He embodies its faults as well. Chinua Achebe did not write this book to promote or extol Ibo culture. He did not write it to offer the idea that colonialism is acceptable or that it offered the Ibo a better way of life. He wrote it to show us how and why things fall apart. It serves as an example for the members of any society or country. It suggests to the reader that their society can fall apart or decline.

British mission culture did offer some advantages to some Ibo people, but it is important to not confuse this with an acceptance or a justification for colonialism. When societies meet each other for the first time, they can structure their acquaintance in a friendly way. The British could have chosen not to dominate the peoples of that region, but to make a set of mutually positive arrangements. There are no justifications for taking over another group of people's territory or forcing on them another way of life. Among his many aims, Chinua Achebe wrote this work to show that all cultural systems have flaws. The picture of Ibo culture before colonialism is that of an integrated society. It fell apart as a result of colonialism. But it also fell apart because it had faults. Again, examine who converted to Christianity. So another aim of the book is to show that when a society has inequalities, injustices, and has harmful practices, those who are disadvantaged as well as those who have higher moral values will be motivated to change the culture. Some who cannot change it might leave. If the society does not take the signal to change, it will be weaker because of the inequalities and the injustices. TFA shows us that any society that does not take care of the well-being of all of its members, and does not create policies and governance systems to support the advancement of all, will experience widespread problems and will fall apart. And yes, this applies to a society/country like the United States.

Underdevelopment

Definition: A situation where a group of people experience a DECREASE in the standard of living, or reduction in the quality of life conditions, as a result of planned change, often through outside intervention (often the change has been presented as "advancement," "development" or a "good opportunity"). Note that this concept of underdevelopment is not like the one commonly used in popular culture in the U.S. Often in the U.S. when someone used the term "development" it is already assumed that it is good and positive. Case Studies of Underdevelopment Case 1: Hydroelectric Dam in Thailand - In the 1970s the government of Thailand chose to build a hydroelectric dam in a lowland fertile area used for the production of high quality domestic rice. Farming families living there had stable economic lives with sufficient income from the sale of rice, which allowed them to meet all their basic needs in addition to supporting costs associated with sending their children to formal schooling. - The government promised these farming families electricity once the dam was finished. The government promised to relocate the farming families, giving them a new plot of land to live on. The government did not give the farmers the opportunity to reject the dam project. - Actual Outcome after Dam was Built: The government forcefully displaced the rice farmers, moving several thousand people to other plots higher in the hills, in the same region.

2. Making Moral Economic Choices: Using Our Purchasing Power Purchasing Power: The power a person has to make choices concerning how to use their money to buy goods or services. Informed Consumerism: learning about how what you purchase is made. This can re-direct consumer choices to be based on: - Supporting businesses that providing workers with a Living Wage compared to exploiting workers, - Supporting product authorization through Consumer Health Testing, - Developing legal protection for politically disempowered people (immigrants, children) so their labor is not exploited, and - Supporting forms of production that adhere to Environmental Health, Human Health and Safety Standards for workers.

Example: In the early 2000s there was a global movement to boycott rugs from particular factories in Pakistan that depended on child labor. As a result of the boycott, the factories changed labor policies so that children and younger teens were not employed. The use of adult labor became the national standard and rug products were re-marketed through their advertisement as using improved labor policies. More children were then able to go to school. Q: How can you choose to put your money toward business practices that are consistent with the moral values that you say you have?

Cultural Survival and Choice

In Unit 2 we examined several case studies concerning change that was forced on indigenous people. This is an additional case study. Indigenous Peoples can also be called First Peoples As we discussed, maintaining their land rights is central to their continued ability to maintain their lifestyle as a group. Cultural Survival - the continuation of a significant portion of a group of people's cultural patterns. Can you describe which rights of citizenship Indigenous People in Brazil (as illustrated in the video led by Carlos Mierellis and the BBC) have a difficult time exercising? Q: What is the connection between a people's cultural survival and a steady means of economic support that they control? A: This relationship is the key to understanding why any group of people might be in a position to make choices about their lives that include maintaining their cultural traditions as well as make decisions about which aspects of other cultural patterns they wish to adopt or use. When we examine the act of colonialism, we can see how groups of people have not only been subjected to great inhuman treatment, but they have been indirectly and directly forced to change their cultural patterns. Can you list the major ways in which the Shuar were forced to change features of their cultural system over the past 100 years?

Making the Strange Familiar and the Familiar Strange: Using Critical Thinking Skills A general aim of this course has been to familiarize you with other ways of thinking and acting shaped by culture. We have called this "making the strange familiar." We have also said that anthropology encourages people to reflect on their own society's patterns, which are often taken for granted and not subjected to thought. This we have referred to as "making the familiar strange." By examining the kinds of problems marginal peoples who are indigenous face, we have highlighted one arena of struggle among many other kinds that make up today's world. Other groups of people who are marginal struggle to have basic needs met, or to be free from forms of harm, persecution or discrimination.

For people INSIDE the thought system of their group, it is helpful to practice getting distance from the familiarity of group thought, and use critical thinking in order to identify the existence of social suffering, prejudice, rationalizations of inequality, and other "faults" in society. Critical thinking leads people to challenge the status quo (the system and structure as it is). Being a cultural critic of one's own system provides needed ideas for the improvement of a way of life instead of ignoring and rationalizing "faults" in that way of life. Being a cultural/social critic sometimes requires social courage, the courage to speak out against practices that are harmful to others, despite the possibility that friends or family might not wish to face the existence of a problem, and might defensively turn against the cultural critic. People who think "outside the box" sometimes experience loneliness forperiods of time, but they usually find more suitable company as their lives unfold. They also become models and leaders who shift the society in ways that progressively improve the quality of life for a greater number of people.

India's Responses to Covid 19This case comes from the article,"India Records Highest Single-day New Cases so far, as it Struggles with Mass Hindu Pilgrimage." It was published in April 2021. Read it in BB under Unit 3 articles. Inthisshortarticle,wefindthatpeople'sattachmenttoculturalbehaviorsanddesiretoparticipateingroup rituals placed them in close contact with people coming from different parts of the country. The yearly Kumba Mela festival draws several million Hindu people to sacred sites on the Ganges River. In the spring of 2021 the government of India did not have a national COVID 19 behavior change policy. India is a country that is divided into states like the United States. India gave states the right to create and implement controls concerning COVID 19. The state of Uttarakhand, where the festival takes place, did proclaim curfews and issue a limit on public gatherings, but the festival grounds we

From a Public Health perspective, the country of India lacked a national COVID behavior change policy. Unlike China, it did not restrict people's movements around the country. It did not prevent mass movement to the pilgrimage site. We see that the state of Uttarakhand was able to say that it had created restrictions, but it was not committed to applying them to the festival gatherings. The failure to implement a policy where it is most needed can be the result of many social, political and economic factors, but at the heart is the failure of government and cultural leaders to understand and take control of a public health threat. Overall, what could have resulted in far greater behavior change and fewer deaths in India? A: A verbal and visual message from the Prime Minister concerning the wearing of masks and social distancing, national and state regulations concerning mask wearing and crowd assemblies, and greater local public education detailing the social behaviors that spread the disease.

Thus it is necessary to understand that heroism as defined here is not as it is sometimes used in popular US culture, when it is said that a sports stars are heroes because they succeeded in achieving something difficult or great, or that a wealthy person is a hero because they gave to charity. In the sense in which we are using it, a hero agrees to act and give up something vital in life in order to assist others, not even knowing if he/she/ they will succeed in this attempt to assist others. Within this framework, examples of heroes are warriors who place themselves in danger for others, a revolutionary fighter who acts to change a great ill in society, fire fighters (like those during 9/11 who went into the trade tower under vary unfavorable conditions), or people who give up a comfortable lifestyle in order to volunteer for a public service job where they could become sick and not recover (we can think of health

Furthermore, from the concept of a Greek Tragedy developed an important concept in philosophy called The Tragic Effort. This refers to a perspective on humanity. From this perspective, being a human being means the ability to contemplate the tragic effort. It is the quality in human beings that allows them to think of the well being of others AND the improvement of life conditions for others MORE THAN concern for self. This perspective does not imply that all humans should be self sacrificing and continually acting to assist others more than themselves. The concept of tragic effort encourages us to reflect on this quality as an ability to think and act beyond self, and to understand that this quality is perhaps essential to what it is to be human. By implication, it asks us to reflect on the actions or features of our lives that are in contrast to this: taking advantage of others, succeeding at others' expense, dominating or putting down others, and contributing to hierarchies that result in less opportunity and improvement in life conditions for others. In so doing, it encourages us to ask ourselves what kind of society we wish to live in, and what kind of society our efforts are building.

Globalization, Interconnection and Interdependency

Globalization: diverse processes that result in interconnections among: 1) world economic activities, 2) forms of electronic communication (i.e. internet) and 3) new forms of transportation that have been moving at an accelerated pace since approximately the 1990. Note that this is not simply about the ways in which people have been voyaging and contacting each other for thousands of years. We are looking at interconnections among the 3 areas above, and the fact that they have been increasing at a very fast rate. ◦ The effects of globalization are many. It is important not to assume that because there is an increase in something that this results in a positive or useful change. Like our examination of development and underdevelopment, any change has the potential to improve for some and to destroy or make worse for others. And, as we note from our definition of functionalism, society is an integrated whole. Thus, some of these interconnections have resulted in a high degree of interdependency. It is incorrect and frustrating, from a social science perspective, that in popular U.S. culture and thought the assumption that changes associated with globalization are positive for all, or that when there are problems, the problems are minor ones.

Acknowledging Our Interconnectedness and Making Informed and Intelligent Choices will Work Towards a More Stable Country and Global Society

Grand Themes:◦ Economy and Society are Interdependent◦ ALL People of the Earth are Interdependent

Looking Ahead...

Relying on the last three lectures' discussions about planned change, development and applied anthropology Lecture W will examine a set of issues that concern the future of human and environmental health across the globe. Note that It is important to have the book Things Fall Apart read by the time we discuss it!

Anth 1010 Text Discussion Lecture on Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe In this lecture we examine the book Things Fall Apart, by Chinua Achebe, treating it as if it were an ethnography and a social science text. We will also interpret the book according to central concepts in the social sciences: "weaknesses" in society, critical thinking, inequality, marginality and social suffering. We will begin by examining the place Things Fall Apart has in World Literature, continuing from the earlier introduction at the beginning of Unit 3. We will proceed by following the Questions for Consideration on Things Fall Apart that you have been working on throughout Unit 3. You can chart how your notes compare to the interpretations offered today. Do you have additional insights? For some questions I will ask you to continue to find your own answers in the text; the steps we have taken in this course have provided the conceptu

How can we view the structuring devices in Things Fall Apart as a Greek Tragedy?What do the actions of heroes in a Greek Tragedy communicate about what it is to be human? What is the large scale threat facing the people of Umofia? As many of you already know from high school and courses in literature and philosophy, a Greek Tragedy is structured in certain ways, and it encourages us to think about particular kinds of human problems. It has an overall perspective about the human experience, which is to encourage us to view life as a dynamic series of triumphs and downfalls, and to identify the kinds of human actions that can make a great difference to an entire society or civilization.It encourages us to identify the human faults that result in not only the downfall of a character. As social scientists we are taking that concept of a human fault and applying it to an entire society. If we make an analogy between a human being and a society, we can say that societies have major faults or flaws.

Human Rights: "Having" vs Exercising Human Rights and Marginalized Peoples As we have discussed, a human right is a right that all human beings should have, because they are human. Examples of basic human might be: sufficient food, adequate shelter, clean water, freedom from violence, and access to basic medical care. As we have examined in previous class lectures, with respect to contemporary global practices, we find that the rights that we would hope all human beings would have are far from the rights they actually do have or can actually exercise.

If we go back to the YouTube Video on the Uncontacted Peoples in Brazil, and the work of Carlos Morellis, you have one clear example. Many indigenous people have not been treated in an acceptable human manner, in the history of colonialism and today. As was also illustrated in our examination of the Shuar people, prejudice against indigenous people persists. As you also saw in the Youtube video about the Uncontacted people, the government of Brazil was not concerned about threats to that group of indigenous people nor the destruction of the complex living environments in which the uncontacted people lived, favoring short-term economic profits that would go to outsiders who were not the indigenous people. While most of the case studies we have used in our course about discrimination and human rights have concerned peoples in other countries, we are inevitably led to ask questions about advanced industrialized countries like the United States. There continue to be unequal applications of the law and differential uses of police violence shaped by class, race and ethnicity. We can also reflect on the portrayal of indigenous people in the United States. What has and has not changed in the U.S. since Sasheen Littlefeather and Marlon Brando raised the problem of Hollywood images of Native Americans at the Oscar Awards ceremony almost 50 years ago? Do most people in the U.S. really understand the challenges that indigenous people in the U.S. face? Which other groups in the United States have we identified as marginal with respect to important access to knowledge, health, law or economic resources? Can we say that everyone can exercise the same human rights or citizen rights in the U.S.? As a continuation of our inquiry into the linked phenomena of inequality, discrimination and the lack of exercising human rights, we offered o

Imperialism

Imperialism (definition): the forced take-over of one group by another (outside) group, with the intention of controlling the political organization of the group/country and benefitting from its material resources. This may not require many administrative people of the dominating group settling in the territory of the dominated country and may not involve an attempt to force the inhabitants to change cultural aspects of their live in order for the more powerful group to effectively control the group/country. In many ways, imperialism and colonialism are very similar and both terms can be used in a general way. When speaking about contemporary political issues today, most analysts would use the term imperialism when trying to describe the forceful take-over of one country by another country, with the focus on political domination. If we look at the current situation in Ukraine, where Russia is trying to take over parts of Ukraine or the entire country, it is best to use the term imperialism. Neither colonialism not imperialism are just or fair to the people whose lives are taken over, and certainly all the people who lose their lives in the process. Neither the governing organization (polity) nor the citizenry as a whole agreed to the take-over. Note that in the cases of both phenomena, many regular citizens lose their lives as well as soldiers. And, in the case of some conflicts and wars today, the civilian casualties may outnumber the number of soldier casualties.

What is Colonialism?

In Unit 2 of our course we identified the practice of colonialism. We also spoke of what we might call imperialism in order to discuss some contemporary world political problems such as the attempt of Russia to take over Ukraine. Let us look more carefully at these practices. Colonialism (definition): the forced take-over of one group of people by another (outside) group, involving the settlement of the colonized people's territory by members of the outside group. - In recent history, most colonial activities involve a state political organization (a country) that tries to take over another group of people and their territory, forcing the inhabitants to comply with the colonial country's way of life. - The colonial country expects to exploit the material wealth of the territory and exploit the labor of people living there in order to generate wealth for the colonial country. - In the early stages of the take-over, it is common for many of the inhabitants to be killed as they attempt to defend their land and their ways of life. - In the history of many early clashes with colonial powers, inhabitants have often caught diseases that are new to their population, resulting in a large number of fatalities. Examples: European countries colonizing the Americas (later became the US, Canada, Mexico and countries in S. America). We have already examined how Spain colonized Ecuador. In Africa, England colonized Ghana, Nigeria and Kenya; France colonized Senegal, Zaire and Algeria. The Dutch and English colonized South Africa.

The Value of Social and Natural Science Methods

Throughout the course we have emphasized the of analyzing any phenomenon according to our awareness that all aspects of human life and the environments we are part of are interconnected and in some situations they are highly integrated. A change in one aspect affects a change in others and the whole. We have demonstrated and practiced sound forms of reason and logic as we have analyzed human thought and behavior. We have relied on the development of strong skills to analyze cause and effect. We have valued the use of social science methods and natural science methods that are based on scientific experimentation and the production of evidence to support claims.

In Unit 3 we provided a particular approach to the concept of "development," encouraging aperspective on planned change that prioritizes the views and needs of the people who are to be the ones directly affected by the changes proposed, for we see many cases where they are not the main beneficiaries. We cautioned against being swept up in the undemonstrated rhetoric about the great things that some promoters allege will happen as a result of the plans proposed. We encourage you, as citizens or members of any entity where plans and polices are envisioned, to require that clear causal demonstrations support the claims being made, and to insist that analysis employ experts who are well trained in the matters in question.

In Unit 3 we examined a number of health problems concerning communicable diseases that required members of cultural communities to consider learning new ways of thinking and behaving. These are examples of applied anthropology. We looked at three cases where behavior change was required, if the groups were to ensure greater health safety standards among members of their communities and reduce the incidence of the illness. Some community members had the courage to confront the problem by learning about communicable disease and scientific knowledge, moving beyond what they had thought and known before. ConcerningtheCOVID19pandemic,somecommunitiescontinuedtoreproducetheirformer"normal" or "usual" behaviors that they grew up with, refusing to learn about the specific and likely dangers of the disease and negatively portraying the health changes they were taught to implement. Unfortunately, despite witnessing tragedy within a country and across the globe, some political leaders in some countries failed to advocate for the implementation of behavior change including the adoption of social distancing choices, mask wearing, and vaccination. We will examine some of these cases in the following slides.

Common Mistakes

In order to understand why anthropologists advocate this definition of and approach to development, we have to examine case studies illustrating common mistakes in programs of planned change. Most of these mistakes are not intended to cause problems, but they do so because the planners make incorrect assumptions and are very limited in their understanding of the phenomenon. These common "mistakes" include plans that: 1) are presented as helpful to all or many when they are only minimally helpful to a few, 2) result in negative consequences or harms that could have been identified ahead of time, 3) serve the interests of people who are already empowered or 4) are forced upon people who have little political power to refuse the changes or little education to understand their implications. One of the reasons that this approach to development has come about is that academics and experts in "development" have witnessed almost 60 years of a high percentage of failed project results accompanied by a great waste of resources. In international development work it has often been the case that the assumptions held by Western societies about planned change were shaped by Euro-American values and were ethnocentric. Similarly, within a country it has often been the case that elite government officials have forced changes on citizen groups that were different from themselves or not their political supporters. If we use a critical thinking approach, we can identify the ethnocentric assumptions and power interests that have advocated planned change that resulted in harming communities and dis-enabling them, all under the banner of "development."

Last Tasmanian, continued

In the mid 1940s Tagunini's remains were on display in a museum. By the 1960 there was a change in consciousness among world citizens, recognizing that around the world there were many silent forms of injustice and a lack of human rights. There was also an increased awareness of the violence of colonial practices that had been historically justified by the governments of countries formed though colonial conquest. Question: In the 1960s and 1970s what global movements were underway? What kinds of movements did we witness in the United States that supported human rights and civil rights? By the 1970s the government of Tasmania decided to recognize the past injustices done to Tasmanian people, and decided to make sure that Tagunini's remains were not used against her wishes. The Tasmanian government gave Tagunini a final burial that came after a State Funeral. Her remains were cremated and carried by state officials. Then they were given to a few people who were of mixed Tasmanian descent, who took part in the funeral. One man of mixed Tasmanina descent carried the remains onto a boat and poured them overboard into water, near at the place Tagunini was born. The funeral was also attended by The Premier of Tasmania. Questions: How do you interpret the symbolic aspects of the funeral Tagunini was given by the country of Tasmania? What symbolic statements did the Tasmanian government want to make to the citizens of the country and to the world?

Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

In this section of our course we examine the dynamics of culture change, the struggles of people against colonialism, the story of Things Fall Apart, misleading features of planned change often termed "development," the cultural production of beliefs that justify harming others, cultural values and human rights, moral reasoning, and the components of planned change that promote social justice. Before we begin to explore some of the concepts in Unit 3, here is a short background to Things Fall Apart, the novel- ethnography by Chinua Achebe. Chinua Achebe is a writer who grew up in Nigeria and obtained his Ph.D. in England. He wrote this novel when he was in his late 20s. It is one of the most well-known and translated novels in the world. The book provides a description of patterns in Ibo culture, the British colonial system in Africa, and shows us how one cultural system comes to dominate another. We witness the many courageous acts Ibo people perform in an effort to maintain their ability to govern themselves, preserve their human dignity and preserve the features of their cultural system. We also witness the problems that exist within Ibo culture and find that some Ibo people have the courage to question the beliefs and practices of their enculturation. Questions for Things Fall Apart are on Blackboard under Unit 3. Read through them all before you begin the book. As you read, you can write out your responses. As we have been doing in the other Units, we will address the entire book on a separate lecture day identified in your syllabus.

It is important to have the analytical skills to be able to understand the causes and effects of introducing new practices. This requires sound observation and reasoning skills, learned through experience or through academic training. This course has been building your social science thinking skills in these areas. They are critical to success in all arenas of today's world.

It is important to understand that no matter how well intentioned and sincere an advocate for a plan might be, those who advocate plans may have ideas that are not appropriate for the people to be affected and not appropriate for contexts that are different than what they imagine. Many advocates for particular plans do not have good analytical skills and do not take time to study what they promote. In addition, consciously or unconsciously, they can be swept up in self-promotion, working to support their interest group, or acting to advance their own status. If so, implementing their ideas/policies/plans can result in a loss or decrease in the life standards of the people affected. We have a word to describe a sad and unnecessary situation where people experience a decline in life standards and quality of life.

• From the perspective of public health advocates and social scientists, it has been discouraging to witness the difficulties the U.S. has experienced trying to educate some of its people. For a country with a primary and secondary public educational system, many did not expect that segments of the U.S. population would respond in ways that illustrated a lack of knowledge and interest in learning about disease transmission, a lack of knowledge about biomedical science, and resistance to the ideas and practices of public health that require behavior change.

It is possible for another contagious disease to sweep through the world's human population. Do you consider yourself to be SOCIALLY and INTELLECTUALLY prepared to learn about and advocate for behavior changes that would reduce the tragic health results? What roles in health education would you take? You have access to a university education that values critical thinking...

Things Fall Apart

Key theme: In the region of Nigeria where Ibo people live, how did Things Fall Apart? Colonialism in what is later to become the country of Nigeria began when the British Colonial Government formally occupied the Nigerian coast, and then sent its colonial army inland. Circa 1880 British colonial administrators enter the region of Nigeria where TFA takes place. The indigenous people in TFA are self-named Ibo. They have an egalitarian political system, with a council of elders who make decisions for the people who occupy a village and the land around it. The Ibo people are spread across a wide area in a specific part of Nigeria. All the Ibo people have the same village-level political system of elders who form a council for political leadership. We can classify this society as an egalitarian one. Chinua Achebe is from this ethnic group, and the characters in TFA would have lived at the time of his grandfather. Chinua Achebe was one of the first graduates of the university system in Ghana, which was still under colonial rule at the time that he published his novel. As you read, chart your understanding about how the different practices and institutions of Ibo culture begin to change when Umofia falls under British administration.

Harold Kodo Discusses Marital Fidelity with Kaya Elders

Kodo involves elders in a discussion about what might motivate partners to go for voluntary testing to learn their HIV status. This communication is aided by the fact that Kodo is close to their age and is therefore engaged in gender and age- appropriate communication. Kodo's use of culturally-appropriate communication with the elders is important because discussion about sensitive topics is usually conducted among groups composed of the same gender. Because Kodo is Mijikenda, he can also discuss with them in their local language. Because Kodo is an older man, he has the status associated with age. Because Kodo is known in the community as a health education specialist, he also has high status. All of these factors work to make Kodo an appropriate person to discuss sensitive issues with the kaya elders and to work along with the biomedical health expert during the workshop. Ciekawy does not engage in these conversations. Her status as: 1)a non-Mijikenda person and 2) a woman could result in less successful participation from elders in this important workshop discussion. She is respected as an educated person, but this does not mean that the elders would feel comfortable sharing all their ideas about these sensitive issues with her, and they may not engage in the workshop exercises to the degree that they would if she were absent. It is better if Ciekawy does not participate in certain parts of the workshop. She takes part in the opening exercises and gives a short welcoming speech. She engages in other activities that are not in the specific spot where the workshop is taking place, but she returns for the concluding discussion and formal end of the workshop. The elders are aware that Ciekawy has worked with Kodo to organize the workshop, bring the biomedical expert and is committed to assisting them to learn about HI

Responses to Covid 19 by The Navaho Nation, U.S. "The Once-Battered Navaho Nation has Gained Control over the Virus, For Now" Read it as a file in Blackboard under Unit 3 (the link cannot take you to the news site). When you analyze this news article concerning the roles undertaken by leaders of the Navaho peoples of the United States, you find an interesting comparison to the previous case study. The article states that in 2020 many Indigenous Americans experienced Covid19 related deaths at rates 2x those of average Caucasian Americans. The Navaho Nation also faced an institutional health problem, which was that the Indian Health Service of the United States was underfunded and did not have many government resources to launch its own local health campaigns.

Like in the case of India, The United States lacked a national COVID behavior change policy. The United States gave to states the power to create policies. Some states developed effective measures and some states did very little. In the absence of effective U.S. government leadership, and the absence of sufficient government resources, the political leadership of The Navaho Nation in 2021 worked hard to communicate with Navaho people in order to reduce the spread of Covid-19. Johnathan Nez, president of The Navaho Nation, said that the tribe itself worked to communicate ideas about behavior change and model behavioral change. What does this case study illustrate about the importance of cultural leadership? Do you think that Navaho people might have been more inclined to pay attention to and trust their cultural leaders compared to some national leaders?

Social Science Concepts useful for an Analysis of all Societies Throughout our course we have engaged a number of concepts in the Social Sciences that concern Inequality, Marginality and Social Suffering. Power/Wealth Inequalities and forms of Discrimination can be organized to disadvantage people according to: Ethnicity, Gender, Race, Sexual Orientation, Differential Ability, Physical Appearance, Nationality, Religion, Class and other features of human life. Patterned inequalities can be thought of as FAULTS in society.

Marginality - a situation where a group of people does not have access to resources or opportunities that most other groups in the society have. In our course, we have examined several societies of indigenous people. We have found that they are marginalized in the larger society composed of the country that they live in. They are not given access to resources and have historically been economically exploited by colonial societies. Social Suffering - human suffering caused by biases, prejudices, and any kind of social, political or economic inequality that is feature of society and rationalized as "the way things are." If it is part of a common pattern we say it is structured into society. As discussed in PP Lectures, some common examples are: - Patterned forms of bullying in high school that target particular kinds of people. - People in lower castes who are born into a caste system who are prohibited from interacting with people in other castes and prevented from gaining access to education and better jobs. - Children of people who are poor who must work instead go to formal education or school. - People who work for a living but earn low salaries and therefore cannot afford nutritious food, suffer more illness/disease than people with higher incomes and have had access to better education about diet/nutrition choices, and cannot afford better medical care. - People who live in areas where the only work available are jobs that are physically dangerous or cause illness, and live in a country where political leaders are not committed to policies or laws that require or actually implement work safety standards. - People who are too poor, not sufficiently educated, or otherwise do not understand that it would be better for them to move to a location where they would be free from air pollution and free from chemica

Our Definition...

OUR definition of development, informed by anthropological perspectives, is: an increase in the standard of living, or an improvement in the quality of the conditions of life, as defined by the groups of people who will be affected. As observed in Lecture U Part 1, if a process concerning change first pays attention to what people perceive their values and needs to be, and then identifies and analyzes the variety of ideas or proposals that exist, the process becomes a conversation among a variety of people who are concerned about change. We can call all the people stakeholders, to use contemporary popular language. Note, however, that while many people might be considered to be stakeholders, some of them stand in a position where they might be marginal and vulnerable, and have much more to lose if a planned change does not go well. Some people could lose their livelihood or their lives if the change does not go well.

Our Approach

OUR definition of development, informed by anthropological perspectives, is: an increase in the standard of living, or an improvement in the quality of the conditions of life, as defined by the groups of people who will be affected. Examples of emic views and cultural values concerning an improvement in the quality of life could be: access to biomedical health services, access to clean water, an end to pressure and violence from local gangs, and end to threats by local business owners who want to drive competition out of the area, an end to organized crime, an end to the use of recreational drugs that harm users, access to education, and the ability to live as a family in one house instead of having members engaged in migrant labor forcing them to live away most of the year. • Q: What are the life improvements that you would add to this list? Note that the above definition is not defining "development" in terms of: the wishes of outside observers, government authorities, powerful lobbyists, pr firms, economic development corporations, presidents of countries, senators or business people. The point here is to FIRST pay attention to what people perceive their values and needs to be, and then to identify and analyze the variety of ideas or proposals that exist. Note that when the people to be affected are placed at the center of the conversation, the entire process of thinking proceeds in a particular way.

Applied Case 2. HIV/AIDS Education in Kenya, Mijikenda People, 2001-2015. Anthropologist Diane Ciekawy and Community Health Worker Harold Kodo.

On the coast of Kenya in the 1990s it was clear that both rural and urban people were increasingly contracting HIV/AIDS. The only statistics were from health centers that showed that 15-20% of the people who came to clinics suspecting the disease were HIV positive (in the age bracket 15-55). The dominant ethnic group living there was the Mijikenda. - The Government of Kenya considered HIV/AIDS a Public Health problem. - The government of Kenya widely publicized information about the main transmission pathway of the disease, which was through sexual contact with HIV positive partners.- Most young and middle-aged people were aware of how the disease was transmitted. There were many radio and tv programs that explained that the main way to contract AIDS was through sexual intercourse. The problem was that most sexually-active people were not changing their behavior. Deeply engrained cultural attitudes about not discussing sex, a male sub-cultural attitude about the desirability of having multiple partners, a lack of knowledge about HIV testing, and the desire to bond with sexual partners was what guided people's behavior, not concern with preventing the disease. The use of condoms was irregular among users and most people in long term relationships did not use them.

Introduction

Our work today continues with the last of our three case studies of Applied Anthropology. As you recall, all our case studies in applied anthropology have some features in common: they all concern the physical health of a group of people who face dangerous health problems, and where the people had socio-cultural beliefs, assumptions and behaviors that were contributing to or exacerbating the dangerous health problem. Applied Case Study 3 examines a situation in the earlier part of the CORONA Virus pandemic. This period was before a vaccine had been created and distributed for the purpose of reducing the severity of symptoms of those who contracted the virus. During this period it was well demonstrated that the virus caused a high rate of mortality compared to other similar viruses. During this period it was also clear that the large number of severely ill COVID patients who went to hospitals were occupying so many hospital beds that people with other problems in need of hospital care were facing difficulty getting into hospitals, thus delaying care and resulting in more serious complications and more unnecessary deaths. It was therefore imperative from a public health standpoint that people learn about and implement behaviors that would reduce disease transmission. Reduced disease transmission would correspondingly reduce the number of severely ill people and correspondingly reduce the number of those who died from the virus or lack of hospitalization opportunities. Eventually, across the world, government health institutions and NGOs (Non-Government Organizations, and local institutions worked to develop effective education messages concerning the importance of wearing masks, the importance of using masks properly, the necessity of social distancing, the necessity of not socializing if experiencing COVID symptoms and

A Contrasting Alternative: Local Food Production in Athens, OH

Over the past twenty years there have been many movements across the United States to support small scale agriculture that reduces the carbon footprint concerning food provisioning AND enables small farmers to live on their own land, control their own work, and produce higher quality foods (especially those using fewer chemicals such a s pesticides). Across the entire world there are movements to produce foods that are organic, driven by consumer demand. Athens Country has participated in the movement to help support local farmers organize their businesses and provide a market for what they produce. These include: 1) Non-government Organizations in Athens were formed to assist farmers and other entrepreneurs. One such organization is Rural Action. 2)TheAthensFarmers'Market,heldeverySaturdayandWednesday,isawellorganizedinstitutionthatoffers residents a variety of foods and products made here in SE Ohio. 3) A group of Small Businesses in Athens both buy foods from local growers and sell products in their stores/restaurants. Some examples are the Village Bakery and Casa Nueva.

Case A. Disregard for Marginal Groups Concerning their Environment and Health: Case Study of Mountain Top Removal in Appalachia

Patterns of behavior in natural resource exploitation in the United States show that in the past many companies and state governments ignored harm created to local communities and their living environments through Mountain Top removal. This was especially common in West Virginia. Destruction to the environment of economically disempowered and less formally educated people often resulted, for they did not have the means to know about the likelihood of the problem before it happened, did not know how to publicize their problem once it occurred, and did not know how to go about trying to stop it. Common problems included: damage to property lower on a mountain from soil and chemical flow from higher up the mountain where mining occurred; damage to crops and livestock lower on a mountain where mining occurred; ground water chemical contamination, and stream contamination with soil and chemicals. In the past neither mining companies, states or national agencies took much responsibility to protect people in communities affected by MTR or compensate them for property damage and health problems. When regulations were introduced into law, many mining companies did not change their practices. Citizens in local communities often felt powerless to try to enforce laws.

Public Health: Perspectives and Goals

Public Health involves the study and implementation of behaviors that lead to an improvement in the health of a population. When there is a disease that is thought to be contagious or transmissible, it is necessary for government officials and other leaders to act quickly to control the spread of the disease. It requires measures to be taken that attempt to reduce or prevent the health problem for the greatest number of people. Public Health policies are shaped by the knowledge that the health choices of individuals have direct effects on the health of other human beings. Public health is dedicated to the entire society's well being, not just specific individuals or specific communities. It encourages people to examine how their behavior affects many other people's lives, not just their own life. We can observe that it is also based on a moral assumption: human beings should be concerned about making health choices and adopting behaviors that will have a positive effect on the health of other human beings.

Is there a gap between our "walk" and our "talk"? Morals/Moral Standards - the guidelines identified in a cultural system for directing behavior according to the values of the culture/society, but specifically the values pertaining to the treatment of human beings by other human beings. The standards specified by a group explain what are and are not acceptable ways to treat human beings. Through enculturation, children come to understand how their group values human beings. Q: But do all people who once learned sets of moral standards necessarily apply them to different aspects of their lives? As you have already seen in your lifetime, no, this does not necessarily occur.

Q: Are there ideas and practices made into routine aspects of a cultural system that disconnect a society's rules, laws, policies, practices and ideas from moral considerations? Indeed, there are many. Our examination of the importance of critical thinking and acting with courage provides us with a perspective that acknowledges the role of social critics in pushing society forward and making it more equitable for all. As we have noted, people who ask their own societies to engage in social criticism often face anger and hostility from those who prefer to maintain beliefs that support a picture of their society that is counter to the demonstrated effects of its beliefs and practices.

Chinua Achebe wrote TFA in the form of a Greek Tragedy.

Q: What qualities does a Greek Tragedy have? If you are not familiar with the concept, research it. Consider what it means for a character to be a hero in a Greek Tragedy. In this novel/ethnography, you will consider the actions that Okonkwo undertakes that are heroic, as well as the character faults that bring his downfall.

Case B: Public Water Contamination from Dupont Teflon Manufacturing in Southern Ohio and West Virginia

Robert Bilott was a lawyer in the firm Taft Stettinius & Hollister LLP in Cincinnati. In 1998 he received a call from a West Virginia farmer Wilbur Earl Tennant about his sick cattle that drank foamy water from a creek downhill from a Dupont landfill. When Tennant asked Dupont for information about the chemicals, Dupont refused, and told Tennant that his cattle were not negatively affected by runoff from the Dupont landful. Bilott gained access to hundreds of thousands of pages of Dupont records about the chemical PFOA used in the manufacture of Teflon (used as a coating for frying pans and in many industrial processes). Robert found good evidence to suggest that PFOA caused health problems, including cancer, in people who drank from public water systems using water from rivers contaminated by Dupont manufacturing. One such system is Parkersburg, W.V. Bilott alerted the U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) early in his work 20 years ago, but little was done to address the problem in WV or on a national scale. Wilbur Earl Tennant said the following in the book Exposure: "They wanna try and keep everything hushed up...They won't tell us what it is. They don't wanna talk to me. Because I'm and old dumb farmer. I'm not supposed to know anything. But it's not gonna be covered up. Because I'm gonna bring it out in the open for people to see."

Last Tasmanian, continued

Some of the newly contacted Tasmanians did surrender and they went with the British forces. However, The British government did not keep its promise, and instead placed the Tasmaninans who surrendered into an abandoned prison with poor health conditions. Many died on the way and in the prison. The Tasmanians did not have a physical resistance to the to the European common cold bacteria, and developed serious complications like pneumonia, and died. Tagunini witnessed the false promises of the British government.

Last Tasmanian, continued

Tagunini had known many British settlers and initially had imagined that she could help save her people, but found that she had been used by the British government. She was considered by the British colonial government as a "civilized" Tasmanian. She was not placed in prison, but lived in the main city Hobart, and became a critic of the government. Over a 50 year period, most of the Tasmanian people died from gunfire, poverty, dislocation, and European diseases such as the common European cold. By 1880s European scientists worked to get Tasmanian skeletons, thinking that the Tasmanians might be another human species. Ideas developed by then scientists were being tested through the examination of skeletal remains of different peoples around the world. Many different scientists wanted to conduct measurements on Tasmanian skeletons. British settlers began digging up the graves of Tasmanians, robbing them, and selling Tasmanian skeletal remains. Few living Tasmanians were left. Some British settlers robbed hospital morgues in order to profit from selling the Tasmanian remains. The last Tasmania people lived in fear that their remains would be disturbed, which violated their sense of sacredness. Tagunini was the last full-blooded Tasmanian, although there were some of mixed descent who left the island in previous decades and lived in Australia. When Tagunini died her remains were buried secretly. But then they were discovered by the Royal Anthropological Society of Tasmania around 1940. Although Tagunini had explicitly asked that her remains not be disturbed, her wishes were not followed.

As social scientists, how do we identify them? One way is to look at the ways in which inequality is structured into a society, resulting in difficulties for some but not all people. We can also detect faults/flaws by investigating the kinds of harms (we can also use the concept of underdevelopment) that particular kinds of people experience. When there is a pattern to harms, then through our analytical work, we can identify how those harms come about. We can identify the causes of those harms.Some of the faults we might see in people, following the original notion of a Greek Tragedy, might be characteristics such as: pride, desire to dominate other people, desire for excessive wealth while others are poor, gossiping about other people in ways that cause them pain, putting people down in public settings, discriminating against particular people, falsely accusing someone of doing something that has grave consequences,

The Greek Tragedy is also known for is focus on the concept of heroism. Here we can identify and reflect on human action that might pose great danger and potential sacrifice to an individual, but have the potential to improve life for others or save lives. This can be called heroism. A hero is a person who decides to undertake action to assist specific others or the society, and personally risks a great deal. When we say "risk," the implication is that the hero agrees to potentially lose important things such as life itself, opportunities in life, life experiences, or physical health. Furthermore, in a classic Greek tragedy, the risk is understood to be quite high: the hero chooses to act knowing that the chances are not good that they/he/she will succeed. But the hero acts anyway.

The Last Tasmanian named Tagunini

The Last Tasmanian is a documentary film about the genocide of Tasmanian People. The events described here follow the film. On the island of Tasmania British colonialism resulted in the death of the cultures of people in Tasmania and the genocide of almost all of the people of Tasmania. Tagunini was the last "full-blooded' Tasmanian person who lived, and her story illustrates the different kinds of harmful processes that came with British colonialism. When the British began to settle Tasmania in 1840, there were approximately 5,000 indigenous people on the Island. The indigenous people of Tasmania: Had a hunting and gathering modes of subsistence, relying heavily on hunting kangaroo and collecting shellfish. The entire island had peoples belonging to 5 different language groups, which were in turn broken down into smaller groups. Some of the groups were in conflict (not all on friendly terms) with one another. The smallest group was a band organization with hunting territories (similar to the !Kung San organizational structure). British Colonialism initially focused on taking land on the East Coast of Tasmania and building a penal colony for the most serious criminals, and then expanded its interest in taking land to give British settlers. Colonial expansion moved from east to west.

Key Excerpts from another article entitled, "The System Has Collapsed: India's Descent into COVID." Published April 21, 2021. "Looking out over a sea of jostling, maskless faces gathered at a political rally in West Bengal on Saturday, the Indian prime minister, Narendra Modi, proudly proclaimed that he had "never ever seen such huge crowds". A mask was also noticeably absent from Modi's face. That same day, India registered a record-breaking 234,000 new coronavirus cases and 1,341 deaths - and the numbers continued to rise.

The country then descended into a tragedy of unprecedented proportions. Almost 1.6 million cases had been registered in a week, bringing total cases to more than 15 million. In the space of just 12 days, the Covid positivity rate doubled to 17%, while in Delhi it hit 30%. Hospitals across the country were filled to capacity but this time it was predominately the young taking up the beds; in Delhi, 65% of cases were under 40 years old. While the unprecedented spread of the virus has been partly blamed on a more contagious variant that has emerged in India, Modi's government has also been accused of failures of political leadership from the top, with lax attitudes emulated by state and local leaders from all parties and even health officials across the country, which led many to falsely believe in recent months that India had defeated Covid."

◦ When we analyze the key excerpts provided above, we see clear evidence of the failure of the Prime Minster to model behavior for citizens that would be important in making behavior change and reducing the spread of COVID 19. ◦ The article makes the point that the Prime Minister appears to be more interested in cultivating the large crowds of people who came for his speeches than providing leadership during this time of crisis.

The failure of Prime Minister Modi to present accurate information about the alarming rate of COVID spread since the beginning of the year was continually reported by the press. This article provides further illustration of the failure of the government of India to understand and take control over this public health threat.

It is also assumed that ideas for change need to be subjected to thorough analysis of cause and effect relationships, and in accordance with a sound analytical procedures.

The result of prioritizing people's own ideas and needs first will be to revolutionize what is done under most of the uses of "development." It almost always results in channeling resources to those who most need them. If the procedures above are followed, then change will be planned as a result of a negotiated process, NOT as a top-down process where less empowered people have to bear the effects of what has been planned for them, which is often not useful for them. Note that many useful and knowledgeable ideas can come into the process that are from people who are not to be affected by the proposed change (especially specialists and analysts), but it is not automatically assumed that they are leading the process, but that they are facilitators in the process.

Read these articles in BB under News Articles for Unit 3, entitled: -U.S. COVID response could have avoided hundreds of thousands of deaths: research - India Records Highest Single-Day New Cases... as it Struggles with Mass Hindu Pilrimage - Covid-19: With Big Vaccine Push, Navajo Nation has Tamed Virus

The three articles above illustrate the role of socio-cultural factors in avoiding or leading to tragic health outcomes. When Ciekawy first provided this case study to Anth 1010 in April of 2020 she reported that the death toll in the U.S. was 35,000. One year later in mid April of 2021 the death toll in the U.S. was 562,000. Two years later in 2022 it was 984,000. What is the death toll now? Questions: - Do you think that the COVID-19 pandemic could have turned out differently in the US? - Why was it difficult for India to cancel or regulate the Hindu Pilgrimage? - If the main institution of governance fails to make plans to protect public health, what other institutions or groups of people can step up to try to do so? - What does the above article "India Records..." inform you about the lack of leadership in the country of India at that time? - What does the article "Covid-19: ...Navajo Nation" inform you about the nature of leadership that addressed the problem of behavior change among Navaho Peoples in the United States at that time?

A major component in a GT is to have a main character who engages in acts of heroism, and also displays a human fault that brings that character's downfall. Chinua Achebe created the main character Okonkwo as the central hero, and we see how his excessive pride, reactive short temper, inability to listen to the wisdom of others, and his inability to reflect on the inequalities structured into his own society made him unable to fully understand his society. He thought he knew his society, but he did not understand how it produced harms for some, including his own son. We see that he acted heroically to try to stop the colonial administration, but he lacked the ability to understand how to do so in a way that would work with the new situation created by the British when they brought colonialism. Q: What other character flaws did he have?Greek Tragedies are also structured to have a major large-scale problem or threat

Things Fall Apart is also written to encourage the reader to analyze the way change can occur that is creative and supportive of new possibilities for humanity. Chinua Achebe creates another parallel way of looking at a fault that encourages us to analyze how a society is organized, or structured. Through his description of Ibo society, in an understated way, he shows how Ibo society has faults. These faults are in the ideas and behaviors people are taught through enculturation, that work to form inequalities and harmful experiences for some. We can also call these patterns human injustice. As we are all aware, when a person learns through enculturation, the person is not encouraged to reflect on the features of the society that create injustice or harm people; the person is mainly taught to take on the ideas and reproduce the behaviors. As we have discussed in many different ways, a person who has questions about what they are pushed to do through enculturation might be treated badly by friends and family, might be socially ostracized, and might lose something important to them. When these kinds of people develop a thought process that questions a society/culture's ideas or behaviors, we can call them Critical Thinkers. A critical thinker is not just someone who does not like an idea or behavior. The question concerns why. Critical thinkers are people who reflect on and analyze the idea or behavior, and furthermore decide that they do not wish to contribute to the negative outcomes that they see result from the ideas or behaviors that they have seen or discovered.

Today's synthesis lecture reviews some concepts used to address our examination of planned change, the concept of development, behavior change for health, globalization, the practice of critical reflection, environmental health and sustainability. It emphasizes the importance of thought that relies on reasoning skills that use evidence to substantiate ideas and claims. We will also include some broad perspectives for action that contribute to social justice and the reduction of inequality.

Throughout the course we have emphasized the value that the concept of enculturation holds, both for understanding how young members of a group learn how to be a part of the group, and for understanding why group members are so often uncritical followers of ideas and behaviors that are culturally supported. We have drawn attention to the challenge that all cultural systems have to: 1) identify patterns of thought and behavior through which all members may benefit,2) create forms of organization that accommodate new ideas and new information, and3) employ ways of engaging in self-analysis and reflection that leads to cultural criticism in order to reform beliefs and actions so that a greater number of people in society benefit from society's resources and so that decision-making includes principles of human rights for all. A persistent theme in Unit 3 has been that culturally taught and widely supported ideas and behaviors are not necessarily the best ones to meet individual or group needs, and may have effects that the group does not recognize or may deny. As is well demonstrated in Things Fall Apart, it is important for members of a society to engage in critical thinking, even though it may be difficult to do. We can say that uncritical attachment to cultural ideas and behaviors can constitute a form of perceptual blindness.

Why does Ikemefuna come into Okonkwo's family? Discussed above.What does the wise elder warn Okonkwo not to do? This is for you to find and reflect on. What does Okonkwo's response tell you about his character? What do the elders in Umofia learn about colonialism from the event in Abame? How do the elders decide to handle colonial officials and institutions that come into their society? When the scout for the colonial administration who was travelling by bicycle did not return, the colonial administration sent out a search party. When they found the bicycle they knew what some of the elders in Abame had done. The colonial administration decided to teach the people of Abambe a lesson, and indeed all the Ibo within the region. The colonial administration sent their colonial army to Abambe and killed most of the people in the village. In the history of colonialism throughout the world, the use of extreme violence in

What are the principles in Ibo customary law concerning ritual cleansing within a clan when there has been an unintentional homicide enacted by a clan member? Why is Okwonkwo banished from Ibo society for 7 years? Ibo law states that if a clan member accidentally kills another clan member, this results in an impure social state. Therefore, the killer and some of his/her nuclear family must be removed for a period of 7 years, until the village becomes socially cleansed. The killer and family usuallywill go to the other main relatives' home in another village. Ibo society is patrilineal and patrilocal. Where does Okonkwo and his family go when they are ostracized for 7 years? What are the main forms of political and religious leadership in Ibo society? Identify these. What kinds of people hold the major status positions in Ibo society? Identify these. What kinds of inequalities exist in Ibo society? There are many inequalities, although many Ibo people do not reflect much about them. In their enculturation they learned to accept them, "as they are." How many examples of patriarchy can you identify? There are many examples of gender inequality and some examples of domestic violence that harm women yet it is generally tolerated in the society. There are also other divisions within the society. There is a group called the Outcasts. How are their lives restricted? What kinds of things are they not allowed to do? Why is this an injustice to them?

What are the "flaws" in Ibo society that we could compare to a social science analysis of inequalities that are structured into life? Gender inequality, social divisions causing limitations to some segments of society, the existence of domestic violence, and the penalties associated with of some aspects of punishment as set by Ibo law, create harm to certain segments of people and block their opportunities in life. In addition, another aspect of culture concerning Ibo religious belief creates harm. There is a belief in Ibo society that twins are actually dangerous spirits. In order to prevent them from affecting society, the belief is that they need to be taken away and put into the evil forest where they will die. Because Ibo people were born into this belief system, they do not question it. They believe this action supports society. We see, however, that this bothers Nwoye. Where do we see his response to this

What groups of people in Ibo society convert to Christianity? This is for you to trace. It is important to look for what those who converted had to lose by remaining in Ibo culture. It is important to understand that the mission society was not great or perfect; it has its own biases and prejudices. But it offered alternative ways of thinking and acting for some Ibo people. Why does Nwoye convert to Christianity and the European Mission way of life? This is for you to analyze. Explain the reasons why Nwoye chose not to continue to live in the cultural system of his birth. What event occurs at the parade of Masked Elders? What does this indicate about Ibo society? The fact that an Ibo person who converted to Christianity would engage in an act to destroy the mask of an Ibo elder, and openly disrespect Ibo religion, shows how much Ibo society has changed since the arrival of the colonizers. It shows that Ibo society has fallen apart; deeply held beliefs are no longer held by all.

Applied Anthropology

When we use knowledge that has been generated through anthropological research in order to make a plan to improve conditions of life for specific groups of people, we can say that it is Applied Anthropology. All of the case studies under Applied Anthropology that we will examine were the direct or indirect result of studies conducted earlier that provided knowledge enabling the applied work to be done. You will see that we have chosen to examine cases with some features in common: they all concern the physical health of a group of people who face dangerous health problems, but in each case the people have socio-cultural beliefs, assumptions and behaviors that are contributing to or exacerbating the dangerous health problem.

Indigenous People, Human Rights and Social Suffering

◦ A human right is a right that all human beings should have, because they are human. Examples of basic human might be: sufficient food, adequate shelter, clean water, freedom from violence, and access to basic medical care. ◦ As we have stated in previous class lectures, with respect to contemporary global practices, we find that the rights that we would hope all human beings would have are far from the rights they actually do have. Many human beings cannot exercise basic human rights. ◦ We can also raise the question: What about other rights, such as freedom from discrimination? If we go back to the YouTube Video on the Uncontacted Peoples in Brazil, and the work of Carlos Morellis, you have a clear example. Many indigenous people have not been treated in an acceptable human manner, in the history of colonialism and today. As was also illustrated in our examination of the the Shuar people, prejudice against indigenous people persists. ◦ Q: Do prejudices against indigenous people persist in the US? Where are they visible to you? ◦ Research Q: Why did Marlon Brando refuse the Oscar Award for his performance in The Godfather? Look it up on Youtube. In the 1970s what message did Sasheen Littlefeather have for the American public? What organization did she represent? Do you think that the issue she raised in the 1970s has been partly or wholly rectified today?

And the problem continues.... Robert and Wilbur eventually exposed Dupont's attempts to hide their own evidence and dissuade the EPA from addressing the matter. Some call it a "corporate environmental conspiracy." Their story is now shown in the motion picture Dark Waters, based on the book Exposure by Robert Bilott. The problem of chemical seepage into many forms of drinking water continues in Ohio, West Virginia and other states.

While Ciekawy has taught here at OU she accidentally learned that 3 of her students have had rare forms of kidney cancer as children that came from drinking public water affected by Dupont manufacturing processes in Southern Ohio and West Virginia. She assumes there have been many more such students. The students said that their medical expenses were under court orders been paid for by Dupont, as well as future medical testing, because of the law suits that lawyers like Bilotti and farmers like Tennant had the courage to devote themselves to. How many other similar processes are going on??? The book Exposure tells us that Dupont and a number of chemical manufacturers have made new chemicals that have similar properties. They slightly change the chemical every year and give it a new name, so it is difficult for regulatory testing to keep up with the current, slightly altered chemical. Q: In which ways has Underdevelopment occurred to affected citizens of Ohio and West Virginia? How does the concept of Environmental Racism explain which kinds of citizens are subjected to such problems? Q: Do you consider clean water to be a basic right of citizenship in the U.S.? Q: Do you know what is in your water?

How can Nwoye be considered to be a critical thinker and a culture critic? We can see that Nwoye never fit into his society like other people did. His own interests and talents were not valued by his father, and were not valued by his culture in general. He loved his adopted brother Ikemefuna but Ikemefuna was sacrificed by the society. Nwoye did not fit in, so for him the possibility of joining another system, such as what was offered by the mission, was attractive. In this particular situation the mission society also stood against the killing of twins and aspects of Ibo law that harmed particular people such as Ikemefuna. As you recall, Nwoye never accepted these cultural practices.

Why does Okonkwo commit suicide? Explain why, under the circumstances at the end, Okonkwo could not continue to live in that society. Also, explain what symbolic significance his death has for the story. What is the attitude of the District Commissioner towards Okonkwo's death, and what point is Chinua Achebe making? Explain this in your own words. What is the District Commissioner's attitude toward the death of Okonkwo? What does this say about the ethnocentrism of the District Commissioner? What does it show us about the shallowness of the District Commissioner's understanding of the complexity of Ibo culture? What lessons about humanity and culture change does Chinua Achebe's work address? Several responses to this question are embedded in previous sections.

• - After the first year, and going to two workshops, the kaya elders decided that their main focus should be behavior change. They thought that as elders and religious leaders they were respected in Mijikenda communities and they had both the cultural sensitivity and the knowledge gained through workshops to be effective in providing education messages to Mijikenda people.

• - Kaya elders reported that they had the greatest influence with male members of households. With men, kaya elders engaged in specific discussions about the best ways to change their behavior in sexual relationships in order to avoid contracting HIV, the importance of having discussions about their sexual relationship with their partners and the necessity of getting an HIV test at a testing center. • - The kaya elders engaged in these education activities for a 15-year period. While there are no studies to assess the impact of the elders' education workshops on the Mijikenda community, the elders all said that the knowledge they acquired was essential for their effectiveness as change agents. Many Mijikenda people credited them for providing them with ideas that influenced their behavior, and doing so in a way that was easy for them to comprehend. • - Understanding the many status, age and gender aspects of Mijikenda culture allowed Kodo and Ciekawy to create a community education program that would be especially influential with men who were most likely to bring HIV to their communities and could be most influential in preventing it.

Introduction

• Our work today continues with two more case studies of Applied Anthropology. As you recall, all of our case studies in applied anthropology have some features in common: they all concern the physical health of a group of people who face dangerous health problems, where the people have socio-cultural beliefs, assumptions and behaviors that are contributing to or exacerbating the dangerous health problem. Following our definition of Applied Anthropology (the use of anthropological research in order to directly address an issue or problem facing a community) we examine a situation in the earlier part of this decade concerning HIV/AIDS. At this period of time the kinds of drugs that now successfully control the virus and limit the effects of the virus on the human body had not been developed. The chances were high that someone who was HIV positive would die in a few years' time. Across the world, government health institutions and NGOs (Non-Government Organizations) concerned with health worked to develop effective education messages about the dangers of HIV contraction and encourage people to adopt behaviors in order to prevent HIV infection. As we noted in our last lecture, some people find it difficult to understand and accept new ideas about cause and effect that are not the ones their cultural system provides.

Cutlure and Conflict

•Enculturation - this term was used in Unit 1 of our course. •Acculturation - culture change that comes about through first hand contact with another culture. •Do you recall what the theory of Functionalism implies about how a cultural system changes? Recall that when one segment of thee system changes, all the other segments are also affected. •Genocide - the mass killing of a particular group of human beings who are identified in a particular manner by assailants (on the basis of...?). •What are some examples of acts of genocide over the past 100 years? •Ethnocide - the ending or the death of many aspects of the cultural system (the implication is that most cultural patterns do not end/die on their own, but change because people are directly or indirectly forced to adapt to another cultural system). When most aspects of the cultural system change what remains may or may not continue to be viewed as "the same" cultural system.

SINCE COVID, WHY IS U.S. LIFE EXPECTANCY STRUGGLING TO REBOUND?

•What to know: Life expectancy in 2022 rose more than a full year, to 77.5 years, new CDC data shows. It's mostly because of a drop in covid-19 deaths, but progress remains slow. •Why? Drug overdoses, homicides and chronic illnesses such as heart disease are continuing to drive a mortality crisis in the U.S. compared to similar countries.

Inequality, Marginality and Social Suffering

◦ As we have illustrated in this course, Power and Wealth is often organized in ways that create inequality in society. The most obvious ways inequalities are created are according to socio-economic position. People in different positions in a hierarchy (such as a class system) have different access to wealth and power. This organization of access to power and wealth is aided by social beliefs and actions that can discriminate against or disadvantage people according to features such as: Ethnicity, Gender, Race, Sexual Orientation, Disability, Nationality, and Religion. Inequalities and Forms of Discrimination can be thought of as FAULTS in society. Marginality - a situation where a group of people does not have access to resources or opportunities that most other groups in the society have. A group of people in this situation can be said to be marginal. ◦ In our course we have examined several societies of indigenous people. We have found that they are marginalized in the larger society composed of the country that they live in. They are not given access to state resources and have historically been economically exploited by colonial societies, and then by the processes of the states (countries) in which they reside. Their marginalized position also results in social suffering. ◦ Social Suffering - human suffering caused by biases, prejudices, and any kind of social, political or economic inequality that is feature of society and rationalized as "the way things are." If it is part of a common pattern we say it is structured into society. ◦ From this perspective, patterned human suffering and disadvantage are not random; these features are produced, consciously or unconsciously, by the society's choices, organized through forms of decision-making in law, public policy, government, and private and publ

Today's Work: Inequality, Marginality and Social Suffering Globalization, Interconnection and Interdependency Environmental Degradation and Sustainability Environmental RacismThe Value of Athens Farmer and Business Initiatives

◦ Earlier lectures in Unit 3 provided case studies concerning the need for Behavior Change, the last one focusing on the U.S. population's response to the need for behavior in order to reduce the spread of Covid 19. We now move on to examine several case studies pertaining to globalization and environmental issues, human health, human rights, and sustainability. These case studies enable us to apply ideas we have used throughout the semester and establish interconnections among them. These case studies beg the question, "what kinds of behavior changes are needed in order to make environments safer for all?"

Integration and Interdependency are now features of our world, transcending country borders and geographical features. And while degrees of interdependency vary, and are characterized by different kinds of connections, it is important to acknowledge that these features also come with vulnerabilities and dangers. As we are now all aware, this interdependency results in exposure to world communicable diseases that now move at a fast rate compared to those in the last century. One area of inquiry we may investigate concerns the interdependency of some aspects of global markets and product supply. We might ask, "What are the results of depending on products that are made in other countries?

◦ If we make an investigation into the products we use every day, and take for example the clothes we wear, we might find that most of them are not made in the United States. ◦ Quick Research Assessment: Take a look at the clothes in your closet. Choose thirty pieces and find their manufacturing labels. How many are made in the United States? Some people in my classes have found up to 25/30 made outside the United States!!! What are some other aspects of global interdependency that you are concerned about? What other new problems have resulted from fast and easy global travel, internet connection and world trade/business on a large scale, elements of "modern life" that now seem normal, or are perhaps taken for granted...or so until.... Let us look at an example of global economic interdependency and environmental destruction.

◦ In many of our case studies in Unit 3 we found that planned change that is not well researched and not well executed can result in disastrous consequences for certain groups of people in the society in which it is implemented. When we investigate particular cases, we often find that some groups of people gain and other lose as a result of the change. As social scientists, we believe that it is not necessary to have "losers" or that losers are an inevitable consequence of change. We generally believe that with insightful research, reliance on sound principles of logic, and analysis conducted by experts, it is possible to understand ahead of time what the likely cause and effect relationships will be, and as a result have better planning and make better policies in order to guide change. These better plans and policies can avoid harmful results that are not intentionally created, but come from thinking that doe

◦ In Unit 3 we have examined some case studies classified as applied anthropology. In general, when we use knowledge that has been generated through anthropological research in a project to improve conditions of life for specific groups of people, we can say that it is Applied Anthropology. In Unit 3 we examined case studies in applied anthropology that had some features in common: they all concerned the physical health of a group of people who faced dangerous health problems, but in each case the people had socio-cultural beliefs, assumptions and behaviors that were contributing to or exacerbating the dangerous health problem.

NOT IN MY BACK YARD (NIMBY)

◦ National movements to try to bring environmental concerns to the attention of government bodies and the media exist in many parts of the U.S. One movement called NOT IN MY BACK YARD (NIMBY) communicates the message that once communities become aware of environmental racism, they will voice their concerns about their particular problem and also call attention to the injustice of disregarding degradation to the environment and the health of people whose lives are shaped by marginality. ◦ The word NIMBY has come into popular usage in US English, as a way of indicating the refusal of a person or a group to accept dangerous environmental pollutants in their environment.

Key Points about Social Justice and Sustainability If all sections of society are to benefit from the resource base of the community or polity, or if all people in a society are to benefit from proposed change, it is important for members of society to require those who have decision-making power and other forms of power to conduct their work according to the requirements of the law, the requirement of their roles in institutions, and according to goals that ensure social justice. It is also imperative that change be assessed according to the quality of sustainability so that useful changes can remain in place.

◦ Social Justice - the perspective that policies and human action must acknowledge the role of inequality in the creation of human misery (social suffering), and create ways through policy planning for all members of society to benefit. ◦ Sustainability - the ability to be reproduced or continued without great difficulty, based on using resources that are relatively inexpensive, available and renewable. This also ensures that human beings will be able to control the process, rather than being controlled by outside forces. As we saw in the case concerning the turtle marketing activity, the change was not sustainable, resulting in environmental damage and human health decline.