AP BIO BYU READING ASSIGNMENTS PT 2

L7 What is a basal metabolic rate, and what is an average BMR for humans?

A basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy expended by an animal over a specific amount of time. Human males have a BMR of 1600 to 1800 kcal/day and human females have a BMR of 1300 to 1500 kcal/day.

L10 Describe cell-mediated immune response and humoral immune response.

A cell-mediated immune response is one that is carried out by T cells and does not involve antibodies. It acts on intracellular microbes and involved TCR receptors. A humoral immune response is one that is controlled by activated B cells and antibodies. It acts on extracellular microbes and their toxins, as well as involves BCR receptors.

L8 Explain the similarities and differences between chemical and electrical synapses.

A chemical synapse is a specialized junction in which cells of the nervous system signal to one another and to non-neural cells such as muscles or glands, in the form of neurotransmitter molecules. An electrical synapse is a gap that has channel proteins that connect the two neurons so the electrical signal can travel smoothly over the synapse.

L12 What is a fixed action pattern? Give an example.

A fixed action pattern is a series of movements controlled by a stimulus and even when the stimulus is gone, the pattern continues. An example of this is in the three-spined stickleback, which is a small freshwater fish. The males of this fish show instinctual aggressiveness to other males by noticing their red bellies. In lab experiments, researches would introduce the sticklebacks to objects that do not resemble their shape but painted the bottom half of them red and the fish were still aggressive.

L13 Differentiate between food chains and food webs and identify the importance of each.

A food chain is a linear chain of organisms that show how nutrients and energy pass through. They include primary produces, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers that represent the ecosystem structure and function. Food webs are a representation of interconnected webs between organisms and include primary producers, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers that represent the ecosystem structure and function.

L7 What is the relationship between animal shape and speed?

A fusiform shape is a tubular shaped body that is tapered at both ends which decreases the drag on the body of the animal as it moves through water which allows it to swim at high speeds. Land animals are constrained mainly by gravity so drag is not important.

L1 What is a hybrid?

A hybrid is the offspring of two closely related organisms not within the same species.

L12 What is a keystone species?

A keystone species is one whose presence is important to maintaining biodiversity within an ecosystem and holds up an ecological community's structure.

L10 What does a memory cell do?

A memory cell is an antigen-specific B or T lymphocyte (white blood cell) that can immediately become effector cells upon re-exposure to the same pathogen.

L7 Describe a negative feedback loop and give an example.

A negative feedback loop is one that changes the direction of a reaction. For example, when someone eats, their blood level glucose rises so the pancreas secretes insulin to the blood. Since insulin levels are high, glucose is transported into cells and liver cells store glucose as glycogen so the glucose levels drop. In response to lower blood level glucose, the pancreas stops releasing insulin.

L5 What is a parasitic plant?

A parasitic plant is one that depends on its host for survival.

L10 Define the terms "pathogen" and "host."

A pathogen is a tiny organisms such as bacterium or virus that can cause disease. A host is an organism that harbors another organism in a symbiotic relationship.

L3 What can a phylogenetic tree tell you?

A phylogenetic tree is one of the ways to understand the evolutionary history between organisms and how they are connected by a common ancestor.

L3 Discuss the components and purpose of a phylogenetic tree.

A phylogenetic tree is used to show the evolutionary pathways and links among organisms based on common ancestors. Root - which represents the ancestral lineage Branch point - shows where two linages diverge Basal taxon - shows a lineage that evolved early and is unbranched Sister taxa - when two lineages stem from the same branch point Polyomy - branch with more than two lineages

L7 Describe a positive feedback loop and give an example.

A positive feedback loop is maintaining the direction of a reaction and possibly increasing it. For example, while a woman gives birth when the baby pushes against the cervix, the brain stimulates the release of oxytocin which causes the uterus to contract. This happens every time the baby pushes against the cervix until the baby is completely out.

L8 What is signal summation?

A signal summation is the net change in the postsynaptic membrane voltage that decides whether the cell has reached its threshold of excitation that is required to fire an action potential.

L12 What does the term "life history" mean?

A species' life history describes the series of events over its lifetime, such as how resources are allocated for growth, maintenance, and reproduction.

L5 What is a symbiont?

A symbiont is a plant in a symbiotic relationship with special adaptations such as mycorrhizae or nodule formation.

L2 In a population of 1,000 mice, there are 400 mice that show the dominant trait of being dark-haired. Using Hardy-Weinberg, determine the number of mice that are in each of the three genotypes for this trait.

0.6 = q^2 q = .77 p + 0.77 = 1 p = 0.23 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 0.23^2 + 2(0.23)(0.77) + .77^2 = 1 5 - if 400 show the dominant trait and there are 1000 individuals that would mean 600 would show the recessive trait. So your starting point is q^2 = .6, the square root of .6 is .77, so q = .77. Put that into the equation p + q = 1 to find p and then go from there.

L2 What are the five principles that must be true for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to be accurate?

1. A large breeding population 2. Random mating 3. No change in allele frequency because of mutation 4. No immigration or emigration 5. No natural selection

L6 Describe the following types of fruit. - simple fruit - aggregate fruit - multiple fruit - accessory fruit

1. Simple fruit is a fruit that develops from a single carpel or fused carpels 2. Aggregate fruit is a fruit that develops from multiple carpels in the same flower. 3. Multiple fruits are ones that develop from multiple flowers on an inflorescence. 4. Accessory fruits are ones that are derived from tissues other than the ovary.

L11 Distinguish between abiotic and biotic components of the environment.

Abiotic components are the nonliving parts of an area such as air, water, and soil. Biotic components are the living parts of an area such as animals and plants.

L2 Define "adaptive evolution."

Adaptive evolution is the frequency of beneficial alleles and the decrease in mutations due to selection and organisms creative offspring with more advantageous traits.

L10 Explain adaptive immunity.

Adaptive immunity is one that occurs after the body is exposed to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination.

L1 Describe how adaptive radiation can lead to speciation.

Adaptive radiation is the formation of a new species when one species radiates out to form several other species due to the demands of new lifestyles. ex. Hawaiian honeycreeper. From the founder species, over six new species have evolved to meet the demands of the Island archipelagos in Hawaii.

L14 Define "adaptive radiation."

Adaptive radiation is the rapid evolution of many species from a common ancestor.

L2 Define the terms "allele frequency," "gene pool," and "founder effect."

Allele frequency is the rate when a specific allele appears within a population. The gene pool is the total amount of all the alleles in a population. The founder effect is a form of genetic drift where small groups of organisms separate from a large population and form small, new colonies with less genetic variation.

L12 What are altruism and kin selection?

Altruism selection is an individual acting in a way that would decrease its own survival chances but improve the survival chances of another. Kin selection is an organism sacrificing its life so that its genes will be passed onto future generations by their relatives and not them to enhance reproductive fitness.

L13 What is an ecosystem? Name the three broad types of ecosystems.

An ecosystem is a community of biotic organisms and their interactions with their biotic environment. The three broad types of ecosystems are freshwater, ocean water, and terrestrial.

L10 Describe physical and chemical immune barriers.

An example of a physical barrier is the skin. It functions as an impassable barrier to pathogens. They are killed or inactivated on the skin by drying out and by the skin's acidity. Chemical barriers are places on the body that are not protected by skin and throughout the body as well. For example, the low pH of the stomach inhibits the growth of pathogens.

L12 Give examples of exponential and logistic growth in natural populations.

An example of exponential growth is shown in bacteria. They reproduce by prokaryotic fission, meaning they reproduce rapidly and their resources for reproduction are unlimited since they only need themselves. An example of logistic growth is yeast which can produce an S-shaped curve when grown in a test tube.

L12 Give examples of exponential and logistic growth in wild animal populations.

An example of logistic growth is sheep. The population size exceeds the carrying capacity for short amounts of time then falls below it afterward. An example of exponential growth is an invasive species taking over a population and its resources.

L10 Describe the process of an inflammatory response.

An inflammatory response occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, toxins, or pathogens. The damaged cells release chemicals that cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, which causes swelling until the tissues are healed.

L6 On a piece of paper, draw and label a typical flower. Did you complete your diagram? State the function for each structure you labeled in your diagram.

Androecium - contains the male reproductive structures and has stamens with anthers that contain microsporangia. Calyx - the green leafy structures collectively help protect the unopened bud. Corolla - the collective petals that assist in reproductive processes. Gynoecium - the innermost group of structures that have female reproductive components.

L7 How can an environment affect energy needs?

Animals adapt to extreme temperatures or food availability through torpor, which is a process that leads to a decrease in activity and metabolism that allows animals to survive adverse conditions. It can be used for long periods of time, such as entering a state of hibernation in the winter months.

L12 Why do animals migrate?

Animals migrate as an adapted response to variation in a habitat's resource availability.

L13 Describe how organisms acquire energy in a food web and in associated food chains.

As levels increase from producers to consumers, the organism will obtain its energy from the last level. Primary producers, which are usually photosynthetic organisms or decaying organic material, are eaten by the primary consumers. The primary consumers are then giving energy to the secondary consumers. The secondary consumers then give energy to tertiary consumers.

L6 When is asexual reproduction advantageous?

Asexual reproduction is advantageous because the plants survive well under stable environmental conditions when compared to plants that are sexually produced because they carry genes identical to their parents. Another advantage is that the resulting plant will reach maturity faster.

L8 Compare the function of different types of glial cells.

Astrocytes make contact with capillaries and neurons in the central nervous system and provide nutrients to neurons and regulate the concentrations of ions and chemicals in the extracellular fluid, as well as provide structural support for synapses. Satellite glia provide nutrients and structural support for neurons in the peripheral nervous system. Microglia degrade dead cells and protect the brain from any invading microorganisms.

L7 How are asymmetry, radial symmetry, and bilateral symmetry body plans different?

Asymmetry describes animals with no axis of symmetry in their body pattern. Radial symmetry describes when an animal has an up-and-down orientation, meaning that any plane cut along its longitudinal axis through the organisms makes equal halves but not a definite right or left side. Bilateral symmetry describes an animal that is the same on symmetrical halves within right and left.

L10 Define autoimmunity and give an example.

Autoimmunity is a type of hypersensitivity to self-antigens and involves the humoral immune response. An example of autoimmunity is systemic lupus erythematosus which is characterized by the autoimmunity to one's own DNA which leads to the dysfunction of organs.

L5 Describe the nutritional adaptations of plants.

Autotrophic plants can make their own food from inorganic raw materials. However, some plants are heterotrophic, meaning they are parasitic and lack chlorophyll. Plants may get the help of microbial partners to gain nutrients. For example, the formation of nodules in legume plants and mycorrhization is a nutritional adaptation.

L4 State what each of these plant hormones do. auxins cytokinins gibberellins abscisic acid ethylene

Auxins: plant hormones that influence cell elongation, gravitropism, apical dominance, and root growth Cytokinins: plant hormones that promote cell division Gibberellins: plant hormones that stimulate shoot elongation, seed germination, and the maturation and dropping of fruit and flowers Abscisic acid: plant hormones that induce dormancy in seeds and the plants' other organs Ethylene: plant hormones that are associated with the ripening of fruit, wilting of flowers, and the falling of leaves.

L12 What do the following letters refer to in growth equations? B, D, N, T, K, R.

B - birth rate D - the death rate N - number of individuals T - time K - carrying capacity R - intrinsic rate of increase

L12 Define Batesian mimicry and Müllerian mimicry.

Batesian mimicry is one where a harmless species takes on the warning colorations of a harmful species. Mullerian mimicry is one where species share warning coloration and all are harmful towards predators.

L6 What do the flower of plants pollinated by bats look like and why?

Bats are pollinators of nocturnal flowers such as agave, guava, and morning glory. They are usually large and white or pale in color, which makes it distinguishable from the dark surroundings at night to bats. They are also large and wide-mouthed to accommodate the head of the bat.

L6 Describe how pollination by insects works and list some examples.

Bees cannot see the color red so bee-pollinated flowers have shades of blue, yellow, or other colors. The pollen sticks to the bees' fuzzy hair and when the bee visits another flower, some of the pollen is transferred onto it. Flies, wasps, and butterflies are also important pollinators that attach to pollen and transfer it onto the next flower on their journey.

L13 Explain how the efficiency of energy transfers between trophic levels affects ecosystem structure and dynamics.

Between each trophic level, energy is lost as heat and so after a limited amount of energy transfers, the energy remaining in the food chain would not be high enough to support populations at a higher trophic level. Each trophic level has less energy and supports fewer organisms as it goes up from the primary producers.

L14 Define "biodiversity."

Biodiversity is the variety of species and their commonalities in the biosphere.

L11 Define "biogeography" and describe how it can be used.

Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the abiotic factors that affect their dispersal. It can be used by examing how abiotic factors change and how they affect the composition of plant and animal communities.

L13 What is biomagnification?

Biomagnification is the increasing concentration of toxic substances in organisms at each trophic level.

L9 Explain how blood calcium levels are regulated by hormones.

Blood calcium levels are regulated by the parathyroid hormone which is releases in response to low blood calcium levels. In the skeleton, the parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts that release calcium from the bones into the blood.

L5 Carnivorous plants use the insects they collect for what purpose?

Carnivorous plants use the insects they collect to make up for the nutrients that they are lacking in their environment, where they could otherwise rely on photosynthesis only.

L3 Discuss the purpose of cladistics.

Cladistics is a system of how scientists organize the homologous traits of organisms.

L12 Compare classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli and works with involuntary responses in learning. Operant conditioning works with voluntary behaviors and pairs a behavior and response in learning.

L14 What are the effects of climate change on biodiversity?

Climate change will make habitats less hospitable, which means an increase in habitat loss, which means increased rates of extinction. Also, the shifting ranges of habitats may cause species contact with ones that were not in their historic range.

L7 What is/are the function(s) of connective tissues, and where are they located in the body?

Connective tissues are made up of a matrix that includes living cells and a ground substance. They are in fibrous tissues such as fat, cartilage, bone, bone marrow, and blood. Connective tissues bind organs together and hold them in place, as well as fill up space.

L12 Relate population growth and age structure to the level of economic development in different countries.

Countries with a population of mostly young people and rapid growth usually are less-developed countries. Countries with stable growth and an even number of age groups show developed and usually advanced countries.

L12 Animals communicate with each other using signals. Describe these types of signals: courtship displays, aggressive displays, and distraction displays.

Courtship - a display by an animal that is used to attract a mating partner Aggressive displays - a display by an animal that shows other animals to back down from fighting or attacking each other. Distraction displays - a display to attract a predator away from the nest that contains their young offspring.

L13 Describe how DDT usage can be used as an example of biomagnification.

DDT is a pesticide that sufficiently increased in birds that ate fish through biomagnification, which then caused their eggshells to be fragile and cause breakage during nesting. This then decreased bird populations due to the toxic pesticide.

L8 On a piece of paper, draw a neuron and label these parts: dendrites, synapse, axon, axon terminal, myelin, and node of Ranvier. Did you finish your diagram? State the functions of the neuron parts you labeled.

Dendrites: a structure that extends away from the cell body to receive messages from other neurons Synapse: a junction between two neurons where signals are communicated Axon: a tube-like structure that sends a signal from a neuron's cell body to axon terminals Axon terminal: a structure on the end of an axon that forms a synapse with another neuron. Myelin: a fatty substance made by glia that insulates axons. The node of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath where the signal is recharged for sending.

L12 Compare and contrast density-dependent growth regulation and density-independent growth regulation and give examples.

Density-dependent processes occur when population growth rates are regulated by the density of a population. Their factors include disease, competition, and predation. ex. predation Density independent processes occur because the density of individuals does not have any effect on future growth. Their factors include weather and climate, which can exert their influences on population size regardless of the population density. ex. drought

L4 What is the structure and function for dermal, vascular, and ground tissues?

Dermal tissue covers the plant as protection and is a simple tissue that covers the outer surface of the plant and controls gas exchange. Vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and sugars to different areas of the plant and it is a complex tissue. It is made of xylem and phloem. Xylem tissue transports water and nutrients from the roots and phloem tissue transports organic compounds from the place of photosynthesis to other areas of the plant. Ground tissue is a site for photosynthesis and provides a supporting matrix for the vascular tissue. It also stores water and sugars

L3 Describe the pattern of descent with modification.

Descent with modification refers to evolution and although related organisms have many of the same characteristics and genetic codes, changes occur. The pattern repeats as more species are created and make a phylogenetic tree of life.

L2 On a piece of paper, draw and label three natural selection curves—directional, stabilizing, and diversifying (sometimes called disruptive). Did you finish your diagram? Explain what each label means.

Directional selection is a selection that favors phenotypes at one end of the spectrum of variation. Stabilizing selection is a selection that prefers average phenotypes. Diversifying selection is a selection that favors two or more phenotypes.

L1 Divergent evolution

Divergent evolution - when a species diverges into two or more descendant species, which increases the morphological differences between them and their common ancestor.

L3 List the different levels of the taxonomic classification system.

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species, Subspecies.

L6 Describe the process of double fertilization.

Double fertilization is when one sperm fertilizes an egg and one sperm fertilizes the two polar nuclei in angiosperms. The sperm fusing with the egg forms a zygote while the sperm that fuses with the polar nuclei make an endosperm.

L13 Discuss trophic levels and how ecological pyramids are used to model them.

Ecological pyramids show the decrease in energy levels and how fewer organisms are supported in a population as the pyramid goes up. For example, at the bottom at the pyramid would be primary producers which have the most energy, then the primary consumers would usually have 10x less energy, and this pattern would continue for each trophic level as energy decreases.

L12 Describe how ecologists measure population size and density.

Ecologists measure population size by using the following equation: (number marked first catch * total number of second catch) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = N number marked second catch A quadrat may be used to measure population density. Ecologists set it in areas in a habitat and after setting the quadrants, researchers then count the number of individuals that lie within their boundaries.

L11 Define ecology and the four levels of ecological research.

Ecology is a branch of biology that deals with organisms and their relation to one another and to their environmental surroundings. The four levels of ecological research are organism, population, community, and ecosystem.

L5 List the elements and compounds required for proper plant nutrition.

Elements required for proper plant nutrition are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur. Compounds required for proper plant nutrition are Iron, Manganese, Boron, Molybdenum, Copper, Zinc, Chlorine, Nickel, Cobalt, Sodium, and Silicon.

L7 Define "endothermic" and "ectothermic."

Endothermic describes animals that are capable of maintaining relatively constant body temperature, whereas ectothermic describes an animal incapable of maintaining a relatively constant internal body temperature and it changes with the environment.

L7 What is/are the function(s) of epithelial tissues, and where are they located in the body?

Epithelial tissues cover the outside of organs and structures in the body and line the lumens of organs. Their functions include secretion, absorption, protection, and sensing.

L5 What are essential nutrients for plants?

Essential macronutrients for plants are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur. Essential micronutrients for plants are Iron, Manganese, Boron, Molybdenum, Copper, Zinc, Chlorine, Nickel, Cobalt, Sodium, and Silicon.

L5 What does it mean to be "essential"?

Essential nutrients are considered essential based on three criteria: - a plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element - no other element can perform the function of the element - the element is directly involved in plant nutrition

L3 Discuss the evolution of eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes descended from multiple prokaryotes and they developed from an endosymbiotic gene fusion between two species, one an Archaea and he other a Bacteria.

L13 On a piece of paper, draw the water cycle. Did you finish your diagram? Now, explain each of these terms: evaporation, sublimation, condensation, precipitation, subsurface, surface runoff, and stream flow.

Evaporation: the transfer of water to water vapor Sublimation: the transfer of a solid-fluid to its vapor without becoming liquid first; ice to water vapor Condensation: the concentration of water vapor into clouds Precipitation: clouds release the water as rain or snow Subsurface: the flow of water underground Surface runoff: the stream of water that flows over the surface. Streamflow: The flow of rainwater into streams or rivers

L12 Explain the characteristics of and differences between exponential and logistic growth patterns.

Exponential growth patterns show a J curve and resources are unlimited. Logistic growth patterns show an S curve where resources are limited and population growth decreases at the population reaches carrying capacity and resources become scarce.

L1 In what ways are fossils considered an evidence of evolution?

Fossils are proof that organisms from the past are different than how they are today. They show a story and evolution of bones over millions of years.

L2 Define the terms "gene flow," "mutations," "non-random mating," and "cline."

Gene flow is the flow of alleles in and out of a population because of the migration of individuals. Mutations are changes in an organism's DNA and are important for diversity in populations. Non-random mating is when organisms choose their mate based on their desired traits. Cline is geographic variation and is shown as populations of a given species vary across an ecological gradient.

L2 What is genetic drift? Is it an example of natural selection? Answer yes or no and explain why.

Genetic drift is the random chance that some individuals will have more offspring than others. Genetic drift is an example of natural selection because it stems from the observation that some individuals in a population are more likely to survive and have more offspring than other organisms, which is an advantage.

L1 Describe the difference between a gradual and punctuated equilibrium.

Graduated equilibrium - model that shows how species diverge gradually over time Punctuated equilibrium - model for rapid speciation.

L4 Discuss gravitropism, thigmotropism, and phototropism.

Gravitropism is growth of a plant in response to gravity and directs root growth toward the pull of gravity and stem growth in the opposite direction. Thigmotropism is plant growth in response to touch or contact with a solid object. Climbing plants or vines demonstrate thigmotropism. An example of thigmotropism is plants growing and intertwining all around a metal fence. Phototropism is the directional growth of organisms in response to light and growth towards it. Plant cells have photoreceptors that detect light where they make the plant attracted to the light and grow towards it.

L13 What is gross primary productivity and net primary productivity?

Gross primary productivity (GPP): the rate of photosynthetic primary producers take energy from the sun and use it. Net primary productivity (NPP): The remaining energy in the primary producer's after respiration and heat loss.

L12 Describe how life history patterns are influenced by natural selection.

Growth, survival, and reproduction are all a part of life history and are influenced by natural selection and allow species to adapt to their environment and obtain the resources they need to reproduce.

L12 Describe how natural selection and environmental adaptation led to the evolution of particular life history patterns.

Growth, survival, and reproduction are all a part of life history and are influenced by natural selection and allow species to adapt to their environment and obtain the resources they need to successfully reproduce.

L12 What are habituation and imprinting?

Habituation is a form of learning where an animal stops responding to a stimulus after repeated exposure. Imprinting is a form of learning that occurs at a specific life stage and is independent of the species involved.

L2 Explain why only heritable variation can be acted upon by natural selection.

Heritable variation can be acted upon by natural selection because alleles are passed from parent to offspring and the ones with beneficial traits may survive the longest as more generations are produced.

L7 Define "homeostasis."

Homeostasis means maintaining a dynamic equilibrium with appropriate body functions.

L3 Compare homologous and analogous traits.

Homologous traits - are structures between organisms that share a similar embryonic origin Analogous traits - are structures between organisms that share a similar function.

L9 Explain how hormone production is regulated.

Hormone production and release is usually controlled by negative feedback mechanisms that keeps the concentration of hormones in the blood maintained within a narrow range.

L9 Explain how hormones work.

Hormones mediate the changes in target cells by binding to specific hormone receptors. Hormones circulate throughout the body and only affect the cells that posses the appropriate receptors.

L10 Define hypersensitivity and give an example.

Hypersensitivity is a spectrum of immune responses towards harmless self-antigens or unrecognizable particles. The types of hypersensitivities include immediate, delayed, and autoimmunity. An example pf the body's hypersensitivity is exposure to a harmless antigen called an allergy.

L9 List the endocrine glands of the human body and describe where they are located.

Hypothalamus - located in the brain and regulates hormone release from the pituitary gland Pituitary(anterior) - located in the brain and one example of its associated hormones is the growth hormone that promotes the growth of body tissues. Pituitary (posterior) - located in the brain and one example of its associated hormones is oxytocin which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth Thyroid - located in the lower front of the neck and one example of the associated hormones is thyroxine which stimulates and maintains metabolism. Parathyroid - located in the lower front of the neck and the associated hormone is the parathyroid hormone which increases blood CA^2+ levels Adrenal (Cortex) - Located on the kidneys and one of the associated hormones is cortisol which increases blood glucose levels Adrenal (Medulla) - Located on the kidneys and one of the associated hormones is epinephrine which stimulates the fight-or-flight response. Pancreas - located on the pancreas and one of the associated hormones is insulin which reduces blood glucose levels. Pineal gland - located in the brain and the associated hormone is melatonin which regulates biological rhythms. Testes - Located in the testes and the associated hormone is androgens which regulates sperm production Ovaries - located in the ovaries and one of the associated hormones is estrogen which promotes uterine lining growth.

L6 Define the terms "monoecious" and "dioecious."

If both male and female flowers are born on the same plant, then the species is called monoecious, while species with male and female flowers born on separate plants are called dioecious.

L12 Discuss the predator-prey cycle.

If the prey of the predators has a population decrease, so will the predators because they have a food shortage. If the predators of the prey have a population decrease, then the prey will have a population increase because they do not have predators to eat them.

L10 Explain immediate and induced innate immune responses.

Immediate innate immunity begins 0-4 hours after exposure to a pathogen and involves macrophages that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns. This immunity also activates natural killer cells. Induced innate immune responses begin 4-96 hours after exposure to a pathogen and involve PAMPS binding to pattern-recognition receptors.

L6 Compare reproduction in angiosperms versus gymnosperms.

In angiosperms, the female gametophyte exists in an enclosed structure, while in gymnosperms, the female gametophyte is present on exposed places of the cone. In angiosperms, they perform double fertilization but gymnosperms do not. The male and female structures are present on separate male and female cones in gymnosperms, but in angiosperms, they are a part of the flower.

L12 On a piece of paper, draw three pictures to show pattern distribution. Did you complete your drawings? Describe them.

In my uniform drawing, I put dots representing the animals and distributed them equally among the space with each dot equidistant from another. In my random drawing, the dots were placed aimlessly. In my clumped drawing, I put all the dots close together in a circle.

L12 On a piece of paper, draw an exponential and logistic growth curve with all axis labels. Did you finish your diagram? What do each of the labels indicate?

In the exponential growth curve, the x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents population size. There is a J-shaped curve that shows the rapid increase of a population. In the logistic growth curve, the x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents the population size. There is an S curve that stops at the dashed line of carrying capacity.

L2 What is the effect of inbreeding on genetic variation?

Inbreeding can bring together deleterious recessive mutations that cause abnormalities and susceptibility to dangerous diseases.

L12 Compare innate behaviors and learned behaviors.

Innate behaviors rely on the instinctual response to stimuli. Learned behaviors are a result of environmental conditioning and rely on environmental influences.

L10 Compare and contrast adaptive and innate immunity.

Innate immunity is one that occurs naturally because of genetic factors or functions of the body, but not by an infection or vaccination. nonspecific immunity Adaptive immunity is one that occurs after the body is exposed to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination. specific immunity

L5 How have insectivorous plants adapted to their environment? Give some examples.

Insectivorous plants have adapted to their environment by compensating for the lack of pH in its soil with obtaining the minerals from its prey. For example, venus fly traps secrete nectar to attract flies and when the fly touches the sensory hairs, the leaf closes.

L9 Explain how insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar levels.

Insulin helps the cell absorb glucose which reduces blood sugar and provides the cells with glucose for energy. When blood sugar levels are too low, the pancreas secretes glucagon which instructs the liver to release stored glucose, which then causes blood sugar to rise.

L9 Discuss the role of different types of hormone receptors.

Intracellular hormone receptor - They produce long-term changes in cellular activity by altering the genetic expression of the enzyme, receptor proteins, or cytokines. Plasma membrane hormone receptor - receptors that are embedded in the plasma membrane of cells and diffuse across the plasma membrane which then bind to receptors inside ethe cells where they can alter gene expression.

L12 Compare K-selected and r-selected species characteristics.

K-selected species are species selected by stable and predictable environments and produce few offspring. R-selected species produce many offspring and live in unstable and unpredictable environments.

L12 What is kinesis and taxis?

Kinesis is a movement of innate behavior and is the undirected movement in response to a stimulus. Taxis is the directed movement towards or away from a stimulus.

L9 List the different categories of hormones based on what they are made of and state the properties of each group.

Lipid-derived - a hormone derived mostly from cholesterol Amino acid-derived - a hormone derived from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan Peptide - a hormone composed of a polypeptide chain

L8 Describe long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

Long term potentiation is the strengthening of synapses based on patterns of activity which creates faster signal transmission between neurons. long-term depression - the reduction in efficacy of neural responses.

L5 Compare macronutrients and micronutrients.

Macronutrients are nutrients that plants require in larger amounts while micronutrients are required in small quantities.

L11 State the names of the aquatic biomes and identify the key characteristics of each.

Marine Biome - Includes oceans, estuaries, and coral reefs. The ocean is a continuous body of saltwater that is uniform in chemical composition. The solution includes mineral salts and decayed biological matter. Coral reefs are ocean ridges made by marine invertebrates living in warm shallow waters. Estuaries are where a source of fresh water meets the ocean. This means that both freshwater and saltwater are found in the same place, which creates brackish saltwater. Freshwater Biome - include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands. Freshwater biomes provide aquatic resources for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation, and industry. Nitrogen and phosphorus are important nutrients in lakes and ponds. Rivers and streams are fast-moving and as it flows away from a source, the width of the channel gradually widens and the current slows.

L12 Give examples of defenses against predation and herbivory.

Mechanical defenses against predation and herbivory include the presence of thorns on plants or a hard shell on turtles.

L2 Contrast microevolution and macroevolution.

Microevolution - the theory of evolution on a small scale usually within a single population macroevolution - the theory of evolution happening on a large scale that includes the rise of new species and taxonomic groups.

L12 Give examples of symbiotic relationships between species.

Mutualism is when two species benefit from their interaction; an example is termites having a mutualistic relationship with symbiotic protozoa in their guts, where both organisms obtain energy. Parasitism is a parasite that lives in or on another living organism and derives nutrients from it; an example is lice sucking blood from the scalps of human heads.

L5 Describe mycorrhizae.

Mycorrhizae is the symbiotic relationship between fungi and roots. In the conditions where there is a low nutrient concentration, plants rely on fungi to facilitate the uptake of minerals from the soil. Fungi form mycorrhizae which are symbiotic associations, with plant roots and the fungi are integrated into the roots. Through mycorrhization, the plant gets phosphate and minerals such as zinc and copper from the soil and helps increase the surface area of the plant root system.

L10 What are natural killer cells, and what do they do?

Natural killer cells are a lymphocyte (white blood cell) and are activated in response to macrophage-derived cytokines. they contain viral infections while the adaptive immune response makes antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that clear the infection.

L6 Compare and contrast artificial and natural methods of asexual reproduction.

Natural methods of asexual reproduction include plants growing from buds that are on the surface of the stem and when they are detached from the plant, they grow into independent plants. Some artificial methods of asexual reproduction include grafting and cutting. Grafting is used to produce plants by combining favorable stem characteristics with favorable root characteristics. Cutting is where a portion of the stem that contains nodes and internodes is placed in moist soil and allowed to root.

L5 Explain nitrogen fixation.

Nitrogen fixation is when nitrogen is converted to ammonia which is carried out by prokaryotes so plants can convert it into biologically useful forms.

L13 On a piece of paper, draw the Nitrogen cycle. Did you finish your diagram? Explain what happens in complete sentences.

Nitrogen is from the atmosphere and comes through nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Since organisms cannot get nitrogen from the atmosphere, it goes through nitrogen fixation. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen in the soil to ammonia, which can then be taken up by plants. After this, nitrification happens where bacteria turn the ammonia into nitrite. Nitrite is then converted into nitrate, which is then consumed by plants. The last step is denitrification which is done by microscopic bacteria or fungi that break down nitrates and then nitrogen is released into the atmosphere.

L4 On a piece of paper, draw a stem and label the nodes, internode, axillary bud, petiole, and apical bud. Did you finish your drawing? Define each label here.

Nodes: nodes are points on the stem where leaves or flowers grow out Internode: the internode is the stem that is in between two nodes Axillary bud: an axillary bud is where a branch or flower might grow out at the area between the base of a leaf and the stem. Petiole: the petiole is the stalk that connects the leaf to the stem. Apical bud: A bud that is formed at the tip of the stem shoot.

L1 Describe Charles Darwin's expedition which led to his theory of natural selection.

On the Galapagos Archipelago, giant tortoises were observed by Darwin to have longer necks than the tortoises who lived on the other islands with dry lowlands. The long neck organisms endured natural selection because they could reach more leaves and access more food than if they were to have a short neck. They also had a better chance to survive because of the higher ability to reach their food sources.

L12 Describe examples of early versus late reproduction.

Organisms that reproduce at an early age have a greater chance of producing offspring, but the growth and maintenance of their health are delayed or less active than an organism producing offspring at a later age. Species that delay reproduction to a late age become strong and more experienced and are figured as strong enough to provide parental care.

L14 What are the effects of overharvesting?

Overharvesting mainly affects aquatic species and causes them to collapse because their species has become unsustainable to reproduce more as more fish are harvested.

L13 On a piece of paper, draw the Phosphorus cycle. Did you finish your diagram? Explain what happens in complete sentences.

Phosphorus is an ion found in rocks. Weathering and erosion release phosphorus from rocks into soil. microorganisms in the soil absorb phosphorus and reproduce. Phosphorus can also go into bodies of water where plants can absorb it as well. An animal can then take phosphorus from plants or water. When plants and animals die, their decomposition releases phosphorus into the environment in water or soil.

L14 Summarize estimates of present-time extinction rates (sometimes called the sixth mass extinction).

Present-time extinctions are mainly caused by human activities. The dodo bird and sea cow became extinct because of hunting and killing by humans, not natural causes.

L4 Explain the differences between primary growth and secondary growth in stems.

Primary growth is growth resulting in an increase in the length of the stem and the root which is caused by cell division in the shoot or root, while secondary growth is growth resulting in an increase in thickness and is caused by the lateral meristem and cork cambium.

L4 Compare primary and secondary growth.

Primary growth usually occurs at the tips of stems and roots and increases the length of the stem. Secondary growth is the growth that occurs by the action of the cambium that increases the diameter of the plant.

L13 Name the trophic levels and what characteristics are found at each level.

Primary producer - obtains energy from the sun, inorganic chemicals, or decayed organic material Primary consumer - obtains energy from primary producers Secondary consumer - obtains energy from primary consumers and is usually a carnivore. Tertiary (apex) consumer - obtains energy from carnivores and is usually a carnivore. ex - lion or alligator

L4 Describe how red and blue light affect plant growth and metabolic activities.

Red light converts the photoreceptor phytochrome in plants to its far-red light-absorbing form that controls germination and flowering in response to the length of the day, as well as triggers photosynthesis in dormant plants or those emerging from the soil. Blue-light receptors are responsible for phototropism and amyloplasts in plants sense gravity which regulates the opening of the stomata and helps with photosynthesis if at low levels.

L2 What is relative fitness?

Relative fitness is the assumed fitness within a population. It allows researches to determine which individuals are contributing additional offspring in the next generation and assuming how the population may evolve.

L8 Describe the basis of the resting membrane potential.

Resting membrane potential is the voltage of a neuron at rest that is always negatively charged inside the cell.

L8 On a piece of paper, draw an action potential and label the resting potential, threshold of excitation, peak action potential, repolarization, and hyperpolarization. Did you complete your diagram? Explain or define the parts of an action potential you labeled.

Resting potential - at rest, there are more sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside the neuron. Threshold of excitation - the level of depolarization needed for an action potential to fire Peak of action potential - sodium channels open and the cell becomes hyperpolarized Repolarization - when the cell experiences a decrease of voltage due to the efflux of potassium ions and happens after the cell reaches its highest voltage from depolarization Hyperpolarization - Is the opposite of depolarization and inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus needed to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold.

L5 On a piece of paper, draw a root and label the parts used in the acquiring of nutrients. Did you finish the diagram? Briefly state the functions of each of the labeled parts.

Root hairs - water is absorbed through the root hairs Phloem - moves sugars through the plant. Xylem - water absorbed through the root hairs moves up the xylem to the leaves.

L5 Where do saprophytes get their food from?

Saprophytes are plants that do not have chlorophyll and get its food from dead matter.

L6 Compare the terms self-pollination versus cross-pollination.

Self-pollination is when the pollen from an anther is deposited on the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.

L2 What is sexual selection, and how does it lead to sexual dimorphisms?

Sexual selection - the choosing of mates based on physical distinctions and what is more desired for an organism to reproduce. Sexual dimorphisms - phenotypic difference between males and females such as males being larger and buffer than females.

L14 Identify significant threats to biodiversity.

Significant threats to biodiversity are human population growth and resource exploitation.

L7 How does the level of activity affect the organisms' energy requirements?

Smaller animals lose heat at a faster rate than larger animals and require more energy to maintain a constant internal temperature. This causes a smaller endothermic animal to have a higher BMR per body weight than a large endothermic animal. The more active an animal is, the more energy is needed to maintain that activity, and the higher its BMR or SMR.

L6 How are fruits dispersed?

Some fruit have built-in mechanisms that let them disperse by themselves, while others require the help of wind, water, or animals.

L8 Describe the ways in which nervous systems can vary in organisms.

Some organisms like sea sponges lack a true nervous system, while some like jellyfish lack a true brain but have a system of nerve cells. Echinoderms such as sea stars have nerve cells bundled into fibers.

L6 Name some organisms which are commonly pollinated by the wind.

Some organisms that are commonly pollinated by the wind are conifers, angiosperms such as grasses, maples, and oaks.

L4 What does "source to sink" mean?

Source to sink refers to translocation which is the mass transport of photosynthates in vascular plants. Structures that produce photosynthates for a growing plant are called sources while sinks are the points of sugar delivery such as roots, shoots, or developing seeds.

L1 What is speciation? Define the two main types.

Specification is the formation of a new species. Allopatric speciation: a formation of a new species that occurs because of geographic separation. Sympatric speciation: a formation of new species that occurs in the same geographic area.

L4 What is a stem modification? Give an example.

Stem modifications are ones that are suited for a particular environment. For example, rhizomes grow horizontally underground and have nodes and internodes. Some shoots may grow from the buds of the rhizome on some plants such as ginger and ferns.

L4 Describe the main function and basic structure of stems.

Stems are characterized by nodes and internodes. Nodes are the points of attachment for the leaves or flowers. The stem between two nodes is an internode. A petiole is a stalk that extends from the node to the base of the leaf. The parenchyma cells are found in the stem, the root, the inside of the leaf, and the pulp of the fruit. They are responsible for metabolic functions like photosynthesis and help repair and heal wounds. Collenchyma cells are elongated and have unevenly thick walls. They serve as additional support and in the growing parts of the plant such as shoots and leaves. They fill in vacant spaces that are used later for growth. Stems also have dermal tissue, ground tissue, and vascular tissue that support the stem.

L12 Define symbiosis, commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.

Symbiosis -close interactions between individuals of different species which impacts the abundance and distribution of the populations. Commensalism - when one species benefits and the other is neither harmed or benefited. Mutualism - when two species benefit from their interaction Parasitism - a parasite that lives in or on another living organism and derives nutrients from it while harming the host.

L6 What are the benefits of cross-pollination?

The benefits of cross-pollination include more genetic diversity and it is easier for insects to cross-pollinate while seeking the nectar at the bottom of the pollen tube.

L2 Describe what bottleneck effect is and how the resulting population of a bottleneck effect would be different from the initial population.

The bottleneck effect is a large portion of the genome being wiped out due to any reason such as a natural event. The resulting population will create offspring that have their parents' characteristics, which is different than the initial population because the genetic structure of the survivors becomes the genetic structure of the entire population.

L13 On a piece of paper, draw the Carbon cycle. Did you finish your diagram? Explain what happens in complete sentences.

The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is converted by photosynthesis into organic carbon which is stored in terrestrial plants and respiration of organisms releases the organic carbon as carbon dioxide. Carbon can also be stored for a long amount of time and thus us when dead animals are buried deep underground and become fossilized. However, human activity and volcanic activity may bring up the stored carbon into the carbon cycle again.

L12 Give examples of how the carrying capacity of a habitat may change.

The carrying capacity of a habitat might change based on food availability, water supply, environmental conditions, and living space.

L12 What is the competitive exclusion principle?

The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot occupy the same nice in a habitat and cannot coexist because they are competing for the same resources.

L10 Describe the structure and function of the complement system.

The complement system are proteins that make immunity faster. It is activated by the antigen-antibody reactions, the bacterial endotoxin, and the lectin pathway. The classical pathway and bacterial endotoxin pathway creates a membrane attack complex. The complement system enhances the rapid clearing of pathogens.

L14 What are the effects of habitat loss?

The effects of habitat loss include a decline in the number of species that live there as well as an increase in extinction rates.

L4 Describe the internal structure and function of a leaf.

The epidermis is the outer layer of the leaf and protects the leaf from additional water loss from transpiration. What covers leaves is a waxy layer called the cuticle that also reduces the rate of water loss from the leaf's surface. In between the upper epidermis and lower epidermis is the mesophyll, which has the palisade parenchyma and the spongy parenchyma. The palisade parenchyma has column-shaped and tightly packed cells that contain the chloroplasts in the leaves. The spongy parenchyma is loosely arranged cells in an irregular shape. The air between the spongy and palisade parenchyma allows gaseous exchange between the leaf and the outside atmosphere through the stomata. Guard cells are on the outside of the cuticle and epidermis. They regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the stomata.

L7 Describe the factors that affect homeostasis.

The factors that affect homeostasis include the environment as well as negative feedback loops and positive feedback loops.

L5 What factors affect soil formation?

The factors that affect soil formation are parent material which is the organic and inorganic material in which soil forms, climate, topography, biological factors such as the presence of living organisms, and time because soils develop over long periods of time.

L7 What factors limit animal size and shape?

The factors that limit animal size and shape are environmental factors and the presence of an endoskeleton or exoskeleton.

L4 How do plants defend themselves from diseases and organisms that want to eat them? Give specific examples.

The first level of defense against herbivores and pathogens is bark and plants' waxy cuticle. Other ways plants defend themselves against herbivores include thorns that cause physical damage to the predators such as rashes and allergic reactions.

L14 Describe the events which caused the five mass extinctions.

The first recorded mass extinction was the Ordovician-Silurian where 85 percent of marine species became extinct which was because of glaciation then warming. The second mass extinction was the Late Devonian occurred over a long period of time that affected marine organisms but not any land plants or animals. The causes of this extinction are not clear. The third mass extinction was the end-Permian and was the largest in history. 96 percent of all marine species and 70 percent of all terrestrial species became extinct. The causes of this extinction are misunderstood but the main assumption is that volcanic activity led to a global warming event. The fourth mass extinction was the Triassic-Jurassic extinction and occurred before the breakup of Pangaea. The causes are not understood but most assumptions include climate change and an asteroid impact or volcanic eruptions. The fifth mass extinction was the end-Cretaceous and was when the dinosaurs became extinct. The cause of this event was because of a meteorite or asteroid off of the coast of the Ycatán Peninsula.

L1 What are four misconceptions about evolution? Describe them and why they are wrong.

The four misconceptions about evolution: 1. Evolution is just a theory- They are wrong because the theory of evolution describes facts about the living world and scientists use the word "theory" in a different way. 2. Individuals change their genetic composition during their lifetime- This is wrong because evolution is the change of the genetic composition of a population over time, specifically over generations. 3. Evolution explains the origin of life- the theory does not try to explain the origin of life, it explains how populations change over time and how life diversifies the origin of species. 4. Organisms evolve in response to a change in the environment- species track their changing environment with adaptations that maximize their reproduction.

L6 Describe sexual reproduction in gymnosperms.

The lifecycle of a gymnosperm is characterized by the alternation of generations. (alternating between diploid and haploid) Gymnosperms - nonflowering plants like moss and fern Male gametes are produced in pollen cones and develop into pollen grains. Fertilization occurs when pollen grains come into contact with the female ovule and germinate. Once a pollen grain lands on a female cone, the tube cells of the pollen forms the pollen tube and the generative cell migrates towards the female gametophyte through the micropyle. After fertilization of the egg, the diploid zygote is formed which then divides by mitosis to make the embryo.

L3 What are the limitations of phylogenetic trees?

The limitations of phylogenetic trees are that if two closely related lineages evolved under significantly varied surroundings or after the evolution of a new adaption, the two groups may appear more different than other groups that aren't as closely related; also, unless indicated, the branches do not represent any length of time.

L12 Explain the long-term consequences of exponential human population growth.

The long-term consequences of the exponential human population include the endangerment of the natural environment such as from greenhouse gases and running out of fossil fuels. Human activity also causes climate change.

L3 Discuss the need for a comprehensive classification system.

The need for a comprehensive classification system is because a hierarchal system is essential to differentiating between groups of organisms and finding their similarities and differences.

L9 List organs whose primary functions are not endocrine related but also serve secondary endocrine functions.

The organs whose primary functions are not endocrine-related but serve as secondary endocrine functions are the heart, kidneys, intestines, thymus, gonads, and adipose tissue.

L4 Describe the structure of a root and root modifications.

The outer layer of a root has cells called the epidermis, that surround areas of ground tissue and vascular tissue. It provides protection and helps in absorption; root hairs are extensions of root epidermal cells and increase the surface area of the root while helping in the absorption of water and minerals. Inside the root is ground tissue that makes the cortex and the pith which store photosynthetic products. The cortex is between the epidermic and the vascular tissue while the pith is between the vascular tissue and the center of the root. Root modifications are structures that may be modified for specific purposes. For example, carrots, turnips, and beets are roots that are modified for food storage.

L4 What are the functions of parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, and sclerenchyma cells?

The parenchyma cells are found in the stem, the root, the inside of the leaf, and the pulp of the fruit. They are responsible for metabolic functions like photosynthesis and help repair and heal wounds. Collenchyma cells are elongated and have unevenly thick walls. They serve as additional support and in the growing parts of the plant such as shoots and leaves. They fill in vacant spaces that are used later for growth. Sclerenchyma cells provide support to the plant but are dead at maturity. They are found in nongrowing areas of the plant such as the bark or fully grown stems.

L6 Describe parts of the male pollen grain and state the functions.

The parts include pollen grains, pollen sacs (microsporangia), microspore mother cells, and a tapetum. Each microsporangium contains hundreds of microspore mother cells that will each give rise to four pollen grains. The tapetum supports the development and maturation of the pollen grains.

L4 On a piece of paper, draw the parts of a typical leaf and label them. Did you finish the diagram? Briefly state the functions of each of the labeled parts.

The parts of a leaf include the tip, midrib, margin, vein, petiole, and lamina. Tip: the tip of the leaf. Midrib: travels the length of the leaf and branches that produce veins. Margin: the edge of the leaf Vein: the vascular tissue pattern on the leaf Petiole: the stalk of the leaf providing support Lamina: the leaf blade

L6 Describe parts of the female embryo sac and state the functions.

The parts of the female embryo sac include a chalazal end, a micropylar end, an egg cell, synergids, a polar nucleus, antipodals, and a central cell. When an egg is being formed, the polar nuclei move to the equator and fuse to form a single, diploid central cell. Three nuclei position themselves on the end of the embryo sac opposite of the micropyle end and develop into antipodal cells, which later degenerate. The nucleus closest to he micropyle end becomes the egg cell and the two adjacent nuclei form into synergid cells which help guide the pollen tube for fertilization.

L4 On a piece of paper, draw a root and label the parts. Did you finish the diagram? Briefly state the functions of each of the labeled parts.

The parts of the root include the lateral root, primary root, root hairs, the root tip, and the root cap. Lateral root: The roots that stem out of the primary root. Primary root: The main root where other roots stem out of. Root hairs: extensions of root epidermal cells and increase the surface area of the root while helping in the absorption of water and minerals Root tip: Bottom tip of the root and helps with the downward growth of the root. Root cap: how the tip of the root is protected

L5 Explain soil composition.

The soil composition consists of: about 40-45% of inorganic material about 5% of organic material about 50% water and air

L10 Describe the structure and function of antibodies.

The structure of an antibody molecule includes four polypeptides that are bound to each other in a Y formation. The two functions include antigen binding and biological activity mediation. They are produced by the immune system to stop intruders from harming the body.

L1 What is the study of molecular biology, and how can it help us understand evolution?

The study of molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the structure and function of macromolecules essential to life. It can be used to understand evolution because evidence of common ancestors is reflected in DNA and their genetic code.

L11 Identify the two major abiotic factors that determine terrestrial biome.

The two major abiotic factors that determine terrestrial biomes are temperature and precipitation.

L6 Describe the two stages of a plant's life.

The two stages of a plant's life are the gametophyte stage and the sporophyte stage. The haploid gametophyte produces the male and female sex cells by mitosis and their fusion forms a diploid zygote, which develops into the sporophyte. After the sporophyte is mature, the diploid sporophyte produces spores by meiosis which then divide by mitosis to produce the haploid gametophyte. This gametophyte produces gametes and the cycle continues.

L13 On a piece of paper, draw the Sulfur cycle. Did you finish your diagram? Explain what happens in complete sentences.

The weathering and erosion of rocks release stored sulfur and when it is in the air it turns into sulfate. Sulfate is absorbed by plants and microorganisms which convert it into organic forms. Animals consume the sulfur from plants and move it through the food chain. As organisms decompose the sulfur is released as sulfate.

L3 Identify the web and ring models of phylogenetic relationships and describe how they differ from the original phylogenetic tree concept.

The web model of phylogenetic relationships incorporates the effects of horizontal gene transfer rather than vertical connections in a phylogenetic tree. The ring model shows all three domains of life evolving from a pool of primitive prokaryotes, which is more specific than a simple phylogenetic tree.

L7 What is/are the function(s) of muscular tissues, and where are they located in the body?

There are three types of muscular tissues which are smooth, skeletal, and cardiac. Smooth muscles are located in visceral organs and have no striations and their functions include moving food through the digestive tract and maintaining the appropriate diameter of one's arteries. Skeletal muscles have striations and are located on skeletal muscles. Their functions include maintaining posture and stabilizing bones and joints. Cardiac muscles have striations and are located in the heart and keep one's heart pumping through involuntary movements. However, the autonomic nervous system can influence the muscles to speed up or slow down heart contractions.

L11 Describe three natural factors affecting long-term global climate.

Three natural factors affecting long-term global climate change is the variation in the sun's intensity, volcanic eruptions, and the Milankovitch cycles. The Milankovitch cycles describe the effects of slight changes in the Earth's orbit on its climate. Solar intensity is the amount of solar power or energy the sun emits in an amount of time. Volcanic eruptions have released solids and gases that can influence the climate over a period od a few years.

L7 Describe thermoregulation of endothermic and ectothermic animals.

To maintain body temperature in endotherms, when it is hot, the body sweats and release water to cool down the skin, while ectotherms cannot control their body temperature since it is dictated by the environment.

L12 When Mount St. Helens erupted, all life on the ground was disrupted, burned, and altered. No life was visible for over a year after the volcanic eruption. Describe what occurred to help reestablish the ecosystem using these terms: primary succession, secondary succession, pioneer species, intermediate species, and climax community.

To reestablish the ecosystem, primary succession occurred where new land is formed from the volcanic eruption. The first species to appear in primary or secondary succession is the pioneer species. The secondary succession then occurred which was a response to the disturbance that moved the community from equilibrium. The intermediate species would help create an ecosystem by having more species and they would reach a climax community once those species grew and reproduced into more to fill up the disturbed life.

L4 How is transpiration controlled?

Transpiration is controlled by a waxy layer called the cuticle that covers leaves and prevents the loss of water. Guard cells also control transpiration because they control the opening and closing of the stomata to release water.

L4 Discuss transpiration in plants.

Transpiration is the loss of water vapor in plants to the atmosphere through the stomata. The process is passive which means that ATP is not required for the wate rmovement.

L11 State the names of the terrestrial biomes and identify the key characteristics of each.

Tropical wet forest - characterized by plants with broad leaves that fall off throughout the year and the forests are evergreen year-round; 50-200 in of rain annually and temperatures ranging from 68 F to 93 F. Savannas- Grasslands with scattered trees and are hot tropical areas with temperatures averaging from 75 F to 84 F and annual rainfall of 3.9-15.7 in.. Subtropical deserts - a very dry biome have daytime average temperatures above 140 F and nighttime temperatures reaching 32 F. The biome has low annual precipitation reaching as low as 0.8 in. Chaparral - annual rainfall ranging from 25.6-29.5 in and have very dry summers. The vegetation is dominated by shrubs and is adapted to periodic fires. Temperate Grasslands - have hot summers and cold winters. There is an annual temperature variation that makes specific growing seasons for specific plants. The annual precipitation ranges from 9.8-29.5 in.. Temperate Forests - Temperatures range from -22 F to 86 F and the annual precipitation is constant and ranges between 29.5-59 in.. The soils are rich in inorganic and organic nutrients because of the thick layer of leaf litter on the forest floors. Boreal Forests - Has cold, dry winters and short, cool, and wet summers. The annual precipitation is from 15.7-39 in and usually is in the form of snow. Artctic Tundra - The average winter temperature is -34 F and the average summer temperature is from 37 F-52 F. Plants have a very short growing season of 10-12 weeks. However, there are almost 24 hours of daylight and plants can grow very fast.

L12 Describe the three types of survivorship curves and relate them to specific populations.

Type I - a common example is humans where death occurs in the older years of life. Type II - A common example is birds where death is equally probable at any age. Type III - a common example is trees where very few organisms survive the younger years. However, after a certain age, the individuals are more likely to survive.

L12 Describe three different patterns of population distribution.

Uniform - equal distance between one another Random - aimless distribution Clumped - built up together and close in distance

L8 List and describe the four main types of neurons.

Unipolar - have only one structure that extends away from the soma and are found in insects. Bipolar - has one axon and one dendrite extending from the soma. They are a part of the sensory pathways for smell, sight, taste, hearing, touch, and balance. Multipolar - the most common; contains one axon and multiple dendrites and can be found in the central nervous system. Pseudounipolar - has a single process that extends from the soma and then branches into two distinct structures. Most sensory neurons are pseudounipolar.

L8 How are vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems different?

Vertebrate nervous systems are more complex and specialized than invertebrate nervous systems. Another difference is that the nerve cords of invertebrates are located ventrally while the vertebrate spinal cords are located dorsally.

L1. What were the observations that Wallace and Darwin had that shaped the idea of natural selection?

Wallace and Darwin independently came to the same conclusion. Darwin called his explanation natural selection (or survival of the fittest); organisms that can survive and adapt to environmental change have more favorable traits and pass them onto their offspring, which leads to evolutionary change.

L4 Define water potential and explain how it is influenced by solutes, pressure, gravity, and the matric potential.

Water potential is the measure of potential energy in water. Solutes reduce water potential by consuming some of the potential energy in the water and is negative. Pressure potential may be positive or negative; the higher the pressure, the more potential energy in a system, and the same with vice versa. Gravity potential is always negative to 0 in a plant with no height. The force of gravity pulls water downwards to the soil which reduces the total amount of potential energy in the water of the plant. Matric potential is negative to zero and the binding of water to a matrix always removes or consumes potential energy from the system.

L8 Explain the stages of an action potential and how action potentials are propagated.

When neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptors located on a neuron's dendrites, ion channels open. At excitatory synapses, this opening lets positive ions to enter the neuron and results in depolarization of the membrane. A stimulus from a sensory cell depolarizes the target neuron to its threshold potential. Sodium channels in the axon hillock open which allows positive ions to enter the cell and the neuron completely depolarize.

L2 What does "heritability" mean?

a fraction of population variation that can be passed onto offspring.

L1 What is "adaptation"? Give an example.

an inheritable trait or behavior in an organism that helps in its survival - is involved in the survival of the fittest by passing their favorable traits to offspring.

L1 How does biogeography provide evidence for evolution?

its the geographic distribution of organisms that follow patterns that provide evidence for evolution in lieu with the movement of tectonic plates. For example, groups that existed before the breakup of the Pangea have still stayed in their location even after the breakup into different continents.

What are the two mathematical equations you need to know to solve Hardy-Weinberg problems?

p + q = 1 (all the p alleles and the q alleles make up all of the alleles for that locus that s in a population) p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 (if p and q are the only two possible alleles for a given trait in a population, this formula with genotype frequencies will equal to 1) p = frequency of dominant allele q = frequency of the recessive allele p^2 = homozygous dominant q^2 = homozygous recessive 2pq = heterozygous

L1 Define and give examples for the following types of sympatric speciation: prezygotic behavioral gametic habitat isolation temporal isolation mechanical isolation postzygotic hybrid inviability hybrid sterility hybrid breakdown

prezygotic: a mechanism that blocks reproduction from happening Prezygotic barrier - a mechanism that blocks reproduction Behavioral - two species may have different courtship behaviors Habitat - two species prefer different habitats and are unlikely to encounter each other Temporal - two species may reproduce at different times Gametic - two species produce egg and sperm cells that can't combine in fertilization Mechanical - two species may have bodies that don't fit together Postzygotic - occurs after zygote formation and has organisms don't survive the embryonic stage and those born sterile hybrid inviability - hybrid individuals cant form normally in the womb and do not survive past embryonic stage hybrid sterility - when the birth of the hybrid is sterile (can't reproduce on its own) hybrid breakdown - reproductive failure that occurs after the F2 generation crosses with a different species (incompatibility of interaction genes)

L6 What is seed germination, and what controls its activity?

seed germination is the process of seeds developing into new plants. What controls its activity is favorable conditions that include moisture, light, cold, fire, or chemical treatments.

L1 What is the definition of "species"?

species - group of organisms containing similar individuals and are capable of interbreeding.

L1 Define the term "vestigial structure" and provide three examples.

structures in organisms that have no apparent function and are residual parts from past ancestors. ex - wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind leg bones in whales.

L14 Define "extinction."

the complete disappearance of a species from Earth, no more organisms of that species are alive or can reproduce.

L1 Describe homologous structures and give examples.

the presence of structures in organisms that similarly have the same basic form. ex. the bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and whale share the overall construction.

L3 What is binomial nomenclature, and how is it helpful in biology?

the two-word scientific naming of organisms. It is helpful to identify organisms because the organism is usually referred by its genus and species, for example, a dog's scientific name is Canis lupus.

Convergent evolution

when different species that have similar traits evolved independently without having a common ancestor.

L4 Write the equation for water potential and identify what each symbol represents. What units are used for water potential?

Ψsystem=Ψtotal=Ψs+Ψp+Ψg+Ψm Ψs, Ψp, Ψg, Ψm represent the solute, pressure, gravity, and matric potentials. Ψsystem refers to the water potential of the soil water, root water, stem water, leaf water, or the water in the atmosphere. Ψtotal refers to the total water potential. Water potential is denoted by the Greek letter psi and is expressed in units of pressure called megapascals.