AP Euro- AP Exam Study Guide

Nuremberg Rally

Nazis first massive political rally - many people attracted to their cause.

The Clothier's Delight

Song's by the rich merchant ripping off the poor guy

Frederick William (1640-1786)

The "Great Elector" who built a strong Prussian army and infused military values into Prussian society.

What did Martin Luther believe church teachings should be based on?

The Bible alone

The Battle of Agincourt

Took place in 1415, Another English victory because of the longbow

How was Cavour successful in forcing Austria out?

with help from France and Napoleon

How was Italy able to acquire Venice?

Italy made a deal with Bismrack after the Austio-Prussian War to get it

Robespierre (1758-1794)

Jacobin leader during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

Which leader of which country abolished guilds in 1776?

Jacques Turgot of France

What were the immediate and the long range causes of the English Civil War of 1642-1649? What were the results?

James I and Charles I refused to share any power or decision making with the Parliament or the House of Commons. Also the people wanted further reform in the Church of England but the kings refused. Immediate causes of the war included Scottish invasion and the Irish rebellion. With Parliaments refusal to provide Charles I with an army, he made his own. He got beheaded because of this.

He was extremely supportive of divine rights; believed all authority should lie within the king; no law could stand in the way of God on earth

James I of England

What were the attitudes and policies of James I that made him so unpopular with his subjects?

James's greatest problem stemmed from his absolutist belief that a monarch has a divine right to his authority and is responsible only to God.

Why did James II flee from England in 1688? What happened to the kingship at this point?

James's opponents, a powerful coalition of eminent persons in Parliament and the Church of England, bitterly resisted James's ambitions. They offered the English throne to James's heirs. William of Orange and Mary were crowned king and queen.

Church Ordinance of 1541

John Calvin's plan for organizing the Reformed Church in Geneva. Four types of church officials were established: pastors, doctors (theologists), elders, and deacons. The governing body of the church was the Consistory Council, on which sat elders and pastors. It was the elder's job to supervise the private moral lives of church members. Calvin himself was appointed as the only doctor.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

Predestination

John calvin's belief that God selected which people which people would go to heaven and which ones would go to hell before he created the world. This selection would be in effect for the entire history of the world. Those chosen for heaven Calvin called the "Elect". God's choice was absolute and arbitrary. It was not influenced by anything people did, and no one could know reasons for God's choices or even who was among the "Elect".

Fall of the Bastille

July 1789

fall of France

June 1940 France and most of Europe was conquered by Germany. Left Britain alone against Hitler. Hitler began to sweep through the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg as part of a strategy to conquer France. Then, the Battle of Dunkirk began, and left France in ruins and also in the hands of Germany and the Vichy government. People such as Charles De Gaulle started an underground rebellion

Synthesis for "The Renaissance was a rehearsal for the Enlightenment. Assess the validity of this statement."

Just as the Renaissance was a rehearsal for the Enlightenment as they were both radical intellectual and social movements, the Protestant Reformation could be seen as a rehearsal for the Scientific Revolution, as they were both movements challenging church doctrine and thinking. In the Protestant Reformation, Luther was criticized and exiled for his beliefs, and many at the time were tortured and executed. During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo was criticized and put under house arrest for sharing his beliefs, and many at the time were tortured and executed for professing theirs.

William II (1859-1941)

Kaiser (emperor) of Germany.

Louis XI the Spider and Henry VII:

King Louis XI gained the name of the spider as a result of his wily and devious ways. He maintained the taille tax, which had been granted during war, and used it to supply himself with a constant income that didn't require the Estates General's approval. Henry VII was the first Tudor king (after the war of roses) and he effectively stopped aristocratic battles (he wouldn't let them keep armies of mercinaries). He used different routes to get money, so the middle class wasn't taxed very much, thus he gained support and left England with a stable and prosperous government.

Louis Philippe

King of France, 1830-48. "Citizen king" of July Monarchy (less regally dressed and carried an umbrella) who did not side with liberals vs. radicals but instead opposed both and resisted all change. He might have succeeded in keeping some degree of power if he had sided with liberals in developing a more constitutional monarchy. Increasingly out of touch with reality and resisted all reform efforts to extend the franchise. In the February Revolution of 1848 in which riots took place, he abdicated and left for England. *evidence of the need for liberal reforms in Europe

Frederick William IV

King of Prussia, offered the throne of a united German State. Refused.

Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire-economic concept of Scottish philosophe Adam Smith (1723-1790). In opposition to mercantilism. Smith urged governments to keep hands off the operation of the economy. He believed the role of government was analogous to the night watchman, guarding and protecting but not intervening in the operation of the economy, which must be left to run in accord with the natural laws of supply and demand.

What was the time period of Early Modern Europe?

Late 1400s- 1500s

What ancient language was studied with the creation of humanism?

Latin and Greek was to be followed

What were core subjects that were taught?

Latin and Greek, mathematics, music and philosophy, dancing, courteous manners, riding, and fencing.

Parliament

Law court staffed by nobles that could register or refuse to register a king's edict

Test Act (1673)

Law prohibiting Catholics-and dissenters to hold political office.

What were causes of the New Monarchs?

Lawlessness and disorder Rise of towns and middle class New weaponry

Charles Fourier

Leading utopian socialist who envisaged small communal societies in which men and women cooperated in agriculture and industry, abolishing private property and monogamous marriage as well. *evidence of Utopian Socialism

Cahier de doleances

List of grievances that each Estate drew up in preparation for the summoning of the Estates-General in 1789.

Changes made by Louis XII, Francis I and Henri II

Louis XII began reign after Charles VIII and before Francis I. He made many changes, including: 1. He increased the size and complexity of the administration. 2. Adopted the sale of offices (simony) that stimulated social mobility and corruption. 3. Due to the fact that the clergy and nobles were exempt from taxation, the crown was forced to rely on the lower classes, which couldn't provide enough money to upkeep the standing army and the country. So, under Louis XII, the country began taking loans from banks (Fugger). - Francis I took over after Louis XII, made most changes of any new monarch in France, such as: 1. Gaining power over the Church with the Concordat of Bologna (1516), which allowed him to make appointments, and, though it was not stated, it effectively allowed him to control the Church without breaking from it (see Henry VIII). 2. He began a major reorganization of the government. He legalized the sale of offices, formed and inner council and centralized all tax gathering and accounting responsibilities in 1523. 3. He passed the lit de justice, which states that if an assembly is delaying passing a monarch's law the monarch can then appear before the assembly and make it the law. 4. During his reign the Estates General stopped meeting and consequently lost influence. 5. After his reign, the monarchy was the strongest that it had ever been. Unfortunately, the advent of the Reformation screwed everything up again - Calvinism! - Henry II son of Francis I. Under his rule, the French finally lost the Italian war to the Hapsburgs

He was another supporter of divine rights; called himself the "Sun King" showing extreme narcissism; tried to restrict power of nobles

Louis XIV of France

Discuss the foreign policy goals of Louis XIV. Was he successful?

Louis's goal was to expand France to what he considered its natural borders. His armies managed to extend French borders to include important commercial centers in the Spanish Netherlands and Flanders.

Priesthood of All Believers

Luther's idea that ordinary Christian believers could read and correctly interpret Scripture. The Catholic Church taught that only the clergy could do so because Christ gave the church the holy spirit and, thus, the power to do so at the Ascension.

Consubstantiation

Luther's theory about the real presence of Christ in the mass. He did not believe that the priest was able to effect a change from bread and wine to the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation), but he did believe that the real body and blood of Christ were present in the mass, in the inner essence of the bread and wine, not in the outward appearance.

Victor Emanuel II

MONARCH OF SARDINIA. HE WANTED TO GAIN OTHER ITALIZN STATES INTO HIS RULE TO INCREASE HIS POWER.

In what ways was Russia responsible for WWI?

Made no effort to restrain Serbia full support of Serbia mobilization triggered German Schliefen Plan

What was the Act of Supremacy?

Made the king the head of the Catholic church and not the Pope

1848 (HUB Date)

Many European Revolutions / Marx and Engles write Communist Manifesto

How and why were the colonies affected by the Enlightenment?

Many colonists would have traveled because of their wish for religious freedom, a tenant of the Enlightenment. Also, many British colonists, who were the most Enlightened, would have come directly from Britain making Scottish Enlightenment ideals very important.

How did Martin Luther respond to the selling of indulgences?

Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses challenging the pardons

How was humanism different from nominalism?

Most Renaissance humanists read the church fathers avidly and believed the highest virtues were rooted in piety

What was the Catholic Reformation?

Movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself and encourage Catholics to remain loyal

Reichstag

Name for the German Parliament

Magisterial Reformation

Name given to Luther's tactics after 1525 peasant revolt of spreading Lutheranism not by preaching to the masses, whom he concluded had misunderstood his message, but by preaching to and converting the princes of Germany, who would, in turn, decree the conversion of the people they ruled.

Agrarian subsistence cycle

Name given to the inefficient European agricultural system before the 18th century. Unfertile soil and lack of manure to fertilize it dictated that part of the fields be left fallow each year to regain nutrients. This caused from 30 percent to 50 percent of the land to be out of use each year. The remaining land produced only enough food to maintain the population at the subsistence level, and no food was raised for livestock, keeping the animals small and undernourished and producing little manure.

What was Cavours secret deal with Napoleon?

Napoleaon promised to help Sardinia if they faced a war with Austria

Mexico and Emperor Maximilian

Napoleon III attempted to enter Mexican markets and sent troops to Mexico to protect his interest in the area, he put Archeduke Maximillian of Austria as the new Emperor of Mexico, the French army then left to deal with European conflict and Maximilian was executed by the Mexican people.

The Continental System

Napoleon created this economic alliance in 1806 that sought to destroy Britain's trade with Continental Europe.

Concordat (1801)

Napoleon's arrangement with Pope Plus VII to heal religious division in France with a united Catholic church under bishops appointed by the government.

Continental System

Napoleon's efforts to block foreign trade with England by forbidding Importation of British goods Into Europe.

Peninsular War (1808-1813)

Napoleon's long-drawn-out war with Spain

How did nation-states cause the Commercial Revolution?

Nation-states created a competitive atmosphere for commerce

Giuseppe Mazzini

Nationalistic leader who founded Young Italy. He set up a revolutionary republic in Rome but French forces defeated him. He spend much of his life in exile, plotting and reaming of a united Italy.

What was the military impact of exploration and colonization?

Navy became the most important military system (used to be the army)

Auschwitz

Nazi extermination camp in Poland, the largest center of mass murder during the Holocaust. Close to a million Jews, Gypsies, Communists, and others were killed there.

What were the economic impacts of exploration and colonization?

New economic systems i.e mercantilsm/capitalism New business organizations (bigger business) Created a global commercial system Inflation

world machine

Newton's theory that saw the world largely in mechanistic terms and the the universe operated under well regulated and uniform natural laws.

Did Martin Luther believe priests needed to interpret the Bible?

No

Did enclosure catch on quickly? Which countries adopted it first?

No, in countries like Britain and the Low Countries it caught in quickly, while in other places like Germany and France common fields could be found into the 19th century. So, common fields and enclosed fields coexisted for a few centuries.

Did the Social democratic party end in germany after Bismarck gave the workers benifits?

No, it continued to gain strength. By 1912 socialsist held more seats in Reichstag than any other party. But Bismarck showed that conditions for workers could be improved without revolution.

What was the result of the Kulturkampf?

Not a success for Bismarck because Catholics rallied behind the church and the Catholics gained strength in the Reichstag. Bismarck was forced to make peacve with the Catholic church.

Waterloo

Occurring in 1815, this was the last battle of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon was defeated by an alliance of European powers.

Ancient Regime

Old Regime-France prior to the French Revolution Banalities-Fees that peasants were obligated to pay landlords for the use of the village mill, bakeshop and winepress Bastille-political prison and armory stormed on July 14, 1789, by Parisian city workers alarmed by the king's concentration of troops at Versailles

Creole

On South American continent made up of merchants, landowners, and professional people of Spanish descent.

Andreas Vesalius's masterpiece on anatomical structure

On the Fabric of the Human Body

Copernicus's major book was titled

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

How did the end of the Hundred years war cause England to become a nation-state?

Once being expelled from France, England then focused on just its own country and not both England and France

Council of Constance (1414-1418)

One of the biggest church councils of the Middle Ages, it healed the Great Schism by electing Martin V as the sole legitimate pope, restoring to the church prestige lost during the Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism. The council also convicted Jan Hus, a Bohemian follower of John Wycliffe, of heresy and burned him at the stake. The council took for itself some of the pope's powers to govern the church, powers that laters popes would recover.

Robert Boyle

One of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments who pioneered exploration of gases resulting in "Boyle's Law," which states the volume of gas varies with pressure exerted on it. (1627-1691)

What were the political, religious, and economic consequences of the Thirty Years' War?

One religious consequence was the adding of Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as legally permissible creeds. Many people died during this war, leaving much land abandoned and destroyed. Nobles enlarged their estates and consolidated their control.

What did Anabaptists believer regarding baptism?

Only persons old enough to decide to be Christian should be baptized. Anabaptists = Adult Baptism

Socialist Democratic Party

Organization that called for parliamentary democracy and improved conditions for the working class. Organized by german Marxists

Petition of Right

Parliamentary document that restricted the king's power. Most notably, it called for recognition of the writ of habeas corpus and held that only Parliament could impose new taxes.

French National Assembly

Passed reforms in reaction to abuses such as confiscation of church property

List some major accomplishments of Frederick I.

Patron of the arts and luxury, supported Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession, was granted the title King in Prussia

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

Peace treaty ending the Thirty Years War. It decentralized power in the Holy Roman Empire by making the prince of German states fully sovereign. Parts of German territory were also given to France, Denmark, and Sweden, and the independence of the Dutch Republic was recognized.

The Jacquerie

Peasant revolt in France caused by destruction of normal order by Black Death, economic dislocation and Hundred Years' War;failed when rebels were massacred

Cossacks

Peasants recruited to migrate to newly seized lands in Russia, particularly in south

What were the causes of the Peasants' Revolt of 1525-1526?

Peasants were unsettled by their treatment in society. They had several social demands, but their two religious demands stated that they wanted the right to choose their own pastors and to accept any authority other than Scripture.

What were the political and religious implications of Luther's reforms?

People began to divide themselves from the church and began to worship on their own.

How did culture cause exploration and colonization?

People believed that European culture was average or even inferior compared to other culture from around the world so people decided to start exploring to see how other cultures functioned

How did religion cause exploration and colonization?

People felt persecuted in some ares so they decided to leave i.e pilgrims. Also, people did missionary work and so would explore and colonize to get people to convert to religions

How did lawlessness and disorder combined with the rise of towns cause New Monarchs?

People wanted the monarchs to fix the disorder. To do so, monarchs switched to Roman Law. In return, the people would pay taxes and serve in the government.

How did inflation cause the Commercial Revolution?

People wanted to sell more goods due to the higher prices

What lands did Peter the Great conquer?

Peter the Great extended Russia's frontier to the south and the west (defeated the Ottomans). His victories began the dismantling of Sweden's empire, and he advanced into Estonia, Livonia, and Poland.

Utopian Socialism

Philosophy introduced by the Frenchman Charles Fourier in the early nineteenth century. Utopian socialists hoped to create humane alternatives to industrial capitalism by building self-sustaining communities whose inhabitants would work cooperatively *evidence of the new emerging philosophies of the era... especially those concerning the growing reaction against the harsh nature of the new industrial society

Union of Arms

Plan of the Count-Duke of Olivares, first minister of King Philip IV (r. 1621-1625) of Spain, to spread royal taxation more equally over the Spanish provinces to increase collection and save the crown from bankruptcy. At the time, Spain was trying to finance its renewed struggle against the Dutch Revolt. The plan failed when provinces that had previously paid few taxes rebelled against the crown.

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

Polish astronomer who posited a heliocentric universe in place of a geocentric universe.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish mathematician and astronomer whose book "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" developed a theory of a heliocentric conception of the universe. (1473-1543)

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543)

Polish priest and astronomer who shook the foundations of European beliefs. He challenged Ptolemy's system simply because it was too complex and he felt that there had to be a better system mathematically. So, based on mathematics, he developed a new, sun-centered system that placed earth as the third planet rotating around the sun. This system eventually ended up requiring complex mathematics as well, but Copernicus was a great mathematician who easily defended his theory. Copernicus even began developing the concept of gravity, for he stated that large masses have their own attractive forces. However, he kept the crystalline spheres and did not account for the stars. His major work was The Revolution of Heavenly Bodies (1543 - start of scientific revolution), which, fearing the Church, he did not publish until his deathbed. The book sparked a major controversy, but, because of the Church, it was dangerous to express Copernican views openly.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Political theorist advocating absolute monarchy based on his concept of an anarchic state of nature.

John Locke (1632-1704)

Political theorist who defended the Glorious Revolution with the argument that all people are born with certain natural rights to life, liberty, and properly.

Avignon

Popes of this place were French, and abused their power in such a way that they had great financial success, but lost political power. Because they were solely French, they had less influence outside of France. Germany and Italy openly defied this papacy. The Popes turned inwards, and managed to secure all the legal and financial success of the church for the Pope himself. They made money from sales of indulgences and church offices.

What caused the Commercial Revolution?

Population growth Nation-states New Monarchs Inflation (Possibly the Protestant work ethic)

proto-industrialization

Preliminary shift away from agricultural economy in Europe; workers become full- or part-time producers of textile and metal products, working at home but in a capitalist system in which materials, work orders, and ultimate sales depended on urban merchants; prelude to Industrial Revolution.

What were the followers of John Knox called?

Presbyterians

Count Camillo Cavour

Prime Minister of Sardinia, appointed by Victor Emmanuel.

Count Camillo di Cavour

Prime Minster of Piedmont he was the leader of the Italian unification movement, he was a liberal moderate who wanted a constitutional government, he focused on public works and stimulating the economy, he allied with Napoleon III to drive the Austrian out of Italy so the states could unify, in return France gained Italian territory and a kingdom in Central Italy

Inertia

Principle discovered by Galileo that argued a body in motion continues in motion forever unless deflected by an external force.

What were the German princes called that protested the agreement to join forces against Luther's ideas?

Protestants

Article 231

Provision of the Versailles Treaty that blamed Germany for World War 1.

What territories did Prussia gain as a result of the war with Denmark?

Prussia gained Schleswig and Holstein and divided them with their ally Austria

What was the 3rd was of German unification?

Prussia vs France, called the Franco-Prussian war of 1870

Which parties/countries were involved in the War of Austrian Succession?

Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony fought Austria, Great Britain, and the Netherlands

Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

Prussian ruler who expanded territory by invading the duchy of Silesia and defeating Maria Theresa of Austria.

Aristotelian

Ptolemaic cosmology-the geocentric view of the universe that prevailed from the fourth century B.C. to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and accorded with church teachings and Scriptures.

Who were the Puritans? Why did they come into conflict with James I?

Puritans were members of a 16th-17th century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic elements, like bishops, elaborate ceremonials, and wedding rings. For James, bishops were among the chief supporters of the throne.

Polish Corridor, Danzig

REgion in Poland that HItler desired.

Diggers and Levellers

Radical groups in England in the 1650s who called for the abolition of private ownership and extension of the franchise

How did the peasants demand an end to serfdom?

Raided and burned down monasteries.

"Iron and Blood" and Realpolitik

Realpoltick was a German realist political movement that Bismarck used similar tactics to unify Germany he used military i.e. The iron and blood of the the people to win

What were fundamental Nazi beliefs?

Reclaim what Germany lost after WWI. That the Germans were a superior race and anyone else was impure and must be removed. The master race needed more living space - known in German as 'lebensraum'

Reform Bill of 1832

Redistributed the seats in the House of Commons to reflect the shift in population to the northern manufacturing counties and the gradual emergence of an urban society. 'Rotten Boroughs' were eliminated., extended the vote to men who owned or rented property worth an annual rate of 10 pounds or more; excluded agricultural laborers and industrial workers; also eliminated some rotten boroughs. *evidence of liberal changes starting to undo the conservative dominance of the era.

Paracelsus

Rejected the work of Aristotle and Galen in favor of a chemical philosophy in understanding and treating disease--disease was not caused by an imbalance of the humors, rather by a chemical imbalance. (1493-1541)

Colloquy of Marburg

Religious conference between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli held in 1529. The meeting was arranged by Lutheran Prince Philip of Hesse, and its goal was for the Protestant leaders to work out their theological differences as a prelude to a military alliance between German and Swiss Protestant states. The conference failed when Luther and Zwingli could not agree on the issue of the real presence of Christ in the mass.

List some major accomplishments of Frederick William (The Great Elector).

Religiously tolerant, reduced the autonomy of the Junkers, increased taxes (meant for the nobility, but mostly fell on townspeople and peasants), increased budget and members of the military

In what ways was Britain responsible for WWI?

Responsibility to declare war due to violation of neutrality of Belgium

Great Famine

Result of the potato blight in Ireland in the 1840's, Beginning in 1845, a severe blight struck the European potato crop. In Ireland, the results were devastating and millions died. (AKA --Potato Famine). Strict British laissez-fair policies caused a slow reaction which helped to worsen the disaster *evidence of the need for liberal reforms.

Ciompi Revolt (1378)

Revolt by the lower guilds of woolen cloth workers in Florence against the city government's attempt to freeze worker wages below market levels to relieve the labor crisis produced by the death toll of the bubonic plague. Similar revolts occurred among workers and peasants across Europe in response to wage freezes. The lower guilds succeeded in seizing control of the city government and holding it until 1382.

Fronde

Revolt of French nobles against the crown that occurred in 1648, during the minority of King Louis XIV. The Fronde was the last revolt against French absolutism before the French Revolution of 1789. The revolt started among nobles of the robe, administrative and judicial officials who bought nobility with their offices, but spread to involve traditional nobles of the sword, as well. Cardinal Mazarin, the king's first minister was instrumental in the defeat of the Fronde.

In what way does the French minister Richelieu symbolize absolutism? What were his achievements?

Richelieu's maneuvers allowed the monarchy to maintain power within Europe and within its own border despite the turmoil of the Thirty Years War. Because of his administrative system, he extended the use of intendants. As the power of the intendants increased, so did the power of the centralized French state.

Spanish Fury

Riot by Spanish troops in Antwerp in 1576 that devastated the city. Caused by the Spanish crown's failure to pay the troops over a period of months, the looting of Antwerp turned the southern provinces of The Netherlands against their Spanish rulers. These provinces joined the northern provinces in revolt by signing the Pacification of Gent in 1577.

Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner, and Eugene Delacroix

Romantic artists who created unique portrayals of the natural world through their landscape paintings

Ludwig von Beethoven and Hector Berlioz

Romantic musicians/composers who portrayed all aspects of human emotions through their rhythms and styles

William Wordsworth

Romantic poet, used one of the most important aspects of Romanticism: love of nature.(1770-1850) *evidence of Romantic literature

Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron

Romantic poets who expressed extreme human emotion and brought readers into an "invisible world"

Grimm brothers and Hans Christian Andersen

Romantics who portrayed aspects of history through local fairy tales

What two areas remained out of italian control in 1861?

Rome and Venice

Paulette

Royal edict of 1604 that resulted in making offices hereditary, a step in the creation of a permanent class of judicial magistrates, the "noblesse de robe"

Louis XIV of France

Ruled through absolutism and believed in divine rights. he restored the Palace of Versailles. He revoked the Edict of Nantes. He was known as the "Sun King".

How did the Ottoman Empire get divided?

Russia took Istanbul Austria-Hungary took Bosnia (this angered the Serbs) Britain and France wanted middle east and North Africa

Dardanelles and Savastopol

Russia was trying to claim Daradnelles territory from Russia which would allow them to become a major power, Britain and France joined the war to prevent this from happening, and at the Battle of Balaklava the fortress at Sevastopol fell and symbolized the end of the war

Criminean War

Sardinia, led by Cavour joined Britain and France in a war against Russia. Sardinia did not gain territory but they had a voice at the peace conference and Sardinia gained the attention of Napoleon.

James Watt

Scottish engineer and inventor whose improvements in the steam engine led to its wide use in industry (1736-1819)

Isabella d'Este

She was the daughter of the duke of Ferrar and married Francesco Gonzaga. Isabella was known for her intelligence and political wisdom. She attracted artists and intellectuals to the Mantuan court and amassed one of the finest libraries in Italy. Her letters reveal politibal acumena nd a good sense of humor. Both while her husband was alive and dead, she ruled Matua effectively and gained a reputation of a clever negotiator.

What were other characteristics of the Commercial Revolution?

Shift in trade to Western Europe Long distance trade Economic democratization Commercialization of industry Cottage system (aka domestic systematic) Separate of capital and labor Inflation

What were some political impacts of exploration and colonization?

Shifted political power from HRE and Italy to Western European countries i.e france england spain Strengthened monarchs and governments

Tripartite Pact, 1940

Signed between the Axis powers in 1940 (Italy, Germany and Japan) where they pledged to help the others in the event of an attack by the US

Who was not pleased with Dual Monarchy?

Slavic groups, especially the czechs in Bohenia. Nationalistic leaders called for the Slavs to unite

What were some of the consequences and reactions of the enclosure system?

Some consequences were that there wouldn't be enough private land to divide so some farmers wouldn't have a job or common place to graze cattle. Generally, the very traditionalist peasants were against the enclosure system.

What does heretic mean?

Someone who holds beliefs that are different from the Catholic church.

Charles the Dauphin VII

Son of Charles VI he was disinherited by the Treaty of Troyes but still considered himself the rightful heir. Weak and timid and was unable to rally the French against the English. He ruled the southern two thirds of France

What areas did the Dutch cover?

Souther tip of Africa

What areas did Spain cover?

Southwest US, Florida, Caribbean islands

What are the qualities of a nation-state?

Soverign Definite boundaries Internally unified Authority comes from people (not democracy!)

Which three countries were the first nation-states?

Spain, France, and England

Francisco Franco

Spanish General; organized the revolt in Morocco, which led to the Spanish Civil War. Leader of the Nationalists - right wing, supported by Hitler and Mussolini, won the Civil War after three years of fighting.

Habsburgs

Spanish and Austrian ruling family dreamed of uniting Europe under Catholic rule stopped by Adolphus; enemies of France/Richelieu

Marx's Das Kapital

Marx's work after Communist Manifesto he only finished the first volume before his death but Engels completed and edited the rest

Which of Henry VIII's children burned protestants at the stake in order to return England to Catholicism?

Mary

What order were Henry VIII's children born?

Mary, Elizabeth and Edward

War of Spanish Succession

(1701-1713) war over the successor of Charles II "the sufferer"; Charles had selected Philip V Bourbon, his grand-nephew and Louis XIV's grandson to succeed him, going against a previous agreement that he would be succeeded by an Austrian; an alliance of European powers with troops led by Eugene, Prince of Savoy, and John Churchill fought against French and Spanish troops; the war ended with the Peace of Utrecht

Battle of Peterloo

(1819) This battle, occurred in Manchester, England. It was more of a massacre than a battle; people had gathered to discuss political reform and spread new ideas, and were killed by government troops., Battle in 1819 that happened in Manchester, England; because of the riots people had over the Corn Law issue. The government was scared of having more revolts or a revolution, that they sent the army and basically kill the British peasants. *evidence of people demonstrating for liberal reforms of government countering the dominant conservative control of the era.

Franco-Prussian war

(1870-1871) - Bismarck realized that a patriotic war with France would drive the south German states into his arms - The superficial issue: whether a distant relative of Prussia's William I (and France's Napoleon III) might become king of Spain - The true issue: French leaders of the Second Empire decided to wage war on Prussia b/c they were alarmed by Bismarck and Prussia's increasing power - Bismarck immediately gained the support of the south German states - German forced under Prussian leadership defeated the main French army at Sedan on (September 1, 1870) - Louis Napoleon was captured and humiliated - Then the French patriots proclaimed another French republic and continued fighting, eventually after 5 months in (January 1871) Paris Surrendered and France went on to accept Bismarck's harsh eace terms

D-Day

(FDR) , June 6, 1944, 160,000 Allied troops landed along a 50-mile stretch of heavily-fortified French coastline to fight Nazi Germany on the beaches of Normandy, France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower called the operation a crusade in which "we will accept nothing less than full victory." More than 5,000 Ships and 13,000 aircraft supported the D-Day invasion, and by day's end on June 6, the Allies gained a foot- hold in Normandy.

Treaty of Versailles

(WW) 1918, , Created by the leaders victorious allies Nations: France, Britain, US, and signed by Germany to help stop WWI. The treaty 1)stripped Germany of all Army, Navy, Airforce. 2) Germany had to rapair war damages(33 billion) 3) Germany had to acknowledge guilt for causing WWI 4) Germany could not manefacture any weapons.

Peasant Revolt of 1525

Massive revolt of German peasants against landlord and princely taxation. The peasant leaders claimed that the revolt was inspired by Luther's ideas on Christian freedom, a claim Luther vehemently rejected. Luther called for the peasants to obey their lawful rulers, but this did not stop the revolt. Luther then called on the German princes to put down the rebellion.

Existing System of Government in England

*Existing System of Government in England* - Local administration members of the gentry (not technically members of the nobility, but still had large estates and were dominant political figures) were chosen to become JPs. The JPs were voluntary unpaid officials that served as the principal public servant in the more than forty counties. Since the gentry wanted appointments for reasons of status, the king could always count on their support. - Lawmaking though the Parliament grew in power, it always remained subordinate to the crown. Nevertheless, the English kings knew that they couldn't take severe measures without its consent. The Parliament contributed to the unification of the country, even though it took away power from kings. - Judiciary the common law (based on the interpretations and precedents made by individual judges), not Roman law was in effect, and traveling judges administered it. This helped unify the country as well.

natural philosophers

Medieval scientists whose mathematical and physical thinking relied on the works of Aristotle and Galen and fit into a strict theological framework.

The Radical Phase (1792 - 1794)

- A new government had to be established, as the constitutional monarchy, w/out a monarch, had lost its legitimacy. Temporarily, a Paris Commune or city government was created. But this was not enough to maintain order, and in September, hysteria spread by the radical journalists resulted in the September Massacres, in which popular tribunals summarily executed thousands of prisoners, who were feared to be counter-revolutionaries. - The hysteria began to fade when the French won at the Battle of Valmy on September 20th. Then, France was declared a Republic, and a National Convention met for the first time. - January 21st, 1793 Louis XVI was guillotined after lengthy deliberations. - Now, the Convention was being threatened from many different sides - including internal rebellions, foreign invasions, economic crisis, factionalism, popular pressure, etc. So, they decided to purge the Girondins and establish a program for public safety. - Constitution of 1793 although this constitution was never put into effect because of the military crisis, in addition to confirming the individual rights laid out in the last constitution (plus the rights of public assistance, education, and even of rebellion to resist oppression), it provided for a legislature elected by the people (men only) that would also elect the executive. - The Jacobins swept aside the new constitution, declaring the government "revolutionary until the peace" and instituting the Reign of Terror. A twelve-man committee, the Committee for Public Safety, was in charge, and the main leaders of the Committee were Robespierre, Danton, and the ultra radical Hébert. - During the ROT, the French were fighting the foreign wars, and, soon enough, with the strict discipline of the ROT, they began to win. - But, finally, the ROT culminated in the execution of its own leaders - Danton and Robespierre executed Hébert, Robespierre executed Danton, and then Robespierre himself was overthrown.

Economic factors in Austro-Prussian rivalry

- After 1848, German states were in stalemate - Economic forces were contributing to Austro- Prussian rivalry: middle-class and business groups were enriching themselves and finding solid economic reasons to bolster their idealistic support of national unification - Prussia's leading role within the Zolleverein gave in a valuable advantage in its struggle against Austria's supremacy in German political affairs

Background for "Describe and analyze the resistance to Soviet authority in the Eastern bloc from the end of WWII through 1989. Be sure to include examples from at least TWO Soviet satellite countries."

- After World War II, Europe was divided between Soviet and Western powers. - A theoretical divide, known as the Iron Curtain, served as the division. - The Western nations ruled the Western side of the Curtain, and the Soviets controlled territory to the east. - In Soviet territory, harsh laws controlled the people, but when Gorbachev gained power the harshness diminished, especially with the policies of glasnost, which involved freedom of speech, and perestroika, which began the reformation of the Soviet Economy.

Background for "Describe and analyze the ways in which sixteenth century Roman Catholics defended their faith against the Protestant Reformation."

- After realizing the corruption in the church (especially Johannes Tetzel's sale of indulgences), Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in Wittenberg, beginning his campaign known as Lutheranism. - He advocated for justification by faith and independent acts and demonstrations of faith. - His movement inspired other movements, including Calvinism (which promoted the idea of predestination) and Zwinglism. - These new branches of Christianity threatened the authority of the church, which launched a counter-reformation in response.

The Legislative Assembly (1791 - 1792)

- After the constitution was finished, the NA gave way to the Legislative Assembly. B/c of the Self Denying Ordinance, no NA members could be in the LA. - Just as the first LA is about to go into effect, the king escaped but was captured. - The LA makes the decision to go to war w/Austria and Prussia b/c of the Declaration of Pillnitz). The Girondins feel this will somehow unite the nation, the Royalists hope that they lose, and Jacobins want to lose then win. - August 10th, 1792 then, b/c of the Brunswick Manifesto the Parisian militants decided to storm the royal palace at the Tulieries. They drove the king from the throne, the LA declared him suspended, and then half the LA escaped as well. Now, without the king, the LA was also illegitimate.

Background for "Describe the ways in which conservative political and social views shaped the peace settlement of the Congress of Vienna. Explain the consequences of the peace settlement for the period 1815 - 1848."

- After the era of the French revolution and the rapid expansion of France under Napoleon and the Napoleonic Wars, Europe's sanctions needed to be redrawn and figures of authority needed to be reinstated. - Thus, the Congress of Vienna was formed to make those decisions.

The Thermidorian Reaction (1794 - 1795) and The Directory (1795 - 1799)

- After the fall of Robespierre, the revolutionary committees that had led the ROT were destroyed, the Paris Jacobin Club was closed, and the Convention offered an amnesty to the remaining Girondins. The term Thermidorian Reaction refers to the return of conservatism after the ultra-radical phase in the French Revolution and is now applied to any such pattern in other revolutions. - The anti-Jacobin sentiment grew so strong, in fact, that a White Terror erupted against anyone connected with the Jacobins. - The last revolutionary uprising occurred in 1795, when the sans-culottes launched a poorly organized revolt (calling for "bread and the constitution of 1793") and, after two days of street fighting, were overwhelmed by the government. - In 1795, a new constitution was drafted. It proclaimed a general amnesty and set up a five man executive committee known as the Directory. It also had a two-house legislature. The Directory attempted to stay on the moderate side of everything, and it became incredibly corrupt. It had to overthrow itself after the first general election because a royalist majority won. By 1799 any semblance of legitimacy was gone, making way for Napoleon

Changes Made by Ferdinand and Isabella

- Although Ferdinand and Isabella made no attempt to form a monolithic state (all united) they did somewhat unify Spain into a federation where the nobles lost power. - Each province was treated differently, and changes were made as follows: 1. Aragon remained a federation of territories administered by viceroys who were appointed by the king but allowed local customs to remain intact. Each province was allowed to keeps its own representative assembly, called the Cortes. 2. Castile in Castile, they were determined to assert their superiority and restore order to the countryside (which was screwed up by civil wars). They did this by establishing the Cortes of Castile, an assembly dominated by urban representatives who shared the wish for order since peace helped trade. The Cortes also had tribunals to try criminals. - They also made general changes, such as: 1. They overhauled the entire administration by saying that "ability rather than social status should determine appointments." They kicked out the nobles as local administrators, and replaced them with people from a lesser class of nobility called the hidalgos (similar to gentry in England) who occupied positions called corregidors, which were local judicial officers. 2. They weakened the clergy and after they got rid of the Muslims in 1492, the Pope allowed them to make appointments. So, by Charles V's reign they had power over the church. 3. Also, in 1478, the Pope granted them the power to have an independent Inquisition to kick out all non-Christians, such as the Muslims and Jews. Without other religions, Spain was more united. Plus, the Inquisition, like the Italian wars, kept the nobles busy. 4. They instituted a sales tax so revenues increased. They were able to this because, like the French, the Spanish taxes could be raised without the Cortes consent. 5. They instituted Castilian law, which all came from the throne and was similar to Roman law. 6. After Isabella's death, Ferdinand concentrated on foreign affairs and re-annexed several provinces from France and entered the war in Italy, which under Charles V (Hapsburg) they won against Henry II of France. They won because they had the best standing army.

The Appeal of Protestantism

- Appeal to the peasants: 1. Message of equality in religion, which they extended to life in general. 2. A simplified religion with fewer rituals, which made it easier to understand. 3. Luther rebelled, which inspired many of them to do the same. - Appeal to the nobles: 1. No tithe to pay, so $ stays in the country. 2. Since they are against Charles for political reasons, they can justify it by becoming Protestant. 3. No more church owned land, so they can get more land. 4. No tithe for peasants, so they can tax them more. - Appeal to the middle class: 1. No tithe to pay, so more $ for them. 2. Now they can read the Bible and interpret it in their own way. 3. Concept of individualism - you are your own priest.

Otto Von Bismark (1862)

- Aristocrat, master of politics, devoted servant of William, - Took office in (1862) and made negative impression; he declared that GOVERNMENT WOULD RULE WITHOUT PARLIAMENTARY CONSENT - He lashed out at middle class opposition by raising taxes - Allowed the Prussian bureaucracy to continue collecting taxes, despite parliament's disapproval - Reorganized the army

Causes of the Italian Renaissance

- Because of the Crusades, and the new trade routes, Europeans began to come in contact with other, more advanced civilizations, which influenced them greatly. - The Church, due to the scandals that occurred, lost much of its power, and people began to doubt its ultimate authority. - Due to trade, the middle class grew, and people began to accumulate vast sums of money. They then wanted to enjoy and show off their wealth, which led to a philosophy of enjoying this life instead of simply waiting for the next one. - Competition between wealthy people for status led to developments in education and art, since wealthy people, wanting to be respected, would compete to see who was the most educated or had sponsored the most artists.

Post war relationships with Parliament

- Bismarck made a federal constitution for the new North German Confederation (constitutional monarchy) - Each state retained its own local government, but king of Prussia became president of the confederation, and the chancellor (Bismarck) was responsible only to the president - King and chancellor controlled the army and foreign affairs - There was also a legislature with members of the lower house elected by universal male suffrage - Thus, Bismarck opened the door to popular participation and the possibility of going over the head of the middle class directly to the people - Then Bismarck reached out to parliament and asked them to pass a special indemnity bill to approve after the fact all the government's spending between 1862-1866 - The liberals jumped on the chance to cooperate - The middle class ultimately accepted the conservative authoritarian government that Bismarck represented because German unity was in sight - Before 1914, the values of aristocratic Prussian army officer increasingly replaced those of the middle-class liberal in public esteem and set the social standard

Outcome of Austro-Prussian war

- Bismarck offered Austria realistic (almost nice) eace terms - Austria paid no reparations and lost no territory, but Venetia was ceded to Italy - German Confederation was dissolved - Austria agreed to withdraw from German affairs - States north of Main River were grouped in the new North German confederation, led by an expanded Russia - Catholic states of the south remained independent while forming alliances with Prussia

The Holy Roman Empire under Charles V

- Charles V was the king of Spain but the Cortes didn't like him because he requested additional tax funds so that he could take the Spanish troops and try to unify the HRE. So, effectively, he wasted all of Spain's $ from the new world on stupid wars! Naturally, when Charles V left for war, the poor people revolted but the nobles put down the rebellion before Charles V came back. The nobles sided against the peasants only because along with attacking Charles, they attacked the nobles. - After the uprising, he kept his administration entirely Spanish. While he was fighting outside wars, he relied entirely on a skilled administrator, Francisco de los Cobos, who enlarged the administration and the system of councils. He made two types of councils, one of each department of government and the other for each territory ruled. At the head was the Council of State. A federation emerged, like US. - Though corruption was widespread, centralization gave monarch lots of power. Spain's administration was the most detailed, though it was not always the most efficient. - Charles' major problem was $ because he wasted all of it on his stupid wars (like the one against the Ottomans, and all the ones against the Schmalkaldic League in HRE) in Europe. Since Aragon was more independent, the entire tax burden fell on Castile, but Castile did get a monopoly of trade with the New World, which gave them lots of silver. However, the monopoly eventually led to foreign domination since no one else could get the $. Consequently, Philip II had to declare Spain bankrupt several times because of the wars.

Lutheran Doctrine and Practice

- Codified in the Augsburg Confession the Lutheran beliefs are as follows: 1. Justification by faith alone, or the belief that faith alone, without the sacraments or good works, leads to an individual's salvation. 2. The Bible as the only authority, not any subsequent works. 3. All people are equally capable of understanding God's word as expressed in the Bible and can gain salvation without the help of an intermediary. 4. No distinction between priests and laity. 5. Consubstantiation (the presence of the substance and Christ coexist in the wafer and wine and no miracle occurs) instead of transubstantiation. 6. A simplified ceremony with services not in Latin.

The Elite Culture of the Enlightenment

- During the Enlightenment, many new forms of elite culture developed. These developments had hardly any effect on the majority of the people, but the elite culture, united by French as a common language, bound together into a cosmopolitan world. - The elite began to travel around Europe. They looked at the cultural centers and cities, as well as the ancient monuments of antiquity. Cities were being spruced up during this time with the additions of amenities (like streetlights and public transportation) and two important new ideas, coffeehouses (where people could eat and talk) and shop windows (sparked commerce). - A so-called republic of letters began to develop (popularized by Pierre Bayle, who like religious toleration), in which journals and newspapers circulated among the elite. Though the republic was limited to the educated, all classes and backgrounds could join in. The elite also met in salons (philosophical party houses of the elite, very snobby and stylish) and academies both of which helped spread ideas and unite people. There, people could dispute their ideas and come up w/new ones. - Also, during this time, publishing increased tremendously and people began to read more. Traveling libraries were developed, as were journals and, most importantly, newspapers. There were new employment opportunities in bookselling and publishing, as well as the smuggling of so-called bad books, which ranged from Voltaire to pornography (i.e. anything that was banned)

Characteristics of Renaissance art

- Emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. - Good use of depth in paintings. - Linear (further away = smaller) and atmospheric (further away = hazier) perspective. - Paintings began to have more detailed backgrounds. - Not necessarily religious, more focus on earthly themes and humans. - More realistic, geometrically precise and mathematically accurate. - Subjects showing signs of more emotion. - Contraposto posture, in which the subject is shifting his or her balance.

Artists of the Early Renaissance

- Giotto (1267 - 1337) was a painter famous for the solid bodies, the expression of human emotion, and the suggestion of landscape in his paintings. - Masaccio (1401 - 1428) was a painter who used the inspiration of the ancients to put a new emphasis on nature, on three-dimensional human bodies, and on perspective. He also was the first painter since the ancients to show nudes in his paintings. - Donatello (1386 - 1466) was mainly a sculptor whose focus was on the beauty of the human body. He made some of the first nude sculptures since the ancients. - Brunelleschi (1377 - 1446) was an architect whose work was groundbreaking for its simplicity, symmetry, balance and harmony. Additionally, he created the largest dome built in Europe since the ancients in a cathedral in Florence. *Artists of the High Renaissance* - Leonardo (1452 - 1519) was a painter (and a scientist, writer, and inventor) whose paintings are remarkable for their technical perfection, in other words, for their good use of angles, perspective, and a detailed background. - Raphael (1483 - 1520) was a painter who used his mastery of perspective and ancient styles to produce works of harmony, beauty, and serenity and convey a sense of peace. - Michelangelo (1475 - 1564) was a painter who also experimented in poetry, architecture, and sculpture. Most of his work focuses on individuals who always give a sense of strength and ambition. - Titian (1479 - 1576) was a painter who painted scenes of luxury in such a vivid, immediate way that his paintings seem real to the viewer.

Changes made by Henry VII and Henry VIII

- Henry VII founder of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII came to power shortly after the War of Roses, a civil war that weakened the nobles greatly. He was a conservative, and strengthened the crown by applying the traditional methods, such as: 1. He carefully built up funds without overtaxing his subjects; he put collection and revenue in the hands of a small, efficient group of his officials. Avoided foreign entanglements. 2. He increased the power of the JPs and had the Star Chamber (a group of royal councilors) resume hearing appeals, which strengthened royal power and decreased noble power because nobles could no longer control the local courts. - Henry VIII tended to enact more radical measures than did his father, such as: 1. In 1513 he beat invading Scottish army at Flodden, near England's north border. 2. Decided to break with the Roman Catholic Church after advice from Thomas Cromwell. This had the effect of stimulating the economy since church funds stayed in the country and the church lands were annexed. It also greatly strengthened the Parliament and gave it more responsibility. 3. The break with the Church also had the effect of making a reorganization of the administration necessary. They made six departments, each with specific functions. Cromwell was the executive of the councils. A Privy Council was also established, consisting of the king's advisers.

The four aspects of Humanism

- Humanism was a new philosophy that really defined the Renaissance. Although it was an intellectual movement and didn't really spread to most people, it had a huge impact on the age. - Though many believe that humanism replaced religion in the Renaissance, in reality, the two coexisted. Most humanists were actually religious, and the only difference between the beliefs of church and of the humanists had was that the humanists believed that this life was important and should be enjoyed while the church did not, and felt that people should focus on awaiting the afterlife instead. - Humanism consists of four essential aspects, which are as follows: 1. Admiration and emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. 2. Philosophy of enjoying this life, instead of just waiting for the next one. 3. The glorification of humans and the belief that individuals can do anything. 4. The belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention.

Austro- Prussian war (1866)

- In 1862, Russia decided to draft Polish youth into the military, so the Poles protested. Napoleon III sided with Poland, but Bismarck sided with Russia, making Russia an ally. But, Bismarck wanted to be safe so he neutralized France and Italy through promise of Venetia - Because Bismarck was opposed at home, he searched for success abroad; this was manifested in aiding the Austrians against Denmark's (1864) effort to centralize and unify the Danish state - Also a successful nationalistic war makes middle-class liberals more ok to spend money on war and trains the military for the bigger wars - And he could blame the war with Austria on any tiny dispute - However, Bismarck wanted Austria to no longer take part in German affairs, and instead give all control to Prussia - He then neutralized Russia and France so that they wouldn't side with Austria in an alliance against Prussia - Austro-Prussian war (1866) lasted seven weeks - Bismarck utilized railroads to mass troops and the new breechloading needle gun - The Prussians overran northern Germany and defeated Austria at the Battle of Sadowa in Bohemia

Background for "In the seventeenth century, what political conditions accounted for the increased power of both the parliament in England and the monarchy in France."

- In England, Elizabeth I ruled for many years. - She was a strong queen, moderate and tolerant Protestant, and a well-liked ruler. - Regarding France, the Peace of Westphalia left it as a super-power in Europe. - The wars of religion divided France, and Henry of Navarre, the first Bourbon king, took the throne at the end of the era, leading to a succession of strong, absolutist monarchs.

Synthesis for "Describe and analyze the resistance to Soviet authority in the Eastern bloc from the end of WWII through 1989. Be sure to include examples from at least TWO Soviet satellite countries."

- In the Eastern bloc, both Dubcek and Imre Nagy challenged the communist ideas by reforming Soviet conditions and creating their own branches of communism. - In Yugoslavia, a communist territory not technically in the Eastern bloc, Marshal Tito did made similar reforms. - He improved Soviet relations with western powers, as was done during the reigns of Dubcek and Nagy.

Background for "The revolution accomplished from Copernicus to Newton has been called the greatest spiritual adjustment that modern civilization has had to make. Assess the validity of this statement."

- In the past, the church controlled education and denied the heliocentric theory, accepting the heliocentric theory. - They were not accepting of opposing ideas. - During the scientific revolution, these opposing ideas grew in popularity, transforming ideas of human and worldly existence.

Why were so many colonists of mixed heritage?

Men, not women, moved to the colonies. This meant that the second generation was mostly mixed. Often, these "mulato" could find a position of power in the colony.

Short term causes of the Reformation

- John Wycliffe (1320 - 1384) was an English reformer who argued that the Church was becoming too remote from the people and advocated for simplification of its doctrines and less power for the priests. He believed that only the Scriptures declared the will of God and questioned transubstantiation, the ability of the priests to perform a miracle turning the wine and bread into Christ's blood and body. His views were branded heretical, but he was able to survive in hiding though his remains were dug up by the Church in 1428 and burned. He left an underground movement called the Lollards who faced constant persecution. - Jan Hus (1369 - 1415) was a Bohemian who argued that priests weren't a holy group, claiming instead that the Church was made up of all of the faithful. He questioned transubstantiation, and said that the priest and the people should all have both the wine and the bread. He was burned at the stake in 1415, but his followers, led by Zizka, raised an army and won against the emperor, who let them to set up their own church (the Utraquist Church) in which both the wine and bread were eaten by all. - The Avignon Exile and Great Schism were both events that greatly undermined both the power and prestige of the Church, and made many people begin to question its holiness and the absolute power of the Papacy. People realized that the Church was a human institution with its own faults. - The Printing Press before the invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s, many people didn't have access to information or changes in religious thought except through word of mouth and the village viellées. With the printing press, new ideas, and the dissatisfaction with the church, could spread quickly, and people could read the Bible for themselves.

Literature of the Enlightenment

- Literature of the Enlightenment this is where the modern novel was first developed, by Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding, both in England. The novel emerged as a new form of writing in which a story was told and characters were presented in a realistic social context filled with everyday problems. Another writer was Fanny Burney. Satire was also perfected during the Enlightenment, by brilliant writers like Jonathan Swift, and Voltaire. Also, during this time, romantic poetry was born. Before, poetry followed strict rules and was not very emotional, but in the Enlightenment writers like William Wordsworth and Friedrich von Schiller made it very emotional. Poetry came to be a signature part of the new style, Romanticism. Johann von Goethe was a romantic poet who came to embody the entire period and whose masterpiece was called Faust.

Existing System of Government in France

- Local administration there was no real system for local government, and aristocrats were virtually independent rulers until the new monarchs came along. - Royal administration had three departments: the Chancery (had charge of formal documents), the Treasury ($), and the Parlement of France (the court of law). Roman law was used, which helped the king because the monarch was then able to issue ordinances. - Lawmaking representative assemblies, known as Estates, limited the throne's power because the estates had to approve measures made by the king before they were enacted. The throne was forced to negotiate with the estates, especially to raise taxes. Nevertheless, the Estates never were as powerful as the English Parliament. The taxes (the sales tax, hearth tax, and salt tax) all went to the crown and after 1451, they could be collected on the king's authority alone. - Army unlike the English, they had a standing army that was rarely used but always a threat, so it increased the king's power. However, it took an enormous amount of funding.

Changed Made by Louis XI and Charles VIII

- Louis XI began his reign after the Hundred Years War, which weakened the crown. At the beginning of his reign, there was anarchy, and the king had no power. However, changes he made reestablished the crown's power. For example: 1. He beat Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who was Charles V great-grandfather and he then re-annexed Burgundy except for the Low Countries, which the duke's daughter kept. 2. Nicknamed "the spider" because, using his diplomatic tactics. - Charles VIII he began the invasion of Italy, which was eventually a failure, since the Hapsburgs beat him. However, it did provide a distraction for the restless and aggressive nobles.

The Diet of Worms

- Luther's writings could no longer be ignored, and, in 1520, Pope Leo the Fifth excommunicated him, and Luther responded by calling the Pope an anti-Christ. So, Charles the Fifth ordered him to offer his defense against the decree at a Diet of the Empire at Worms. - At Worms, Luther refused to retract his statements, asking to be proved wrong with the Bible. So, Charles ordered that Luther be arrested and his works burned, but Prince Frederick of Saxony came to Luther's aid and allowed Luther to hide in his castle. There, Luther established the Lutheran doctrines.

Art during the Scientific Revolution

- Mannerism a reaction to the glorification of humans seen in the Renaissance, Mannerism featured distorted human figures, strange perspectives and unnatural colors and lighting. Mannerism reached its peak during the instability of the Reformation, and it reflected the concerns of a troubled time. The major Mannerist painter was El Greco (1541 - 1614). - Baroque a reaction to Mannerism, the Baroque style occurred during the Counter Reformation, and it reflected the desire for grandeur and the wish to inspire and awe people with God's greatness. A famous baroque painter was Caravaggio (1571 - 1610) whose paintings were famous for their depictions of highly emotional moments. Other famous baroque painters were Rubens (1577 - 1640), and Veláquez (1599 - 1660), who glorified church figures and rulers. Bernini, a baroque sculptor and architect, did the inside and outside of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. - Classicism like Baroque, Classicism attempted to awe the viewer. However, like the Renaissance, it attempted to awe the viewer with form and discipline - also they wished to return to ancient values. Big guy was Poussin whose paintings were more subdued than the baroque guys (he liked togas). - The Dutch b/c of Protestantism and republicanism, Dutch art was less religious (if religious only personal faith, not that of Church obviously) and more precise b/c big buyers were bourgeoisie (merchants not dumb nobles). Big dude was Rembrandt who pretty much just painted pictures of himself (pretty conceited, but really was just fascinated by human character and lighting). - Monteverdi invented concept of opera and orchestra, after many new instruments were invented. His masterpiece was Orfeo (1607).

Define mercantilism. What were the mercantilist policies of the French minister Colbert?

Mercantilism is a collection of governmental policies for the regulation of economic activities by and for the state. Colbert insisted that French industry should produce everything needed by the French people.

The National Assembly (1789 - 1791)

- May 5th, 1789 the EG finally met, for the first time since 1614. But the king only spoke generally and didn't clear up the voting mess. - June 17th, 1789 the Third Estate had enough and proclaimed itself the National Assembly. A few days later, most of the clergy joined. The king decided to support the dumb nobles and locked the Third Estate out of its meeting hall. - Tennis Court Oath on June 20th, the Revolutionaries went to a tennis court and swore that they wouldn't separate until they had given France a constitution. - The king responded by promising equality in taxation, civil liberties, and regular meetings of the EG but voting would be by order. Then, he ordered the estates to go to their individual meeting halls, but the TE didn't go. Finally, he recognized the NA and (trying to act like it was all his idea) told all the estates to join it. But, he secretly was ordering 20,000 royal troops to the Paris region. - The ordinary citizens were getting mad over food shortages. When they heard rumors of the royal troops, they feared an aristocratic plot to overthrow the NA. And, when the king got rid of Necker on July 11 it was the last straw. - July 14th, 1789 fearing counter-revolution Parisian crowds attacked the Bastille, the 20,000 troops joined (on Rev side), and the Revolutionaries won. At the same time, royal officials in Paris were ousted and were replaced w/a Revolutionary municipality, and a citizens' militia was formed. - The NA was saved, but the hungry peasants were still hungry and consequently still angry. Starvation and rumors (that nobles were going to destroy the harvest) caused The Great Fear in which the peasants attacked nobles and revolted. - August 4th, 1789 in response, the deputies of the clergy and nobility gave up their ancient privileges. In one night, feudalism and seigneurialism were abolished for good. - August 26th, 1789 NA writes The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The Declaration established natural rights like freedom of expression, religion, etc. It all comes from Locke and from Rousseau. - Civil Constitution of the Clergy #1 mistake for Revolutionaries. In 1790, they passed this law that forced clergy to become state employees and take oaths of loyalty to state. 50% clergy obeyed, other 50% didn't, and the pope condemned the action, so many religious people were alienated. - Constitution of 1791 finally, in 1791, the constitution was finished. It established a limited monarchy w/a clear separation of powers. There was a unicameral legislature elected by indirect voting. Every adult male w/minimal taxpaying requirements could vote, w/a higher qualification needed to serve public office.

Literature during Scientific Revolution

- Michel de Montaigne invented the essay (what did he have to do that for?); influenced by skepticism ("What do I know?") which eventually led to search for self-knowledge ("Know thyself") and his belief that acting righteously is more important than following doctrine - Cervantes wrote Don Quixote, which illustrated the wide gaps between rich and poor and the difference between reality and fantasy of his time by poking fun at society and politics (he thought that politics disregarded human values). - Shakespeare wrote plays that made timeless statements about human behavior and covered a very wide range of topics and emotions. However, his plays also reflected his time as death, turmoil and change were always present. - Corneille was the dominant French playwright of the 1600s whose work reflects the rise of classicism. At first, he refused to follow the three new set rules for drama (unity of time, location and plot). His masterpiece was Le Cid (1636) which was condemned by Richelieu b/c it did not follow the three rules.

Synthesis for "Compare and contrast the foreign policy goals of Metternich (1815 - 1848) and Bismark (1862 - 1890)."

- Napoleon can be connected to both Bismarck and Metternich. - Like Bismark, Napoleon strategically used military strength to get what he wanted for his country. - Like Metternich, Napoleon sought to unify Europe, but under French control.

Background for "Compare and contrast the foreign policy goals of Metternich (1815 - 1848) and Bismark (1862 - 1890)."

- Otto von Bismarck was a prime minister from Germany. - He dominated the Congress of Vienna and was dismissed by Emperor William II. - Prince Klemens von Metternich was an official of Austria. - He dominated the Congress of Vienna and fell during the Revolutions of 1848.

Characteristics of Medieval art

- Paintings were lacking in depth and perspective. - Paintings usually lacked a background. - Always themed religiously and usually focusing on heaven or holy people. - The paintings were not realistic, and made no sense geometrically or mathematically. - The subjects did not show any emotions, except for calm or piety.

Effects of the Scientific Revolution

- People felt that human understanding of the universe could be reduced to mathematical laws. - The universe was no longer appeared to be a mystery. In fact, people felt that it was orderly, rational, and, most importantly, could be understood by humans. - People felt that humans were able to control their own destiny. - The concept of natural laws developed. These laws, which were similar to the laws found in science by Newton, could govern other aspects of life as well, such as economics, politics, or ethics. - Science gained wider appeal and unprecedented popularity. Additionally, science was institutionalized, and scientific societies sprung up throughout Europe, on both the national and personal level. The institutions greatly helped the rate of progress. - Positive effects of the SciRev gain of knowledge, greater toleration (both religious and scientific), less superstition and more scientific answers, and freedom to deviate from established theories, which opened the door for new, further developments. - Negative effects of the SciRev loss of innocence, loss of traditional faith, loss of faith in heaven, earth is no longer regarded as the center (God's pet project), skepticism, loss of personal/caring God. - Overall, however, the SR was an era of optimism that gave way to an Age of Reason in the 18th century. People living during the SR felt that they had surpassed even the ancients and were at the peak of human knowledge, and ideas of progress dominated intellectual discussions.

Humanists

- Petrarch (1304 - 1374) was the first humanist of the Renaissance. He greatly admired the Greeks and Romans and preferred them to his own contemporaries, who he saw as barbaric. He even felt that the only true examples of moral and proper behavior could come from the Ancients. Though he was a lawyer and cleric by trade, he devoted himself to writing poetry, papers, and letters, which were often to the famous Greeks and Romans. - Boccaccio (1313 - 1375) was a writer who became famous for a collection of short stories called The Decameron that is now thought of as the first prose masterpiece ever written in Italian. The Decameron is a book relating how a group of young Florentines went to a secluded villa to escape the plague and began telling stories. It was one of the first books intended for entertainment and is groundbreaking in its frank treatment of relationships and its creation of ordinary, realistic characters. - Baldassare Castiglione writer who is best known for his novel, The Courtier, which, by taking the form of a conversation between the sophisticated men and women of a court in Urbino, became a manual of proper behavior for gentlemen and ladies for centuries to come. - Guarino da Verona & Vittorino da Feltre were educators who turned the ideals of the humanists into a practical curriculum. They founded a school in which students learned Latin, Greek, mathematics, music, philosophy, and social graces. - Marsilio Ficino was a member of a new, later group of humanists called the Neoplatonists, who believed in studying the grand ideas in the work of Plato and other philosophers as opposed to leading the "active life" the civic humanists lead. Ficino believed that Plato's ideas showed the dignity and immortality of the human soul. - Giovanni Pico another Neoplatonist who believed that he could reconcile all philosophies and show that a single truth lay behind them all.

Pop Culture during the Enlightenment

- Popular culture was pretty much totally separate from the elite culture, and was not really that affected by it at all. At this level culture was still public recreation and oral tradition. - There was, however, some popular literature meant to be read aloud in the community. This consisted of religious material, almanacs, and literature for fun (stories). Mainly, popular writing actually fostered submissiveness, not rebellion, for it had a fatalistic acceptance of the status quo. - But the most important part of popular culture was the oral tradition, which consisted of the folktales and songs passed from generation to generation. These tales expressed the hardships and goals of the time, with themes like struggles to survive and magical happenings. - Though literacy rose a little, in rural areas it was still very low. Education was scarce, for few parents could allow their children to go to school while they were needed in the fields. Many of the elites, like Voltaire, did not believe that the masses should be educated, but even when the government tried to encourage education (Prussia, Austria) it did not really have a big result. Even when they went to school, the goals of elementary schooling were simply to instill religion and morality, show the value of hard work, and promote deference to superiors, not really to learn anything. - Popular culture included festivals and taverns (the salons for normal people) where common people could enjoy themselves and relax. Sports also became important during this time, and people began to attend sporting events more.

Social Patterns and Popular culture during the Scientific Revolution

- Population decreased after the 16th century. In the 17th century, population began to rise again, leading to overcrowding in the cities, bigger armies, increased crime, more taxation (but food prices didn't rise = bad for peasants), and beggars (not enough food for peasants). - Also, social status became mobile because it became based on wealth and education as opposed to family heritage. The emphasis on education led to a higher literacy rate, which led to the start of newspapers and book sales. Woman also gained opportunities in buissness. - In the East, peasants were reduced to serfdom, and in the West, many were forced to go into the cities in search of a job. Village unity decreased b/c of increased population and national intervention for law enforcement (intendants). - In the village, ancient traditions held fast, for example, the belief in magic and the yearly festivals such as Charivari. Like Calvinism, villagers felt they couldn't control their own destiny (unlike SR, the beliefs of which had not spread to the village yet), which led to witch hunts that eventually subsided when the SR and Counter Reformation spread to the village.

Science before the Scientific Revolution

- Prior to the SR, all scientific concepts came from either the Bible or ancient scientists. Since, during the Middle Ages, most of the works of other ancient scientists were lost, Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen became the only, and therefore ultimate, authorities, on their fields. The old beliefs came from: The Bible naturally, the main source of information, in all respects, was the Bible, whose teachings were taken literally (for example, if a story stated that the world stopped spinning, Europeans believed that the world actually did stop spinning).

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

- Scientists were simply beginning to take note of the inadequacies of the standard theories, and, although they greatly preferred to make slight changes to the theories (vs. abandoning them) some scientists were beginning to question the old authorities. - It is unlikely that the scientists would have challenged the established theories without the influence of the other ancient scientists, especially Archimedes, (who were rediscovered during the Renaissance due to the humanists' efforts to find ancient works) that disagreed with the old theories. -The interest in what is now regarded as magic, but was then seen as serious science. These branches of science included alchemy and astrology, and were linked by the belief that the world could be understood through several secret truths (like Neoplatonism). These sciences contributed to the outpouring of new ideas, the questioning of the old theories, and the use of math. -European interest in technology both stimulated and made possible the SR. New instruments and devices (printing press, telescope, vacuum pump, thermometer, barometer and microscope), often made for other purposes, were used in science and made possible many of the new discoveries. The interest in technology was actually stimulated by the competition between the different nations b/c applied technology was used in warfare.

Abuses of Church Power

- Simony the sale of Church positions, which quickly led to people becoming Church officials purely for economic motives, and not for spiritual ones. - Indulgences the sale of indulgences was the biggest moneymaker for the Church. When a person paid for an indulgence, it supposedly excused the sins they had committed (the more $, the more sins forgiven) even without them having to repent. Indulgences could even be bought for future sins not yet committed and for others, especially those who had just died, and were supposed to make a person's passage into heaven faster. - Dispensations payments that released a petitioner from the requirements of the canon law. - Incelebacy church officials getting married and having children. - Pluralism having more than one position at a time. - Nepotism control by a particular family. *The Definition of the Reformation* - The Reformation was the final splitting of the Western Church into two halves. - The two branches of the Church were Catholicism and Protestantism.

The Prelude to the Revolution (1774 - 1789)

- So, when Louis XVI took the throne in 1774, the monarchy was in a bad shape economically. - Turgot (finance minister) tried to make reforms to fix the situation (like removing government restrictions on commerce, cutting down court expenses, and replacing the obligation of peasants to work on royal roads with a small tax on all landholders) but this made him unpopular with the nobles. - Louis XVI kicked Turgot out and replaced him with Necker who avoided new taxes, making him popular, but took out huge loans instead, which was bad for the economy. When things got so bad, Calonne the new finance minister, rightly stated that the monarchy was on the verge of bankruptcy. Calonne came up w/new taxes and proposed to convene provincial assemblies. To support his plan, he called an Assembly of Notables but they didn't end up supporting him. Instead they denounced the court spending and wanted to audit the accounts. - Louis got rid of Calonne and appointed Archbishop Brienne (one of the notables) in his place. Brienne submitted Calonne's ideas to the Parliaments, but they rejected them. Then they demanded that Louis convene the Estates General. Louis responded by attempting to send the Parliament into exile, but was forced to back down.

Synthesis for "Describe the ways in which conservative political and social views shaped the peace settlement of the Congress of Vienna. Explain the consequences of the peace settlement for the period 1815 - 1848."

- The Congress of Vienna can be compared with the Paris Peace Conference after World War I. - For both, European boundaries needed to be redrawn after a period of warfare. - In addition, the League of Nations and United Nations were like the Concert of Europe because they all involved a unified Europe working together to preserve a balance of power.

Synthesis for "Describe and analyze the ways in which sixteenth century Roman Catholics defended their faith against the Protestant Reformation."

- The Council of Trent and the Catholic Reformation as a whole can be compared with the Congress of Vienna. - The Catholic Church had to regulate officials and redefine doctrine after the Protestant Reformation, just as the Congress of Vienna had to reinstate authoritative figures in many nations and redefine European morals after the Napoleonic Era.

Origins of the French Revolution

- The Enlightenment provided the ideology for the Revolution. For decades the philosophs questioned accepted political and religious beliefs and advocated for freedom, liberty and reason. Although they neither predicted nor pushed for a revolution, the philosophs wished to make people aware that the traditional ways were not always best. - Also, prior to the Revolution, several sensational lawsuits about the scandalous doings of high aristocrats occurred, and when the information about the trials got out to the reading public, it made the aristocracy and the monarchy appear to be ridiculous despots. - The French government was undoubtedly corrupt and ineffective. Louis XVI was not suited to be an absolute monarch (he was stupid) and his queen, Marie Antoinette, was hated through the land for her lack of sympathy with the people. - Although this did not directly lead to Revolution, the most French people were unhappy, oppressed, and starved. This was not directly attributed to the system of government, and the peasants weren't really involved with the Revolution, but the popular discontent did contribute to sparking the flames of Revolution among those who noted the injustice in French society. - Long-term economic difficulties made it necessary for the king to try to tax the nobility, an act that set in motion the entire deal.

Existing System of Government in Spain

- The Iberian Peninsula was divided into three different sections, as follows: 1. Portugal in midst of its overseas exploration. 2. Castile the largest and richest area. It was still fighting the Muslims on its Southern frontier. This led to nobles gaining a lot of political power. 3. Aragon small area same size as Portugal. - In October 1469 Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Sicily, which led to a ten-year civil war which the two monarchs won.

Synthesis for "The revolution accomplished from Copernicus to Newton has been called the greatest spiritual adjustment that modern civilization has had to make. Asses the validity of this statement."

- The Protestant Reformation was a previous movement that involved a radical spiritual adjustment. - In the scientific revolution, people were encouraged to research and think for themselves. - In the Protestant Reformation, people were encouraged to read "The Bible" for themselves.

Synthesis for "Analyze the ways in which Enlightenment thought addressed religious beliefs and social issues in the eighteenth century."

- The Protestant Reformation was like the Enlightenment in many ways. - Protestants were encouraged to read the Bible for themselves, just as people were encouraged to think for themselves. - In addition, new strains of Catholicism emerged during the Protestant Reformation, including anabaptism and Calvinism, as they did during the Enlightenment with deism.

Background for "The Renaissance was a rehearsal for the Enlightenment. Assess the validity of this statement."

- The Renaissance started in Italy, and it was based upon a revival of classical literature (mainly from ancient Greece and Rome) - The movement only involved the upper classes. - It soon caught on in the Northern states (like Germany), but the Northern Renaissance was not as secular as the Italian Renaissance. - The Italian Renaissance embraced humanism, while the Northern Renaissance embraced Christian humanism.

The Scientific Revolution

- The Scientific Revolution (1543 - 1687) was a period of time in which many breakthrough discoveries were made in science and philosophy, as well as an era in which the Europeans' perception of the universe and their role in it was changed forever. - Although the SR began by only affecting the scientific and intellectual elite (5 % of the population or so) the concepts that originated during the SR eventually spread to all of the population.

Civic Humanism

- The civic humanists believed that participation in public affairs was essential for human development, and that individuals should not cut themselves off from society and study the world. Instead, they should help make changes in it by becoming a part of government. Eventually, the beliefs of the civic humanists spread to the humanists as a whole.

Long Term Causes of the Reformation

- The growth in the power of the secular king and the decrease in the power of the Pope. - The popular discontent with the seemingly empty rituals of the Church. - The movement towards more personal ways of communicating with God, called lay piety. - The fiscal crisis in the Church that led to corruption and abuses of power

Background for "Analyze the ways in which Enlightenment thought addressed religious beliefs and social issues in the eighteenth century."

- The philosophes were the thinkers of the Enlightenment. - They advocated for independent though and accepted less church doctrine without questioning it first. - Reason was valued and human existence was pondered.

Describe the basic tenants of European Mercantilism. How did Britain act on these policies?

Mercantilism was based of the theory that the true source of value in the world was gold and silver. Acting on this tenant, mercantilism themed states would seek to have more exports than imports. Britain acted on mercantilism's foreign trade policy by passing the Navigation acts: goods transported to Britain must be transported on British ships only. This included the colonies.

Describe the putting out system, why did it grow in the European Economy?

Merchant capitalist would give raw goods to cottage industry workers who would return a finished product. The putting out system was successful because: there were many poor peasants looking for any type of work, no matter the pay, it was completely unregulated allowing merchants to brutally deprive workers of rights and also to experiment.

The Beliefs of the Philosophs

- The philosophs, a group of intellectuals who supported the ideals of the Enlightenment, stood for a series of beliefs, which they stood for, regardless of the cost. These ideas included: Reason the universe can be explained through reason, as can all human institutions. The philosophs thought that reason could be applied to everything, and that it could be used to correct the problems in society. Skepticism the philosophs believed that everything should be open to questioning and criticism, even religion. They disliked dogma, superstition, and blind faith. Toleration both religious and intellectual. They felt that all ideas were equally valid, and that people should have the freedom to express themselves and their ideas. Freedom that is, intellectual freedom, an idea closely linked to toleration. They felt that people should have free speech, press, and freedom of religion. They felt that each person should have the opportunity to reason things out for themselves. Equality based on Locke's Tabula Raza - all people are equal. Education again, based on Locke. They believed that education could eventually lead to a perfect society, a paradise of reason and toleration. Optimism very optimistic, believed in science bringing progress. Enlightened Despotism for many kings, enlightened despotism ("I am ruling b/c I can be a servant of the state and bring the enlightenment to my people") replaced divine right monarchy and other justifications for ruling.

Synthesis for "In the seventeenth century, what political conditions accounted for the increased power of both the parliament in England and the monarchy in France."

- This period of history can be related to many things. - - - First, the English Bill of Rights can be directly related to the American Constitution and Bill of Rights because they both specify the role the leader of the country and the government can hold over the people. - State building in France (Versailles) sparked state building all over Europe, leading to palaces like Schonbrunn and St. Petersberg.

Famous Philosophs and what they stood for

- Voltaire, often regarded as the leading figure of the Enlightenment. A talented writer, Voltaire stood for many of the ideals of the period. First of all, he greatly admired science and helped to popularize it. In 1738, he wrote Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, which attempted to make Newton's discoveries understandable. Voltaire greatly admired the English, for he felt their society had allowed greats like Locke, Bacon and Newton to rise, and in 1734 he wrote the Philosophical Letters on the English, which celebrated English toleration. Also, Voltaire absolutely hated religious intolerance and he wrote The Philosophical Dictionary in 1764, which stated that organized religion bred intolerance and superstition. Voltaire was a deist, and felt religion should be a private matter. Throughout his life, Voltaire faced persecution and censorship, and as a result, he was a dedicated advocator of intellectual and religious freedom. Voltaire was a brilliant satirical writer (Candide) and literary critic who poked fun at every element of society (which is why all his books were banned). - Diderot most famous for his Encyclopedia, Diderot also wrote a series of novels, plays, math theorems, and works on religion and morality. His most original works examined the role of passion in human personality and in morality. Diderot often felt that his contemporaries overemphasized reason over passion. He also sometimes criticized religion, and ended up as an atheist. But his most important work was the Encyclopedia, which classified all human knowledge from the most common to the most complex. The aim of the book was to "change the general way of thinking." The book treated religion w/artful satire, analyzing it like any other topic. Science was the core of the book, and scientific techniques and discoveries were presented in it. Economically, the Encyclopedia supported the Physiocratic view against trade restrictions. The Encyclopedia was banned in many places, but it was still distributed, and had a great impact on the intellectuals of Europe. - Jean d'Alembert famous French mathematician. - Baron de Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the Laws a book that described an ideal system of government using checks and balances. He believed that societies and political institutions could be studied scientifically, and that a balanced government would lead to success. - David Hume he was the empiricism who made that stupid argument about the tree falling in the forest. He hated dogma, and I mean really hated it. He went around proving how everybody was wrong. He was an atheist and he didn't believe in any general knowledge, so who knows what he did believe in. Anyhow, he wrote Inquiry into Human Nature that criticized Christianity. - Adam Smith He came up with an entire new philosophy on economics - Immanuel Kant a brilliant philosopher, he stated that Hume woke him from his "dogmatic slumber" and believed that reality and perception were two different things. However, he believed that so long as it is organized by certain concepts, like cause and effect, science is still valid. - Cesare Beccaria was an economist and penal reformer who wrote On Crimes and Punishments, which argued for human rights and humanitarianism. - Edward Gibbon historian who criticized Christianity and held it responsible for the fall of the Roman Empire in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

Other forms of Protestantism

- Zwingli (1484 - 1531) had beliefs very similar to Luther, except that he believed that NONE of the sacraments bestowed grace, and that they were purely symbolic. He also felt that for people to lead godly lives, they had to be constantly disciplined and threatened - Calvinism without predestination. - Radicals many radical sects broke out, and after Munster (where a sect called the Melchiorties gained political control of the city and began to establish a heavenly Jerusalem on earth) they were all persecuted. Since some believed that Baptism should only be administered to adults who asked to be baptized, they were all called the Anabaptists (rebaptisers). - Calvin (1509 - 1564) formed the second wave of the Reformation. Though Lutheranism and Calvinism both believed in people's sinfulness, salvation by faith alone, that all people were equal in God's eyes and that people should follow existing political authority, Calvin believed in predestination or the concept that God, being all knowing, already knows if a person is going to go to heaven and become part of the elect or not. Though behavior on earth technically had no effect on the decision, it was established that moral people tended to be part of the elect. Calvinist communities were model places, with very strict moral codes that were vehemently imposed. The church and its doctrines were also very well defined in the Institutes of the Christian Religion and all Calvinists were supposed to make their communities worthy of the future elect.

The Decameron

-A collection of stories written when the plague was raging -written by Boccaccio

The Black Death

-A strain of bacteria that ravaged Europe. - It began in 1347 when sick sailors entered the docks of Messina - Approximately 1/3 of Europe's population died -

Rococo Artwork

-Art of the nobility, meaningless, w/out content, but very pretty, using bright, swirling colors, like Rubenism. Famous Rococo painters were Francois Boucher and Fragonard.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

-Born into a middle class family in Saxony, Germany. He got a good education and began studying law. After almost being hit by lightning, he decided to become a monk. - As a monk, he became obsessed with his own sinfulness, and pursued every possible opportunity to earn worthiness in God's eyes (for example, self-flagellation) but he was still not satisfied, for he felt that God would never forgive a sinner like himself. - Finally, he had an intense religious experience that led him to realize that justification in the eyes of God was based on faith alone and not on good works and sacraments. ¬- Then, in 1517, he saw a friar named Johann Tetzel peddling indulgences and claiming that by buying them, people could save themselves time in the purgatory. Since he said that by buying the indulgences, people could excuse sins, people were coming to buy the indulgences in droves. This outraged Luther, and on October 31st, 1517 he posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the church door. - The theses explained that the Pope could remit only the penalties he or canon law imposed, and that for other sins, the faithful had only to sincerely repent to obtain an indulgence, not pay the Church. - The theses made the profits from the indulgences drop off, and angered the order that supported Tetzel. Luther and the rival monks began to have theological discussions, which were at first ignored. - But, by 1520 Luther had written three radical pamphlets: 1. An Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation made a patriotic appeal to Germans to reject the foreign Pope's authority. 2. The Babylonian Captivity attacked the belief that the seven sacraments were the only means of attaining grace, saying that only two, baptism and the Eucharist (which were mentioned in the Bible) were important. 3. The Liberty of the Christian Man explained his principle of salvation by faith alone.

Neoclassicism

-Favored line over color, and was about drama, tension, emotion, content, and an imitation ancient style. The philosophs loved the neoclassical, for they favored themes that the philosophs liked. Famous painter was Jacques Louis David.

Meaning of the Renaissance

-The Renaissance (French Term) means the rebirth of culture. However, it would be more accurately put as the rebirth of ancient culture since the Middle Ages did have a form of culture, just not the same culture as the ancients. - An essential element of the Renaissance was the beginning of humanism, which glorified the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome.

William I of Prussia

-Thought there was a need for a larger army (this militant attitude helps to unify Germany) - Larger army = bigger defense budget + higher taxes - Liberal middle class had control of parliament, so they said no - The middle class wanted to establish that parliament had the ultimate political power and that the army was responsible to Prussia's elected representatives - To help him defy the parliament, William made Otto von Bismarck as head of the new ministry

Music of the Enlightenment

-music drastically changed, and the symphony developed into what it is today. Pretty much, this was the work of Beethoven, Mozart and Hayden. After them, music also became much more passionate and was full of expression and emotion.

risorgimento, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Young Italy

1) a movement in Italy aimed at the creation of a united Italian republic 2) leader of the movement ^ 3) an organization founded by the leader ^ which set a goal to create a united Italian republic

Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan

1) argued that social problems could be solved by government assistance 2) a female utopian socialist who attempted to foster a "utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism"

parties of Movement and Resistance

1) favored ministerial responsibility, the pursuit of an active foreign policy, and limited expansion of the franchise 2) believed that France had finally reached perfection in government and did not need further institutional changes

Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre

1) laws that imposed extraordinarily high tariffs on foreign grain 2) an attack against above laws that led to the death of 11 people and caused Parliament to be more respressive

serjents, "bobbies," and Schutzmannschaft

1) the police force established in France for law enforcement/protection 2) the police force established in Britain named after Sir Robert Peel 3) a state-financed police force in Germany

What were 3 decisions made by the Council of Trent?

1. Church's interpretation of the Bible was final 2. Christians need both faith and good works for salvation 3. Bible and church traditions were equally powerful authorities

List the order/ names of the Fredericks of Prussia.

1. FREDERICK WILLIAM (THE GREAT ELECTOR) r. 1640-1688 2. FREDERICK I r. 1688-1713 3. FREDERICK WILLIAM I r. 1713-1740 4. FREDERICK II (THE GREAT) r. 1740-1786

What were 3 actions of reform by the Jesuits?

1. Founded schools throughout Europe 2. Converted Non-Christians to Catholics 3. Stopped the spread of Protestantism

How was Hungary ruled under Dual Monarchy?

1. Francis Jospeh ruled both as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary 2. Hungary had its own constitution and Parliament 3. Shared Ministry of Finance, defense and foreign affairs but were separate for everything else.

What are 3 social causes of the reformation?

1. Humanism (Individualism) 2. Secularism (Worldly thoughts) 3. Printing press (spread the ideas of Luther and more people were reading)

What were 3 social effects of the Reformation?

1. Index of forbidden books 2. More emphasis on education to promote beliefs 3. Violence between Protestants and Catholics

How did Italy industrialize?

1. Industries started in the north, it was slow becasue no natural resources like coal 2.peasants moved to cities to find work in facotires 3.reformers tried to get better working conditions in factories (like Britain)

What are 3 economic effects of the reformation?

1. Less money is given to the church 2. More money and power for individual monarchs 3. Monarchs begin to explore and develop

What were 3 political effects of the Reformation?

1. Monarchs and states gained more power 2. Development of modern nation-states 3. Catholic church lost power

What are 2 political causes of the reformation?

1. Monarchs challenged the church as the supreme power in Europe 2. Challenged the Pope's authority and saw him as a foreign leader

What did the Edict of Worms of Charles V include?

1. No one was to give Luther food 2. No one was to give Luther shelter 3. Books of Luther were burned

What are 2 economic causes of the reformation?

1. People resented paying taxes to the church 2. Princes and Kings were jealous of the church's growing wealth

What were the reasons for war between Prussia and France?

1. Prussias victory over Austria angered Napoleon, they were rivals 2. the Germans didn't want to risk France rule 3. Bismarck tricked Napoleon into declaring war on Prussia 4. Prussia defeated France, French troops were unprepared and Napoleon was old and surrendered.

What were causes of exploration and colonization?

1. The turks and Italians had a monopoly on selling Asian goods. This got expensive, so they decided to find an alternative route to trade directly with Asia. 2. Mercantilism 3. Rise of the nation state 4. Rise of new monarchs 5. Religion 6. The Renaissance 7. Culture

Outcome of Franco-Prussian war

1. William I was proclaimed emperor of Germany in Versailles 2. Europe had a German "sun-king" 3. The king of Prussia and his ministers had ultimate power in the German Empire, and lower house of legislature was elected by universal male suffrage 4. German patriotism surged, especially in their superiority to France 5. Prussia had become the most powerful state in Europe 6. Semi-authoritarian nationalism and a "new conservatism," which was based on an alliance of the propertied classes and sough the active support of the working classes, had triumphed in Germany 7. Prussia becomes even more militant 8. To fully unite Germany, Bismarck needed to make the people proud 9. Frances cedes Alsace and Lorraine

How did Napoleon raid German lands?

1. annexed lands along the Rhine river for France 2. eliminated the Roman Empire by forcing the Austrian emporor to agree to the lesser title of King

What did Cavour do to reform Sardinia?

1. beleived in Realpolitik (like Bismarck of Germany) 2. improved agriculture 3. built railroads 4. supported free trade

What were 3 beliefs of Anabaptists?

1. church and state are separate 2. refused to fight in wars 3. shared their possessions

What was the result when Sardinia went to war with Austria?

1. defeated Austria and annexed Lombardy 2. Other Italian groups were able to overthrow Austrian rulers in other northern Italian states--these states joined with Sardinia

Why were some Germans supportive of Napoleons rule?

1. he had enlightened, modern policies 2. freed serfs 3. made trade easier 4. got rid of laws against Jews

Why was Germany able to industrialize so quickly?

1. iron and coal resources 2. disciplined and educated workforce 3. rapidly gorwing population increased workforce 4. scientific develolopment 5. Germans founded large corporations that became world leaders in their industries 6. German government promored economic development

As Chancellor of germany, what were Bismarks foreign policy goals?

1. keep France weak and isolated 2. build strong links with Austria and Russia 3. took an agressive stand against Britain as thery competed for colonies

Why did a united Italy make sense to Mazzini?

1. local regions (Florence, Venice) shared geography 2. they shared a language and history 3. wantd to bring back Italy to the glory of Ancient Rome 4. end trade barriers between Italian states and stimulate industry.

Problems facing new nation of Italy

1. no tradition of unity, Italians did not feel loyal to the new nation 2. regional rivalries 3. hostily between Italy and the catholic church

Why was the Catholic Church angry with the united Italy?

1. popes resented the siezure of Rome 2. governemnt granted Pope limitted rights and control over church properties 3. Popes saw themselves as prisoners and urged Italian Catholics not to cooperate with the new government

why was there turmoil in Italy and what was result?

1. radicals struggled with conservative government 2.anarchists wanted to get rid of all governemnt 3. government extended more suffrage 4. government passed more laws to improve social conditions

How did Germany promote its economic development?

1. reorganized their banking system by issuing a single currency for all the German states 2. coordinated railroads built by the German states 3.raised tarriffs to protect German industries from foreign competitors

what were the rules/laws of Kulturkampt?

1. state had right to supervise Catholic education and approve appointment of priests 2. expelled Jesuits from Prussia 3. couples had to be married by the state, not just religious ceremony

How was Prussia able to defeat the French?

1. superior troops from other German states 2. French were not well prepared.

What was the result of Prussias defeat of Austria

1.the German Confederation was dissolved. 2. Austria and 4 other german states stayed independent

What areas did Britain cover?

13 colonies

Vesalius

16th century anatomist whose work "On the fabric of the Human body" based on personal dissections of bodies led to new understandings of the human body. (1514-1564)

Steam Engine

1760's; James Watt; engine powered by steam that could pump water from mines 3X as quickly as previous engines

water frame

1780's; Richard Arkwright; powered by horse or water; turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels, led to development of mechanized looms

Treaty of Tilsit

1807 Agreement between Napoleon and Czar Alexander I in which Russia became an ally of France and Napoleon took over the lands of Prussia west of the Elbe as well as the Polish provinces.

Corn Laws

1815- tariff on imported grain to protect domestic producers. These laws didn't allow for importing of cheap grain, this gave way to great anger towards the landed aristocracy who imposed them for their own good. Repealed in 1846. Their repeal signified the end of dominance by the landed nobility *evidence of dominance of conservative policies in government that benefitted the rich and powerful during the early part of the 1800s.

Moroccan Crisis

1905 Germany worried about Britain France Relationship (including the Entente they shared) Germany supported the Sultan Aziz while France wanted control over Morocco, backed by Britain and Russia Germany tried to weaken France and Britain relations by attacking France in Morocco, supporting Sultan Aziz and Moroccan independence Told to leave by Russia and France And Britain- Germany felt ganged up on and humiliated Began preparing for war

Schliefen Plan

1905 operational plan to attack France once Russia had begun to mobilize near German border Germany knew that Russia would take six weeks to mobilize, decided to invade paris to avoid a two front war

Timeframe of the Crisis years

1905-1913

Bosnian Crisis 1908 causes and practices

1908, young turks revolted in Ottoman Empire, AH decided to invade Bosnia (turk territory) Serbia furious- wanted Bosnia for access to the sea Germans were worried about Anglo-Russian entente of 1907 (one year before crisis) because if G. was invaded they would have to face a war on two fronts Germany, because of this, decided to form a closer relationship with Austria-Hungary. Germany backed AH, and would stand against serbia while Russia had little support from Britain and France and couldn't support serbia- backed down

Second Moroccan Crisis

1911 France sent troops to Morocco to uppress a revolt Germany saw this as France taking over- sends their own gunboat Germans demand the whole French Congo- this, and gunboat, are seen as threat of war Britain (worried Germany might acquire Agadir port) warned off Germany Germany settled for two strips of Congo increased tension and German and Britain hostility Triple Entente Strengthened

Highest unemployment rate in Germany during this time

1929: Germany hit 4 million unemployed.

Rome-Berlin Axis

1936; close cooperation between Italy and Germany, and soon Japan joined; resulted from Hitler; who had supported Ethiopia and Italy, he overcame Mussolini's lingering doubts about the Nazis.

Munich Conference

1938 conference at which European leaders attempted to appease Hitler by turning over the Sudetenland to him in exchange for promise that Germany would not expand Germany's territory any further

Neville Chamberlain

1938; gullible British Prime Minister; declared that Britain and France would fight if Hitler attacked Poland.

Atlantic Charter

1941-Pledge signed by US president FDR and British prime minister Winston Churchill not to acquire new territory as a result of WWII amd to work for peace after the war

Why did the merchants who controlled the textile industry resent their workers so much?

Merchants had little control over the peasants who often had to leave for a busy growing season. Frustrated with inconsistent results, they would often impose severe punishments for failing to meet an expectation.

Duke of Bridgewater

1st Industrial Canal

Perspective

3d effects on a two dimensional surface

What areas and ethnic groups were part of the Hapsburg empire?

50 million people from different Slavic groups--Czecks, Poles, Serbs, etc. Less than 25% of the population were German speaking Austrians

Pearl Harbor

7:50-10:00 AM, December 7, 1941 - Surprise attack by the Japanese on the main U.S. Pacific Fleet harbored in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii destroyed 18 U.S. ships and 200 aircraft. American losses were 3000, Japanese losses less than 100. In response, the U.S. declared war on Japan and Germany, entering World War II.

Spanish Inquisition

: Ferdinand and Isabella asked the pope to introduce it to Spain. It basically made sure that converts to christianity were devoted to the religion, but it had no authority over practicing jews.

Francisco Sforza

: He turned on his Milanese employeres and conquered Milan in 1447 after the last Visconti ruler died.

The Grand Alliance

A European coalition, consisting of Austria, Bavaria, Brandenburg, the Dutch Republic, England, the Holy Roman Empire, Ireland, the Palatinate of Rhine, Portugal, Savory, Saxony, Scotland, Spain, and Sweden. Formed to halt Louis XIV expansionist policies.

Mary Wolstonecraft

A Vindication of the Rights of Women

Papal States

A band of small states running through central Italy from Rome in the south to Ravenna in the north. The pope was secular ruler over these states and they provided him with tax money and troops that were crucial for the papacy to remain independent of more powerful secular rulers, such as the Holy Roman Emperor. The Papal States were possessions of the Byzantine Empire in the early Middle Ages, but when the Byzantines left Italy, the states passed into Frankish possession and from there to the pope. The pope lost control of the states during the Babylonian Captivity (1315-1378), necessitating a lengthy war of reconquest.

Liberalism

A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity; economically, politically and socially

According to Castiglione, what are the basic attributes of the Renaissance courtier?

A commitment to taste and elegance as well as to courage

what type of government did Italy have?

A constitutional monarchy with a two house legislature

Middle Age World View

A cosmological understanding of the world defined by the ideas of Aristotle and Ptolemy based on a geocentric conception of the universe.

What did Pope Leo X issue towards Martin Luther?

A decree threatening Luther with excommunication unless he recanted.

Taille

A direct tax from which most nobles were exempt

What is an indulgence?

A document that decreases the time a soul must suffer in purgatory

Main Cause of WWI

A failure of international relation and communication

Christianized Ptolemaic Universe

A finite understanding of the universe that had a fixed outer boundary in harmony with Christian thought based on God saving souls at one end of the universe and humans at the center.

What is debt peonage? Who used it the most?

A form of serfdom that required a ranch boss to keep his workers or serfs in debt bondage.

Zollverein (1834)

A german customs union founded in (1834) to stimulate trade and increase the revenues of member states, but Austria was excluded so other German states are advancing economically while Austria lags behind

Cabinet government

A government in which the real executive power rests with a cabinet of ministers who are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature

Radical Spiritualists

A group of Christian believers during the Reformation period who rejected all external elements of religion, including ceremonies, institutions, and clergy. The essence of religion for the Spiritualists was direct divine revelation in the individual soul which brought grace and salvation. This revelation they called the "inner light." Leaders of the Spiritualists included Kaspar von Schwenkfeld (1489-1561) and Sebastian Franck (1499-1542).

Evangelical Rationalists

A group of believers during the Reformation era who based their beliefs on a rational interpretation of Scripture. They accepted nothing as true that was not in the Bible; thus, they rejected many key theological doctrines of the mainline churches, including the Trinity and the divinity of Christ, the sacraments, resurrection of the body, and predestination. Leaders of the group included Laelius (1525-1562) and Faustus Socinus (1539-1604).

Sea Beggars

A group of maritime raiders who fired the first shot in the Dutch Revolt against Spain in 1570. The Sea Beggars originally raided shipping in the English Channel, but after being deprived of their base in London because of attacks on English ships, they raised the banner of William of Orange and captured the Dutch port of Brill in Zeeland. A military force from Brill then won the surrender of several towns in inland Holland, making that province the first base of the Dutch Revolt.

Mongols

A group of nomadic tribes from present-day Mongolia; established an empire that stretched from Korea to eastern Europe

Politique Party

A group of officials at the French royal court during the wars of religion in France. The party was led by Queen Marie de' Medici and favored separating religions from political considerations and ruling the country by making all decisions only because of "reason of state," leaving religious issues aside. it was an attempt to preserve royal power in a country increasingly divided religiously.

Brethren of the Common Life

A lay religious group that flourished in The Netherlands during the 15th and 16th centuries. Devout Catholics, the Brethren wanted to live together in compounds and lead a strictly religious life without actually becoming regular clergy. They also established schools where students were taught practical piety, as well as Humanist ideas. Two important centers of Brethren activity were the cities of Deventer and Zwolle. Among their students were Erasmus of Rotterdam.

Lorenzo the Magnificent

A leading patron of art and scholarship; powerful member of the Medici family.

Wannsee Conference

A meeting in which the "Final solution" and use of concentration camps were decided in 1942, Heydrich was the chief executor of the "Final Solution". Held in Wannsee, Berlin

Holocaust

A methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled.

Intendants

A new kind of French royal official created by Cardinal Richelieu. These officials were not venal but appointed by the king; thus, they were more responsive to royal wishes than venal officials. Intendants became the king's chief representatives in local areas. They enforced royal decrees, recruited soldiers, and worked with private contractors known as "tax farmers" to collect royal taxes. Because of their loyalty to the king, intendants were hated by the populace, and several revolts occurred against their power.

Appeasement

A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in the hopes of avoiding war. Associated with Neville Chamberlain's policy of making concessions to Adolf Hitler.

Sale of office

A practice that dates to at least the 13th century in France, in which the king sold offices in the royal government to the highest bidder. The office, once sold, became personal property of the purchaser. Sale of office raised revenue and increased the size of bureaucracy: By the time of Richelieu (fl. 1610-1642), fully one-third of royal revenues came from the practice. But these venal offices were alienated from royal control, which decreased the king's control over his government. As more offices were sold, their value decreased and the bureaucracy became a mass of overlapping and redundant offices.

Anabaptists

A radical religious group during the Reformation era. Anabaptists rejected infant baptism and unbiblical; they also rejected the ceremonies, institutions, and clergy of the mainline churches. Many were pacifists who did not recognize state authority, and some practiced communism and polygamy. Because of their unorthodox beliefs, the Anabaptists were persecuted by both the Catholic and Protestant churches and by states. Many were executed by authorities. Those who survived went into hiding.

France's July Revolution of 1830

A rebellion against Charles X's edicts, which imposed censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections

Sans culottes

A reference to Parisian workers who wore loose-fitting trousers rather than the tight-fitting breeches worn by aristocratic men.

Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband. Prince William of Orange.

Test Act

A series of English penal laws that served as a religious test for public office and imposed various civil disabilities on Roman Catholics and Nonconformists

Napoleonic Code

A set of law codes that Napoleon created for France. It reinforced the French Ideal of Liberty.

What is the industrious revolution? What were its benefits and detractions?

A shift that occurred in Europe that resulted in more peasants focusing on earning wages, not producing goods for their own household consumption. Women started focusing more on wage work and not in home production an example being the cottage industry. It was beneficial because wage earners could buy more goods in an emerging consumer economy but it required more work and labor hours.

Court of Star Chamber

A special royal court established by the first Tudor monarch of England , Henry VII (r. 1485-1509), to try political opponents of royal power. The court operated on Roman law, not English common law, and thus did not provide for trial by jury. the king appointed the court's judge.

Robert Owen's New Lanark

A squalid factory town was transformed into a healthy, flourishing community

Debt peonage

A system that bound laborers into slavery in order to work off a debt to the employer.

Millet System

A system used by the Ottomans whereby subjects were divided into religious communities, with each millet (nation) enjoying autonomous self-government under its religious leaders

Heliocentric Conception

A theory that said the sun, not the earth, was a the center of the universe and the planets revolved around the motionless sun.

Canterbury Tales

A work written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late fourteenth century about a group of pilgrims, of many different occupations and personalities, who meet at an inn near London as they are setting out for Canterbury, England.

League of Nations

A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by President Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined the League. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946.

Inquisition

AKA the Holy Office, Catholic Church court that prosecuted heresy cases. Founded in Rome in the 13th century, the Inquisition was active against Albigensian and Waldensian heresies. A separate Inquisition was founded in Spain by the crown in the 15th century to move against Moslems, Jews, and other nonbelievers. After 1485, both Inquisitions prosecuted witchcraft cases in Spain and Germany. During both Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition focused on Protestants, especially in The Netherlands.

1815 (HUB Date)

Abdication of Napoleon, Congress of Vienna

Who pioneered economic liberalism? What did it entail?

Adam Smith believed that economic liberalism, a belief in free trade and competition, could only help all classes.

Empiricism

Advocated by Francis Bacon (who wrote New Atlantis a description of an ideal society based on science) and supported going from particular knowledge (observation) to general knowledge.

Holy Alliance 1815

Agreement between Prussia, Russia, and Austria that insured the security of their monarchies

What did Martin Luther believe about people and faith?

All people of faith are equal.

Ivan the Terrible

Also known as Ivan IV, confirmed power of the tsarist autocracy by attacking authority of boyars; continued policy of Russian expansion; established contacts with western Europe commerce and trade

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

Also known as the "Sun King"; the ruler of France who established the supremacy of absolutism in 17th-century Europe.

Robert Fulton

American inventor who designed the first commercially successful steamboat and the first steam warship (1765-1815)

Puritans

An English Protestant religious group who called for change in the Church of England during the 16th and 17th centuries. Despite the fact that the church had broken its ties to the pope during the reign of Henry VIII, much of the church's doctrine and practice remained close to Catholicism. Puritans called for the introduction of more Protestant elements into the church. Moderate Puritans, called "Presbyterians", desired the introduction of Calvinism into the church, whereas more radical Puritans, called Independents, wanted complete religious freedom for local congregations. Puritans were influential in the House of Commons during the 17th century and played a key role in the English civil war (1640-1649). One of their leaders was Oliver Cromwell, who ruled England from 1649 to 1658.

Bartolomeo Rastrelli

An Italian architect whose entire career was spent in Russia. He developed an easily recognizable style of Late Baroque, both sumptuous and majestic

Reform Act of 1832

An act that gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the industrial revolution; it led to the enfranchisement of 42 new towns and cities

John Stuart Mill

An advocate of liberalism who argued for an "absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects" that needed to be protected from government censorship and the tyranny of the majority

Pragmatic Sanction

An agreement between King Charles VI of Austria and major European rulers that recognized the claim of Charles's daughter Maria Theresa to become ruler of Austria upon her father's death. Charles had no male heir and a female had never before held Austrian throne.

Giotto

An artist who led the way into realism; his treatment of the human body and face replaced the formal stiffness and artificiality that had long characterized the representation of the human body

Mercantilism

An economic theory that was at the foundation of most European states' economic policies prior to the 18th century. Mercantilism held that there was a limited amount of wealth in the world and states became powerful by obtaining as much of this wealth as possible through a kind of economic warfare. States strove for a favorable trade balance that would create a flow of bullion into the country. State regulations and subsidies were mechanisms to promote industry and trade and achieve this favorable trade balance. Leading practitioners of mercantilism included French finance ministers Sully and Colbert in the 17th century.

What's an agrarian economy?

An economy where a large amount of the workers were farmers.

Why did the Renaissance first begin in Italy?

An interest in the classical authors was helped by a close relationship between the Italian language and Latin and by the presence of countless classical monuments in Italy

Geocentric Conception

An understanding of the universe as a series of concentric spheres with a fixed and motionless earth as its center.

Raphael

Another of the three main artists in the High Renaissance, he was best known for his madonnas and his frescoes in the Vatican Palace. He tried to acive an ideal of beauty far surpassing human standards. The School of Athens was in the Vatican, but didn't have any religious figures. It showed a world of balance, harmony, and order, which were the underlying principles of the art of Greece and Rome.

Lend-Lease

Approve by Congress in March 1941; The act allowed America to sell, lend or lease arms or other supplies to nations considered "vital to the defense of the United States."

Maria Theresa (1740-1780)

Archduchess of Austria, queen of Hungary, who lost the Hapsburg possession of Silesia to Frederick the Great but was able to keep her other Austrian territories.

What was the relationship between baroque architecture and European absolutism?

Architecture played an import role in politics because it was used by kings to enhance their image and awe their subjects. The royal palace was the favorite architectural expression of absolutist power.

Jewish ghettos

Areas where only Jews lived in Germany prior to their movement to concentration camps. They were stepping stones in the Final Solution formula

Other causes and developments causing WWI

Arms Race 1870-1914 All European countries made detailed plans on what they would do if war broke out

June 28 1914

Assassination of Arch Duke France Ferdinand by Serbian Terrorist Germany gave AH blank Cheque agreement (unconditional support) AH gave Serbia unfulfillable terms with the threat that if these terms were not met, they would declare war. Declared War on serbia Russia took immediate stand beside Serbia Germany, having an alliance with AH, declared war on Russia Because of Schliefen Plan, Germany sent an ultimatum to France demanding France kept their neutrality. France declined and Germany declared war of France Germany decided to invade France, going through Belgium, who was allied with britain. Thus Britain declared war on Germany AND THE GREAT WAR BEGAN!!! 0.O

Which country exerted the most influence on Italy by the eighteenth century?

Austria

Declaration of Pillnitz (1791)

Austria and Prussia agreed to intervene in France to end revolution w/ the unanimous agreement of the great powers.

Seven years war

Austria vs Prussia; Austria abandoned old ally Britain for France and Russia; Prussia joined with British (WINNERS); significance: no territorial changes in Europe, Britain gained complete control over the overseas colonies of France (called The French and Indian War in North America); Russia and Prussia emerged as powerful forces in European affairs

Who was Prussias second war with?

Austria, was called the Austro-Prussian war and only lasted 7 weeks.

Dual Monarchy

Austrian emperor Francis Joseph created a dual monarchy with Hungary which allowed each part of the empire to have it own constitution, bicameral legislature and its own capital and it would be held together by Francis Joseph at the head of both and a common army, bank and foreign policy controlled by him

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister who basically controlled the Congress of Vienna. Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the repression of liberal nationalism throughout Europe. *evidence of the conservatism of the Congress of Vienna

Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo painted the entire celing with different scenes from the Bible. He tried to tell the story of the Fall of Man through nine different scenes from the biblical book of genesis.

Union of Utrecht

Military alliance against Spain signed by the seven northern provinces of The Netherlands in 1578. The treaty was in response to the Union of Arras in 1577, in which the southern provinces of the country returned their allegiance to Spain. In 1581, the northern provinces formally declared their independence from Spain as the United Provinces, but warfare continued until 1609, when a truce delivered de facto independence to the new Dutch State.

Northern Renaissance

Basically the Renaissance that wasn't going on in Italy. The Northern European states and city-states experience a Renaissance because they wanted Church Reform. They didn't have acccess to the Greek/Roman info that Italy did, so they drew christian humanism. They had different types of works because of the geographical constraints. N.R. focused on details.

How was Germany a pioneer in social reform?

Because they were the first to give workers benefits. Their system became a model for other European nations--increasing the role of government in providing for citizens.

Count Henri de Saint-Simon

Believed that modern society would require rational management. Wanted directors for the economy that would carefully plan the economy and guide it forward by undertaking vast public works project (road, bridges, school, etc) *evidence of Utopian Socialism

Austro-Prussian War

Bismarck realized to gain power and unify Germany Austria had to accept Prussian domination, he isolated Austria by making alliances with Italy, Russia and promising land to France if Prussia won the war after a month of fighting Prussia won, Austria didn't lose territory but were now excluded from Germany

Franco-Prussian War

Bismarck's second war after gaining control of North Germany, France felt threatened by the strong German state and when Spain offered the throne to Prince Leopold which was related to the Prussian king France objected and forced Prussia to apologize for the perceived threat they refused France declared war and Prussia captured the French army and Napoleon III successfully ending the empire

In what ways was Germany responsible for WWI?

Blank Cheque declaration of War on Russia Invasion of France Bring britain into war by going through Belgium

Decameron

Boccaccio's most famous work, aimed to impart wisdom of human character and behavior

Peace of Lodi (1454)

Military alliance uniting Florence, Venice, Milan and establishing a balance of power in Italy, countering the southern alliance of the papacy and Naples. The alliance was engineered by Florentine ruler Cosimo de' Medici as a part of his policy of maintaining peace among the Italian powers, a peace he believed would benefit Florentine economic and cultural development.

Concrete Details for "Compare and contrast the foreign policy goals of Metternich (1815 - 1848) and Bismark (1862 - 1890)."

Body 1: *Bismarck* - Wanted German independence (free from Austrian and Prussian domination) - Used militant forces -- Believed nothing would be accomplished until military powers were used - Used the system of alliances to his benefit and was not afraid to break them - Provoked conflict for his own benefit - Sought to isolate France and restore relations with Russia - Wanted to punish France severely after the Franco-Prussian War (1870) Body 2: *Metternich* - Supported a unified Europe with group intervention when another country becomes threatening - Preserve an absolute monarchy of the Habsburg empire - Sought to "go easy" on France after the Napoleonic Wars in order to preserve a balance of powers Body 3: *Both* - Sought to repress socialism - Held conferences with other nations to increase their control and get what they want - Operated by Realpolitik motives (practicality rather than morality)

Concrete Details for "In the seventeenth century, what political conditions accounted for the increased power of both the parliament in England and the monarchy in France."

Body 1: *England* - Weak monarchs (James I, Charles I) -- James I --> Catholic which upset the Presbyterians (Scotland) and the Puritans (England) -- Charles I --> Tried to pass taxes on his own but he could not. He was desperately in need of money, but he needed Parliament's consent to levy more taxes. Parliament refused to do anything until he signed the Petition of Right (which stated that the king could not levy taxes without parliamentary approvals, declare martial law in peacetime, imprison citizens without trial, or quarter troops in private homes). Charles agreed out of desperation but never really honored the agreement. Also, when trying to suppress revolts in Scotland, he needed more money, so he was forced to instate the Long Parliament. - English Civil War -- Conflict between the Roundheads and the Cavaliers (Cromwell was a roundhead) -- Cromwell took power (created Commonwealth and Protectorate) (Rump Parliament met for a while but was more nominal than everything) -- Cromwell died, and Charles II retakes the throne -- James II follows (Parliament ruled with both Charles II and James II, limiting their power) - Glorious Revolution -- William of Orange worked to push James II from the throne for a constitutional monarchy led by himself (William III) and Mary -- No bloodshed (James II fled) -- Bill of Rights (Parliament gets freedom of speech and some rights over the king) Body 2: *France* - Conflicts of Nobility -- The Fronde (Mazarin) --> Nobility uprising (failure) against the monarchy -- Old nobles (robe) vs. new nobles (sword) --> the nobility was too divided to keep money away from the king -- Intendants --> Nobles had to buy their offices from the king, which gave the king authority over the nobles who were in his regime - Philosophies -- Divine right of king (Boussett) -- Mercantilism (Colbert) --> expanded government's role in economy - Monarchs -- Henry IV (politique) -- Louis XIV - "I am the State" / "One King, One Law, One Faith" / State building of Versailles (Took the king's power out of Paris and gave him more control over who was in his government)

Concrete Details for "Describe and analyze the ways in which sixteenth century Roman Catholics defended their faith against the Protestant Reformation."

Body 1: *Intimidation* - Roman Inquisition -- Index (censorship of books) (heretics caught were burned at the stake) - Diet of Worms (threatened Luther with excommunication until he complied Luther sought refugee in a neighboring kingdom) - St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (after Bourbon wedding, Huguenots massacred, Catherine de Medici's suspected) Body 2: *Council of Trent* - Reaffirmations -- Reiterated the importance of church ritual -- Justification by faith was formally rejected -- Seven sacraments were formally accepted -- Relics and images were embraced - Reforms -- No more travelling church officials (church officials had to live in the area where they preached) -- Simony (sale of church offices) abolished -- Clergy were now educated (by bishops) -- Latin was regarded as the language of worship (all doctrine was preached in Latin) - Pope's power -- Given more authority -- Needed to give approval when the church was making reforms Body 3: *Spreading the Faith* - Education -- Jesuits opened fantastic schools which enticed Protestant parents to send their kids there even if their religion was at stake - Missionary work -- The Jesuits worked to restore and spread Catholicism in Poland, the Netherlands, Germany, England, India, Japan, Asia, Africa, and the New World

Concrete Details for "Describe and analyze the resistance to Soviet authority in the Eastern bloc from the end of WWII through 1989. Be sure to include examples from at least TWO Soviet satellite countries."

Body 1: *Poland* (peaceful and political) - Workers strike in a shipyard called Gdansk -- Lech Walesa (founder of the democratic trade union, Solidarity) -- Supported by Pope Paul II - Communist leader Wojciech Jaruzelski outlawed solidarity and ordered the arrest of its members - Candidates from the political party of Solidarity won in the free elections of 1989 Body 2: *Czechoslovakia* (political and somewhat violent) - Dubcek, a Communist, came into power in 1968 - He began to reform Czechoslovakia, granting toleration to certain groups and improving relations with the west. - Moscow tried to stop the reforms but their efforts were to no avail -- Soviet, East German, Polish, Hungarian, and Bulgarian troops invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968 -- Dubcek was ousted and replaced by Husak, who undid all of Dubcek's reforms. Body 3: *Hungary* (political and bloody) - Imre Nagy, a Communist, came into power in 1965. - Nagy began to reform the government, allowing outside political parties to run in the elections and transforming foreign policy to be more neutral - The Red Army invaded Hungary and executed Nagy - Janos Kadar took power

Concrete Details for "Analyze the ways in which Enlightenment thought addressed religious beliefs and social issues in the eighteenth century."

Body 1: *Religious* - Toleration -- Voltaire ("Treatise on Toleration" (1763)) -- Outrage over the Jean Calas trial (executed for "murdering his son" in order to prevent his conversion to Catholicism - Aversion to Catholicism -- Deism (the belief in a god which does not interfere within human life) -- Atheism (David Hume ("Treatise on Human Nature" (1738))) - Reason -- Informed thinking about social problems -- Away from bigotry -- Away from belief / reliance on miracles -- Diderot's "Encyclopedie" (pure fact --> absence of religion) Body 2: *Social* - Social Contract -- Natural Rights (Locke) (government to uphold contract with its people. People held the right to revolt) -- General Will (Rousseau) (people should comply to what is best for everybody) - Education -- Rousseau (Emile) (Natural Education) -- Encyclopedie (Diderot) (widespread knowledge and literacy growing in imporance) -- Locke (knowledge comes from experience)

Oliver Cromwell

Military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland

Concrete Details for "The revolution accomplished from Copernicus to Newton has been called the greatest spiritual adjustment that modern civilization has had to make. Asses the validity of this statement."

Body 1: *Secularization* - Censorship -- Index (banned Galileo's "Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World" -- Galileo put under house arrest - Emphasis on education / learning for oneself -- Away from blindly accepting what the church preaches - Descartes -- Doubt -- Denounced the existence of god Body 2: *Philosophy* - Inductive method -- Francis Bacon -- Challenged Aristotle's theories -- Experimentation and the systematic collection and analysis of data -- Empirical data -- "The Advancement of Learning" (1620) -- "Novum Organum" (1620) - Deductive method -- Renee Descartes -- Reasoning from past cases used on current cases -- Doubt -- "Cogito, ergo sum" / "I think, therefore I am" -- "Discourse on Method" (1637) Body 3: *Research* - Anatomy -- From Galen to Vesalius -- Performed autopsies / dissected corpses for information -- "The Structure of the Human Body" (1543) - Astrology -- Copernicus --> Heliocentric theory / "On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres" -- Brahe --> Proved heliocentric theory -- Kepler --> Law of planetary motions -- Galileo --> Telescope, mountains on the moon, Jupiter's moons, rings around Saturn / "Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World" -- Newton --> Law of Universal Gravitation / "Principia Mathematica" (1687) - Physics -- Galileo --> Planetary motion, inertia -- Kepler --> Laws of planetary motion -- Newton --> Laws of forces / "Principia" (1687)

Concrete Details for "Describe the ways in which conservative political and social views shaped the peace settlement of the Congress of Vienna. Explain the consequences of the peace settlement for the period 1815 - 1848."

Body 1: *Social* - Liberalism and nationalism were suppressed -- Metternich (threatened conservative order) - Germany became more compact with the German Confederation, which inversely resulted in an increased German nationalism - The Polish people advocated strongly for their independence, but were not granted it mainly because of other countries' claims Body 2: *Political* - Balance of power -- France was brought down to its original, pre-Napoleon size, but it was not punished too severely because a balance of power needed to be preserved -- Boundaries were redrawn to preserve this balance - Legitimacy -- Old, traditional, and conservative monarchs were restored into power - Holy Roman Empire -- The Holy Roman Empire was transformed into 39 loose, independent city-states that comprised the German Confederation Body 3: *Consequences* - Because of the redrawn boundaries, a fractured sense of nationalism and confused identity caused conflict across Europe. - Concert of Europe -- If one state gets too big or powerful, the other states should band together to preserve the balance of powers

Concrete Details for "The Renaissance was a rehearsal for the Enlightenment. Assess the validity of this statement."

Body 1: *Social* -Education --Rousseau's "Emile" (Independent, unique education without strict constrictions) --Locke (Natural Education (knowledge by experience with the tabula rosa) --Humanist Ideas (away from the church/schools opened to teach classics) --Castiglione's "The Courtier" (put new value on intellect, literacy, and education) Body 2: *Feminism* - Renaissance -- Christine de Pizan (First full time author with her "Book of the City of Ladies" which defends the importance of women in history) -- Isabelle d'Este (Important patron of the arts and "First Lady of the Renaissance") - Enlightenment -- Mary Wollstonecraft ("Vindication of Rights of Woman" which argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but they appear to be because of their lack of education) -- Salons (Women could host salons and gained new importance in society) Body 3: *Political* - Renaissance -- Niccolo Machiavelli ("The Prince" which argued that Italian leaders needed to make hard decisions in order to fix society and that people are untrustworthy and selfish so princes need to be sly and ruthless) - Enlightenment -- Voltaire (Enlightened despotism which means that the king would preserve his absolute power while promoting reform when it was non-threatening towards his power) -- Thomas Hobbes (Contract between king and people which states that the king is to exercise complete power over the people who will not revolt)

Which colonies received the most slaves? Why them?

Brazil and the Caribbean area colonies received the most, while British colonies only received about 3% of all slaves. This lack of slaves is likely due to the fact that they already relied on the native slaves of North America.

What areas did Portugal cover?

Brazil, SW and SE Africa

Describe the change in Britain's trade during the 18th century. What was the triangle trade?

Britain received a major spike in trading with Indian Ocean partners, exponentially rising. Not only did Europe's imports from the Indian Ocean increase, trade from and to the colonies increased too.

Which countries were pro guilds? Which ones were against them?

Britain was against guilds and took their power. Originally under Colbert, France was pro guild, but realizing that they could profit off of guilds and independent laborers changed their stance to neutral. Germany remained very pro guild.

British French Wars Round One: War of Spanish Succession Who won the economic war?

Britain, France and Spain lost the land war and were forced to sign the Peace of Utrecht, which gave many rights to the British including: the French colonies of Canada, Spanish trading rights in Africa, and "asiento", the right for Britain to send one shipment of goods to Spanish colonies yearly.

Thomas Malthus

British economist that predicted the population will outpace the food supply and natural resources which will lead to famine and war

Crystal Palace

Building erected in Hyde Park, London, for the Great Exhibition of 1851. Made of iron and glass, like a gigantic greenhouse, it was a symbol of the industrial age.

How did the defeat of Burgundy cause France to become a nation-state?

Burgundy was a debated territory of France. Once defeated, it officially became under French control, making France a nation-state.

How did Bismark win the support of the socialists?

By sponsoring laws to protect them

Calvanism

Calvinism, the revolutionary edge of Protestantism in the second half of the sixteenth century, became the international form of the movement. It spread from Geneva, the theocracy of John Calvin (1509- 1564), to France, England, Scotland under John Knox (1505-1572), the Netherlands, and the New World. In his tightly organized writings, known as the Insiltutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin made explicit the notion of predestination, the idea that eternal salvation is determined by an omniscient, omnipotent, and inscrutable God.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Came to power as the leader of France 1799.

Dominion of Canada

Canada was split into an English speaking Upper and a French speaking lower, the Lower Canada demanded to be freed from Britain, to have a republic, universal male suffrage and freedom of press, these rebellions were crushed but with the American Civil War caused Britain to be fearful of such a war with Canada and Britain in 1867 established the Dominion of Canada, it had it's own constitution and ruled over its domestic affairs, while foreign policy was still dominated by Britain

Why did Catholic France side with the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War?

Catholic France sided with the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War because they wanted to weaken the Habsburg power in Europe. Subsidizing with Sweden, they hoped to make the Habsburg Empire less powerful.

James II of England

Catholic king of England whose deposition set the Glorious Revolution in motion

Jesuits

Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola and approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. The Jesuits were the foot soldiers of the Counter-Reformation, specializing in re-converting the masses to the churches by means of preaching, teaching, hearing confessions and doing missionary work. They were highly educated and trained, and they founded many schools throughout Europe. Jesuit confessors were influential on leading catholic rulers. Their efforts at re-conversion met with the considerable success.

1929 Wall Street Stock Market Crash

Caused the "Great Depression". The whole world had very little money - USA asked Germany to pay them back the money Germany owed - Germany was even poorer.

who were the emperor and chancellor of the new German government?

Chancellor: Bismarck Kaiser (Emperor): William I of Prussia

Why did the H.R. Emperor, Charles V, in collaboration with the pope, issue the Edict of Worms in 1521?

Charles V ordered a bull to excommunicate Luther, which Luther publicly burned and insulted the H.R. Emperor. Luther was causing great chaos, so the HR Emperor issued the Edict of Worms.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Church council called by Pope Paul III that played a key role in the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Rather than to seek compromise with the Protestants, the council upheld the validity of the very church practices and beliefs that the Protestants rejected. The council maintained that good works were needed along with faith for salvation, that church tradition and papal decrees were sources of religious truth along that transubstantiation took place in the mass. the council clearly differentiated the Catholic position from that of the Protestants.

How did indulgences become a major reform issue by the late 15th century?

Church officials began to sell indulgences to anyone who would buy them in order to raise funds

Stalingrad

City in Russia, site of a Red Army victory over the Germany army in 1942-1943. The Battle of Stalingrad was the turning point in the war between Germany and the Soviet Union. Today Volgograd. (p. 793)

What are the characteristics of humanism?

Classical scholarship: the ability to read, understand, and appreciate the writings of an ancient world

Trilingual Colleges

Colleges founded by Humanist scholars in the Renaissance period with the purpose of teaching students the three so-called "sacred languages," Hebrew, Latin, and Greek. The goal was to enable people to read the Bible in its two original languages or in Latin translation. The mission if these colleges grew out of the Humanist conviction that ordinary believers could read and understand the Bible and follow its moral examples, an idea spread by Erasmus, among other Humanists. Erasmus himself founded one such college at the University of Louvain, while King Francis I of France founded one in Paris.

How did mercantilism cause exploration and colonization?

Colonies were sources of raw materials for the mother country, and the colonies also provided markets for the mother country's products. This lead to an increase in trade and wealth for the mother country. The mother country wanted to gain wealth.

The Committee of Public Safety

Combatted the dual threat of internal rebellion/counter-revolutionaries and foreign invasion

What were other characteristics of nation-states?

Common language National conciousness Religious uniformity Diplomacy Balance of power

Tycho Brahe

Compiled a detailed record of his observations and the positions and movements of the stars and planets, which led him to reject the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system. (1546-1601)

What caused Spain to become a nation-state?

Completion of Reconquista Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella Spanish conquest of New World

Conciliarism

Conciliarism was a reform movement in the 14th-, 15th- and 16th-century Catholic Church which held that supreme authority in the Church resided with an Ecumenical council, apart from, or even against, the pope. The movement emerged in response to the Western Schism between rival popes in Rome and Avignon.

Tsar Nicholas I

Conservative leader of Russia who sought to prevent rebellion by strengthening the government bureaucracy, increasing censorship, and suppressing individual freedom

What is constitutionalism? How does it differ from a democratic form of government? From absolutism?

Constitutionalism is a form of government in which power is limited by law and balanced between authority and power of the government, on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects or citizens on the other hand. It differs from a democracy because a true democracy grants all citizens the right to vote, where constitutionalism gave some men and no women a vote. Constitutionalism differs from absolutism because an absolutist state has one ruler who claims he has divine rights.

Why was the Ottoman Empire called "The sick man of Europe"?

Countries in Europe were waiting for it to die (fall) so it could colonize and take over lands

Cesare Beccaria

Crime and Punishment

Nitrogen fixing crops

Crops that brought nitrogen to the soil and restored it or made it healthy again.

Who wrote "A Plan of the English Commerce"? What was it about?

Daniel Defoe, It noted that increased labor by women and children actually was beneficial for them and the economy. It allowed more stability for a family and taught young kids values.

How did the rise of new monarchs cause exploration and colonization?

Monarchs learned that increasing their nation's wealth would increase their own wealth. The new monarchs were not wealthy, so they looked for ways to increase the nation's wealth so their own wealth could be increased too

How did population growth cause the Commercial Revolution?

More people producing/laboring More demand of goods

What were characteristics of New Monarchs?

More professional Had more central control Realized they were governing FOR the people Practiced mercantilism Had professional armies Practiced Roman Civil Law

Battle of the Bulge

December, 1944-January, 1945 - After recapturing France, the Allied advance became stalled along the German border. In the winter of 1944, Germany staged a massive counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg which pushed a 30 mile "bulge" into the Allied lines. The Allies stopped the German advance and threw them back across the Rhine with heavy losses.

Battle of Pavia

Decisive victory by the forces of Charles V over those of French King Francis I in the first Hapsburg/Valois War in 1525. As a result of the battle, the French king was captured and all of Italy lay open to imperial domination. After his release, Francis signed a military alliance with the papacy called the League of Cognac and the two allies launched a new war against Charles to prevent his conquest of Italy.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Deductive thinker whose famous saying cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") challenged the notion of truth as being derived from tradition and Scriptures. Enlightenment- the intellectual revolution of the eighteenth century in which the philosophes stressed reason, natural law, and progress in their criticism of prevailing social injustices.

"Final Solution"

Def: the Nazi program of exterminating Jews under Hitler

Revolutions of 1848

Democratic and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe during a time after the Congress of Vienna when conservative monarchs were trying to maintain their power. The monarchy in France was overthrown. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary the revolutions failed. *evidence of the need for liberal and nationalistic reforms in Europe... even though the revolts mostly failed, it caused governments to begin to make reforms in the latter half of the 1800s

Against what country was Prussias first war?

Denmark

In what ways was Austria-Hungary responsible for WWI?

Desire to crush Serbia and exaggeration of potential threat of Serbia determined to make war

How did women's rights increase during the 18th century industrious revolution?

Despite the fact that their earned little, Women for the first time were regularly participating in wage earning work, a right in itself by any standard.

Irish Potato Famine

Devastating famine that began in the 1840s. Led to decimation of the Irish population, the Irish diaspora, violent resistance to British control of Ireland, and the beginnings of Irish nationalism. also the beginning of the irish immigration to the US

In what ways was France responsible for WWI?

Did not want to begin another Franco-Prussian war, but due to alliance with Russia they were forced into the action

What was the name of Descartes's book that expounded his theories about the universe?

Discourse on Method

Charles Townsend

Discovered methods of cultivating sandy soils with fertilizer, invented crop rotation system to restore fallow fields, used restoration crops to feed livestock **Turnips

Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone

Disraeli was the Tory leader in the Parliament and pushed the Reform Bill of 1867 in an attempt to increase Conservative voters, but ultimately it failed. Gladstone was seen as the leader of the Liberals he opened civil service positions to be gained through examination, introduce secret ballot and tried to make elementary school avaliable for all.

Richelieu's generalities

Divide France into 32 districts and after 1634, each had a royal intendant that held a commission to perform certain tasks transmitted info from local communities to Paris and delivered orders from capital to these districts

William Harvey

Doctor whose reputation rests on his book "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood," which proved the errors of Galen, and established that the heart, not the liver was the beginning point of blood circulation. (1578-1657)

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 27,1789)

Document that embodied the liberal revolutionary Ideals and general principles of the philosophers' writings.

1793 Constitution

Document that reflected the vision of the Social Contract by Rousseau

List some major accomplishments of Frederick William I.

Doubled the size of the Prussian army, disdained court life, avoided war (army was a sign of power rather than aggression)

How was Italy able to acquire Rome?

During the Franco-Russian war France was forced to withdraw its troops from Rome

the Papal States

During the Middle Ages, when the papacy was away from Rome, many cities gained independence from the control of the Popes. The Popes then spent most of the Renaissance trying to regain control

How is the "Second Hundred Years War" an example of balance of power?

During the late 17th century into the 18th and 19th centuries, France was the new superpower of Europe. England didn't like this, so they fought France. France became too powerful for England's liking.

By 1700, less that half of the civilians worked as farmers in which two countries? Why?

Dutch Republic and Britain, they effectively were able to rotate crops so that they could farm more efficiently. Clovers, potatoes, turnips, and root crops all restored nitrogen, rather than depleting it.

Generally speaking, which lower class individuals had it worse? Western or Eastern Europeans? Why?

Eastern Europeans were worse off because they had harsher taxes and more bonding laws of serfdom. They were regularly bought and sold until the 19th century. Western peasants had more rights like hereditary land rights and no serfdom.

How did the Italian Renaissance differ from the Renaissance of the 12th century?

Education was focused on the classics, as well as increasingly practical and useful training in the Italian Renaissance

What order did Henry VIII's children rule?

Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth

The artistic movement Mannerism reached its peak with the work of

El Greco.

Which of Henry VIII's children established the Protestant Church of England and completely broke from Rome?

Elizabeth

Which of Henry VIII's children ruled the longest?

Elizabeth (45 years called the Elizabethan Age)

What problem was Austria facing in their empire?

Emperor Francis I did not want change--but could not stop indsutrialism from reaching Austria. Austria faced the same probelsm as Britain-growth of cities, worker unhappiness and stirrings of socialism

Reich

Empire. This refers to the new German Empire (after defeating France)

What was enclosure? Who advocated for It?

Enclosure meant that the old, communal farm lands should be fenced and individually assigned so that they could be more efficiently farmed. Advocates were experimental scientists, government officials, and a few big landlords. They were pro enclosure because the individual nature would allow scientists to experiment more.

Denis Diderot

Encyclopedia

What caused France to become a nation-state?

End of Hundred Hears War Defeat of Burgundy

What caused England to become a nation-state?

End of Hundred Years War End of Wars of the Roses

Peace of Westphalia

Ended the Thirty Years' War; recognized the independent authority of more than 300 German princes; the Augsburg Agreement of 1555 became permanent

Peace of Utrecht

Ended the War of Spanish Succession. It allowed Louis's grandson Philip to remain king of Spain on the understanding that the French and Spanish crowns would never unite

Who were the first New Monarchs + their countries?

England: Henry VII France: Louis XI Spain: Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile

George Stephenson

English railway pioneer who built the first passenger railway in 1825 (1781-1848) it was called the Rocket

Why were the British colonies different in terms of heritage from the French and Spanish colonies?

Entire families moved to British colonies, not just one male. This meant that there would be less mixed race unions.

Bubonic plague

Epidemic disease that struck Europe in 1348, killing one-half to one-third of the population. This population catastrophe touched off an economic depression that lasted 100 years and contributed to a century of political instability. The plague recurred intervals after 1348, not disappearing from the scene until after 1730. The plague was bacterial in nature and was carried by fleas hosted by rats. It has also been called the "Black Death" for the dark swellings it caused.

Defenestration of Prague

Episode in 1618 in which representatives of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II were thrown from a tower in Prague Castle after notifying the Bohemian States assembled within that the emperor was withdrawing privileges earlier granted to Bohemian Protestants. This symbol rejection of Ferdinand's sovereignty was followed by a formal deposition of him as king of by the States. These events sparked the beginning of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), when imperial forces invaded Bohemia.

Carlsbad Decrees

Extremely repressive laws adopted in 1819 in Prussia and the German Confederation. The decrees were meant to discourage liberal views and movements. *evidence of the long lasting conservatism of the Congress system that permeated Europe until 1848

Yalta Conference, 1945

FDR, Churchill and Stalin met at Yalta. Russia agreed to declare war on Japan after the surrender of Germany and in return FDR and Churchill promised the USSR concession in Manchuria and the territories that it had lost in the Russo-Japanese War

How did the German peasants respond to Martin Luther's actions of crushing the revolt?

Feeling betrayed, many peasants rejected Luther's teachings

Danielle Hall

Femrite's favorite TA that spent many many many weeks from Dr. Fix's book. Study hard people!! Enjoy!! :-)

How did the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella cause Spain to become a nation-state?

Ferdinand and Isabella were the leaders of the two largest Spanish kingdoms, Aragon and Castile respectively. Their marriage united the two kingdoms.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, queen of Castile, got married and worked together to unify the Iberian pennesula. They got rid of aristocrats from the royal council and made a new and strong army. Then they went about addressing religion. They talked with the Pope so they could elect the church officials from Spain and then they made all minorities either convert to christianity or flee the region.

How was Hungary able to gain some autonomy?

Ferenc Deak was able to negotiate the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

James II (1685-1688)

Final Stuart ruler; he was forced to abdicate in favor of William and Mary, who agreed to the Bill of Rights, guaranteeing parliamentary supremacy.

popolo grasso

Florence's wealthy merchant industrialist class - "the fat people"

Absolutism

Form of monarchy in which all power is located in the monarchy, who is said to embody the state. Royal power is not limited by representative assemblies or social groups, such as the nobility. The monarch commands a powerful bureaucracy and army, with which he extends his authority to all groups of people and all corners of the country. Absolutism developed during the 17th century in France, Germany, and elsewhere. Its most well known representative was King Louis XIV of France (r. 1643-1715).

After Britain's manhandling of the Dutch Republic, who was their largest competitor? Why?

France, they had the largest army with a growing naval fleet. Also, France had a strict monopolization of their own colonial trade.

Frederick William I

Frederick I's son, made the army the most important thing in Prussia, nicknamed the "sergeant king", doubled the size of the army, militaristic, but never had to use his army

Frederick the Great

Frederick II, Frederick William 1's son

Prussia has traditionally been considered one of the most militaristic states in Europe. How do you explain this development? Who or what is responsible?

Frederick William began the process of building an army. By 1688, a population of 1 million supported a peacetime standing army of 30000. Frederick William I, Frederick William's grandson, continued his grandfather's work, He ordered that all Prussian men would undergo military training.

Marie Curie

French Physicist and chemist who researched radiotherapy, won 2 nobel prizes and helped develop x-ray technology, however she dies of radium exposure

Charles de Gaulle

French general and statesman who became very popular during World War II as the leader of the Free French forces in exile

Joan of Arc

French heroine and military leader inspired by religious visions to organize French resistance to the English and to have Charles VII crowned king, she was later tried for heresy and burned at the stake

Nobles of the robe

French nobles who bought nobility along with a government office. They were called "nobles of the robe" for the long robes worn by the jurists of the Paris Parlement, the supreme court of France, the offices of which were purchased and conferred nobility. Other such offices were on provincial parlements and even local government. Nobles of the robe adopted many of the habits and ways of thought of traditional nobles, called "nobles of the sword". They had the same privileges as traditional nobles and guarded them just as fiercely. Nobles of the robe started the Fronde revolt against the king in 1648. In the 18th century, nobles of the robe pressured the king to reduce the sale of ennobling offices because of the inflation of nobility that resulted.

Eugene Delacroix

French romantic painter, master of dramatic colorful scenes that stirred the emotions. Greatest romantic painters. Fascinated with remote and exotic subjects. Masterpiece: Liberty Leading the People *evidence of Romantic painter

Dialogue on the Two Chief World System

Galileo's work that was written in Italian instead of Latin and could thus be disseminated widely, which drew the ire of the Catholic Church, and earned Galileo house arrest for the remaining 8 years of his life.

'Red Shirts"

Garibaldis 1000 volunteer army who took control of Sicily (southern Italy)

What did Bismarck do to win back the workers support?

Gave workers health and accident insurance and retirement benefits

House of Krupp

German company produced Steel and Weapons

Carl Zeiss

German inventor built company known for optics (telescopes, microscopes)

Karl Marx

German journalist and philosopher. He is known for two books: The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital., This man came up with the idea of communism/dialectic socialism that said that two classes have always battled against each other to form another class that will battle against its antithesis until the synthesis is one equal class working with each other for each other *evidence of the new emerging philosophies of the era... especially those concerning the growing reaction against the harsh nature of the new industrial society

Diet of Worms (1521)

German national assembly where Luther confronted Emperor Charles V and representatives of the pope over his rejection of Catholic Church doctrine. Given a chance to recant his beliefs, Luther refused and, in consequence, was branded an outlaw. After the Diet, Luther was protected from prosecution by the leader of Saxony, Frederick the Wise. Luther's stands at Worms greatly increased his popularity among the German people.

Secular Support of Martin Luther

German princes such as Frederick of Saxony, who saw the beneflt of converting to the Lutheran religion. The princes could keep the taxes flowing to Rome for their own territorial power and the church lands as well. Townspeople with commercial interests who felt constrained by the church restrictions sought flexible business practices. German peasants who took literally Luther's dictum that a Christian man is the most free lord of all, subject to none. The peasants wanted freedom from manorial dues and obligations. Luther, however, rejected their concept of secular liberty. He insisted that they obey the civil authorities, if not the religious ones. Society required civil obedience to avoid chaos. The German princes who supported Luther confiscated the rich church lands and opposed Charles V. The struggle between princes and emperor resulted in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), whereby the princes could determine the religion of their own territory and their subjects within it.

Rhine Confederation

German states organized by Napoleon

Vichy France

Germans occupied northern 2/3 of France. What was left of the Third Republic moved to South. HQ at Vichy and led but a confused parliament with Petain as president and Laval as premier. Signed armistice with Hitler. Was an openly defeatist regime - known as Vichy govt. In effect it collaborated with the Germans. In reality, the Third Republic was dead. Lost its slogan - "liberty, equality and fraternity." A Free French movt under General De Gaulle moved to London from where they helped to organise resistance to German occupation. In France, some collaborated and others secretly helped the resistance.

Where was Lutherism most successful in the 16th century?

Germany

Locarno Pact, 1925

Germany and other European nations agreed to settle all disputes peacefully (negotiations). Gave Europeans a false sense of security about the future. Not enforceable.

France invaded Germany because ...

Germany couldn't pay France back reparations for WWI in 1923 so France took some of Germany's land.

invasion of Poland

Germany invaded, breaking their agreement, so Britain and France declared war, starting World War II

Countries plans if war broke out

Germany- Schliefen Plan France- Rapid mobilization and capture of Alsace-Lorraine Russia planning attack on AH and Germany AH planed to allocate troops in Russia and Serbia

Greek Revolt

Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters

What was a guild? Was it advantageous or not?

Guilds were an organization of artisans who received a monopoly over supplying trade and hiring workers. Critics have adamantly advocated against guilds due to their: unfair acceptance policies( only men and Christians) and how inefficient they were.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

HE WAS AN ALLY OF MAZZINI AND WANTED A UNIFIED ITALIAN REPUBLIC

How did the Thirty Years' War and invasion by the Ottoman Turks help the Habsburgs consolidate power?

Habsburg victory over Bohemian during the Thirty Years' War was an important step to unify their diverse holdings. The Habsburgs eventually established direct rule over Bohemia. The condition of the enserfed peasantry worsened and Protestantism was also stamped out under their rule.

Phillip III of Spain

Handed the running government over to the Duke of Lerma

Brunelleschi

He also studied in Rome, but he was interested in architecture. Brunellschi devised the building techniques and machinery to create domes in Florence. The Church of San Lorenzo was built with columns, arches, and a coffered ceiling that didn't ovoerwhelm the corshiper materially and psychologically but was built for humans. He tried to create a more human centered space, like many others in the Renaissance.

How did Jethro Tull obtain his information and form his ideas?

He applied empiricism, the use of stats, to formulate and test his opinions.

Why did William II force Bismark to resign?

He believed his right to rule came from God and that could only be one ruler. He resisted democratic reforms.

How did Bismark believe unifying Germany was going to be accomplished?

He believed that with a powerful military he could pursue an aggressive foreign policy

Bramante and Saint Peter's:

He came from Urbino, but lived in Rome. He built a small temple at the supposed site of Saint Peter's martyrdom. The temple, with Doric columns, surrounded a sanctuary that was enclosed by a dome. It basically summarized the architectural ideas of the High Renaissance. He recaptured the granduer of Rome.

Even though Cavour suppported Garibaldi, why was he concerned about Garibaldi's success?

He feared that Garibaldi would set up his own Southern Italian Republic (Sicily)

Michelangelo

He is best known for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and his sculpture David. He was influenced by neoplatonism and you can see this in his depiction of Adam with perfect proportions (this showed that he was divine). His sculpture again showed the beaty of mankind and was the largest statue since the time of Rome.

Why was Cicero a favorite classical figure of humanists?

He knew what proper values were and pursued them in their own lives, despite temptations and the distraction of public affairs.

Why is Petrarch considered to be the "Father of Humanism?"

He laid out a program of education that taught what the ancients had done and said, which caught fire in Florence and is credited with sparking the Italian Renaissance.

Prince Francis Rakoczy

He led the Hungarians in one last patriotic rebellion against the Habsburgs

Peter the Great

He made the power of the stars secure from the boyars and the streltsy, and increased military power

Jacob Burckhardt

He published The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, which set the framework for all modern interpretations of the period. Published in 1860, it portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world and saw the revival of antiquity, the "perfecting of the individual," and secularism as its distinguishing features. He argued that the Renaissance represents a sudden cultural break with the Middle Ages, but modern scholars disagree with this.

What was Garibaldi's role in unifying Italy?

He recuted Red Shirt army and also got aid from Cavour (ships and weapons) and got control of Sicily

What did Prince Frederick do for Martin Luther after the Edict of Worms was handed down?

He sheltered Martin Luther in one of his castles.

Donatello's David

He studied statues in Rome and then came back to Florence and made David. It is the first free standing, life-sized bronze nude in European art since antiquity. It celebrated Florentine heroism in the triumph of the Florentines over the Milanese in 1428. It radiated simplicity and strength that reflected the dignity of humanity

Cosimo d'Medici

He took control over the small oligarchy that manipulated the 'republican' government. When he died, his grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent took over.

What did Garbaldi do after he had control of Naples and Sicily?

He turned them over to Victor Emmanuel and he was Victor Emmanuel was crowned King of Italy

What did Martin Luther do when he learned that German peasants were burning down monasteries?

He urged the German princes to show the peasants no mercy.

Alexander Ypsilanti

He was a Greek nationalist who led them in 1821 to fight for the freedom of Turkey. The rising national movement led to the formation of secret societies and then to revolt. *evidence of the growing nationalism movement in Europe

Giorgio Vasari

He was a painter that was also an avid admirer of Italy's great artists. He wrote a series of breif biographies of them in which he described them as divine (not in those words, but it was as if he was describing a god)

Ivan III

He was a prince in Russia who made the Russian state the principality of Moscow. He annexed other Russian principalities and over took the Mogols by 1480.

Lorenzo Valla

He was a very well educated papal secretary who wrote a book called The Elegances of the Latin Language, which tried to bring back the dominance of the language. He studied Latin deeply and accepted only the Latin of the last century of the Roman Republic and the first century of the empire.

Who was Jethro Tull? What were some of his ideas?

He was an English agricultural scientist. Some of his ideas included: replacing slow oxen with horses, mechanical seed spreaders, and breeding livestock.

Who was Arthur Young? Why was his work criticized?

He was an English farmer who sought to widely improve the efficiency of English farming by the enclosure system. His work was criticized because of the massive upheaval of peasant life it caused. The enclosure system resulted in many poor peasants losing common land privileges, which forced them to become proletarian, landless wage workers.

Petrarch

He was basically the father of Italian Renaissance humanism. He rejected his father's desire for his job and lived most of his life as a guest in Italy. He was the first to characterize the Middle Ages with darkness and ignorance of classical antiquity. He had an obession of sorts on the old Latin texts and was the one to make Cicero and Virgil popular idols.

Who was Cornelius Vermuyden? How did he help England?

He was from the Dutch Republic. He was skilled in drainage and even undertook large drainage projects in Yorkshire and Cambridge to drain swamps.

Marcilio Ficino and neoplatonism

He was hired to translate the works of Plato for Medici. He created a new theory that was a combinationof two other and called it neoplatonism. It stated that there were levels of material (plants to God) and that humans rest in the middle. We should stive to get to the top level. The other part was that people were basically bound together by love.

Johannes Gutenberg

He was instrumental in the completion of the printing press. The first book was the Bible. Printing spread rapidly and encouraged the development of scholarly researcha nd the desire to attain knowledge. Lay people began to read and this also helped the ideas of the Reformation spread as quickly as they did in the 16th century

Leonardo da Vinci

He was not only an artist, but a scientist, engineer, and inventor. He cut open dead bodies to try to understand how the body worked. He painted the famous Last Supper, which used organizationof space and use of perspective to depict the figures as 3D. Through gestures and movements, Da Vinci tried to reveal a person's inner life.

Jan van Eyck

He was one of the first to use oil paints. His attention to detail was astonishing and it was also a good representation of most NR art. It focused on perspective, proportion, and accurate portrayal of details.

Francesco Guicciardini

He was one of the greatest historians ever and published two books (History of Italy and History of Florence). He expertly analyzed political and military situations using personal examples and documentary evidence.

Albrecht Durer

He was the Da Vinci of Germany. He traveled to Italy twice and absorbed as much as he could while there. He then integrated the Italian ideas into his workds and tried to achieve a standard of ideal beauty by a careful examination of the human form.

David Hume

He was the dead end of end of empiricism. He stated that there can't be any absolute knowledge if everything is based on the senses. So, people can know things through common sense, but not through philosophy (which he says is a joke) and he hates dogma.

What role did the HR Emperor, Charles V, play in the Protestant Reformation?

He was the one being challenged.

Leo X

He was the son of Lorenzo de' Medici and was made archbishop at age 8, cardinal at 13, and pope at 37. He had accquired a refined tast in art, manners, and social life and was a big patron of the arts. He commisioned Rapheal and Saint Perer's was started.

Parasites

Henri de Saint-Simon used this term to describe the unnecessary people in society such as lawyers, aristocrats and churchmen

Boyar

Highest ranking nobles of Russia; possessed less political power than did their counterparts in western Europe

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

His book "Principia" spelled out the mathematical proofs demonstrating universal laws of gravitation based on three laws of motion. (1643-1727)

Masaccio

His cycle of frescoes are considered to be the first masterpiece of Early Renaissance art. He brought about a new, realistic style of painting with a more realistic representation of perspective. Masaccio's 3D figures provided a model for later generations.. Art then took two different turns: mathmatical/ investigation of movement and anatomical structure.

What was the impact of Louis XIV's wars on the French economy and French society?

His wars placed unbearable strains on French resources. The French people suffered from high taxes, crop failure, and widespread malnutrition and death.

Munich Putsch

Hitler and his SA men stormed on Southern Germany Govt (Bavaria) in 1923 and began a riot - Hitler was arrested

Enabling Act

Hitler created this act which allows him to make up laws in 'an emergency' but he ends up banning other parties and passing anti-Jewish laws.

Rhineland, 1936

Hitler sent German troops into the demilitarised Rhineland. Violated treaty of versailles and locarno 1925. He justified by 1935 Franco-soviet alliance. Britain would not support France's actions. Showed France would not risk war without britains help.

Who did Hitler blame?

Hitler used the Jewish, communists and other sections of society and placed all blame on them for the war.

Frederick William the Great Elector

Hohenzollern, of Prussia, religiously tolerant, elected Holy Roman Emperor, built the power of the Prussian army, tried to centralize Hohenzollern power, lowered the power of nobles

Filippo Brunelleschi

Il Duomo, considered the "father" of perspective

spinning mule

In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined the spinning jenny and the water frame to create a machine which produced a thread which was stronger, finer and more consistent

Hyperinflation

In 1923, Germany had no money - they began to print more and more money until it was worthless.

Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928

In 1928 fifteen counties signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, initiated by French prime minister Aristide Briand and U.S. secretary of state Frank B. Kellogg. This multinational pact "condemned and renounced war as an instrument of national policy." These signing states agreed to settle international disputes peacefully. Often seen as idealistic nonsense because it made no provisions for action in case of war actually occurred, the pact was still a positive step.

Ethiopia, 1935

In 1935, Mussolini successfully invaded Ethiopia. When he spoke at a victory rally in front of 400,000 spectators in Rome's Piazza Venetia, he proclaimed that the Ethiopian invasion marked the beginning of an Italian Empire and the rebirth of Roman glory.

Spanish Civil War

In 1936 a rebellion erupted in Spain after a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists was elected. General Francisco Franco led the rebellion. The revolt quickly became a civil war. The Soviet Union provided arms and advisers to the government forces while Germany and Italy sent tanks, airplanes, and soldiers to help Franco.

Feudalism

In August of 1789, this social system was abolished by the National Assembly, and freed peasants of their obligations to serve the nobles.

Discuss the political development of Italy during the Renaissance. What new political practices (statecraft) did the Italians contribute to Europe? How are these new political practices reflected in the work of Machiavelli?

In Italy, there were five major states, and a few other important city-states. The states each had their own specific government and were each equally successful. The Italians brought about the use of Ambassadors to get information. But these ambassadors were different, because they could use any means necessary to get info and the state's interests came first. This is reflected in the work of Machiavelli, because he talked of how moral concerns were more or less irrelevant if you gained something for your state.

Poletariat

In Marxist theory, the group of workers who would overthrow the czar and come to rule Russia. The working class

How did the Spanish conquest of the New World cause Spain to become a nation-state?

In brought in great wealth, helping the territory be unified under one wealth

Assume that you are a pupil in a Renaissance school. How would the curriculum differ from a medieval church school? Explain what kind of education you plan to receive. For what occupations will you be prepared?

In medieval times, the curriculum would have been focused on the Bible and religious aspects. Humanist schools focused on more practical things to help students achieve all that they possible could. I plan to receive education on the liberal arts so that I can become a chancellor, councellar, or advisor (a secular job)

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

In order to salvage its eroding power, the Roman Catholic Church undertook its own reform and sought countermeasures against Protestantism. The mid-century Council of Trent forbade the sale of indulgences, pluralism, and simony and insisted on strict morals, behavior, and dress of clergy. In matters of doctrine, the council insisted that salvation could be assured through faith and good works. A new teaching order, the Jesuits, led by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), reaffirmed obedience to the decrees of the pope and to the hierarchy of the church. The church further sanctioned the revival of the Inquisition, a medieval court that tried heretics and punished the guilty. And to prevent exposure to dangerous ideas, the church provided an index, or list of prohibited books. Finally, in an effort to win back adherents, the church commissioned many Catholic painters to turn their talents to religious art. For example, Caravaggio, Bernini, Rubens, and El Greco (see Art Web Page for details on this period and style) painted religious scenes that were theatrical, sensuous, and dynamic. The classical harmony of the Renaissance gave way to the extravagance and passion of baroque art.

The English Reformation

In spite of efforts to check the spread of Protestantism, the Catholic church was unsuccessful in preventing England"s withdrawal from its fold. But in the case of England, the reason was personal and political rather than religious. Henry VIII (1509-1547) became infatuated with Anne Boleyn. He sought to dissolve his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. This dissolution was accomplished when he broke with the church and declared himself (The Act of Supremacy) the Supreme Head of Church and Clergy of England (1534). Insistent on recognition of his title, he beheaded the famous chancellor Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) for refusing to acknowledge publicly his supremacy.

What specific accusations did Adam Smith make against guilds?

In the "Wealth of Nations" he accused guilds of being outdated and obstructional towards innovation. Smith wanted a competitive economy, the exact opposite of the monopolized guild system.

Henry Cort

In the 1780s, Cort developed the puddling furnace, which allowed pig iron to be refined in turn with coke (made from coal, not the drink or drug). Cort also developed heavy-duty steam-powered rolling mills, which were capable of spewing out finished iron in every shape and form.

New Monarchies

In the second half of the 15th century, Europe tried to reestablish centralized power of monarchical governments. Historians gave them this name, focusing on France, England, and Spain. Monarchs of western Europe were successful, but those in central or eastern Europe were weak and unable to impose their autority.

What were some results of the Commercial Revolution?

Increased Trade Globalization of Trade Change in Types of goods traded

What were the social impacts of exploration and colonization?

Increased size and influence of middle class

What was Luther's core theological premise?

Individuals could worship on their own; church rituals and excessive clergy was not necessary.

What was Luther's position in the Peasants' Revolt?

Initially, Luther was supportive; but, after he found that they were challenging all authority, he ignored the oppressions that they had suffered and wrote a vicious pamphlet calling on nobility to cut them down without mercy so as to restore peace.

List some major accomplishments of Frederick II (The Great).

Invaded Silesia, started the War of the Austrian Succession, known as the "enlightened absolutist"

Antoine Lavoisier

Invented a system of naming the chemical elements--many regard him as the father of modern chemistry. His wife Marie-Anne was his collaborator. (1743-1794)

Edict of Nantes

Issued in 1598 by Henry IV after former Calvinist had assumed the French throne and converted to Catholicism. The edict guaranteed religious toleration to French Huguenots and allowed them to fortify their towns as a defensive measure. The right to fortify was withdrawn by Cardinal Richelieu after the siege of La Rochelle in 1628, and Louis XIV later revoked the entire edict.

How did the printing press affect the argument of selling indulgences?

It allowed Martin Luther to make several copies spreading his disagreement throughout Germany starting the Reformation

How did the end of the Hundred Years War cause France to become a nation-state?

It causes the English to be expelled from France, meaning that the French have control over the land, making it under only one government's control

Castiglione's Book of the Courtier

It describe how to be the perfect noble. They should posses fudamental native endowments, participate in military, have a classical education, and follow a certain code of conduct. The aim of this perfect noble was to serve his prince in a honest and effective way. Nobles followed this rule book for hundreds of years.

What were the provisions of the Peace of Ausburg of 1555?

It gave each German prince the right to determine the religion of his state, either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism.

"The major characteristic in the development of the 'new monarchies' was the expansion of central government authority in the areas of economic, political, judicial, military, and religious policy." Is this a valid statement in regard to England, Spain, and France? Was the pattern of political development the same in eastern Europe?

It is accurate for Europe, Spain, and France, but it doesn't apply to eastern Europe.The countries in eastern Europe had trouble developing new monarchies. The aristocrats took over most of their governments and the royal families had no control and no way to enforce their authority. Most of the governments in eastern Europe were fragile and nobody had much control. Eng, Fran, and Spain did though. Their rulers were harsh and had a Machiavelli attitued that gained them respect. They were very successful.

Renaissance

It literally means rebirth. The Middle Ages were characterized by no advances in technology and no advances in culture. During the Renaissance, people rediscovered old ideas, especially Greco-Roman ones. There was also a new mindset that men can do whatever they put their heart to.

What was different about the textile putting out industry?

It was a family operation. The male would spin while the other family members would preform side tasks in the spinning process. Also, many women were taken up a spinsters for a very modest pay.

Describe "Equiano's Economic Arguments for Ending Slavery." Why was it progressive? Was it successful?

It was a mass movement in Britain to end slavery. It was progressive because it was the first active, organized protest against British slavery. It was partially successful, slavery was abolished in Britain, but trans Atlantic trade continued.

What was the Clothier's Delight about?

It was a protest from the workers of the textile industry. Merchant bosses would only cut pay and increase work load.

Describe the Anglo-Dutch wars. Who was it between? How was it fought? Who won?

It was between the Dutch and the British. Until the mid 17th century, the Dutch had dominated trade. So, not only was the war militaristic, but also economic. The British won by: passing the Navigation Acts which crippled Dutch trade, and seizing the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, now New York.

British French Wars Round Two: War of Austrian Succession Who won the economic war?

It was inconclusive, and only served to set up the next conflict, the Seven Years' War.

How did the values of this courtier influence the development of a modern aristocratic class in Western Europe?

It was no longer easy to claim that physical bravery was the supreme quality of noblemen. Instead, nobles began to set themselves apart not just by seeking a humanist education but also by patronizing artists and writers whose praise made them famous.

Discuss Italian Renaissance humanism. What does the word humanism mean? Who were the humanists? What were their goals? Did they achieve them?

Italian Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement based on the literary works of the Greeks and Romans (NOT THE CHURCH). Humanism basically means that people focused more on the ability of humans than the divine. Humanists generally didn't have religious jobs and they strived to do the best that man could and regain divine status. They did do the best that humans could.

Francesco ximenes de cisneros

Spanish humanist that pushed for reforms in the Spanish clergy

Montesquieu

Spirit of the Laws, Persian Letters

What areas did France cover?

St. Lawrence River Valley, great lakes, ohio valley, Mississippi Valley

Charles II (1660 1685)

Stuart king during the Restoration, following Cromwell's Interregnum.

James I (1403-1625)

Stuart monarch who ignored constitutional principles and asserted the divine right of kings.

Gustavus Adolphus, who led the Lutheran armies in the Thirty Years' War until he was killed at Lützen, was king of

Sweden

The Shore Method

System which European ships sent boats ashore or invited African dealers to bring traders and slaves out to their ships. This allowed ships to move easily along the coast from market to market and to depart more quickly for the Americas

What did Hitler promise?

That he knew how to solve the economic crisis, German unification, a sense of pride in German culture and life, an explanation for Germany's problems.

Scientific Revolution

The 17th century intellectual movement that overturned the traditional and scientific system based on Aristotle's ideas and put in place a new and radically different science based on the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. The old geocentric picture of the cosmos was replaced by the Copernican heliocentric picture, and Aristotelian motion theory was replaced by Galileo's theory of inertia, as well as Newton's laws of motion and gravitation. Modern science emerged.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

The Baroque artist who completed Saint Peter's Basilica and the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa was

What was the sale of indulgences?

The Catholic church sold indulgences to followers to forgive sins. People believed they could buy their way out of purgatory or hell.

Apostolic Church

The Christian church as it existed during days of Christ and the apostles. Many Humanists envisioned this church as pristine and uncorrupted by medieval additions; thus, they based their church reform plans on returning the church to its apostolic purity. During the Protestant Reformation, the Anabaptists and other radical groups also called for reconstructing the church in the image of this apostolic community.

How was humanism different from medieval scholasticism?

The Classics started to become more valued

Craft Guilds

The Craft Guilds were formed in a similar way to the Merchant Guilds. A group of tradesmen or craftsmen engaged in the same occupation joined together. There were Craft Guilds for every trade or craft performed within a Medieval city or town. These trades or crafts included:

Which Country lead the way in advanced trade and agriculture during the 17th century? Why?

The Dutch. They had a very advanced system of crop rotation, enclosure and variety. This was not due to inherent advantages but disadvantages: the Dutch Republic was the mostly densely populated land in the world, forcing farmers to be efficient. Also, due to their thriving trade, the Dutch was a population boom which forced them to farm well.

Corn Law of 1815

The English imposed these high tariffs on foreign grain to protect the aristocrat's economic interests

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was a period of time in which many intellectuals, who were called philosophs, began to question the traditions of society and to look at the universe in a scientific, critical light. - During the Enlightenment, all the trademark aspects of European society were exposed to criticism and analysis through reason. No institution was spared, for even the church itself was attacked by the cynical philosophs. Though the Enlightenment began as a movement that only reached the intellectual elite of society, its repercussions would eventually reach and have a big impact on society as a whole.

The clergy

The First Estate included this strata of French society.

Estates General

The French national assembly summoned in 1789 to remedy the financial crisis and correct abuses of the ancient regime.

Manchuria, 1931

The Japanese invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan, beginning on September 19, 1931 immediately followed the Mukden Incident.

Tennis Court Oath

The July 20,1789 pledge by the third estate proclaimed it the sovereign power of France while promising to create a constitution

Constantinople and 1453

The Ottoman Turks advanced from the West to East in 1300s, initially skipping over Constantinople. They returned in 1453 to take down the city, and with it the Byzantine Empire. The Turks used cannons that brought the walls down.

Peace of Lodi and balance of power

The Peace of Lodi was signed in 1454 and effectively ended Italian civil wars for forty years. No one city-state could try to gain more land, so there was no more fighting. Though eventually Milan felt 'isolated' and asked the French to intervene. Then Spain came in and fought against them and Italy became a battlefield.

Jesuit Missionaries or the "Society of Jesus" were created by who?

The Pope

Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Reformation

The Protestant Reformation inaugurated an era of bitter and often violent religious conflict. Catholics fought against Protestants, while the Protestant groups contended against one another. While the Reformation involved primarily religious issues, it paradoxically helped to promote the growth of secularism in Western European civilization since, in Protestant lands especially, the church came increasingly under the control of the state.

Discuss the major social changes of the Renaissance era. Were these changes actually a rejection of medieval trends? Why or why not?

The Renaissance adopted its social structure from the Middle Ages. There were three estates: the clergy, nobility, and finally the peasants/ inhabitants of towns or cities. Slavery came back for a few years, but disappeared again and marriages were prearranged. Due to the age difference of men and women when they were married, men often participated in prostitution. The social changes really weren't that different from that of the medieval trends. They used the same social structure and the slavery was prominent in medieval times too.

What were the distinctive characteristics of the Renaissance artists? How does their art reflect the political and social events of the period

The Renaissance art was focused more on humans, the realistic portrayal of the natural world, and old architecture of the Romans. This reflects the humanist movement and the idea of the ability humans possessed. It shows the revisitation of the Greek and Roman ideas in the architecture.

Peter the Great (1682-1725)

The Romanov czar who initiated the westernization of Russian society by traveling to the West and incorporating techniques of manufacturing as well as manners and dress.

New Epistemologies

The SR allowed many new epistemologies (theories of knowledge) to develop. First, the belief in mechanism, which stated that scientists should question how (not why) things worked, became more widespread, especially through Galileo and Newton. The opposite philosophy to mechanism is teleology, which stated that everything is made for a purpose, and was used by Aristotle. - Mainly, however, the discoveries helped the scientific method develop. The scientific method, which was a new theory on how to obtain and verify knowledge, stressed experience, reason, and doubt and rejected all unsubstantiated authority. The scientific method revolutionized science, and made measurement of data, and mathematics, essential parts of science. From the SR onwards, science was based on pure fact - the acquisition of data and the testing of theories.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract, Emile

Galileo wrote

The Starry Messenger.

The Cult of the Supreme Being

The Temple of Reason was the most notorious example of this deist movement of Robespierre

Alexander II and the Serfs

The Tsar of Russia he aimed to overhaul the entire Russian system starting with serfdom and he abolished it allowing peasants to own land, marry participate in court the main issue was a lack of land the peasants were also expected to pay the government back for their freedom and land and the reform didn't change much

Sudetenland

The area near Czechoslovakia that was mainly German ethnicity that Germany took.

Sovereignty

The authority of a state to govern itself or another state

Yersinia pestis

The bacillus that caused the black plague

Millenarianism

The belief of some radical religious groups and figures during the Reformation era and afterwards that Christ would return to earth before the end of the world to set up a thousand-year kingdom of the holy, in which true believers would live in a kind of paradise, while sinners would be punished. Some millenarians, such as Melchior Hoffman, took it upon themselves to get the world ready for this holy kingdom.

Deism

The belief that God has created the universe and set it in motion to operate like clockwork. God is literally in the wings watching the show go on as humans forge their own destiny.

Divine Right Monarchy

The belief that a monarch's power derives from God and represents Him on earth.

Compare warfare in the Middle Ages with that of the Renaissance. Consider the differences and the continuities, as regards to causes, aims, financing, technology, as well as who fought and for what motives.

The causes for warfare were essentially the same during the Renaissance. Milan felt isolated (basically wanted more land), so they had the French come fight for them. Then the Spanish got involved, so that maybe they could get some land too. Italy became a battle ground for two power hungry nations

Code Napoleon

The codification and condensation of laws assuring legal equality and uniformity in France.

Janissary corps

The core of the Sultan's army, composed of slave conscripts from non-Muslim parts of the Empire; after 1683 it became a volunteer force

What was the cottage industry? Why did it grow so much in the 18th century?

The cottage system was rural workers using hand tools in their own homes to manufacture goods on a large scale. It increased so much because: many farmers had decreased wages due to agricultural revolution, and the population boom.

Levee en masse

The creation under the Jacobins, of a citizen army with support from young and old, heralding the emergence of modem warfare. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) - Consul and later emperor of France (1799-1815), who established several of the reforms (Code Napoleon) of the French Revolution during his dictatorial rule.

Iconoclasm

The destruction of religious artwork and images in Catholic Churches during the Reformation period. Some Protestants believed that religious artwork violated the biblical injunction against worshiping graven images, and outbreaks of iconoclasm followed the introduction of Protestantism in Germany, Switzerland, and The Netherlands. Such outbreaks were sometimes spontaneous and other times orchestrated by Protestant agitators. Protestant leaders such as Luther and Zwingli did not sanction iconoclasm.

New Model Army

The disciplined fighting force of Protestants led by Oliver Cromwell in the English civil war.

What did Adam Smith claim to be the two best discoveries in all of man kind? Why?

The discovery of America and the Cape of Good Hope. These two discoveries linked the world in trade and the sharing of ideals.

Nominalism

The doctrine of William of Occham that argued that human reason could not aspire to certain truth

Pius II's Execrabilis

The efforts at church reform failed miserably because popes refused to work with any council that would diminish their power. The final end to attempts at a legislative system in the church was Execrabilis, which condemned appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical.

List the basic beliefs of Neoplatonists.

The entire universe is arranged in a hierarchy of excellence, with god at the summit. Each being in the universe, with the exception of only god, is impelled by a "natural appetite" to seek perfection.

the Decembrist Revolt

The even where the military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against the accession of tsar Nicholas I

Were the events of 1688-1689 a victory for English democracy? Explain.

The events of 1688-1689 sparked revolutionary riots and violence across the British Isles and in North American cities such as Boston and New York. It was not a victory.

What did the Council of Trent say about the false sale of indulgences?

The false sale of indulgences was banned from the Catholic church.

Colbert(1619-1683)

The financial minister under the French king Louis XIV who promoted mercantilist policies.

Galileo

The first European to make systematic observations with a telescope. In his work "The Starry Messenger," which demolished traditional cosmology and affirmed the basics of Copernicus's heliocentric theory.

The Estates General Meet

The first big issue was the method of voting for the EG. The Third Estate, representing 95% of population, asked to be doubled in size - the king said OK. But as the old method of voting (by order) made the upper chambers outweigh the Third Estate regardless of numbers, the Third Estate felt ripped off and asked for the voting to be conducted by head. - Before the EG, the king invited the citizens to elect delegates to assemblies. All male taxpayers could vote for electors, who, in turn, chose reps for the Third Estate of the EG. Also, he asked citizens to write grievance petitions - cahiers. Most cahiers dealt with local issues, and gave no hint of the Revolution to come. Only some, from Paris, talked about natural rights and all that stuff. Still, the cahiers and local elections helped make citizens aware of politics.

Frankfurt Assembly

The first freely elected parliament in Germany. Its existence can be attributed to the 'March Revolution' Its purpose was to design a constitution for a unified German nation. Offered crown of Germany to Frederick William of Prussia; who refused. Ultimately disintegrates because it can't muster the power to lead itself. *evidence of the need for reforms in 1848, but ultimately most revolts failed as the old conservative powers were able to crush the rebellions

Cardinal Richelieu

The first minister of the French crown; his political genius is best reflected in the administrative system he established to strengthen royal control

Schmalkaldic War

The first religious war in Germany between Lutheran and Catholic princes. Fought between 1546 and 1555, the war pitted Lutheran princes Philip of Hesse and Frederick of Saxony against the catholic emperor Charles V. Catholic forces were victorious in the first phase of the war, ending in 1548, but the war resumed when France allied with the Lutheran side, and the ultimate result was indecisive. The War left Germany religiously divided.

Directory (1795-1799)

The five-man executive committee that ruled France in its own interests as a republic after Robespierre's execution and prior to Napoleon's coming to power.

Law of the Maximum

The fixing of prices on bread and other essentials under Robespierre's rule.

Mathematics

The foundation of new thinking in the scientific age and seen as the key to navigation, military science, and geography.

Hermetic Magic

The fusion of Renaissance magic and alchemy which believed the world was the living embodiment of divinity--the practice and engagement of experimentation set the framework for "experimental philosophy."

Armada

The great Spanish fleet dispatched by King Philip II to invade England and intervene in the religious wars in France and The Netherlands. It was met in the English Channel by a smaller English fleet commanded by Francis Drake and Martin Frobisher, scattered by English fireships, battered by storms, and ultimately defeated. the Armada returned to Spain with fewer than half its ships.

Septicemic

The host began to show symptoms just hours after being bit - This form was fatal 100% of the time

David Ricardo's "iron law of wages"

The idea that an increase in population means more workers; more workers in turn cause wages to fall below the subsistence levels. This leads to starvation therefore decreasing the population

Economic Liberalism

The idea that economies should be completely free, based on Adam Smith's THe Wealth of Nation

What is meant by the term "civic humanism?"

The idea that participation in public affairs is essential for human development.

How did the Renaissance cause exploration and colonization?

The ideas of the Renaissance like thinking critically and inquisitiveness caused people to want to explore the other ares of the world.

Indulgence crisis of 1517

The incident that precipitated Luther's break with the Catholic Church. The church sold documents called indulgences to believers, claiming that these documents relieved the recipient of the burden of doing certain good works. Luther objected to the pope's selling of these documents saying that such relief should be free of charge to all members of the church. When the pope learned of Luther's objections, he made claims of papal infallibility not made before, and Luther's rejection of these claims led to his excommunication in 1520.

Civic humanism

The intellectual life was to be one of solitude and family was not a top priority. Cicero was their model and he provided the central idea that it was the duty of an intellectual to live an active life for one's state. Civic humanism reflected the values of the urban society. There was a big emphasis on the works of the Greeks

Why can it be said that the palace of Versailles was used as a device to ruin the nobility of France? Was Versailles a palace of a prison?

The king required all great nobles to spend at least part of the year in attendance on him there, so he could keep an eye on their activities. Since he controlled the distribution of state power and wealth, nobles had no chance but to obey and compete with each other. The palace quickly became the center of political, social, and cultural life.

What was the open field system of farming? What were its problems?

The land was divided up into large portions that were not enclosed. The entire peasant village would work the fields. The soil became exhausted of nitrogen to easily meaning that a fallow period had to be implemented.

Thirty Years War

The last great religious war, fought in Germany between 1618 and 1648. German protestant princes were joined by Danish, Swedish, and French forces to fight the Catholic alliance of the emperor, German Catholic Princes, Spain and the papacy. The war ended in a virtual stalemate after early Catholic victories. The Peace of Westphalia concluded the war in 1648, leaving the emperor almost powerless, German princes fully sovereign, and parts of Germany in foreign hands. Germany was devastated by the war.

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)

The last of Louis XlV's wars involving the issue of succession to the Spanish throne.

Committee of Public Saftey

The leaders under Robespierre who organized the defenses of France, conducted foreign policy, and centralized authority during the period 1792-1795.

Habeas Corpus

The legal protection that prohibits the imprisonment of a subject without demonstrated cause.

Counter-Reformation

The massive effort made by the Catholic Church after 1530 to counter the Protestant Reformation and re-convert the European masses to the Catholic faith. The effort began with the papacy of Paul III (1534-1549) and continued with the founding of the Jesuit order by Ignatius Loyola in 1540 and the decrees of the Council of Trent Inquisition, which tried Protestants as heretics, and the Index of Forbidden Books, which condemned Protestant books. The Counter-Reformation re-converted large areas of Europe to the Catholic Church and sent Catholic missionaries abroad.

Lawyers and government officials

The men elected to represent the third estate in the Estates General were primarily

What were the reasons for the fall of the Spanish Empire?

The mines that filled the empires treasury started to run dry. Spain had a tiny middle class; thousands entered economically unproductive jobs. Spain ignored new scientific methods that might have improved agricultural and manufacturing techniques.

Transubstantiation

The miracle of the mass in which the bread and wine in transformed into the actual body and blood of Christ when the presiding priest speaks the words "hoc est corpus meum", or "this is my body." The Catholic Church taught that with this miracle, the sacrifice of Christ was repeated in every mass. Following Luther, most Protestants rejected transubstantiation. While Luther denied the transformation but maintained the real presence, Zwingli saw the mass as simply symbolic.

New Monarchy

The name given to European monarchies that rebuilt their power in the 15th century after the disasters of the previous century. Such New Monarchs as Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England used partnerships with the middle classes, as well as expanded bureaucracies and tax structures, to reestablish power.

Junkers

The name given to Prussian nobles residing on large rural estates in East Prussia. They cooperated with the rulers of Prussia in creating royal absolutism, and in return, they were given officerships in the military and unfettered control over peasants on their estates.

Popular Piety

The name given to certain religious practices that originated with ordinary believers during the Catholic Church's period of crisis with the Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism. feeling ignored by church leadership, the people developed practices focusing on the use of their senses and emotions and making them feel closer to God. Among the practices, validated by church authorities only much later, were the rosary and the stations of the cross.

War commissars

The name given to military officers appointed to Prussian government office by Elector Frederick William (r. 1640-1688). These loyal officials helped the elector to mold Prussian absolutism.

Holy Roman Empire

The name given to the German monarchy since the days of Charlemagne (800). Originally Charlemagne envisioned it as a revival of the Western Roman Empire, but over the course of the Middle Ages, the power of the emperor weakened as the power of local nobles increased. There was a brief revival of imperial power under Charles V (r. 1519-1556), but after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), the emperor's power became largely a fiction and the empire, a collection of small sovereign states ruled by local nobles.

Signoria

The name given to the city council of Florence during the Italian Renaissance.It was an executive and administrative body and consisted of many different types of officials responsible for police activities, taxation, the regulation of commerce, and other tasks. Its official were elected for short terms (six months to two years) by a complex indirect electoral process called the Scrutiny.

Open-field System

The name given to the organization of European agricultural fields before the 18th century. Fields were divided into multiple strips, each farmed by a different peasant family. because of the close proximity of the strips, the framers had to agree to common farming techniques, times and crops. This communal method of farming prevented innovation, because most farmers were unwilling to take risks.

Mein Kampf

The name of Hitler's book that he wrote while in prison in 1923-4 about his plans to exterminate the Jews

German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

The non-aggression pact was an agreement between Hitler and Stalin not to attack each other. This allowed for German victories in the west without worries of the east.

What were the old systems of stopping nitrogen depletion? How do they compare with the new ones?

The old version was a two or three year period which included one fallow year. The improvement was to plant nitrogen repleting plants like clover.

Guild System

The organization of artisanal production into trade based associations, each of which received a monopoly over it's trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers

Peace of Utretch (1713)

The pact concluding the War of the Spanish Succession, forbidding the union of France with Spain, and conferring control of Gibraltar on England.

Ausburg Interim

The peace agreement that followed the defeat of Protestant forces at the Battle of Muhlberg, which ended the first phase of the Schmalkaldic War in Germany. Because the Interim outlawed Lutheranism, the Protestants resumed war in 1550, this time with France on their side. By 1555, the war had ground to a stalemate and the two sides agreed to the Religious Peace of Ausburg.

The Third Estate

The peasants, commoners and bourgeoisie in France belonged to this Estate.

Great Schism (1378-1415)

The period following the end of the Babylonian Captivity, when the disputed papal elections resulted in at first two and later three popes competing for control over the church. One pope was based in Rome, another in Avignon in France, and a third (after 1409) in Pisa. All Europe was divided by this crisis as each country, city, university, and even individual had to decide which pope to follow. The Schism was finally healed by the Council of Constance (1414-1418), which established Martin V as sole pope.

Age of Discovery

The period from 1492 to the mid- 16th century, in which European sailors traveled the world's seas and pioneered new trade routes and navigational techniques while exploring the Americas, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. The Age of Discovery can be said to begin with Portuguese voyages around the tip of Africa to India, and it continued with Columbus and the European settlement of the New World. The era was drawing to a close with Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe in 1520-1522. The age saw the Spanish amass a huge worldwide empire, while the English, French, Dutch, and Portuguese acquired substantial overseas possessions and interests.

Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378)

The period in which the Catholic Church moved its headquarters out of Rome to the city of Avignon in southern France. During this time, that papacy fell under the influence of the French crown and the church lost much prestige. Without the revenues of the Papal States to finance the church, the pope had to raise church taxes on ordinary believers, which prompted a wave of popular anti-clericalism. Finally, the papacy returned to Rome to stem the tide of bad feelings toward the church.

Interregnum

The period of Cromwellian rule (1649-1659), between the Stuart dynastic rules of Charles I and Charles II.

The Reign of Terror

The period of time in which he guillotine was used to execute many anti revolutionaries in France

Renaissance popes

The popes of the Renaissance were focused more on secular matters than spiritual ones. They tried to create their own dynasties by making family members cardinals (nepotism). They were, though, patrons of the arts and they made Rome a cultural center of Renaissance art

Discuss the major characteristics of the Renaissance papacy. What impact did the policies of the Renaissance popes have on the Catholic church?

The popes of the renaissance were more focused on secular matters than on spiritual ones. They tried to create a general council because of the rising want for reform, bu it failed. The popes refused to listen to anyone who might diminish their power, so the council was essentially pointless. The official end to the general council came with Pope Pius II's Execrabilis. The ren popes also tried to create their own dynasties by making members of their families cardinals while they were pope. After the Renaissance, the church would never come to have absolute power over governments and Europe again.

Oliver Cromwell (1559-1658)

The principal leader and a gentry member of the Puritans in Parliament.

Why was Florence at the heart of the Italian Renaissance?

The program Petrarch laid out soon caught fire in Florence, the city from which his family had come and in which he found influential friends and disciples

Dutch Revolt

The prolonged war of independence fought by the Dutch against their Spanish rulers between 1570 and 1648. Provoked by Spanish taxation and persecution of Dutch Protestants, the revolt was led by William of Orange. Spanish King Philip II sent the ruthless Duke of Alva to crush the revolt, but his military tactics were unsuccessful. A truce was declared in 1609, giving the Dutch de facto independence, which was formally recognized in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

What previously held Europe's population back?

The ravages of the Black Death killed off 1/3 of Europe's population at one point. Also, after the Black Death had finally left, agriculture was still not advanced enough to sustain large ammounts of population growth. This would result in inconsistent famines. Lastly, wars acting similarly to sickness, could substantially slow down or even negatively affect growth.

Second Serfdom

The re-imposition of serfdom by landlords on peasants in the wake of labor shortages created by the bubonic plague. This took place in Germany and parts of Eastern Europe. Serfdom had vanished in most of Europe in the 14th century as a result of the greater social and political power the peasantry possessed during the labor shortage. Only in Germany was serfdom reinstituted in the 15th century, and it would continue on into the Reformation period, giving more power to landlords and creating tension between nobles and peasants that led to the Peasant Revolt of 1525. In the 17th century, the greater power of noble landlords resulting from the second serfdom affected the evolution the evolution of royal absolutism in Germany.

Was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and error o the part of Louis XIV?

The result of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes was the departure of some of the king's most loyal and industrial skilled subjects.

Restoration

The return of the Stuart monarchy (1660) after the period of republican government under Cromwell-in fact, a military dictatorship.

Humanism

The revolutionary educational plan introduced during the Italian Renaissance. It featured a return to the study of ancient classics and a revival of interest in the liberal arts. The goal of Humanism was to produce well-rounded individuals and good citizens. There was also an an emphasis on practical mortality. Among the founders of Humanism were Francesco Petrarch, a Florentine living in exile in Avignon, and Caluccio Salutati, a chancellor of Florence.

Salvation by faith alone

The revolutionary theological concept of martin Luther that former the theological foundation of the Protestant Reformation. From his reading of St. Augustine and Paul's Epistle to the Romans, Luther concluded that good works were irrelevant to the individual salvation. The Catholic Church maintained that both faith and works were needed for salvation.

Sultan

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire; he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy composed of highly trained slaves

Liberal Arts

The seven subjects taught to free Roman citizens in antiquity. The liberal arts were revived by Renaissance Humanists as an appropriate education for well-rounded individuals. The liberal arts consisted of grammar, rhetoric and logic (the "Trivium), as well as mathematics, astronomy, geometry, and music (the "Quadrivium). To these subjects, the Humanists added history, poetry, and literature.

Industrious Revolution

The shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods.

What were some general impacts of exploration and colonization?

The spread of European culture all over the world Racism Revival of slavery The spread of Christianity

Philology

The study of the changes in style and form the Latin language underwent over time. Renaissance Humanists used this science to revive Classical Latin style, to date manuscripts and books, to identify stylistic periods in the language, and even to prove the Donation of Constantine a forgery. Perhaps the greatest Humanist philologist was Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457).

French classicism

The style in 17th century art and literature resembling the arts in the ancient world and in the Renaissance

French Classicism

The style in seventeenth-century art and literature resembling the arts in the ancient world and in the Renaissance-e.g., the works of Prussian, Moliere, and Racine. Fronde-The last aristocratic revolt against a French monarch.

Constitutionalism

The theory that power should be shared between rulers and their subjects and the state governed according to laws.

In what ways did the European world experience an economic recovery in the fifteenth century? Did the revived economy differ greatly from what it had been?

The trade routes expanded with the Hanseatic league (and at their decline, the Italians). The wool industry picked up and new industries came into the spotlight. The mining business did very well, and the banking business flourished. The main difference with the revived economy was the lack of serfs and the collapse of the fuedal system.

Agricultural Revolution

The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled (600)

What were the causes of the War of the Spanish Succession?

The will of Charles II violated a prior treaty by which the European powers had agreed to divide the Spanish possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman Empire. Louis broke with the treaty and accepted the will.

1914-1918

The years of WWI

What were the characteristics of the Italian Renaissance? How did it differ from the Renaissance of the Twelfth Century?

There was a decline in feudalism and peasants were better payed because the economy picked up. People began to revisit the ideas of the Greco-Romans and their culture of classical antiquity. There was a new emphasis on the ability of the individual and secularism. The economy got better as a result of the trade, banking, wool, and new industries flourishing. The Renaissance of the 12th century was centered around the economy and polotics while the Italian Renaissance was centered around culture and art.

Renaissance hermeticism

There were two parts to this also. The first being about the sciences and the second being about the theological/philosophical beliefs. Basically said that humans were divine and that they could regain this divination.

Liberal Studies

These were humanist education that focused on the liberal arts, because they could help an individual reach their potential. It taught students to live a life of virtue and wisdom, and then they also had skills to persuade others to do the same. They also had P.E.

Luddites

These were the angry old cottage industry workers who lost their jobs and costumers to machines and as a result, they began to secretly destroy the machines

Combination Acts

These were the laws passed by the Parliament that prohibited the English people from forming a union

House of Medici

They brought banking prestige back to Florence, and during their greatest expanse they had banks in Venice, Milan, Rome (the papacy), Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. They controlled interestes in industries or wool, silk, and the mining of alum. They declined in the end of the century because of poor leadership and some bad loans.

In the 17th century, how were the British able to make trade more efficient so that they could dominate?

They changed the system of trade by using the shore method, inviting African leaders to trade out on the shore, rather than having fortified ports. This made trade quicker.

Did the lives of the peasants change for good of bad during the agricultural revolution? Why?

They changed, badly.Many English common farmers lost land rights, which forced them to become landless wage workers, an even poorer and more unstable position. This is known as proletarianization.

What did the German princes do to the revolting peasants?

They crushed the revolt killing 100,000 people.

What did Martin Luther and his followers decide to do when he returned to Wittenberg, Germany?

They decided to make a separate religious group called Lutherans.

What did German peasants excited about reform do?

They demanded an end to serfdom and revolted against the princes.

How did the English Parliament support the enclosure system?

They passed as series of acts from the 1760s to 1815 that enclosed remaining common land.

Describe the French profits from the colonies.

They profited greatly off of their colonies saint-Dominique, Martinique, and Guadeloupe who provided coffee and sugar.

How did the Church initially react to Luther's 95 Theses?

They took them down, and issued a bull excommunicating Luther.

Why did many German political authorities support Luther's cause?

They wanted more power that the church currently held, and Luther was stripping the power from the church

What did Martin Luther believe about the Pope and church traditions?

They were false authorities

What role did the Medici family play in the Italian Renaissance?

They were huge patrons of the arts

What was a Creole? What culture did they identify with?

They were people of Spanish heritage, but born in the colonies. They strongly identified with European culture, but increasingly began to resent taxes imposed by Europe.

Describe Spain's profits from the New World.

They were revitalized by an increase in silver. Additionally, their colonies in California expanded in addition to their purchase of Louisiana.

Jacobins

This "left" faction, named after a political club, first came to prominence during the Legislative Assembly and it dominated the National Convention

The Declaration of the Rights of Man

This 1789 document became the blueprint for the French Constitution of 1791 and was largely based on classical liberalism.

The Great Fear

This 1789 wave of violence in the countryside directly led to the end of feudalism in France.

Mary Wollstonecraft

This British woman wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

Olympe de Gouges

This French feminist wrote the Rights of Woman demanding more political and economic rights for women.

The Battle of Crecy

This battle was fought in 1346 where the English King Edward III and his son Edward the Black Prince fought the French and Philip VI. The English defeated the French with their longbows.

Pico della Mirandola's Oration

This book used bits and pieces from other philosophers and said that humans had unlimited potential. Again this agrees with the belief that humans are divine, but choose to be in the material world.

Bruni's The New Cicero

This book was an autobiography of Cicero about the mix of political action and literary creation. It started the idea that intellectuals live active life for state.

The Directory

This bourgeois government ruled France between 1795 and 1799.

The Hapsburgs

This dynasty controlled the Holy Roman Empire. Their marriages are what advanced them. Max was married to Mary, who had some French/Burgundy land. Their son then married the daughter of Ferd and Isa, which gave them control of Spain. Their son eventually became the heir to all 3 regions (Burgundy, Roman, and Spanish) making him the leading monarch.

American Revolution

This earlier foreign Revolution contributed to France's enormous debt and also inspired liberals to demand more political liberty. Funded by Louis XVI

1527 sack of Rome

This ended the war between France and Spain that was occuring in Italy. The Spanish King Charles I brought down Rome and with it gained control over Italy.

Necker

This finance minister who was repeatedly dismissed by King Louis XVI

National Assembly

This governing body wanted a constitutional monarchy in France

High Renaissance

This is the name for the last stage of the Renaissance that was marked by the increasing importance of Rome as a new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance. It was dominated by Da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. It was characterized by the idealization of nature (making it look better than it really is).

Legislative Assembly

This legislative body ruled France during the First French Republic

spinning jenny

This machine played an important role in the mechanization of textile production. Like the spinning wheel, it may be operated by a treadle or by hand. But, unlike the spinning wheel, it can spin more than one yarn at a time. The idea for multiple-yarn spinning was conceived about 1764 by James Hargreaves, an English weaver. In 1770, he patented a machine that could spin 16 yarns at a time. (643, 727)

The Tennis Court Oath

This meeting of members of the Third Estate to agree to write a constitution

Montesquieu

This philosophe advocated a constitutional monarchy, similar to that of Britain, based on separation of powers

Sans Culottes

This rowdy faction consisted of the Parisian working class and small merchants who were responsible for much of the Revolution's violence.

San-culottes

This social class supported Robespierre and the Jacobins

Bastille

This structure represented the Old Regime to the citizens of Paris

Storming of the Bastille

This violent event in Paris on July 14, 1789, inadvertently saved the National Assembly. Paris was now lost to the king!

Hanseatic League

This was a band of more then 81 cities who established settlements and commercial bases in many chief cities in England/Northern Europe. In the 15th century, silting at the port of Bruges caused them to faulter and Italy regained the preeminent role in trade.

Machiavelli's The Prince:

This was a blunt and truthful analysis of the political figures in Europe. He told people, flat out, that a ruler will not be just and fair when they first come into power, and they shouldn't be expected to be. The Prince should act on behalf of the state and do whatever it takes to improve his country.

Madrigals

This was a piece of music that was essentially a poem set to music. The theme was emotional or erotic love. The music tried to portray the literal meaning of the words (a melody would rise for the word heaven)

Atlantic Slave Trade

This was another example of foregin trade, which emerged more and more in the 1700's. It was also the most extensive and significant portion of the African Slave Trade. This shipped blacks to the Americas and other parts of Europe. They treated their slaves very poorly and had almost 6.15 million slaves shipped through every year.

War of Austrian Succession

This was caused by Prussia's invasion of the Austrian province of Silesia. The Pragmatic Sanction was shattered and the balance of power as set forth by the Treaty of Utrecht was disrupted. The events resulted in this war, which started in 1740.

Botticelli's Primavera

This was painting that didn't really fit in with the rest of the Renaissance. It depicted gods and godesses in the garden of Venus. It had otherworldly qualities that were in contrast with other works of the Renaissance (realistic portrayals of humans).

Spain

This was the first country to rebel against Napoleon's rule. It resulted in a bloody guerrilla war. 300,000 French troops were killed in the conflict.

The National Assembly

This was the first national government of the French Revolution: 1789-1791.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

This was the meeting between the Quadruple Alliance in order to formulate a peace agreement and to balance the victories of the Napoleonic wars. Following the Congress of VIenna conservative policies dominated the political landscape as 'old' leaders re-established and repressed any changes. From 1815-1848 this "Congress System" dominated. *evidence of the fall of Napoleon, re-estasblishment of conservatism and the denial of nationalism

cottage industry

This was the way form of work of the rural classes in which the costumer would give the worker materials and the worker would create the desirable product

Sturm und Drang

This was what the early German Romantics called themselves

Girondins

Though slightly radical, this faction was more rural and moderate than its main competitor on the "left," and it led France into war in 1792

Anglo-Dutch Wars

Three indecisive wars between the British and the Dutch, 1652-1674, England annexed the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam to become New York

How did Martin Luther believe people may earn salvation?

Through faith alone

How did the Catholic Church believe people may earn salvation?

Through faith and good works

What was the goal of a "liberal arts" education?

To aid physical, moral and social development, a new way to measure social distinction

What were Cavour's goals in Italy concerning Austria?

To end Austrian power in Italy and annex (take over) the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

What was Bismarks goal concerning the Catholics?

To put loyalty to the state above loyalty to the church

What changed in population growth in the 18th century? Why?

To start, the Black Death left Europe. Stricter quarantine measures in ports combined with better hygiene in water supplies were are positive factors. Additionally, emergency supplies of food were stored and transportation became quicker. Noticeably, all of the largest changes were due to a decrease in mortality, not any new medical discoveries.

How was Africa negatively affected by the slave trade?

To start, their population stagnated, and African rulers fought over the right to sell slaves to Europe.

El Alamein

Town in Egypt, site of the victory by Britain's Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery over German forces led by General Erwin Rommel (the 'Desert Fox') in 1942-1943. (p. 793)

Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Treaty ending the Schmalkaldic War between Lutheran and Catholic princes of Germany. The treaty's main principle, expressed by the Latin phrase, "cuius region eius religio", stated that each German prince could choose the religion for the people of his state. There was no provision promoting religious toleration, and Calvinism was not recognized in the treaty. The treaty left germany religiously divided.

Pacification of Gent

Treaty signed in 1577 that brought the southern provinces of The Netherlands into the rebellion against Spain alongside the northern provinces. The treaty was precipitated by the Spanish Fury of 1576, in which Spanish troops rioted and plundered the southern city of Antwerp because they had not been paid. After the treaty, Spanish power was, for the time, confined to the area of Luxembourg.

Charles VI of Austria

Tried to arrange it so his daughter could be on the throne, and passed the Pragmatic Sanction so Maria Theresa could be on the throne

Tsar Alexander I

Tsar of Russia from 1801 to 1825, Aleksander would successfully defeat Napoleon in the later parts of the Napoleonic Wars and managed to secure many lands in Eastern Europe for Russia at the Congress of Vienna, at which he was Russia's representative. *evidence of the conservatism of the Congress of Vienna

"Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland"

USSR's name for WWII. Powerful unifying force for the Soviet people who might as well defeated Germany without western help

Anschluss, 1938

Unification of Germany and Austria

How did the completion of the Reconquista cause Spain to become a nation-state?

Unified religion

Johannes Keppler

Used the observations of Brahe to arrive at three laws of planetary motion: elliptical orbits, speed of orbits, speed planetary revolution. (1571-1630).

Tehran Conference, 1943

WWII conference between Stalin, FDR, and Churchill; its purpose was to develop a strategy for war against the Axis (open a second front)

Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

War fought between England and France over English King Edward III's claim to inherit the French crown. This long war featured several truces and temporary lulls in fighting. The major battles were Crecy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415), all English victories, but in the end, the war saw English armies driven from France by Joan of Arc. The war featured the first use of the English longbow and gunpowder and the decline of the mounted knight as a military weapon.

Dutch War

War fought by France under Louis XIV against the Dutch Republic between 1672 and 1678. The war was prompted by the role of the Dutch in building the coalition that had defeated France in the earlier War of Devolution (1667-1668). Louis bribed Dutch allies into neutrality as French armies poured into the republic, occupying much of the country and bringing down the government of Grand Pensionary Jan de Witt. The French advance was halted and the situation ultimately salvaged when the Dutch opened the dikes and flooded the countryside.

War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713)

War fought by King Louis XIV of France against coalition of European states for the right to install his grandson as king of Spain. the war concluded with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was Louis' last war. While his grandson was allowed to become king of France, the treaty stipulated that France and Spain could never be united into one kingdom under the Bourbons.

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

War fought by Queen Maria Theresa of Austria for the right to occupy the throne as outlined in the Pragmatic Sanction. She faced a coalition led by King Frederick the Great of Prussia, whose invasion of Austrian-controlled Silesia started a war. At the war's conclusion, Maria Theresa remained on the throne, but Prussia kept Silesia.

Adam Smith

Wealth of Nations

Gentry

Wealthy upper-middle class industrialists who became the ruling class of England after civil war of 1640-1649. Before the civil war, this class was already displacing the nobility in England's social and political structure because of their wealth and their control of the House of Commons. During the war, the gentry made up the backbone of parliamentary opposition to King Charles I. Religiously, many members of the gentry favored Puritan positions and expressed religious opposition to the Church of England in Parliament and, ultimately, in the civil war.

Why did Francis Joseph agree to some limitted reforms?

When Austria was defeated by France and Sardina Francis Jospeh knew he had to strenghthen the empire

When did French domination of Europe end?

When German states defeated Napoleon in the Franco-Prussian War

Luther and Erasmus both attacked what they saw as abuses and pretensions of the church and the clergy. Compare their criticisms and their approaches to church reform

While Erasmus took a more relaxed approach, writing about the injustice in the church and using the Bible to better understand and enhance his arguments, Luther was more active and took to posting theses and standing up to the pope himself.

How did their beliefs differ from civic humanists?

While civic humanists focus more on outside (public) achievement, Neoplatonists believe that personal perfection and the highest human value is the contemplation of the beautiful.

How were humanists responsible for secularizing and professionalizing the writing of history?

While medieval chroniclers had looked to the past for evidence of god's providence, the humanists used the past to illustrate human behavior and provide moral examples. They also helped standardize spelling and grammar in vernacular languages; and the Classical ideals of simplicity, restraint, and elegance of style that they promoted helped reshape Western literature.

What do Calvinists believe God has known since the beginning of time?

Who will be saved (predestination). People cannot earn salvation.

Marie Antoinette

Wife for Louis XVI, from Austria, hated by the people of France.

who was the first Kaiser of the new German Reich

William of Prussia

How did the end of the Wars of the Roses cause England to become a nation-state?

With the end, the Tudor dynasty and Henry VII takes over. Henry VII was key in moulding England into a nation-state.

Describe the desparity between male and female earnings in the textile business.

Women were payed way less. A widow spinster would make a 1/3 of what a man would make.

Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

Written in 1776, this was the most important work of the Enlightenment. Written by Adam Smith, this book believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. As a result, it advocated that mercantilism and domestic regulation of labor/economics be abolished. Since the Earth's resources are sparce, one nation can only benefit at the expense of another.

Badlassare Catiglione

Wrote the book "The Courtier" was one of the most important books on social etiquette, specified qualities to be a true gentlemen

John Wycliffe and John Hus

Wyclif said there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and medieval Christain beliefs and practices. He wanted the Bible to be in vernacular so everyone could read it. His followers were called Hussites. John Hus brought the ideas to Bohemia through marriages. He also stressed that the Popes should be stripped of power. They called him to council, telling him he had the immunity to speak freely, but them condemned him and burned him at the stake. His followers were Hussites and they waged war against HRE till 1436 when there was a truce.

Louis Pasteur

a French Scientist he created the germ theory of disease which was that heat could kill bacteria and it had many practical applications in health care and saved many from sickness

Hegel's dialectic

a French socialist that inspired Marx's work he wrote a diabetic that states everything evolves and all historical change and development is the result of conflict between antagonists, Marx disagreed with this and said that history is determined by material forces

Joseph de Maistre and conservatism

a Frenchman who espoused the restoration of hereditary monarchy and who believed that only absolute monarchy could guarantee "order in society"

Franz Liszt

a Hungarian composer he is a perfect example of the New German School of music, a child prodigy his compositions were mostly piano pieces, he invented the symphonic poem

Goethe's The Sorrows of the Young Werther

a Romanticism novel by a German writer who later rejected Romanticism in favor of Classicism

Dmitri Mendeleyev

a Russian Chemist he classified all elements and made the foundation for periodic law and created the periodic table

Sir Walter Scott

a Scottish writer whose historical novels became European best sellers

Chateaubriand's Genius of Christianity

a book that was deemed the "Bible of Romanticism" due to the revival of Catholicism that came with the increase in Romanticism

Johann Kepler (1571 - 1630)

a brilliant mathematician who developed the first theories of motion. With the aid of Brahe's star data (which he acquired since he was Brahe's assistant), Kepler came of with the theory that the planets moved in ellipses, and that they did not move at a steady rate. Instead, as they came closer to the sun, they accelerated, and they slowed down as they moved away. So, Kepler's First Law of Motion stated that the planets moved in elliptical orbits, and his Second Law stated that the planets sweep though an equal area of space in an equal amount of time.

Richard Wagner and Gesamtkunstwerk

a composer, writer and propagandist his work was the culmination of the Romantic era and his opera created a musical drama there was music, acting, dancing, poetry and scenic design he used leitmotiv in his work in which the singers voice harmonized with the line of orchestra his works were inspired by myths and epic tales

commenda

a contract between a merchant and "merchant-adventurer" who agreed to take goods to distant locations and return with the proceeds for 1/3 of the profits

Balance of Power

a distribution of power between several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another; established between the four nations of the Congress of Vienna

pantheism

a doctrine that equates God with the universe and all that is in it

neo-Gothic architecture

a form of architecture with features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood moulding, and label stops

Gothic literature

a form of literature used by Romantics to emphasize the bizarre and unusual, especially evident in horror stories

Ptolemy

a great astronomer from ancient times, he stated that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and all the planets moved around in crystalline spheres. Since this alone was not able to mathematically explain retrograde motion Ptolemy added in epicycles (circles within circles), which, through some very complicated calculations, could approximate planetary motion.

Flagellants

a group of people who believed the plague was a punishment from God and whipped themselves as a form of atonement

the People's Will

a group of radicals who assassinated Alexander II in 1881

Credit Mobilier

a joint-stock company organized in 1863 and reorganized in 1867 to build the Union Pacific Railroad. It was involved in a scandal in 1872 in which high government officials were accused of accepting bribes.

Statute of Laborers

a law created by the English parliament under King Edward III in 1351 in response to a labor shortage, designed to suppress the labor force by prohibiting increases in wages and prohibiting the movement of workers from their home areas in search of improved conditions. It was poorly enforced and did not stop the rise in wages.

Holy Alliance

a league of European nations formed by the leaders of Russia, Austria, and Prussia after the congress of Vienna, Alliance among Russia, Prussia, and Austria in defense of the established order; formed by the most conservative monarchies of Europe during the Congress of Vienna *evidence of the long lasting conservatism of the Congress system that permeated Europe until 1848

Power Loom

a loom operated mechanically, run by water putting the loom side by side wit hthe spinning machines in factories, changed workers job from running it to watching it, Invented in 1787, invented by Edward Cartwright , it speeded up the production of textiles

Romanticism

a movement in literature and art during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that celebrated nature rather than civilization, An artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th Century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. *evidence of the new emerging artistic and cultural movements of the era... especially those concerning the growing reaction against the harsh nature of the new industrial society

what was the main reform Francis Joseph agreed to?

a new constitution with a legislature

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein

a novel with the story of a mad scientist who brought a human-like monster into life

Florence Nightingale

a nurse during the Crimean War her work saved many lives of British soldiers, her work introduced nursing as a possible career for middle class women and introduced new techniques in sanitation

Socialism

a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

Ideology

a political philosophy such as conservatism or liberalism

John Locke was responsible for writing what political work?

a political work called Two Treatises of Government

Monroe Doctrine

a principle of US policy, originated by President James Monroe, that any intervention by external powers in the politics of the Americas is a potentially hostile act against the US.

Charles Darwin

a prominent Scientist of his time he studied and surveyed the flora and fauna of South Pacific and America, he created the principle of natural selection, and wrote On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man

Thomas Hobbes

a radical Nominalist who stated that there are no abstract ideas. Therefore, he was also an atheist (since God is an abstract idea - he must not exist). He also did not believe in abstract good or evil. Instead, in his Pleasure-Pain Philosophy he stated that, since abstract good and evil do not exist, the only good things are ones that bring one pleasure and the only bad things are the ones that bring one pain. Mainly, however, Hobbes used empiricism to develop a political system. Because, according to him, in the state of nature (w/out any authority) there would be a constant war of all-against-all b/c of competition, diffidence (fear), and vain glory (desire to show off). Nobody could ever win the war, for, although a law of nature exists which states that if you want respect then respect others, people, the terrible beings that they are, will break the agreement to get what they want unless there is an outside authority enforcing the law. So, the only solution, Hobbes writes in his masterpiece, The Leviathan (1651) is an Absolute Monarchy. Hobbes' absolute monarchy is not based on divine right, but, instead, it is based on a social contract (an agreement between the people and their ruler) in which the people agree that, since anything is better than the war of all-against-all, they will give up their natural rights to the government in exchange for protection. So, the government is all-powerful, but, in theory, they will never need to actually use their power, it is only a threat.

John McAdam

a scottish engineer that equipped road beds with a layer of large stones for drainage and on top placed a layer of smoother rocks, prevented heavy wagons from sinking into the mud; first hard roads

Navigation Acts

a series of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England (after 1707 Great Britain) and its colonies, a process which had started in 1651. Their goal was to force colonial development into lines favourable to England, and stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France and other European countries.

Latin America revolts

a series of revolutionary wars in which countries of Latin America fought to be independent from European colonial rule

Olaudah Equiano

a slave who was brought over from Africa who payed himself out of slavery and got an education and wrote a book

Proletariat

a social class comprising those who do manual labor or work for wages, Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production *evidence of the growing gap between social classes. Also, serves as the fundamental argument of Marxist Socialsim

August Comte and "Positive Knowledge"

a sociologist in his work System of Positive Philosophy he created a system of knowledge the foundation was mathematics, built upon by physical science, earth science and biological science and the top of the pyramid was sociology which included psychology, economics, anthropology and history

Concert of Europe

a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power

Zemstvos

a system of local assemblies created by Alexander II and the representatives were elected by the people most were nobles and they controlled public services and could levy taxes

Ministerial Responsibility

a tenet that held that ministers of the monarch should be responsible to the legislative assembly rather than to the monarch

Survival of the Fittest

a theory by Charles Darwin from his work On The Origin of Species it states that organisms that are best attributed for their environment survived and pass down these genes to their offspring, the ones whose genes were not attributed to their environment died and became extinct

German Confederation

a weak alliance of German states led by Austria

Bubble Act

act of parliament forbidding joint stock companies

Rationalism

advocated by Rene Descartes (who wrote the Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences) who stated that senses can lie and that the only way to find truth was to start from one fact, which was "I am doubting" and proceed to deduce all other statements - "I think, therefore I am." Descartes also stated that there was an essential divide between the world of thought and reality (tangible objects). In other words, he took Bacon's statement that religion (faith) and science (fact) should be separate and turned it into a far-reaching divide between the reality of the world and our perception of it.

Second German Empire

after the war the Southern German states joined the North German Confederation and at the Palace of Versailles Bismarck was declared emperor of the Second German Empire

What did Bismarck do to try to stop the Socialists?

after they tried to assasinate the Kaiser Bismarck did the following: 1. pass laws that disolved socialist groups 2. shut down socialist newsppapers 3. banned their meetings

Cosimo de' Medici

allied with other powerful families of Florence and became unofficial ruler of the republic

Michael Faraday

an English Scientist he discovered electromagnetic induction, created a generator and set the stage for the use of electricity in coming decades

Battle of Britain: RAF vs. Luftwaffe

an aerial battle fought in World War II in 1940 between the German Luftwaffe (air force), which carried out extensive bombing in Britain, and the British Royal Air Force, which offered successful resistance.

Germanic Confederation

an association of 39 German states in Central Europe, created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries

liberalism

an ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible; was incorporated into political and economical aspects of government

Jethro Tull

an important English innovator. brought many new ideas to the agricultural revolution

London Mechanics' Institute

an institution formed to provide adult education to the working/lower classes

Corvees

an obligation of peasants to landowners

Baroque art

attempted to blend the feelings of the religious reformations with classical Renaissance art.

market economy

based on private wants and needs, consumers and producers decide what to produce and how much it will cost, follows the laws of supply and demand

Girolamo Savonarola

became the unofficial leader of Florence, pledged to rid Florence of its decadence and corruption

Why did Bismark distrust the Catholics?

becasue he thought they were loyal to the Pope, not Germany

Why did Franco-Prussian War occur?

because Bismarck released a telegram that made it sound like King Willaim and insulted the French ambassador. Napoleaon got angry and declared war on Prussia

Why didn't Bismarck try to compete with Britain military?

because Britain had strong navy (water). Germany did not. He said: "water rats do not fight with land rats"

why didn't the reforms Francis Joseph make satisfy the various groups that were part of the empire?

because the new legislature was dominated by German speaking Austrians--even though they made up less than 25% of the population. Hungary especially was not satisfied.

Why did they call it "the Balkan Powderkeg"?

because there was a lot of political and military activity and unrest in the Balkans. There were a series of wars and crisises and revolts

The Dutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn was noted for

being the one great Protestant painter of the seventeenth century

On the Subjection of Women

book by Mill which argued for equality for women an idea considered revolutionary at the time

In Praise of Folly

book written by Erasmus who was a devout catholic looking for reformation in the church, criticized the church leaders and clergy inspired marting luther and others to push for reforms

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

brought to a climax all the previous works in his masterpiece, The Principia, which described three laws of motion (in the absence of force, motion continues in a straight line; the rate of change of the motion is determined by the forces acting on it; action and reaction between two bodies are equal and opposite) and a law of universal gravitation (which applied the concept of gravity to both the earth and the heavens). Newton also supported observation and experimentation, and helped further develop the scientific method.

August Thyssen

built German steel factory

republic of Florence

center of the renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries

Thomas Moore

civic humanist, wrote utopia

Benedict de Spinoza

claimed that God was not just the creator of the universe; God was the universe

Boccaccio

compiled an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology, known for his famous work of Decameron

Charles Dickens

considered the greatest Realist novelist his novels focused on lower and middle classes in Britain's Industrial Age, his vivid descriptions of urban life entranced his readers

Lower House

consisted of elected representastives--but only a small number of men had the right to vote.

Peace of Lodi

created a 40-year period of relative peace in northern Italy

North German Confederation

created by the Austro-Prussian war it consisted of German states now controlled by Prussia each state kept its own local government but army and foreign policy was controlled by Prussian government

Bank of England

created in 1694 to ensure a stable money supply and to lay the foundation for a network of lending institutions

Fur Collar crime

crime committed by nobility. It's similar to what we call white-collar crime now. One common type of Fur collar crime was to capture higher nobles and ransom them back to their kingdoms. It occurred because nobles wanted to increase their own power and wealth through the ransom money

Night of August 4, 1789

date of declaration by liberal noblemen of the National Assembly at a secret meeting to abolish the feudal regime in France.

traditional economy

decisions based on customs of life, mainly involved use of the barter system, generally agrarian based

signori

deposits that controlled much of Italy by 1300

Joseph Lister

developed the antiseptic principle, after reading Pasteur's work he realized bacteria could enter through open wounds and cause infection he used carbolic acid to clean wounds and it eliminated infections during surgery

Michel de Montaigne

developed the essay form

Medici Family

dominated Florence during the Renaissance time period

Skepticism

doubt that true knowledge culd be obtained

What problem would have to be overcome for German unification to ocuur?

each German states government would have to be dismantled

capitalism

economic and political and social system where trade was regulated by private ownership of business, based on making money

Napoleon III

elected as France's first president in 1848 he used liberal and nationalistic forces to strengthen France's power, at first he was dismissed as only being elected due to his namesake but he bided his time and when the National Assembly wouldn't allow him to run for reelection and revise the constitution he seized control, reinstated universal male suffrage, and ran to be reelected for ten years, he won named himself Emperor Napoleon III reinstating the Empire, he was authoritarian ruler and controlled the army, police, civil service and declare war the Legislative Corps could only effect the budget He worked on encouraging industrial growth and public works, improved medical care and housing and liberalized the government but was weak in foreign policy

Count Otto von Bismarck

elected as Prime Minster during King William I's reign he thought the king was overly conservative and began too take control of German politics he guided German unification and was a moderate he reorganized the government ignored parliament and started three wars he used both nationalism and authoritarianism and liberalism in his rule

poorhouses

emerged to provide work to those who were unemployed, conditions were often oppressive

individualism

emphasis on interest in the unique traits of each person

Christian humanism

emphasized early church wrtings that provided answers on how to improve society , led to critism of the church and then a reform

France's Second Republic

established after Louis-Philippe fled France and Louis-Napoleon (later known as Napoleon III), nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was overwhelmingly elected president, and France enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity

School of Athens

example of humanism

Fallow fields

fields weren't being plowed to regenerate nutrients, bad soil, crops suck

Leonardo Bruni

first to use the term "humanism" was one of the most important civic humanists, was the chancellor in Florence also wrote a history of florence

Zollverein

formed by Prussia it was a German customs union that eliminated tolls on member states it stimulated trade and the economy all German states but Austria had joined it and it led to states looking towards Prussia for guidance in unification of Germany

Italian Communes

free cities that began with republican governments, dominated political life of central and Northern Italy (no monarchy), strife lead to temporary dictators who can become permanent by emperor replaced regional states

Maria Sibylla Merian

gained fame as an important entomologist (study of bugs)

command economy

government controls all aspects of economic life, they control the number of goods made, they own all the industries, the price is set by the government, and the producers must live up to the government regulations

Titan

greatest painter of venetian school, use of vivid color and movement

Queen Victoria

had the longest reign in British history, had a strong sense of duty and moral respectability, her era was the peak of the British empire

Why did Prussian King Fredrick William reject the offer to be king of unified Germany?

he did not want a throne offered "by the people"

Edmund Burke and conservatism

he published his works in reaction to the French Revolution and maintained that the state was a partnership between past, present, and future generations

Leon Battista Alberti

he was a 15th century architect from Florence who said "Men can do all things if they will." This expressed the new belief of the Renaissance about the regard of human dignity/worth and that people were capable of more of success in many areas of life

Why did Bismark fear the growing power of the socialist movement?

he was afraid the Socialists would undermine the loyalty of German workers and turn them towards revolution.

Guiseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts

he was an Italian patriot of the Young Italy cause he raised an army of a thousand men who all wore red, he had a small army but managed to capture Naples and the Two Sicilies, and moved on to Rome but Cavour afraid of his intentions since Garbaldi was a democrat would cause issues with France Cavour's army entered the Papal States and took them and Naples, Garibaldi retired and the Two Sicilies and the Papal States joined Piedmont and the kingdom of Italy was created, Cavour died mere months after the unification

John Locke

he was somewhat a reaction to Hobbes' negativity. Locke began with the assumption that, at birth, each person is born with a tabula rasa (blank slate) and that all human nature and knowledge comes from either direct experience or from reflection. Therefore, since all beliefs come from experience, all beliefs are open to criticism (this was one of the most powerful arguments for equality and tolerance yet). Clearly, Locke was a great supporter of equality, toleration, and education (make good environments). Locke also used his ideas to write a social contract, like Hobbes. Locke's social contract, however, as stated in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and Two Treatises of Government (1689), had almost nothing in common with Hobbes. Locke stated that, in the state of nature, people are neutral, since it all depends on the environment. Based on this, he said that, at birth, each person has certain inalienable rights of life, liberty and property. Since people must be forced to respect each others rights, government is formed, to protect the rights. In his contract, government must protect peoples' rights, but not more, and the people must obey the government so long as it does not do more than necessary. If it does, people have the right to rebel and establish another government.

Flemish style artwork

heavily influenced by Italian renaissance detail throughout the paintings, oil paints, more emotional than Italian style, occupied with death

Civic Humaism

idea that education should prepare leaders who would be active in civic affairs

The Hapsburg Empire

in 1800 they were the oldest ruling house in Europe. Austrian Hapsburgs ruled lands with diverse ethnic groups.

Ottoman Empire

in the 19th century the Empire was in a decline, Greece and Serbia were free Hungary,Translyvania, Croatia and Slovenia had joined the Austrian Empire and the Russians were trying to claim Moldavia and Wallachia, the Ottoman Empire seemed to be dying and Europe was trying to move in and claim more land.

where was the real power in the new German government?

in the Bundesrat, power eas with the Chancellor and Emporer.

Kingdom of Sardinia

included Nice, Piedmonte, savoy and island of Sardinia

Naples, kingdom of the two sicilies

included southern Italian region of naples and the island of sicily, was the only city state to have a king

The foundation of Francis Bacon's scientific method was built on

inductive reasoning

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

inductive thinker who stressed experimentation in arriving at truth.

heavy industry

industry that requires a large capital investment and that produces items used in other industries

Galileo's idea that a body in motion continues in motion unless deflected by an external force is called the principle of

inertia

movable type

invented by johann gutenburg, made possible the spread of humanistic literature to the rest of Europe with great speed. works would no longer need to be copied by hand

Saddler Commission

investigated working conditions helped initiate legislation to improve conditions in factories.

Representative Assembly

is a political institution in which a number of persons representing the population or privileged orders within the population of a state come together to debate, negotiate with the executive (originally the king or other ruler) and legislate.

why didn't Bismark want to conquer Austria

it would mean a long risky war for Prussia.

Louis Kossuth

led the Hungarian liberals in fighting for their own legislature

legitimacy, compensation, balance of power

legitimacy-returning to power the ruling families deposed by more than two decades of revolutionary warfare; compensation-territorially rewarding those states which had made considerable sacrifices to defeat Napoleon; balance of power-arranged map of Europe so one state could upset the international order and cause a general war again *evidence of the conservatism of the Congress of Vienna

Factory Act of 1833

limited the factory workday for children between 9 and 13 to 8 hours and that of adolescents between 14 and 18 to 12 hours-made no effort to regulate hours of work for children at home or in small businesses-children under 9 were to be enrolled by schools to be established by factory owners-broke pattern of whole families working together in the factory because efficiency required standardized shifts for all workers

Venice, Venetian republic

longest lasting of the Italian states, did not succumb to foreign powers until napoleon conquered it, worlds greatest maritime and naval and trading powers in the world

Petite Bourgeoisie

lower middle class (shopkeepers and clerical staff etc.)

Elizabeth Blackwell

made a breakthrough for women in medicine, she was accidentally accepted into Geneva College of Medicine she was the first women to receive and M.D and open her own clinic

Peasants' Revolt

major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in Essex on 30 May 1381. His attempts to collect unpaid poll taxes in Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation, which rapidly spread across the south-east of the country. A wide spectrum of rural society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up in protest, burning court records and opening the local gaols. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to the system of unfree labour known as serfdom and the removal of the King's senior officials and law courts

How did Napoleons invasion of German lands begin the process of unifying?

many people wanted to be free from French rule and have a unified German state

Pico Della Mirandola

member of the platonic academy

condottieri

mercenary generals of private armies who were hired by cities for military purposes

Erasmus

most famous and celebrated of all northern humanists made translations of the greek and latig versions of the new testament

Jan Van Eyke

most famous and innovative Flemish artists

Pope Alexander VI

most notorious of the Renaissance popes spent huge sums on the art patronage

Iron Chancellor

nickname for Otto von Bismarck. He was called this due to his ruthless methods he used to achieve German unification

where Bismarcks actions against the socialists successful?

no it made the working class more unified in support of the Socialist cause

Albrecht durh

northern renaissance artist, mastered Italian renaissance techniques yet was a northern renaissance artist

Hiroshima, Nagasaki

nuclear attacks during World War II against the Empire of Japan by the United States of America at the order of U.S. President Harry S. Truman

Pneumonic

occurred when bacillus entered the lungs -was fatal 95-100% of the time

Cornelius Vermuyden

one of the most famous Dutch agricultural engineers. directed a large drainage project in Yorkshire.

Oration on the Dignity of Man

one of the most famous renaissance workds on the nature of mankind, humans were created by god and therefore given tremendous potential for greatness, and even union with god if they desired it

Johann Gutenburg

one of the most important inventions made in human history! He invented the printing press

Marsilio Ficino

one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the 15th century, founded platonic academy, translated plato's works into latin

Pogroms

organized campaigns of violence against Jews permitted by Russian government officials; spread the persecution of Jews

Coup d'etat

overthrow of those in power

Great Fear

panic & insecurity that struck French peasants in summer of 1789 and led to their widespread destruction of manor houses and archives.

Effects of Balkan nationalism

parts of the Ottomasn Empire started revolting and breaking away including Serbia, southern Greece,

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation

passed by President Lincoln on 1863 in the midst of the American Civil War it declared the slaves in the Confederate States of America to be freed but wasn't really put into place until after the war.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

passed in 1854 this Act only caused further tension between the American North and South, it allowed these two territories to decide whether to be free or slave states by popular sovereignty it caused abolitionists and slave owners to rush into these states to try and win them over to their side it causes bloody fights and riots to break out

Great Schism

period of division in the Roman Catholic Church, 1378-1417, over papal succession, during which there were two, or sometimes three, claimants to the papal office

Division of Labor

pertains to the role of women and men in the work force. Women were limited to certain roles. Women were paid less, the factory system also limited the chance for mothers to work, for they had no way to work and care for their children

Rome, the papal states

popes served both as religious and political leaders, controlled much of central italy

Jacques Lefevre d'etables

produced 5 versions of the psalms that challeneged a single authorative version of the bible

Social Welfare

programs to help certain groups of people. The programs provided by William II

Mines Act of 1842

prohibited underground work for women, considered a scandal for women to work in the pits, prevented the fraternizing of sexes

Transportation Revolution

rapid growth in the speed and convenience of transportation; in the United States this began in the early 1800s

Mannerism

reaction against painting styles of balance works used unnatural colors and shapes were elongated and exagerated

Puritan Revolution

reference to the English civil war (1642-1646), waged to determine whether sovereignty would reside in monarch or Parliament. Puritans-Protestant sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization.

Cardinal Richelieu understood that, in Louis XIV's France, the most important roadblock to building a strong monarchy was

resistance by the great nobles

Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau

revoked the earlier Edict of Nantes, curtailed the rights of French Protestants, and caused thousands of highly skilled Huguenot to flee the country

Bosnian Crisis Effects

rise in tension Russia humiliated Serbia angry Germany and AH appeared stronger than Triple Entente Balkans became much more unstable

oligarchies

rule of merchant aristocracies

duchy of Milan

ruled by the Sforza family and was a major enemy of venice and florence

Francis Joseph

ruled over the Austrian (Hapsburg) Empire. Also ruled over the Dual Monarchy

Sforza

ruled the duchy of Milan after 1450

Louis XVIII and Charles X

rulers of France whose ideas were condemned by the people; led to the establishment of the ultraroyalists along with the principle of ministerial responsibility

Lorenzo Ghiberti

sculptor of two bronze doors "gates if paradise"

Donatello

sculptor, made statue of david and utilized a nude figure

Young Italy

secret society to set up a united Italy that would be free and independent

Chartists

seeking political democracy, universal male suffrage, est. controls over economic system to prevent exploitation ( think of German Peasant Revolt, Bread Roits, French Revolution) ; , Reformers who wanted changes like universal male suffrage; the secret ballot; and payment for members of Parliament, so that even workingmen could afford to enter politics. This group supported a document called the People's Charter.

Charles Fourier's phalansteries

self-sustaining cooperative communities advocated by Charles Fourier

Statute of Kilkenny

set of laws made by the English in 1367 to try and save the English colony in Ireland

Little ice age

slight shift in overall temperature patterns resulted in a shortened growing seasons and disastrous weather conditions (1315-1317)

Friedrich Engels

socialist who wrote the Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx in 1848 (1820-1895)

Carbonari

societies in Italy that were motivated by nationalistic dreams and who continued to conspire and plan for revolution

Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601)

stargazer who meticulously recorded star data for years.

Burschenschaften******

student societies in the German states dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany

Galileo's Dialogue on the Two World Systems was chiefly an attempt to

support Copernicus through a publication in Italian accessible to a wide audience

Patronage

supporting the Renaissance art by investing money into successful artists to produce great works

Proletarianism

switch to wage-labor, artisans lose control of trade & means of production. Factory workers better off than textile workers.

Open field system

system of farming that divided the land to be cultivated by the peasants of a given village into several large fields, which were in turn cut up into long, narrow strips-fields open and not enclosed into small plots by fences or hedges-large field as community-same pattern of plowing, sowing, and harvesting

sfumato

technique of blurring or softening sharp outlines

why did some Italians choose to emigrate to the U.S. and other countries?

tensions due to the population explosion.

Doers

term by Count Henri de Saint-Simon that described leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists

Klemens von Metternich

the Austrian foreign minister who led the Congress of Vienna

Ausgleich

the Compromise of 1867 it created the Dual Monarchy and Hungary was virtually an independent nation in domestic affairs it didn't change much for the minorities and their states

Battles of Magenta and Solferino

the French defeated the Austrians in these two main battles, and later made peace with Austria since Prussia was going to join and France could not win, so Piedmont only received the area of Lombardy but nationalist Italians took over the other states and joined Piedmont and Napoleon only received the territories of Nice and Savoy

First International

the International Workingmen's Association it was an organization for working class and their interests Marx spent a lot of time working with this organization it disbanded in 1872 and was revived in 1889

The "sleeping giant" of Eastern Europe in the first half of the seventeenth century was

the Ottoman Empire

Crimean War

the Ottoman Empire after the Greek and Serbian revolts was vulnerable and Russia moved in attempting to demand a right to protect Christian shrines, which was held by France, the Ottoman Empire refused Russia and war was declared on Russia, Britain and France sided with the Ottoman Empire to protect trade interest and the balance of power the Battle of Balaklava ended the war with the Ottomans winning, Russia had to give up territory and in the end the war was costly and damaging to all countries and broke up the Concert of Europe

Gleaning

the act of collecting leftover crops from farmers fields after they have been harvested.

Grand Alliance

the alliance between the United Kingdom, United States, and the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany during World War II

Crop rotation

the alternation of grain crops and nitrogen storing crops to keep the soil healthy.

Bourgeoisie

the class of modern capitalists, owners of the means of social production and employers of wage labor; Marx and Engels *evidence of the growing gap between social classes. Also, serves as the fundamental argument of Marxist Socialsim

Grandi

the conservative "old rich" class that ruled Florence

popolo minute

the craftsmen and labourers who were forbidden to organize into guilds. Since, in many communes, guild membership was a prerequisite for political office, they were effectively excluded from involvement in civic government. This discrimination generated much of the civic unrest that characterized Italian politics in the late Middle Ages and beyond.

Feudalism

the dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection

Commercial Revolution

the expansion of the trade and buisness that transformed European economies during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

the first scientist to use the telescope. With the telescope, he saw Jupiter's moons (the existence of which proved that not everything orbited the earth, as was previously thought) and the craters on the moon (which proved that heaven was not perfect). Based on his observations, Galileo concluded that the principles of terrestrial physics could be applied to the heavens as well. In 1610, he wrote the Starry Messenger and subsequently got in trouble with the Spanish Inquisition, which stated that it was not allowed to openly support Copernicus. So, in 1632, he wrote the Dialogue on the Two Great World Systems (supposedly a work of fiction, but obviously supported Copernicus). But this did not fool the church, for they forced him to recant in 1633 and made him spend the last years of his life under house arrest. There, he developed his Theory of Inertia, which stated that things in motion remain in motion unless acted upon by another force (implies that God is not necessary to move planets), which he published in The Two New Sciences in 1638. Galileo is really considered to be the first modern scientist, for he developed the scientific method of experimentation and was one of the first mechanists (how, not why).

Famine Foods

the foods eaten by a desperate population chestnuts, bark, dandelions and grass in attempts to escape starvation.

Principle of Intervention

the idea (after the Congress of Vienna) that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries experiencing revolution to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones

Principle of Legitimacy

the idea that after the Napoleonic wars, peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions

Classical Economics

the idea that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand ; also called economic liberalism

Upper House

the king appointed its members and they oculd veto bills brought by the lower house

The Vernacular

the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or region

William Harvey's On the Motion of the Heart and Blood refuted the ideas of

the liver as the beginning point of the circulation of blood.

Bourgeoisie vs Proletariat

the main idea of the Communist Manifesto is that the bourgeoise rose out of the ruins of feudalism after they won over the feudal and aristocratic classes of the Middle Ages and now this struggle is revisited in between the Bourgeoise (industrial middle class) and the Proletariat (industrial working class) and that the struggle would be very close but the Proletariat would overthrow the Bourgeoisie and create a dictatorship and a classless society

Gustave Courbet's The Stonebreakers

the most famous Realist artist his work focused on factory, workers, peasants and saloon keepers, in this work he shows two road workers breaking stones for a road, it showed an image of human misery and was rejected as ugly and harsh

Hohenzollern

the ruling dynasty in Prussia who had a traditional monarchy. Von Bismarck was loyal to them.

Descartes believed that the world could be understood by

the same principles inherent in mathematical thinking

Enclosure

the sectioning off of individual plots or shares of farm land to improve farming.

Cottage Industry

the system which came before the factory industry in which people made products in their own homes

Putting Out System

the two main participants were merchant capitalists and the rural worker. the merchant loaned raw materials to the rural worker who processed it and returned the finished product to the merchant

Battles of Sadowa and Sedan

these two battles of the Franco-Prussian war showed Prussia's military strength and resulted in the capture of Napoleon III and Prussia's victory

Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary

this was considered the quintessential Realist novel, written by a Frenchman it was a description of the dull life of a small town in France, it focuses on Emma Bovary a women trapped in a boring marriage, she attempts to seek love and entertainment in affairs, she felt unfulfilled and kills herself in the end, it showed the author's contempt for bourgeoise society

Galen

though his influence was far lesser than that of Aristotle and Ptolemy, Galen's medical and anatomical theories dominated the scientific world for years even though they were proved wrong by dissections.

What was Bismarks primary goal in unifying Germany?

to bring more power to the Hohenzollerns, the ruling dynasty of Prussia

What were William II military ambitions?

to make Germany the most powerful country in Europe. He built the German military and navy into the most powerful and tried to compete with Britain and France's overseas empire. His agressive stance increased tensions between European countries.

Bubonic

transmitted from rat to person by the bite of a flea

how was the new German government set up?

two house legislature

Britain's Tories and Whigs

two political factions in Parliament that were dominated by members of the landed classes; they stood as rivals

Baron Houssman and Paris

under Napoleon III's rule Houssman set on reconstructing Paris, the old walls were destroyed updated wth broad roads, underground sewage system, new water supply and gas lights, the reconstruction also helped because the open roads made it easier for the military to come through to put down revolts

Bundesrat

upper house, appointed by rulers of the German states. Could veto Reichstad

Chiaroscuro

use of dark and light colors to create the illusion of depth

Imperial general Albrect von Wallenstein

was assassinated on the orders of Emperor Ferdinand

Russian society in the seventeenth century

was characterized by a highly oppressive system of serfdom

flying shuttle

was developed by John Kay, its invention was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, enabled the weaver of a loom to throw the shuttle back and forth between the threads with one hand

Charles VIII

was encouraged by the French king to invade naples, thus beginning the foreign invasions throughout the Italian peninsula

Realism

was first used to describe a style of art, but became a literary style they rivaled Romanticism and rejected it they focused on observation and description, they wrote prose and novels, they focused on examining social questions

Piedmont and the House of Savoy

was focused on as a center of Italian unification they were ruled by the Savoy family and the new king Count Camillo di Cavour seemed to be the perfect leader for the unification

Aristotle

was the greatest philosopher of ancient times. He was viewed as the absolute authority on physics, although many of his theories were clearly wrong. His theories included the belief that there was no movement without a mover (which fit in perfectly with church philosophy since it made it obvious that God was necessary to move the Earth) and that in their natural state all objects were at rest (i.e. all objects wish to be at rest, motion is an unnatural state which must be accounted for by an outside force at all times). He explained motion by the fact that each of the four elements (earth, air, fire and water) wished to return to its natural place (for example, a stone falls because it wants to return to the earth). Air and fire, he said, always wished to go upwards and earth and water wished to fall downwards. Aristotle believed in teleological (based on the fact that everything is made for a purpose).

Cesare Borgia

was the son of Pope Alexander VI and had ambitions of unifying Italy under his control

Robert Owen

wealthy factory owner turned socialist who first invented the idea of factory towns were everything was provided to the workers on this one property, also address the several working conditions that workers had to face (i.e. low pay, long hours, dangerous conditions)

The Longbow

weapon English used against French in the Hundred Years' War -invented by the Welsh -more rapid speed of fire that crossbow

The economic policies of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's controller general of finances

were based on the economic theory of mercantilism

Reform Bill of 1867

when the Whig Prime Minister Palmerton died, the Tories stepped in and passed this Bill, it lowered monetary requirement for voting and was a move towards democratization, the amount of voter doubled, this was supposed to be a move to benefit the Conservatives but it only pushed for a win for the Liberals.

Spinster

women who took on spinning work in their spare time to produce enough thread. Became a synonym for an unmarried woman

Dante's Divine Comedy

written in Italian, gives reader a tour of heaven, purgatory, and hell. used to make fun of people of his time. religious and secular.

Fodder

• Clover and turnips • Added nutrients to soil • Used to feed livestock • Replaced 3-field rotation

Concordect

Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind

Kulturkampf

"Battle for Civiliztion". Bismarcks plan to make Catholics loyal to Germany, not the church.

Blitzkrieg

"Lighting war", typed of fast-moving warfare used by German forces against Poland in 1939

Leonardo da Vince

"Renaissance man" because he could sculpt, paint, archetecht, engineer, writer, scientist painted mona lisa using sfumato

Lorenzo de medici

"the magnificent" was a signifigant patron of the arts and the son of cosimo de' medici

Ludwig van Beethoven

(1770-1827) This German composer and pianist was a crucial figure Romantic eras in Western art music. He remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. *evidence of Romantic literature

Nationalism

A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country

Voltaire

Philosophical Letters, Candide

Reichstad

lower house, elected by male suffrage

On the Origin of Species

written by Charles Darwin it covered the theory of natural selection and evolution, he proposed that animals and plants evolved from simpler life forms over a long period of time due to survival of the fittest each flora or fauna that was best adapted to the enviro,ment survived

the Communist Manifesto

written by German journalist and a German cotton manufacturer Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels these socialist revolutionaries decided to draft a novel off their ideas for their revolutionary group the Communist League, at its time of publishing it didn't get much press until modern times

Machiavelli

wrote about his strong opinions in his famous book titles "The Prince"