AP Euro Chapter 14
Edward VI of England
(r. 1547-1553) Henry's sickly son Created move towards Protestantism
How were Protestant ideas spread?
"Pulpits and printing presses" - They were preached and read from printed books/works
Martin Luther
(1483-1546) German university professor at Wittenberg and priest "Faith alone, grace alone, Scripture alone" Believed faith is a free gift of gods grace not the result of human effort.
John Knox
(1505-1572) Scottish; wanted to reform the church similarly to Geneva (where he had studied and worked with Calvin). In 1560 he persuaded Scottish parliament to end papal authority and substitute presbyters (councils of ministers); lead to the Presbyterian Church of Scotland
John Calvin
(1509-1564) Born in France; studied law; converted to Protestantism in 1533 because he believed God had selected him to reform the church Reformed Geneva in 1541 to become a model Protestant community
Paul III effects
(Pontificate 1534-1549) Started the movement for Catholic reform Improved education for clergy, ended simony, controlled clergy Established the Holy Office Created Council of Trent
Mary Tudor
(r, 1553-1558) Daughter of Catherine of Aragon (Henry's first wife) ; raised Catholic Restored Roman Catholicism Disliked because of her marriage to her cousin Philip II of Spain (Charles Vs son) and her prosecution of several hundred Protestants - many Protestants also fled
Elizabeth
(r. 1558-1603) Daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII; raised Protestant - stared religious stability There were both Catholics and Puritans at that time --> Elizabeth called herself the supreme governor of the Church of England (allowed subjects to be loyal to her and not deny the pope) She required fined people for not attending church services but didn't interfere with their private beliefs
Luther and Zwingli's View on Celibacy
Celibacy went against human nature and God's commandments & marriage brought spiritual advantages
Anticlericalism
Opposition to the clergy; Focused on: 1) Clerical immortality 2) Clerical ignorance 3) Clerical pluralism 4) Absenteeism 5) Clerical immunity
What was the papal response to Luther's actions and spreading ideas in 1520-1521?
Sent a letter ordering that he step down and his books be burned or he would be excommunicated Lutheran ideas created public controversies about the church
Clerical ignorance
Some barely literate priests who didn't understand Latin
What is a Witch?
Someone who made a pact with the devil and were used by him •had sexual stuff with the devil •met in sabbats that parodied Christian services •steal unbaptized babies Heretics and enemies of God
Michael Servetus
Spanish humanist and refugee burned at the stake by the Consistory for: •denying there was scriptural basis for the trinity •rejecting child baptism •insisting a person under 20 can't comic a mortal sin
Hungary
Spread by students who studied at Wittenberg (where Luther taught) and sympathy for it developed with King Louis II in Buda. Concern about the "German heresy" in high society lead to a decree from a Hungarian diet that Lutherans should have property taken and be punished by death. Before that could be acted on: •1526 Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent defeated the Hungarians killing King Louis II and many soldiers •Hungary was then divided into the Ottoman Turks, Habsburg rule, and Janos Zapolya (supported by Ottoman) Ottoman were not Christian but some Catholics were taxed but both Christians could keep their faith
Which two people carried the counter reformation into Poland?
Stanisalus Hosius (1505-1579) and the Jesuits
How did the Netherlands become Protestant?
Started off in the hands of catholic Charles V who inherited the 17 provinces that are present day Belgium and the Netherlands ; each provence was self governing and independent-only united by emperor Lutheran ideas took root because of criticism of the church and Charles V wasn't able to stop them When Philip II came into power Protestant ideas spread and by 1560s Protestants in the Netherlands were mostly Calvinists
Church of England
Started off very similar to Catholicism Influenced by Thomas Cromwell Henry dissolved English monasteries to gain the wealth from the land --> strengthened upper class and tied them to Tudor dynasty and Protestant church
Was Charles V successful in defending the Catholic Church and the HRE?
Started successful but France and the Pope didn't want him to get even more powerful so the pope withdrew troops and the Catholic King of France sent money and troops to Lutheran princes.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Swiss humanist, priest, and admirer of Erasmus Would only preach all the New Testament "A-Z" instead of churches prescribed reading; was convinced Christian life rested on the scriptures; attacked indulgences, Mass, monasticism, and clerical celibacy Gradually reformed church in Zurich with support of city authorities
Religious wars in Switzerland
Switzerland: Technically part of HRE but was a confederation of 13 cantons, some Catholic some Protestant --> war in late 1520s 1531 Zwingli was killed on battlefield --> treaty allowed each to have its own religion
Predestination
The Calvinistic belief that because God is omnipotent and sovereign that he determined at the beginning of time the destination of every person (heaven or hell) and that mankind doesn't have the free will to work towards salvation Helped believers to be confident that God had saved them giving people strength to endure hardship
Charles V (r. 1519-1556)
Hapsburg King Vigorous defender of Catholicism
Pilgrimage of Grace
The 1536 reaction in northern England to religious changes that eventually accepted a truce
Witch Hunts (Was it Catholics only?)
1480s-1660 Catholic and Protestant
Germans in Bohemia
1520-1530s nobility embraced Lutheranism in opposition to the Catholic Hapsburg's but some areas converted with the catholic reformation--> 30 years war in 17th century
Peace of Augsburg
1555 peace where Charles V recognized Lutheranism officially and each territory was allowed to choose their religion (people either had to convert or leave)
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis
1559 Treaty between Philip II of Spain and Henry II of France that ended the Hapsburg-Valois Wars Terms in favor of the Hapsburg (Spanish) French gave up claims to Italy ; Spain stopped trying to dismember France Started a new era of warfare neither country could handle
Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacare
1572 attack in Paris around marriage of kings sister Margaret of Valois to the Protestant Henry of Navarre (supposed to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots) but instead Huguenots were massacred --> religious violence violence in the provinces --> 15 year civil war •destroyed agriculture •decline in mercial life --> saved by politiques
Edict of Nantes
1598; granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in 150 fortified towns
Witch Trials
16-17th century 100-200 thousand tried 40-60 k executed 80 percent women --> misogyny ; viewed as weak and having to do with the devil "Witch panics" coon in HRE, Switzerland, France - small governmental units divided by religion and leaders used it to show their concern for order
Union of Urtecht
7 Northern provinces lead by holland declared independence in 1581 North was Protestant South Catholic and lead by Philip II Union worked with England --> Spanish Armada Union recognized with truce in 1609
Spanish Armada
A fleet of more than 130 ships that sailed from Lisbon, Portugal to Flanders, England to carry troops to attack England in 1588. The English ships were much better which led to a strong English victory Although the war lasted for a few years it the victory over the armada prevented Catholicism from being imposed by force Contributed to David and Goliath legend
Genevan Consistory and Calvin's Geneva
A body of laymen and pastors established by Calvin that severely regulated citizens conduct and punished them for things such as absence from sermons, criticism of ministers, dancing, card playing, family quarrels, and heavy drinking Serious crimes and heresy were handled by the civil authorities (with the consistory's approval) and sometimes used torture and execution Geneva became a center for religious refugees and exiles
Treasury of merits
A collection of all the virtuous acts that Christ, the apostles, and the saints had done during their lives
Roman Inquisition
A committee of six cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholics and the power to arrest, imprison, and execute suspected heretics. The Holy Office had jurisdiction over them.
Diet of Worms
A diet (assembly of the nobility, clergy, and cities of the Holy Roman Empire) in Worms, Germany Luther was called here and refused to give in to demands that he take back his ideas and the larger audience spread his ideas more
Indulgence
A document issues by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins Substituted a virtuous act from the treasury of merits for Penang or time in purgatory Many believed they had no further need for repentance once they had purchased indulgences
Colloquy of Marburg
A meeting summoned in 1529 to unite Protestants that failed to resolve differences on communion (Eucharist)
Zwingli communion
A memorial in which Christ was present in spirit among the faithful, but not in the bread and wine
How did witch trials usually start?
A single accusation in a town Family or households tensions led to accusations Women accused other mothers and that made them seem like a good wife and mother
Radicals
A voluntary community of believers separate from the state, believed it should be separate from the church; often pacifists who refused to hold office of swear oaths --> hatred and persecution by Catholic and Protestants (Later formed Anabaptists (with those who were baptized in these beliefs) and other groups such as the Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists)
Effects of German Peasants War
About 75000 peasants killed Reformation lost much of its popular appeal
Henry IV
After the death of Catherine de' Medici and he assassination of Henry III, Henry of Navarre (married St Bart's Day) ruled 1589-1610 and was a politique Saved France with his willingness to sacrifice religion for politic necessity Converted to Catholicism but issues the Edict of Nantes
95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences
Argued that indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance, competed with the preaching of the Gospel, and downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life Written by Martin Luther in 1517, sent to Archbishop Albert and also spread by printing press; first in Latin then German
Before reformation how were the papal tax methods?
Bad; they were attacked orally and in print
Politiques
Believed only the restoration of a strong monarchy could reverse the trend toward collapse in France after the massacre and civil war Wanted to recognize the Huguenots as an official group
Lutheran communion
Believed that Christ is really present in the consecrated bread and wine but this is the result of Gods mystery not the actions of the priest
How was Elizabeth's rein threatened?
By European powers wanting to re-establish Catholicism: Philip II of Spain: Hoped his marriage to Mary Tudor would bring Catholicism Mary, Queen of Scots ; catholic and next in line after Elizabeth - imprisoned and executed for planning to kill Elizabeth with backing from Philip II who retaliated after Mary of Scots death
What were the central ideas of the reformers and why were they appealing to different social groups?
By the early 16th century many lay christians and members of the clergy had grown disillusioned with the churches wealth and certain practices, particularly its sale of indulgences and church offices. People were also critical of the immorality, ignorance, and absenteeism that they percieved among the clergy and for centuries mant individials called for reform. Amid this background Luther and other Protestants developed a new understanfing if Christian doctrine that emphasized faith, the power if gods grace and the centrality of the Bible. Protestant ideas were attractive to educated people and urban residents, among whom anticlericalism had became widespread and the new comcepts spread rapidly among many groups through preaching, hymns, and the printing press. Most protestant reformers worked with rulers to bring out religious change but many radical thinkers and the German peasants wanted political and social, as well as religious changes. The protestant reformers did not break with mideval ideas about the proper gender hierarchy though they did elevate the status of marriage and viewed orderly households as the building blocks of society.
Augsburg Imperial Diet in 1530
Called by Charles V to try to stop the spread of Protestantism The Protestant princes presented the Augsburg Confession--> Charles ordered all Protestants to return to Catholicism and give up confiscated property The Protestant territories (mostly German) formed a military alliance but Charles was already fighting in the Hapsburg-Valois wars and with the Ottoman Turks
Council of Trent
Called by Paul III and met 1545-1563 not only to reform the Catholic Church but to secure reconciliation (renewal of friendly relations) with the Protestants. renewed spiritual basis of Catholic Church: •gave validity to the scriptures and tradition •reaffirmed the 7 sacraments and transubstantiation •ended clerical problems (absenteeism, indulgences, etc) •bishops given greater authority •every diocese (district under a bishop) to have a school to educate clergy and had bishops determine if they were ready •said marriage vows had to be said publicly with witnesses and priest (no private marriages)
Why were Protestants in the Netherlands mainly Calvinist?
Calvinism's intellectual seriousness, moral gravity, and emphasis on labor done well appealed to urban workers Lutherans taught respect for existing powers Calvinism encouraged opposition to political authorities who were judged to be ungodly.
Why was reconciliation with the Protestants at the Council of Trent impossible?
Calvinists and Lutherans invited to participate but their insistence that the scriptures be the sole basis for discussion made reconciliation impossible. Also Charles V wanted to avoid alienating Lutheran nobility in the empire Grace wanted the Catholics and Lutherans to remain divided to keep Germany decentralized and weak
What happened when Spanish authorities app emoted to suppress Calvinist worship and raise taxes in the Netherlands?
Calvinists committed iconoclasm on 30 churches in Antwerp --> Philip sent troops to Alva to pacify them--> killing of Calvinists --> Council of Blood 1568 Calvinist execution -->1568-1578 Religious wars and eventually aSpanish Hapsburg rules Spanish Netherlands --> Union of Urtrecht
What were the achievements of the Jesuits?
Carried Catholicism to India, Brazil, North America, and the Congo Brought Catholicism back to southern Germany and much of Europe
Index of Prohibited Books
Catalogue of forbidden reading that includes works by Christian humanists such as Erasmus and Protestants created by the Catholic Holy Office Destroyed heresy in the Papal States but had slight influence outside papal territories
What change allowed for massive witch trials?
Change from accusatory all legal procedure to an inquisitorial procedure which made people more willing to accuse others because they never had to take personal responsibility for the accusation Torture also used Inquisitorial procedure didn't always end with many executions; most people brought up before the Inquisition were sent home with a warning and penance
Anglican Church
Church of England Mildly Protestant; services in English, monasteries not reestablished, clergy allowed to marry but church was still hierarchical
Clerical immunity
Clergy exempt from civic responsibilities (defending city, paying taxes)
Protestant Marriage
Contract of supportive partnership (remedy for human weakness and lust; condemned prostitution) Divorce and remarriage allowed as a last resort
Mary of Scots
Cousin of Elizabeth and next in line after her; catholic and eventually executed for plotting against her
The Presbyterian Church of Scotland
Created by the efforts of John Knox; strictly Calvinist; simple and dignified service of worship with emphasis on preaching
Johann Eck
Debated with Luther in Leipzig in 1519; church representative
Where was the first place to accept the Reformation outside of the HRE?
Denmark-Norway under King Christian III 1530s; revolts in Norway and Iceland In Sweden under Gustavus Vasa ideas also spread
How was peasant life in the early 1600s? (Specifically Germany)
Deteriorating, worse than 15th century: •crop failures 1523-1524 •nobles took land, heavy rent, best livestock when head of family died
Johann Tetzel
Dominican friar that ran Albert's indulgence sale Promised the purchase of indulgences would bring full forgiveness for one's own sins or release a loved one from purgatory
Clerical immorality examples
Drunkards, neglected celibacy, gambled
Where in Europe was the highest cultural diversity?
Eastern
The Ursuline order of nuns
Founded by Angela Merici (1474-1540) who worked for many years among the poor, sick, and u educated in Italy 1535 she established the first women's the first women's religious order with the goal of teaching young girls and re-Christianizing society by training future wives and mothers Received papal approval in 1565 and spread to France and on
The Society of Jesus / Jesuits
Founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) who was a soldier but studied books about Christ while recovering from a battle and became devoted to Christ Wrote "Spiritual Exercises" (1548) which was intended to study during a retreat and set out a program of structured meditation to develop spiritual discipline and meld ones will with God's Loyola , after studying at Salamanca and Paris universities got 6 companions and got papal approval of the Society The first Jesuits (primarily wealthy merchants) saw the reformation as a problem with people's spiritual connection and their goal was "to help souls" They members vowed poverty, chastity, and obedience to the pope although this was flexible to the situation which appealed to young men
Huguenots
French Calvinists Many rulers were attracted to Calvinism as were reformist clergy, city dwellers and artisan groups Most lived in major cities By Henry II's death / treaty signing in 1559 1/10 of French were Calvinist
How did the Hapsburg's become an international power?
HR Emperor Fredrick III (Hapsburg) of Austria married Eleonore of portugal --> Son Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy, Netherlands, and Luxembourg--> son and daughter married daughter and son of Ferdinand and Isabella --> Charles V
Clerical pluralism
Holding of several benefices or offices at the same time --> absenteeism (couldn't perform responsibilities)
Poland-Lithuania
In 1500 Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were jointly governed by King, senate, and diet Largest European polity - 500,000 sq miles and 7.5 mil people; very diverse -Germans, Italians, tartars, Jews with the Poles and Lithuanians; (many were wealthy merchants invited there to make agricultural improvements) Each group had a native language but the educated spoke Latin Germanized towns were Lutheran but King Sigismund I (r. 1506-1548) opposed them as well as regular Poles who disliked Germans Poles likes Calvinism Because these Protestants couldn't unite by 1650 Poland was Roman Catholic
What did Charles V do after the Peace of Augsburg?
In 1556 he abdicated and moved to a monastery and transferred his territory in Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip and his imperial power to his brother Ferdinand
Religion in Ireland
In English control (mainly the Pale) ; very loyal to Catholicism A council of English and the Pale created a Protestant Church of Ireland very similar to the Church of England but most Irish remained Roman Catholic --> ethnic hostility between English and Irish
How did King Francis I of France try to raise revenue to cover the costs of the Hapsburg-Valois wars?
King Francis I (1515-1547 r.) Tried to sell public offices but once a man bought an office he and his heirs were exempt from taxation Tried the Concordat of Bologna Because French rulers possessed control over appointments either eh Concordat of Bologna and had vested financial interest in Catholicism they had no need to revolt against rome
Henry VIII
King of England (r. 1509-1547)
Who translated the New Testament into German?
Luther in 1523
Aftermath of the Leipzig debate
Luther refused to take back his ideas and continued to call for reform saying: •popes could err •secular leaders should reform the church if clergy didn't •clergy were ordinary people, they shouldn't be celibate -> publicized works
German Peasant's War of 1525 (How did Luther feel about it?)
Luther wanted to prevent rebellion ("Freedom for Luther meant independence from the authority of the Roman church; it did not mean the opposition to legally established secular powers") The peasants made demands that conformed with Scripture but Luther said that Scripture didn't have to do with material gain Luther wrote "Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants"
What happened in Leipzig in 1519?
Luther was ordered to Rome but instead engaged in a formal scholarly debate with Johann Eck Luther refused to go back on any of his ideas
Katharina Von Bora (1499-1532)
Luther's wife; a former nun; had several kids Expected to be a model of wifely obedience and Christian charity
Henry VIII Marriages
Married to Catherine of Aragon (needed papal dispensation to marry her) only had a daughter (Mary), wanted an annulment to marry Anne Boleyn Had Elizabeth with Anne Boleyn Couldn't get an annulment because Charles V (Catherine's nephew) had control over pope In 1530s made himself supreme head of English church --> Thomas More and Anne Boleyn beheaded Had son Edward with Jane Seymour --> Henry had 6 wives total
Did Henry VII's religious changes have popular support?
Mixed views - some converted some faked conversion and some were very opposed --> Pilgrimage of Grace
Philip II
Of Spain and the Netherlands; Son of Charles V; catholic; plotted to retaliate against Queen Elizabeth
"The Institutes of the Christian Religion" and the beliefs of Calvin
Published by Calvin in 1536; describes his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the weakness of humanity; believed humans didn't have free wi because that would lessen the power of God but that God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved or dammed Calvinistic ethic of "calling" dignified all work with a religious aspect; encouraged activism
Effects of religious change
Reformation and centralization of kings household, the council, the secretariats, and the Exchequer. New departments of state funded areas with deficits --> growth of economy and bureaucratic state
Clerical absenteeism
Resulting from pluralism; someone who holds multiple offices and can't take care of they responsibilities of one while they're gone; often hire a poor priest to do their job so they can collect the money from the office
What allowed the movement towards reform?
The Holy Roman Empire had hundreds of largely independent states and a background of decentralization and strong local power
Holy Office
The Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, with jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition Made by Paul III Published the Index of Prohibited Books
Hapsburg-Valois Wars
War between Hapsburgs (Charles V) and the Valois (French) from 1521-1559 fought in Italy, France and Germany
How did states increase their power?
War, diplomacy, and Royal marriage
What was the effect of the weakened monarchy following the death of French King Henry II?
The monarchy was ruled by Henry's three weak sons and often their mother Catherine de' Medici The French nobility adopted Protestantism in opposition to the leadership --> clashes between Catholic royalist lords and Calvinist anti-monarchial lords Calvinist teachings question sacred images so bloody mobs destroyed the images (stain glass windows, statues, etc) and his is an example of ordinary people carrying out the reformation themselves Often violence around religious ceremonies such --> Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacare
How was a territories religion determined?
The ruler determined the official form of religious practice in their jurisdiction A faith different from the majority was viewed as a threat
Why did Catholic authority resist reform before the 1530s and what were the differences between Renaissance and Reformation popes?
They feared transformation would mean a loss of power, revenue, and prestige. Changed with Paul III Reformation were models of decorum and piety while Renaissance popes wanted to build churches and enhance their family power
How did some groups argue against the church in the EARLY reformation?
They suggested measures to reform institutions, improve clerical education and behavior, and alter basic doctrines. (Had success in Bohemia to form a church independent of Rome; Hussites (before Luther))
What was the main reason for new orders?
To raise the moral and intellectual level of the clergy and people
Catholic communion
Transubstantion: By the consecrating words of the priest during the Mass, the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ
Archbishop Thomas Cranmer
Under Edward VI: simplified worship, invited Protestant theologians, prepared "Book of Common Prayer" - the order for all services and prayers for English church
How did a territory become Protestant?
When it's ruler (noble, city council, etc) brought in a reformer to reeducate the clergy, sponsored public sermons, and confiscated church property
Protestant views on marriage gender roles
Women were subject to men, advised to be cheerfully obedient (doing so demonstrated their willingness to follow gods plan); their main occupation was marriage and monasteries and convents were closed Men urged to treat wives kindly but also enforce their authority, physically if necessary
Anna Reinhart (1491-1538)
Zwingli's wife; Zurich widow; had several kids Expected to be a model of wifely obedience and Christian charity
Protestant
all non-Catholic Western European Christians (Derived from the protest drawn up by a small group of reforming German princes at the Diet of Speyer in 1529 who "protested" the decisions of the catholic majority)
Pope Leo X
authorized the sale of a special Saint Peter's indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome
Four events that damaged the churches prestige
• papal conflict with German emperor Fredrick II in 1200 • Babylonian captivity • great schism •1400 popes concentration on artistic patronage and family power
Albert of Mainz
•Archbishop of Mainz •Controlled Wittenberg and surrounding area •promoter of indulgences -> got a cut of the money in order to pay off his debt from getting a papal dispensation to become bishop of other territories as well
Why did Lutheran ideas appeal to the Germans?
•Luther had a nation feeling •Protestantism would mean the legal confiscation of lush farmlands, rich monasteries, and shrines - many political leaders used this to gain financial and political power and extend independence from the emperor
Lutheran ideas that attracted followers
•simple personal religion based on scripture •everyone should read and reflect on the bible •many clergy members left for Protestant churches •clergy should also pay taxes (attracted townspeople who resented churches wealth)
