AP Euro Term 1

Mary I

"Bloody Mary." Married Catholic Philip II of Spain. Made England Catholic again. Persecuted Protestants.

Rousseau

"Natural education" and "discovery learning" in place of rigid schooling system. Childhood is an important and distinctive developmental stage and parents should be more attentive. Girls should be educated in domestics. Emphasized emotions over logic and therefore foreshadowed the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment.

Dutch Golden Age

1550-1650. Abundance of money and culture. Artists like Jan Vermeer, Judith Leyster, Frans Hals, Rembrandt painted still lifes, group portraits, and domestic scenes. Culture was dominated by middle class rather than nobles like in France.

Valois

Catherine de Medicis, politique. Widow of Henry II. Use moderate Catholicism to achieve political stability

Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud

Charles I's religious advisor; enacted a new Book of Common Prayer. Strictly enforced Catholic hierarchy, which angered the Presbyterian Scots.

Compass, Axial Rudder, Quadrant

Chinese navigation tools that made European exploration possible

Francisco Pizarro

Claimed South America for Spain. Conquered Incas (mostly by disease).

Nobility

Engaged in a Grand Tour in late adolescence. Special privileges to hunt, be tried in special courts, hold office, and avoid taxes. Promoted classical styles and the idea of privacy. Married middle class merchants sometimes (win-win- nobles get more money, merchants get more power).

Hernan Cortez

Established Spanish presence in North America. Conquered Aztecs.

French Academy of Arts

Established by Louis XIV. Goal: use Baroque/Classical styles to glorify Louis, France, and Versailles. Centralization.

French Academy of Sciences

Established by Louis XIV. Use science to enhance French military and econ.

Poland's Partition (1795)

European countries disassembled and annexed Poland.

War of Austrian Succession (1740-48)

Frederick II of Prussia attacked Maria Theresa of Austria because he didn't recognize the Pragmatic Sanction. France and Prussia vs England and Austria-- Balance of Power.

Seven Years' War (1756-63)

Frederick fought Maria again, and again Frederick held Silesia. An Anti-Prussian alliance formed and almost defeated Frederick until Russia's new tsar, Peter III, dropped out over admiration for Frederick. Britain fought France in North America, the Caribbean, and India, and dominated all three. Confirmed dualism of Prussia and Austria and increased France's debt, which would later perpetuate the French Revolution.

Bourbon

Henry Bourbon (Henry of Navarre). Want free worship for Huguenots.

Charles V (1516-1556)

Holy Roman Emperor during Reformation. Habsburg. Made Spain the most powerful country in Europe through his conquests. Believed in Catholic reform and unity.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Inductive Reasoning. Make observations and experiments, then draw conclusions.

Catherine the Great

Inspired by Voltaire and Diderot. Supported Russia's first private printing presses, restricted torture, allowed limited religious toleration to Jews, and created a new enlightened law code.

Edict of Nantes

Issued by Henry IV. Allowed Protestantism outside Paris; Huguenots could fortify their towns.

Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)

Issued by Louis XIV. Revoked Edict of Nantes and forced all of France to be Catholic. Protestants ended up just going to Netherlands and Prussia.Ba

Russia

Ivan III (Great) drove out the Mongols and created the streltsy military service. Ivan IV (Terrible) subdued the boyars (nobles). Russia became powerful but technologically backward.

Philip II

King of Spain, Benelux, parts of Italy, and Americas. Wanted to make Europe as Catholic as possible. Son of HRE Charles V. Huge attention to detail ("King of Paper").

Dutch War

Louis gained Franche-Comte, and Alsace Lorraine from the HRE.

On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520)

Luther's pamphlet targeting theologians. Baptism and the Lord's Supper and the only 2 sacraments bc only those are cited in the Bible.

European Marriage Pattern

Mid to late 20s for men and women. Starting in the mid 18th and 19th centuries, couples began having kids out of wedlock- rise of cottage industry and migration to cities by men.

Milan

Military dictatorship ruled by Visconti Family. People fought over Milan because it was a good place for trade. Foreign invasions here caused the end of the Renaissance.

Jesuits

New religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola. Re-Catholicized Eastern Europe through education and missionary work. Spiritual Exercises places church morals as true morals.

Fronde (1648-1952)

Nobles in Paris rebelled against taxes and foreign influence in government. Convinced Louis XIV that monarchical power needed to be centralized.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-64)

On the Fabric of the Human Body. Dissections and drawings disprove Galenic ideas.

Nicolaus Copernicus

On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres. Proposed heliocentric model of the universe. Lacked observational evidence.

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese. First person to circumnavigate the Earth.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Prussia gained mineral-rich Silesia, confirming Prussia as a great power. Britain and France fought over trade objectives, with Britain at an advantage.

Baroque

Replaced Mannerism. Glorified the power of monarchs and the Catholic church; patroned by them too. Music includes Bach, Vivaldi, and Handel. Grandeur, dramatic religiosity. Palestrina made emotional religious music. Bernini rebuilt Rome to glorify Catholicism.

Guise

Supported by Jesuits and pope. Want Strong Catholicism; eliminate Huguenots.

Robert Boyle (1627-1692)

The Skeptical Chemist urged a separation of alchemy and chemistry. Boyle's Laws (chem).

French Wars of Religion

Valois (Catholic Moderates; their king, Henry II, had just died from a joust) vs Bourbon (Huguenot) vs Guise (ultra-Catholic). Fight over who gets French throne. 13 short wars

Crop Rotation

a section of land left fallow to replenish each year. Early 1700s.

Schmalkaldic League

alliance of Lutheran princes who emerged victorious against Charles V in the Schmalkaldic Wars.

Simony

buying and selling church offices

Spain

created by marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. Became the strongest nation in Europe after exploring the New World and after Charles I (Charles V Holy Roman Emperor) inherited land.

Poland

declined in 16th century. Nobles (szlachta) had too much power and a single liberum vote from a noble could block any action of the Sejm (Parliament).

Michael Romanov (1613-1645)

elected by feudal estates (zemsky sobor) as tsar, beginning the Romanov dynasty, which lasted until the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Anglo-Dutch Naval Wars (1651-60)

fought against the English Navigation Acts, which tried to prevent Dutch from selling to English colonies. The Navigation Acts decreased Dutch commercial power.

Ursulines

founded by Angela Merici. Educated girls.

Carmelites

founded by Teresa of Avila. Focused on services.

Oratory of Divine Love

founded by laypeople. Pushed to reform the church and live simple lives of piety.

Bank of Amsterdam (1609)

fueled Netherlands' commercial power.

peninsulares

full-blooded Spaniard in the New World. Top of the social order.

Mysticism

get closer to god through rituals of devotion. Emphasized in Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ

Nepotism

giving offices to relatives

Commercial Revolution

global economy resulting from European exploration. Increased population and prices (Price Revolution). Upper classes craved luxury goods from abroad, like porcelain and spices.

Balance-of-power

governed European diplomacy. Five major city-states in Italy prevented a single one from gaining dominance. Peace of Lodi (1454) between Italian city-states created 40 years of Peace. European politics more about patriotism and less about serving God.

Roman Inquisition

helped centralize papal pwper. Goal: eliminate heresies. Stumped intellectual development in Italy (i.e Galileo).

Pluralism

holding multiple church offices

Renaissance Art

introduction of oil paints, perspective/order/symmetry, naturalism (realistic portrayal of the human body), religious subject matter with more elements of nature/humans/architecture. Artists were respected as individuals.

Edward Jenner

invented smallpox vaccine and reduced death rates

Spanish Inquisition

made Spain Catholic-only, persecuted Jews.

Gunpowder Plot (1605)

radical Catholics tried to blow up Parliament

Zwingli

radical sect in Zurich. Believed in 2 sacraments but Lord's supper is symbolic (Luther believed it to be literal). Followers destroyed religious decorations and whitewashed church walls to eliminate distractions.

Masaccio

realism and 3D space in Holy Trinity and Expulsion of Adam and Eve fresco in the Brancacci Chapel.

Renaissance

rebirth of classical Greece and Roman culture, an increased trust in human potential, and secularism. Historians debate whether its a distinct break from the Middle Ages. Humanists wanted to help mankind master the world around them: advanced cartography, musical notation, 3D perspective in painting, advanced business skills, and political theory.

Anglicanism

reformed religion under Henry VIII. Six Articles basically stated that it was the same as Catholicism in practice.

Duke of Parma

replaced Alba- more strategic. Won over Southern Dutch; formed the Union of Arras.

Charles II (1660-85)

restored as king after Cromwell's death. Feigned religious toleration but leaned towards Catholics.

natural rights

rights humans are born with that cannot be taken away by government. Foundation of democracy and human rights.

Birth Control

rise of illegitimate births led to infanticide, abortion, and child abandonment.

Potato

saved millions of people from malnutrition in Ireland, Prussia, and Russia.

Francesco Sforza

seized control of Milan in the 1450s and used mercenaries to impose his power.

Index of Prohibited Books

started by Pope Paul IV. Goal: stop spread of Protestant ideas.

Thirty Years' War

started out as religious civil war in Germany, became bloodiest European conflict before World Wars. Protestant Union vs Catholic League.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

stressed the importance of nourishing children and viewing childhood as a distinct stage of development. Upper class families became more attentive towards their children.

Philosophes

thinkers and writers who formed a "republic of letters." Goal = expose social problems and propose reforms guided by reason. Believed in progress towards happiness. Laws of government and economics should improve society. Support freedom of expression and religious tolerance.

guilds

workers own business and produce labor. Business centered in local areas. Common before the Commercial Revolution. Replaced by putting-out system.

Raphael

youngest Renaissance artist. School of Athens portrays his contemporaries as Greek philosophers. Painted Madonnas.

mercantilism

1) world's total wealth is limited. 2) a nation's wealth = the amount of specie they have so countries must maximize exports and limit imports. 3) gov't intervention- more transportation, national tariffs...

witch trials (1580-1700)

100k people executed for witchcraft. Mostly poor, older, single women. Increased Bible study lead people to believe in the devil and the weakness of women. Protestants and Catholics accused each other.

Age of Crisis

1550-1650. Religious warfare, poor weather, famines, high taxes, witchcraft, and an increase in poverty/prices and crime. Many monarchs responded with absolutism in order to bring order.

Ivan III and Ivan IV

16th century Russian rulers who modernized Russia by driving out Mongols and creating streltsy military class.

Peasants

80-85% of population. More free peasants in Western Europe. Decisions settled by village leaders.

Divine-right

A justification for absolutism. Idea that kings derive power directly from God and rule in his place on earth. Major proponent = Bishop Bossuet. Huguenots opposed this.

Scholasticism

Aristotelian-Ptolemaic thinking. Dominated science before 16th ct. Drew conclusions from logic rather than observation. Opposite of Scientific Method.

Middle Passage

Atlantic route of African Slave Trade. Portugal, Spain, England, and Netherlands participated.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)

Baroque painter, sculptor, and architect essential to Catholic reformation. Altar at St Peter's Basilica and The Ecstasy of St Teresa.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)

Baroque. First studio artist. Team of assistants helped create religious and political work.

Blaise Pascal (1623-62)

Believed that people should be religious (regardless of whether or not they're scientists) because there was nothing to lose ("Pascal's Wager").

Burgundy

Benelux/Netherlands. Inherited by Philip II from Charles IV. Good economy, religious tolerance. Philip wanted to make them Catholic.

Defenestration of Prague (1618)

Bohemian nobles tossed 2 imperial officials out the Prague Castle window in protest of Ferdinand. They then elected Frederick V as their new king → sparked 30 Years' War.

Baldassare Castiglione

Book of the Courtier showed how proper Renaissance men and women nobles should act. Men should be educated in the Classics, math/science, humanities, and sports. Women should be educated in literature and music.

War of the Three Henries

Bourbon and Henry III (Valois) allied against and assassinated Guise. A crazy monk then killed Henry III, so Bourbon became King Henry IV and converted back to Catholicism- politique move to win public support, "Paris is worth a mass".

Ferdinand II

Catholic Habsburg who became King of Bohemia (the 7th state) by promising Bohemians religious toleration. As King of Bohemia, he could vote himself HRE. Broke his promise.

Rococo

Centered in France, reached zenith under Louis XV. Depicted frivolous aristocratic scenes with pastel colors. Watteau, Boucher, Fragonard.

Maria Theresa (1740-80)

Centralized taxes and combined administrative offices. Tripled army size. Promoted education and vaccination. Outlawed capital punishment and torture. Eased serfdom. Main goal: strengthen Austria, recapture Silesia.

Cavaliers vs Roundheads

Charles I had to call Parliament back into session to collect taxes to prevent a Scottish invasion. Parliament refused to grant taxes. Cavaliers supported Charles, Roundheads supported Parliament and captured Charles in 1645.

James II (1685-88)

Charles II's Catholic successor. Tories supported his legitimate succession but Whigs did not, because they didn't want a Catholic dynasty.

Peace of Augsburg

Charles V agreed to allow German princes to decide whether they wanted their region to be Catholic or Protestant.

Diet of Augsburg

Charles V asks Lutherans to return to the Catholic church but they refuse and instead form the Schmalkaldic League.

DANISH PHASE (1625-29)

Christian IV of Denmark (Protestant) vs Albrecht von Wallenstein (Habsburg General). Christian wanted to spread Protestantism and gain Baltic land. Wallenstein won. HRE Ferdinand issued Edict of Restitution, which returned all Catholic Church lands confiscated since 1517 (angered the nobles). CATHOLICS.

Diderot

Compiled all the current Enlightened thinking about arts and sciences into the Encyclopedia. It was very secular and spread all over the world very quickly so was banned my Catholic church at one point.

Frederick William the Great Elector (1640-1688)

Controlled the Junkers, giving them complete power over serfs in exchange for submission to the state. Created General War Commissariat to collect taxes. Created a defensive army of 40k men. Promoted mercantilism and welcomed Huguenots expelled by Louis XIV.

Alexander VI/Borgia Pope

Corrupt, part of Renaissance Papacy. Used his children's marriage alliances to gain political power.

Rump Parliament

Cromwell expelled moderate MPs and created the Rump Parliament, but he soon dissolved that too and imposed military rule.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Deductive Reasoning- start from from general principle and use observation/reasoning to prove it. "I think therefore I am"- anything that thinks exists. Developed dualism, the idea that the world is made of mind and matter.

Mannerism (Late 16th century)

Distorted figures, showed disorder brought about and bad economy.

Bartolome de Las Casas

Dominican monk who defended the Indians from Spanish brutality. Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies. Thanks to him, the New Laws were made, which reformed encomienda. Native labor shortage created dependence on African Slavery.

Iconoclast Revolt

Dutch people protested Philip II's taxes by smashing church decorations.

subsistence agricultural system

Early 1700s. grow enough to feed the village and sell the leftovers. Before com rev. Village owned common land, which was sold off to the gentry in the Commercial Revolution, forcing small farmers to go homeless or move into cities.

Pragmatic Sanction

Early 18th ct; negotiated by HRE Charles VI to ensure the succession of a female heir, Maria Theresa.

Aristotelian-Ptolemaic View of Universe

Earth in center, surrounded by the Sun, moon and planets. Everything on Earth made from 4 elements. Things moved in circles, b/c sphere = heavenly perfection.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Eastern Hemisphere under Portuguese influence, Western under Spanish influence.

Treaty of Nystadt (1721)

Ended Great Northern War. Russia gained Baltic territory, allowing them to build St Petersburg.

Peace of Utrecht (1714):

Ended War of Spanish Succession. Louis ruled Spain but was not allowed to inherit the French throne. Spanish Netherlands and Italy given to Austria. England = big winner, gained Gibraltar, allowing it to dominate Mediterranean and European trade.

Robert Walpole (1721-43)

England's first prime minister; led the Whig party in Parliament. Advanced Britain's commercial interests through the world, kept the taxes down by avoiding war.

Enclosure Acts

English Parli allowed rich landowners to buy and enclose common lands. Drove peasants into the city for work.

Act of Succession (1701)

English monarchy can never be held by Catholic.

Petrarch

Father of Humanism. Believed the Renaissance was a departure from the ignorant Middle Ages. Wrote in Classical Latin about psychology and love.

Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

Father of Microbiology. Invented the microscope. Discovered sperm and bacteria.

Naples

Feudal monarchy eventually seized by Ferdinand of Aragon. Didn't really take part in Renaissance.

Gerardus Mercator

Flemish mapmaker who created the modern globe/standard map. Influenced by new knowledge of New World.

Great Schism (1378-1417)

France and Italy both had a pope and forced Europe to choose the real one.

BOHEMIAN PHASE (1618-1625)

Frederick V of Palatinate vs HRE Ferdinand II. Catholics win, take over Palatinate and Bohemia. Confiscate and redistribute Bohemian rebels' land. CATHOLICS.

Huguenots

French Calvinists. 40% of French nobles by 1560 (didn't want to be controlled by Cath King)

Physiocrats

French economic reformers who questioned mercantilism and supported laissez-faire policy. Led by Francois Quesnay. Government should not interfere in economy.

Michel de Montaigne

French guy who invented the essay and introduced skepticism towards European customs. Said Native Cannibalism was no worse that European wars.

Jean Baptiste-Colbert (1619-83)

French minister of finance and Louis XIV's primary advisor. Increased French exports and created the Five Great Farms, a domestic free-trade zone. Enhanced infrastructure. Organized industries into state-run corporations that produced high quality goods. Created French East India Company and Royal Navy. Increased taxes to fund Louis' wars and placed high tariffs on foreign goods → burden on the peasants.

Columbian Exchange

From the Americas to Europe: potatoes, tobacco, tomatoes, gold, corn, syphilis. From Europe to Americas: horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, disease (esp. Measles and smallpox). Native populations reduced by 90%.

four humors

Galen believed the body was made of blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Disease was caused by an imbalance of humors. Treatment = purging and bleeding.

Italy: origin of the Renaissance.

Geography - crossroads of trade and culture. Accepted humanists escaping the Byzantine Empire from Turks. Rich history from Ancient Rome. Social- merchants created a class of "new rich" that dominated the nobility. Merchants had money and power to sponsor the arts and culture. Political- City-states rather than central authority = more freedom for artists.

Deism

God made the universe but it runs on its own according to natural laws. Lack of emotion led to the rise of Pietism.

Military Revolution

Gunpowder and increased use of infantry and mass volleys. More flexible tactics invented by Gustavus Adolphus. Government increased military spending to 80%.

SWEDISH PHASE (1629-35)

Gustavus Adolphus (Swedish General) + Cardinal Richelieu (Louis XIII's advisor, French) vs Wallenstein. The Protestants win and Wallenstein is assassinated. New HRE Ferdinand III tries end the war by revoking the Edict of Restitution and signing the Peace of Prague with other German states. Conflict persists between the Spanish Habsburgs and the Swedish/French protestants. PROTESTANTS.

Diet of Worms

HRE Charles V asked Luther to recant doctrines, Luther refused, resulting in the Edict of Worms, which ruled Luther an outlaw of the Roman Empire and burned his work. Luther was saved by prince, Elector of Saxony, who put him in hiding at Wartburg Castle.

War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713)

HRE Charles named Philip V, Louis' grandson, his successor. France and Spain vs England, Netherlands, and HRE (balance of power - didn't want Bourbons to dominate Europe).

Golden Bull of 1356

HRE is elected by 7 German States. At the time, 3 were Protestant and 3 were Catholic

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Henry Bourbon and Margot (Medici's daughter) were going to get married for Compromise, but Catholics around France end up slaughtering 100k Protestant nobles. Henry Bourbon escaped by converting to Catholicism, but soon converted back to Huguenot.

Edward VI

Henry's successor. Under him, the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer made Catholicism more Protestant and simplified worship in the Book of Common Prayer and Act of Uniformity.

Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

Increased the direct taxes. Curbed the nobility's power: banned dueling, employed spies, appointed intendants (local officials) who helped implement monarchical orders. Prevented Huguenots from fortifying their towns. Supported Protestants in 30 Years War despite being Catholic, because he wanted to limit the Habsburgs' power.

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

Initially aided by Cardinal Mazarin, who continued Richelieu's policies. Limited nobles' power; controlled the 15 regional parlements (courts under noble control). Moved capital from Paris to Versailles. Enticed nobles with fascinations in Versailles or threatened them with exile/property confiscation.

Time of Troubles (1604-1613)

Internal stability and foreign invasion; began when Ivan IV killed his heir.

— Charles I (1625-49)

James I's successor. Parliament issued the Petition of Right saying he could not collect taxes without their permission, so he ruled about from 1629-39 and independently collected ship money.

St. Francis Xavier

Jesuit missionary. Established Christianity in India, Indonesia, and Japan.

Calvinism

Justification by faith alone + 2 sacraments. Also emphasized predestination, the idea that God had already chosen to "select few" to be saved. Institutes of Christian Religion by Calvin explained what Calvinism was and how to administer it. Dominated Geneva, religious community governed by Ecclesiastical Ordinances- NOT a theocracy but Elders help enforce public morals.

Hugo Grotius

Law of War and Peace. Believed Commerce and War should be governed by the common good of the international community rather than individual nations' success.

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1659)

Leader of Parliament and replaced Charles I as England's "Lord Protector." Wrote the Instruments of Government, England's first constitution. Created New Model Army. Excellent military leader. Religious toleration for Protestants. Banned Catholic holidays. Mercantilism. Violently subdued Irish and Scottish Rebellions.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Leviathan. Pro-Absolutism. Humans are born into the state of nature, where they create chaos and are equal in their ability to destroy one another. They may form a social contract with one another and the sovereign, who exists to bring order and prevent chaos. The sovereign decision counts as law; rebellion creates chaos.

Marquis de Louvois (1641-91)

Louis XIV's minister of war. Made France's Army the largest in Europe and made France the greatest military power. Accumulated eastern territory in wars of Louis XIV

Marburg Colloquy

Luther and Zwingli try to reconcile Lord's Supper differences and combine their sects. Failed. Ends in Zwingli having no German allies so he gets killed in Swiss Civil War.

Philip Melancthon

Luther's colleague. Praeceptor Germaniae ("teacher of Germany"). Called for a basic schooling system called Gymnasia. Example of Protestant advocacy for education + Bible literacy for boys and girls.

El Greco (1541-1614)

Mannerist in Spanish golden age. Introduced yellows and grays.

Cosimo de Medici

Medici Patriarch. Patron of humanism who founded the Florentine Platonic Academy.

Cottage Industry

Merchant capitalist paid wages to rural families to finish raw materials.

Adam Smith

Most powerful advocate of laissez-faire. The Wealth of Nations established classical economic thought. Free market capitalism- governments shouldn't interfere in economy with tariffs that hinder free trade. The "invisible hand" (self interest) will automatically generate national wealth.

Frederick William I (1713-1740)

Named king-in-Prussia in exchange for helping HRE in 30 Years' War. Increased army size to 80k. Made the government a meritocracy (but not open to serfs).

Dutch Republic

Netherlands' northern provinces. Became Europe's greatest financial power in early 17th ct. Established profitable joint-stock companies in Asian and traded with all nations/colonies. Bank of Amsterdam became Europe's financial center. Religious toleration attracted talented minorities.

Union of Utrecht

North Netherlands; against Spanish Rule. Led by William of Orange and supported by Elizabeth I. Defeated the Spanish Armada w/help of English ships, ending Spain's European dominance.

Venice

Oligarchy ruled by major merchant families. "Serene Republic" bc it was the most stable in Renaissance. Italy's main trading power.

Lutheranism

Only Christian authority is the Bible and Salvation by faith alone. Spread by printing press.

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

Orchestrated by Maria's advisor, Count von Kaunitz. France allied with Austria, and Britain allied with Prussia.

Act of Supremacy

Parliament declared Henry head of the Anglican church

Test Act (1673)

Parliament opposed Charles by requiring gov't officials to be Anglican

Great Northern War (1700-1721)

Peter the Great's Russia vs Sweden over dominance of the Baltic Sea (warmwater ports!!!). Peter used Russia's winter as a weapon... classic.

English Civil War (1603-89)

Political: Stuart Monarchy vs. English Parliament. Religious: Puritans wanted to purify the Anglican church, opposed the monarchy. Resulted in English government's unique monarchy + democracy fusion.

Elizabeth I

Politique (political unity above religion). Made England the leading Protestant Power, bringing forth the Golden Age. New Book of Common Prayer was vague enough to satisfy all Christians. Thirty Nine Articles detailed religious compromise. Saved England from Philip II's Spanish Armada.

Ninety Five Theses

Pope Leo X authorized Johan Tetzel to sell indulgences to build St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and Luther criticized this.

Babylonian Captivity

Pope exiled in France in 1307 to prevent him from overpowering the Roman pope.

Voltaire

Popularized Newton's scientific discoveries, criticized France's rigid government, denounced organized religion ("Crush the infamous thing!"). "Prince of the Philosophes."

Malthusian Trap

Population decline in response to population growth. Common trend before 18th century, caused by lack of resources, war, and disease. Stopped after the 18th century due to more advanced developments liked the smallpox vaccine and the end of the Little Ice Age and bubonic plague.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese Prince. Wanted to find sea route to Asia. Founded a navigation school who trained a new generation of sailors that settled the Azores Islands and explored the West Coast of Africa. Sailors found gold, spices, and slaves in Africa.

Savonarola

Preached against secularity of the Renaissance. Took over Florence but was eventually burned at the stake.

Enlightened Despots

Promote tolerance, reform laws, and support education. Influenced by the philosophes. Exceptions include George II of England and Louis XV of France.

Tycho Brahe

Proved Copernicus' heliocentric theory by observing and charting the night sky.

Louis XIII (1610-1643)

Relied on his advisor, Cardinal Richelieu. Son of Henry IV. Mother Marie de Medicis ruled as his regent.

Florence

Republic ruled by guild-members and the Medici Family, who were bankers. Known for banking and textiles. Queen City of the Renaissance.

The Social Contract

Rousseau's treatise on politics, which stated that individuals enter a social contract with each other in order to form a community. The power of the state should follow this general will, and rulers should be public servants to their people. Opposite of Hobbes and Locke, who believed the individual entered a contract with the ruler.

Treaty of Dover (1670)

Secret treaty between Charles II and Louis XIV; Charles promised to reintroduce Catholicism to England and received an annual stipend from France.

Union of Arras

South Netherlands; pro-Spanish Rule. Eventually became the Spanish Netherlands.

Battle of Lepanto

Spain defeats Ottomans in the Mediterranean and keeps that area Christian.

FRANCO-SWEDISH PHASE (1635-48)

Spain is defeated. Philip IV of Spain drained Spain's meager resources, ending Spain's Golden Age. Germany used as a battleground for its neighbors. All sides exhausted. PROTESTANTS.

Reconquista

Spain reclaimed Grenada, drove out Muslim Moors.

Encomienda system

Spanish settlers get plot of land and native labor if they protect and educate their Workers. In reality, settlers enacted harsh forced labor.

Julius II/Warrior Pope

Succeeded Borgia. Led armies into battle and sponsored art projects.

James I

Succeeded Elizabeth I in 1603. Believed in divine-right and limited Parliamentary power. Strict hierarchical structure for Anglican church, while Puritans in Parliament wanted a loose structure.

Papal States

Supposedly a despotism ruled by the pope but in reality its various nobles grappled for power. During the Renaissance Papacy (1417-1540s) popes were more focused on luxury and politics that religion → decreased prestige of Catholic Church.

Newton

Theorized the "world machine"- world works in accordance to mathematical law. Discovered gravity and invented Calculus (way to theorize changes in motion). Separated science and religion, set stage for deism.

Johannes Kepler

Three Laws of Planetary Motion- more mathematical than Brahe and Copernicus. Planets travel in oval paths and the closer a planet is to the sun, the faster it moves.

England

Tudors won the War of Roses. Henry VII and Henry VIII strengthened monarchy, weakened nobles.

Battle of Vienna (1683)

Turks besieged Vienna and was defeated by a multinational Holy League. Turks never posed a threat to central Europe again and slowly declined from decentralization.

John Locke (1632-1704)

Two Treatises on Government. Pro-limited gov't. The state of nature guarantees humans life, liberty, equality, and property. Gov't is created by the people and exists to prevent conflict over property. People have right to rebel if gov't doesn't do its job. Treatises written to justify Glorious Revolution; contributed to England's more democratic/parliamentary development. Mind=tabula rasa or "blank slate", so humans learn best from experience rather than memorization.

Peter the Great (1682-1725)

Westernized Russia by building its first navy and modern army, introducing mercantilism. Table of Ranks made landowners loyal to the state by requiring them to serve in military/gov't and allowed them to rise in status based on contributions to the state. Placed church under state control. Fought against Sweden and Ottoman Empire.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

Whig MPs invited Mary III (James II's Protestant daughter) and William II of Orange to invade England. James II surrendered the throne to them, and they passed the Bill of Rights granting Parliamentary sovereignty.

Henry IV (1589-1610)

With the help of his advisory Du de Sully, balanced France's budget and created effective taxation policy. Developed economy. Build infrastructure. Promoted colonization.

Frederick the Great

abolished torture, enacted religious tolerance (invited Protestants from France and Jews from Poland to immigrate to Prussia... to improve the economy). Still gave the Junkers a lot of power over their serfs.

Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros

addressed clerical abuses, tightened training of priests. Before Catholic Reformation

Concordat of Bologna

agreement between Francis I and the Pope. Allowed the French king to be head of the French church.

Pacification of Ghent

all Dutch provinces call for the end of Spanish rule.

Nine Years' War

anti-French Alliance formed, led by William of Orange. Louis only gained a few towns.

Filippo Brunelleschi

architect and inventor of perspective geometry. Made the dome in the Cathedral of Florence- Il Duomo

Nobles of the Robe

aristocracy originating from middle class who bought their office. More important role in gov't than Nobles of the Sword (hereditary).

Leonardo da Vinci

artist, scientist, engineer. Introduced systematic observation by recording all of his findings in journals (i.e his famous anatomical drawings. Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, Madonna of the Rocks.

An Address to the Nobility of the German Nation (1520)

asked German princes to support Lutheranism and resist the Catholic Church.

Charles "Turnip" Townsend (1674-1738)

avoid wasting fallow fields by introducing nitrogen-replenishing crops like turnips, clover, and alfalfa

Anabaptists

believed in adult baptism, literal interpretation of bible, complete separation of church and state. Lived in separate Communities; not dangerous. But hated by Catholics and Protestants.

Habsburg-Valois Wars (1494-1559)

between Habsburgs under Charles V and Valois under Francis I over land in Europe. France wanted to prevent Habsburgs from dominating Germany. Francis took the German Protestants' side even though he was Catholic. Charles won and dominated Italy but the war occupied him from addressing the Lutheran Crisis.

Rome

center of High Renaissance after 1490

Pico della Mirandola

champion of neo-Platonism, the belief in human potential and divinity in human beings. Wrote "Oration on the Dignity of Man."

Donatello

championed naturalism by making free-standing sculptures. David.

Paul III

countered Protestant Reformation.

Scientific Societies

created by national governments in 17th century; goal: exploit scientific discoveries for navigational and military benefit. Held meetings, published journals, conducted research. Royal Society of London and French Academy of Sciences.

Montesquieu

created the discipline of "social science" in Spirit of the Laws by applying natural sciences to government. Believed in a separation of powers- executive, legislative, and judicial- which influenced the American Constitution.

William Harvey (1578-1657)

developed modern blood flow theory based on Vesalius' observations. Arteries and veins circulate oxygen throughout body.

church calendar

dictated work and vacation days for Catholics. Carnival was the days before lent where people partied and class/gender roles switched.

putting-out system

different steps of manufacturing happened at different times. Entrepreneurs gave raw materials rural families ("cottages") to manufacture. Predecessor to factories.

Nuclear Family

dominant in 18th century Western Europe. Household taxes in the East caused extended families to live together.

Council of Trent (1545-63)

eliminated church abuses. Better education for priests. Reaffirmed clerical celibacy, good works, papal authority, and transubstantiation. Made religious compromise impossible.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

ended 7 Years' War. Gave Britain control of North America and India; Britain = most powerful naval power.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

ended Thirty Years' War. HRE no longer played a major role in European politics after this. Formally recognized Swiss and Dutch independence. Shifted Balance of Powers: major powers = France, Sweden, Prussia, Netherlands; second-tier = HRE and Spain. Gov'ts became more secular and centralized.

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

example of 14th century dynastic instability. France vs. England over the French throne. English longbowmen initially successful against French mounted knights. Joan of Arc turned the tide in favor and France at the Siege of Orleans → France wins.

Galileo

first to provide empirical support for heliocentrism. Invented and used the telescope to observe the moon, disproving the idea of "perfect heavenly bodies" in the Starry Messenger. Pope forced him to teach geocentrism but he disputed it in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican. Roman Inquisition silenced him.

France

fought over domination of Europe with Burgundy. Recovered well from the Hundred Years' War by extending territory, collecting taxes, and creating largest European army.

Bank of England

helped finance government debt. Better than France, where the king's debt was the country's debt and vice versa.

deserving vs undeserving poor

high poverty in 16th century cities overwhelmed charities → laws to distinguish between which poor deserved charity and which didn't. England's Poor Law of 1601 provided charity but punished those who broke its regulations.

Virtu

ideal quality in a Renaissance man. Knowledge used for the bettering of one's city-state (civic engagement)

Printing Press

invented by Johann Gutenberg in the 1450s; made knowledge more widely available (rather than monopolized by church and state) and spread the Renaissance and Reformation. Printed lots of vernacular.

Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

invented the seed drill, which deposited the seed into the soil.

joint-stock companies

investors pool money and share risks. Dutch and British East India Companies were most powerful and kicked the Portuguese out of Asia.

Indulgences

issued/sold by church to reduce a sinner's time in hell.

Black Death (1348-1351)

killed 40% of European population by spreading across trade routes and cities. Caused a labor shortage that destroyed the feudal structure, caused peasant revolts, and created a dependence on African Slavery. Some people scapegoated Jews and lost faith in Catholic Church, who didn't help much.

Individualism

learning should benefit and glorify the individual, not just God.

William of Orange

led Union of Utrecht. Supported by Elizabeth I.

Peasants' Revolt of 1524-1525

led by Protestants Andreas Carlstadt and Thomas Muntzer who called for a "priesthood of all believers." Against economic and religious grievances. Ironically denounced by Luther in Against the Murdering and Robbing Horde of Peasants → Luther criticized the peasants for rebelling against the state (Lutheranism depended on the State- i.e German Princes)

Council of the Indies

led by Spanish monarchy, controlled Spain's American colonies. Colonies split into 2 viceroyalties- New Mexico and Peru.

Act of Succession

legitimized Henry's new child with his new wife, Anne Boleyn.

Thomas More

loyal Catholic but very radical in his reforms. Executed for not supporting Henry VIII's takeover of the Catholic church. Utopia envisioned a moral life based on communal living.

Erasmus

loyal Catholic to wanted to reform the Church by moderately criticizing it. Praise of Folly. Believed in religious education and lifestyle. "Laid the egg that Luther hatched."

bourgeoisie

middle-class town dwellers.. Diverse professions (landowners, merchants, white-collar workers). Petit bourgeoisie worked in shops. Numbers increased in 16th/17th ct but political power was limited

mestizos

mixed race - half Native, half White.

New Monarchies

modern state began to take shape during Renaissance. Monarchs gained more control over the aristocracy by allying with the middle class and creating nobles of the robe, creating laws and courts, creating national armies, and using bureaucracies to help them enforce laws. They also took control of churches.

Agricultural Revolution

new crops, new techniques. Maximize food production. Centered in England and Netherlands. Netherlands pioneered enclosed fields, manure fertilizer, planting wide varieties of crops, and using drainage to reclaim marshes. The English brought innovations and the enclosure movement.

Gentry

new farmer class who produced commercial foods and lived like nobles (rich). Lower and upper classes both disliked them.

Portolani

new maps that provided accurate direction. Limited info on oceans.

Caravel, Lateen Sail

new ship designs. Aerodynamic. Made ocean sailing possible.

Absenteeism

not living in your spiritual domain because you hold a position elsewhere

open-field system

open grazing of animals on common village lands. Early 1700s.

serfdom

outlawed in Western Europe but increased in Eastern Europe. Russian state law- mid 17th ct.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

painted scenes of everyday rural life.

Renaissance Family

patriarchal (family head = patria potesta). Marriages arranged for economic benefit. Large age difference between husband and wife leads to prostitution, sexual abuse, and common remarriages when one spouse dies.

Jacquerie Rebellion (1358) and Wat Tyler's Revolt (1381)

peasants gained rights from Black death revolts, so nobles reasserted their power, leading to more violent peasant revolts.

Townspeople/Bourgeoisie

populated the cities. Standards of living varied- could be merchant oligarch or menial laborer. Lots of migrants. Inadequate infrastructure and overpopulation led to poverty, crime, and charities.

charivari/skimmington

publicly humiliating people who stepped outside their gender/class roles.

Court of Star Chamber

royal court system in England that helped centralize power. Established by Henry VII

Lorenzo de' Medici

ruler of Florence during its Golden Age. Advocated for civic humanism and patroned the arts. His death caused the decline of the Renaissance and invasion of Italy in 1492.

Frederick V

ruler of Palatinate who converted to Calvinism. Upset the Catholic-Lutheran balanced established in Germany by the Peace of Augsburg.

Vasco da Gama

sailed to India around the Cape of Good Hope. Made 1000% profit. Later defeated Indians with cannons and established trading stations for Portugal there, allowing them to become Europe's sole supplier of Eastern goods.

Michelangelo

sculpture (David, Pieta), painting (Sistine Chapel), architecture (St. Peter's Basilica). Good at all types of art.

Duke of Alba

sent to Netherlands after Iconoclast Revolt. Used Council of Blood to kill leading Protestants.

Pugachev's Rebellion

serf uprising along the Volga river that caused Catherine the Great to end her enlightened reforms. She suppressed the rebellion, executed the rebels, and tightened serfdom/extended nobles' privileges.

Joseph II

the most enlightened. Abolished serfdom, proclaimed religious toleration, abolished torture and the death penalty, abolished the robot forced labor system, and limited the power of the church. Nobles and peasants alike were opposed to or not ready for his reforms. His successor Leopold II repealed most of his reforms.

Malthusian Trap

too many people and not enough resources. Europe's population boomed in 1550, which led to the Price Revolution, then dropped again by 1650 from war, limited resources, famine, etc.

Leonardo Bruni

translated Ancient Greek texts into Latin and wrote a Latin history of Florence. Admired Cicero as a model for civic virtue. Student of Byzantine scholar Chrysolaras.

Baruch Spinoza (1632-77)

tried to reconcile religion and science using monism, the idea that all things are a manifestation of God. Rejected dualism and the corporeal existence of God.

Flagellants

viewed black death as a godly punishment and whipped themselves in atonement

Henry VIII

wanted a male heir but pope Clement VIII wouldn't legitimize his divorce.

John Wyclif and John Hus

wanted to reform the Catholic Church (predecessors of Protestant Reformation); burned at stake.

Lorenzo Valla

was a devout Catholic who wanted to reform the church → used analysis to prove that the "Donation of Constantine" was fake.

Niccolo Machiavelli

wrote The Prince, the first work of political science. Believed that rulers should be pragmatic like a lion and cunning like a fox- takes religion out of politics. Wrote during the foreign invasions of Italy and advocated for a United Italy.