AP European History - All Study Guide Terms

perestroika

"restructuring", one of Gorbachev's most radical reforms. At first this simply meant reordering economic policy with a market economy with limited free enterprise and some private property. He soon saw that the economic sphere was immediately tied to social and political spheres and one of the most influential instruments of this reform was glasnost, or openness in which citizens and officials were encouraged to discuss openly about their concerns with the Soviet Union. He called for the creation of a new Soviet parliament, the Congress of people's deputies, and legalized the formation of political parties and created a new state power.

Kulturkampf

"struggle for civilization"" which occurred through an attack on the Catholic church by Bismarck and the liberal middle-class who distrusted Catholic loyalty to the new Germany. However, Bismarck's strong-arm tactics against the Catholic clergy and Catholic institutions proved counter-production and he abandoned the attack on Catholicism by making an abrupt shift in policy.

dom pedro and brazil

"the Liberator", was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil. He reigned briefly over Portugal, where he also became known as "the Liberator" as well as "the Soldier King". He lost popularity after accepting a less liberal constitution and was not able to regain popularity.

Ethnic groups of Poland

68.9% of the population was Polish, 13.9% were Ukrainians, around 10% Jewish, 3.1% Belarusians, 2.3% Germans and 2.8% - others, including Lithuanians, Czechs and Armenians. Also, there were smaller communities of Russians, and Gypsies.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 treaty which divided the newly discovered world in the Americas into separate Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence. This left the majority of South America under the Spanish sphere leaving the route east around the Port of Good Hope under the Portuguese while the Spanish had the route across the Atlantic.

Jean Bodin

A 16th century political theorist who believed that sovereign power consisted of he authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state's administrative system, and determine foreign policy. These powers made a ruler sovereign.

Battle of Rossbach

A Battle during the Seven Years War in which Frederick the Great won a spectacular victory at this battle in Saxony over combined French-Austrian forces that outnumbered his own troops. After this battle, the forces of Frederick II were being attacked from three directions. They were saved by the death of Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia which brought her nephew Peter III to power. He admired Frederick the great so Peter withdrew the Russian troops from the conflict and from the Prussian lands they occupied. This guaranteed a stalemate and led to a desire for peace.

Battle of Lutzen

A Battle during the Swedish Phase of the Thirty Years' War. After Gustavus Adolphus's Swedish army swept the imperial forces out of the north and moved into the heart of Germany, the imperial side recalled Wallenstein, who got command of the imperial army that met Gustavus's troops near Leipzig. This battle was the result. Swedish forces prevailed but paid a high price for the victory because Adolphus was killed in battle. The Swedish forces ended up staying in Germany but they were less effective.

zoe gamond

A Belgian follower of Fourier who established her own phalanstery which was supposed to provide men and women with the same educational and job opportunities. As part of collective living, men and women were to share responsibilities for child care and housecleaning.

public health act

A British act which prohibited the construction of new building without running water and an internal drainage system. The role of the municipal government expanded to include detailed regulations on the improvement of urban living conditions.

David Lloyd George

A British chancellor who issued a policy of reform through social welfare and he abandoned laissez-faire and voted for a series of social reforms. The national insurance act of 1911 provided benefits for workers in case of sickness and unemployment, to be paid for by compulsory contributions from workers, employers, and the sate. Additional legislation provided small pension for retirees over 70 and compensation for workers injured on the job. To pay for this new program he increased taxes on the wealthy and were the first steps to the formation of a welfare state. He was also forced to confront the power of the House of Lords who took a strong stance against him.

robert owen

A British cotton manufacturer who believed that humans would reveal their natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. He was successful in transforming a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community yet when he attempted to create a fully functioning community in India, bickering within the community destroyed his dream.

Robert Clive

A British general who led the British to a victory in the Anglo-French struggle due to his persistence. He established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Bengal.

Phases of the French Revolution

1) Preliminary (Bourbons) 2) Moderate (National Assembly) 3) Radical (National Convention) 4) Directory (Directory) 5) Napoleonic (Napoleon Bonaparte)

Realpolitik

"Politics of Reality". Defined many of the new conservative leaders after the 1848 Revolutions. Defined by using armies to achieve foreign goals and manipulating liberal principles to achieve conservative goals. Bismarck was a common practitioner of this new political ideology.

Enlightenment

"man's leaving his self-caused immaturity", a movement where reason and logic appeared and intellectualls dared to know. Inspiration was taken from the scientific revolution and philosophies guided this movement as it spread across Europe.

Prince Eugene of Savoy

A general of the Imperial Army and statesman of the Holy Roman Empire and the Archduchy of Austria and one of the most successful military commanders in modern European history, rising to the highest offices of state at the Imperial court in Vienna.

General Thaddeus Kosciuszko

A general who attempted a heroic butt hopeless rebellion in 1794-1795 in an attempt to save Poland from Russia. After his failure, the remaining Polish state was obliterated by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the third partition of Poland.

Francesco Guicciadini

A great historian who represented the beginning of modern analytical historiography and saw the purpose of writing history to teach lessons and emphasized political and military history.

Conspiracy of Equals

A group created by Gracchus Babeuf that sought to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise. This group was crushed in 1796.

Legislative Assembly

A group created by the National Assembly under the constitution of 1791 that was able to review the powers of the king. Sovereign power was vested in this group who was to sit for 2 years and have 745 representatives. The representatives were chosen by an indirect system of election that kept power in the hands of affluent members of society. Both active and passive citizens had the same civil rights, but only active citizens who were men over 25 years old who paid taxes equal to 3 days' unskilled labor were allowed to vote. There were about 4.3 million in 1790. They voted for electors who had to pay taxes equal to 10 days' labor. This group of around 50,000 electors then voted for deputies, who paid a silver mark in taxes equal to 54 days' labor. Its first session was in October 1791 after he king tried to flee France and was then taken back to Paris. This group was mostly men of property, especially lawyers. They had experience in revolutionary politics through the National Guard, Jacobin clubs, and many new elective offices. This group declared war on Austria on April 20, 1792. Reactionaries wanted preoccupation with war to cool down the Revolution, Leftists wanted war to spread the Revolution and strengthen it in France. This group, after the French were losing and facing possible invasion, called for 20,000 National Guardsmen from the provinces to defend Paris. However, the insurrectionary commune organized a mob attack on the royal palace and this group which in August 1792. They took the king prisoner and forced the group to suspend the monarchy and call for a national convention chosen by universal male suffrage. Power was passed to the new Paris Commune.

National Assembly

A group created on June 17, 1789 made up of members of the Third Estate who wanted to respond to the First Estate's plan to vote by order in the Estates-General. They decided to draw up a constitution and made the Tennis Court Oath in which they swore to meet until they finished it. This group had to legal right to assemble but the Third Estate members, mostly those with legal representation. One of the first acts of the group was to destroy relics of feudalism and aristocratic privileges. To some deputies, this act was to cam peasants and restore order in the countryside but to others they wanted to abolish feudalism as a matter of principle. On August 4, 1789, this group voted to abolish seigneurial rights and fiscal privileges of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces. The group then adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. This was a charter of basic liberties that reflected Revolutionary ideals and gave many rights such as the rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. The group, however, ignored the demands from Olympe de Gouges calling for rights for women as well. When the fish women marched to Paris, the king was forced to accept this group's decrees about the abolition of feudalism and the declaration of rights. They then created the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in which bishops and priests of the Catholic Church wee elected by the state and they had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution. However, this was a mistake because it gave a base of opposition against the group. By 1791, a new constitution was complete that created a limited constitutional monarchy. This resulted in a legislative assembly that would review the king's powers. They also created 83 departments in France who were supervised by elected councils and officials who were mostly made up of the bourgeoisie, especially lawyers.

Orangists

A group in the Dutch Republic consisting of the House of Orange who were in a struggle with the oligarchs that governed the Dutch Republic's towns. The House of Orange acted as stadholders that headed the executive branch of government. The stadholders sought to reduce the power of this group but became divided when Dutch burghers called the Patriots advocated for democratic reforms that would open up municipal councils to greater participation than just the oligarchs. After these Patriots were successful, the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister who was the wife of the Orangist stadholder and crushed the Patriots. Then this group and the regents reestablished the old system.

Patriots

A group of Dutch burghers of artisans, merchants, and shopkeepers who began to agitate for democratic reforms that would open up municipal councils to greater participation than that of the oligarchs. Their success led to foreign intervention when the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister who was the wife of the Orangist stadholder. This group was crushed and the old system was reestablished.

European Community

A group of European states that was initially called the European Economic Community. he Western European States started this group in hopes of integrating their economies. They cooperated in international and political affairs and worked to provide a common front in negotiations on important issues. It later became the European Union.

Petrograd soviet

A group of Soviets formed in March 1917 and around the same time soviets sprang up spontaneously in army units and towns. They represented the more radical interests of the lower classes and were composed of socialists of all kinds. The Bolsheviks gained a majority in this soviet and the provisional government was struggle to gain control of Russia. Leon Trotsky was the chairman of this soviet and helped the Bolsheviks gain control and overthrow the provisional government.

Free Corps

A group of anti revolutionary volunteers raised by Friedrich Ebert and the moderate army which worked to crush the rebels. The victorious forces brutally murdered Liebkneckt and Luxemburg. A similar attempt at communist revolution in the city of Munich was also crushed by this group and the Germany republic was saved.

Sisters of the Common Life

A group of followers of Gerard Groote which was for women and which were founded in Netherlands and to Germany who did not constitute regular religious orders. They were laypeople who took no formal monastic vows but were nevertheless regulated by quasi-monastic rules that they imposed on their own communities. They also established schools throughout Germany and the Netherlands in which they stressed their message of imitating the life of Jesus by serving others. This group attested to the vitality of spiritual life among lay Christians in the fourteenth century.

Brothers of the Common Life

A group of followers of Gerard Groote which were founded in Netherlands and to Germany who did not constitute regular religious orders. They were laypeople who took no formal monastic vows but were nevertheless regulated by quasi-monastic rules that they imposed on their own communities. They also established schools throughout Germany and the Netherlands in which they stressed their message of imitating the life of Jesus by serving others. This group attested to the vitality of spiritual life among lay Christians in the fourteenth century.

Politiques

A group of individuals in France who placed politics before religion and believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of civil war. They ultimately prevailed but not before both sides were exhausted by bloodshed.

Florentine Platonic Academy

A group of individuals who had a great interest in the works of Plato and were commissioned by Cosimo de' Medici and ultimately patronized translations of Plato and the exposition of the Platonic Philosophy called neoplatonism.

Jacobites

A group of individuals who led a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in Great Britain and Ireland occurring between 1688 and 1746. Tehy aimed to restore the Roman Catholic Stuart King James II of England and Ireland and his heirs to the thrones of England, Scotland, France and Ireland.

Wright brothers

A group of individuals who made the first flight in a fixed-wing plane powered by a gasoline engine. It took WWI to stimulate aircraft industry and the first regular passenger air service was not established until 1919.

Anabaptists

A group of radical protestants who were members of a large variety of groups which was especially attractive to the peasants, weavers, miners, and artisans who were affected by the economic changes of the age. All felt that the Christian church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone spiritual rebirth and had been baptized into the church who advocated adult rather than infant baptism as they thought no one should be forced to accept the truth of the bible and tried to return literally to the practices and spirit of early Christianity.

People's Will

A group of radicals who were encouraged by Zasulich's successful use of violence against the tsarist regime who succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881.

luddites

A group of skilled crafts persons in the Midlands and northern England who attacked the machines that they believed threatened their livelihoods. These attacks failed to stop the industrial mechanization of Britain and were viewed as naive. The inability of 12,000 troops to find culprits provides stunning evidence of the local support they received in their areas.

ultraroyalists

A group that criticized the king's willingness to compromise and retain the many features of the Napoleonic era. They specially criticized Louis XVIII. This group's goal was to return to a monarchical system dominated by a privileged landed aristocracy and to restore the Catholic Church to its former position of influence.

the party of movement

A group that emerged in the Chamber of Deputies. It was led by Adolphe Thiers and favored ministerial responsibility, the pursuit of an active foreign policy, and limited expansion of the franchise. The Party of Resistance overpowered it.

the party of resistance

A group that emerged in the Chamber of Deputies. It was led by Francois Guizot who believed that France had finally reached the "perfect form" of government and needed no further institutional changes. It dominated the Chamber of Deputies after 1840 and Guizot cooperated with Louis-Philippe in suppressing ministerial responsibility and pursuing a policy favoring the interests of the wealthier manufacturers and tradespeople.

the nationalist assosciation

A group which emerged in Italy which worked to promote nationalism and saw the value of war as a tool of foreign policy. They preached the idea of "struggle for existence".

Levellers

A group who advocated advanced idea such as freedom of speech, religious toleration, and a democratic republic, arguing for the right to vote for all male householders over the age of twenty one. They also called for annual parliaments, women's equality with men, and government programs to care for the poor. This group opposed Cromwell and challenged his control.

Physiocrats

A group who were led by Francois Quesnay who are called the founders of modern economics. They claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society and believed that land was the key to wealth and thus agriculture could be used to increase wealth and that the government should limit it's involvement in economics.

League of Nations

A grouping which was heavily encouraged by Woodrow Wilson which served to prevent future wars. The details of its structure were not yet determined, and Wilson willingly agreed to make compromises on territorial arrangements to guarantee its establishment, as he believed that if it was functioning it would rectify bad arrangements.

Constitutional Democrats

A groups of moderates in Russia who were responsible for establishing the provisional government and represented primarily a middle-class and liberal aristocratic minority. Their program consisted of a liberal agenda that included working toward a parliamentary democracy and passing reforms that provided universal suffrage, civil equality, and an eight-hour workday.

Abstract art

A high point in the modernist artist's flight from "visual reality " which was founded by Kandinsky which avoided representation and believed that art should speak directly to the soul and to do so it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color.

Civil humanism

A humanist movement in Florence that was tied to Florentine civic spirit and pride Fourteenth century humanists like Petrarch described the intellectual life as one of solitude. They rejected family and a life of action in the community. In the busy civic world of Florence, intellectuals took a new view on their role. The Classical Roman Cicero, who was a statesman and intellectual, became their model. Leonardo Bruni, a humanist, Florentine patriot, and chancellor of the city, wrote a biography of Cicero called 'The New Cicero' that talked about the fusion of political action and literary creation in Cicero's life. Cicero was the inspiration for the Renaissance ideal that it was the duty of an intellectual to live an active life for one's state. An individual only grows to maturity- both intellectually and morally- through participation in the life of the state. This type of humanism reflected the values of the urban society of the Italian Renaissance and believed that the study of the humanities should be put to the service of the state, causing them to serve as chancellors, Councillors, and advisers.

Lorenzo Valla

A humanist who grew up in Rome and was educated in Latin and Greek. He eventually achieved his chief ambition of becoming a papal secretary. His major work was 'The Elegances of the Latin Language' which was an effort to purify medieval Latin and restore Latin to its proper position over the vernacular. It examined the proper use of Classical Latin and made a new literary standard. Early humanists tended to take as Classical models an author (including Christians) who had written before the 7th century. This author identified different stages in the development of the Latin language and accepted only Latin of the last century of the Roman Republic and the first century of the empire.

"white man's burden"

A humanitarian motive for imperialism which argues that Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize ignorant peoples. This notion helped at least the more idealistic individuals rationalize imperialism in their own minds. Individuals such as Kipling rationalized this idea.

greenhouse effect

A key contributor of global warming which was the warming of the earth because of the buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is contributing to devastating droughts and storms, the melting of polar ice caps, and rising sea levels.

Theodor Herzl

A key figure in the growth of the Zionist political movement who wrote The Jewish State in which he maintained that the Jews who wish it will have their state. He thought that assimilation did not protect Jews from antisemitism.

Charles XII of Sweden

A king of Sweden who was primarily interested in military affairs and was a great general who had grandiose plans and strategies which involved Sweden in conflicts with Poland, Denmark, and Russia and proved to be Sweden's undoing. When he died in 1718, he lost much of Sweden's northern empire to Russia and Sweden's status as a first-class northern power had ended.

permissive society

A label used to describe the new society of postwar Europe. World War I opened the first crack in the rigid code of manners and morals and the 1920s witnessed experimentation with drugs, the appearance of pornography, and a new sexual freedom. These indications of a new attitude appeared mostly in major cities and touched small amounts of people and after WWI, changes in manners and morals were far more extensive and far more noticeable.

Neoclassicism

A late eighteenth century artistic movement that emerged in France. It sought to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the Classical style of ancient Greek and Rome.

Segur

A law created in 1781 that was in reaction to the ambitions of aristocrats newly arrived from the bourgeoisie an that attempted to limit the sale of military officer ships to fourth-generation nobles, therefore excluding the newly enrolled members of nobility.

corn law of 1815

A law passed by the Tory government in Great Britain that imposed extremely high tariffs on foreign grain. The tariffs had benefited the landowners, the price of bread rose a lot, making life hard for the working class.

Commodore Matthew Perry

A leader of American naval forces who forced the Japanese to grant the United States trading and diplomatic privileges. Japan, however, managed to avoid China's fate.

Disraeli

A leader of Great Britain who was a Tory who was motivated by the desire to win over the newly enfranchised groups to the conservative party. He passed the reform act of 1867 which worked to democratize Britain. By lowering the monetary requirements for voting, it enfranchised many male urban workers. He believed that this would benefit the conservatives and the industrial workers had a huge liberal victory. The extension of the right to vote had an important by-product as it forced the liberal and conservative parties to organize carefully to manipulate the electorate.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

A leader of the slave revolt in Saint-Domingue who was the son of African slaves. He seized control of all of Hispaniola by 1801. Napoleon accepted the revolutionary idea of equality but did not deny the reports of white planters on the savage nature of blacks. He reinstated slavery in 1802 in the French West Indian colonies and sent an army that captured the leader who died in a French dungeon within a year. The French soldiers were weak with disease and lost to slave forces, leading to the west part of Hispaniola, or Haiti, announce its freedom and become the first independent state in Latin America, resulting in revolutionary ideals being triumphant abroad.

Schmalkaldic League

A league established after the Schmalkaldic wars in which German protestant princes aligned themselves withe the catholic french king Henry II to revive the war, forcing Charles to negotiate a truce.

Catholic League

A league of the German states that was organized by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. It acted as the Imperial Army in the Thirty Years' War. and was created to counteract the Protestant League. By 1609, the Germans were dividing between Protestant and the Christians, who made up this League. An army under this League led by Count Tilly defeated the forces of Christian IV in 1626.

Social Democrats

A left-wing party which often joined with the communists and were losing support. They also fared well after the war as the desire to overthrow the old order led to the abandonment of conservative politics, yet support for this party waned. Their identification with the communists cost them, and while they advocated economic and social planning, they no longer demanded the elimination off the capitalist system.

Duma

A legislative assembly created by Nicholas II in the October manifesto which satisfied the middle-class moderates who now supported the government's repression of a workers' uprising in Moscow.

David Lloyd George

A liberal British reformer. He was the leader of the Ministry of Munitions which took steps to make sure that private industry would produce war material at limited profits. It had a bureaucracy of 65,000 clerks to oversee munitions plants. It got the power to take over plants manufacturing war goods that didn't cooperate with the government as well. He became the British prime minister in 1916 and he won a decisive electoral victory in 1918 by promising to make Germany pay for the dreadful war. After the war, he led a wartime coalition government but it filed to help with unemployment and the decline of British industries such as coal, steel, and textiles.

Giovanni Giolitti

A liberal leader of Italy who was the prime minister and a master of transformism, where old political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by political and economic bribery. However, his devious methods made Italian politics even more corrupt and unmanageable and he tried to appease urban workers with welfare legislation and universal male suffrage and to arouse nationalism by conquering Libya yet the unrest continued.

Triple Entente

A loose confederation made up of Great Britain, France, and Russia was opposed to the triple alliance made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Duke of Alva

A man sent by Phillip II into the Netherlands to stop initial Calvinist revolts. He was aided by 10,000 veteran Spanish and Italian troops to crush the rebellion yet his repressive policies proved counter production. The levying of a permanent sales tax alienated many merchants and commoners. A special tribunal called the council of troubles created a reign of terror which executed powerful aristocrats, leading to the revolt being organized under William of Alva and ultimately Philip removing this man and switching to a more conciliatory policy.

Johannes Gutenberg

A man who completed the printing from movable type using the printing press. He made Gutenberg's Bible which was the first true book in the West produced from movable type. Printing became one of Europe's largest industries and the printing of books encouraged the development of scholarly research and the desire to attain knowledge. It also led to cooperation among scholars and standardized texts as well as a great number of literate members of the public.

Martin Bucer

A man who created a moderate reform movement in Strasbourg which contained characteristics of Luther's and Zwingli's movements.

thomas malthus

A man who made a case against government interference in economic matters. His major work, Essay on the Principles of Population, argued that population, when unchecked, increases at a much slower arithmetic rate which would cause severe overpopulation and ultimately starvation for the human race. He saw nature as imposing a major restraint and that misery and poverty were inevitable results of the law of nature and no government or individual should interfere with its operation.

father jahn

A man who organized gymnastic societies during the Napoleonic wars to promote the regeneration of German youth. He encouraged Germans to pursue their Germanic heritage and urged his followers to disrupt their lectures of professors whose views were not nationalistic. Some of the ideas behind the burschenschaften were inspired by him.

James Cook

A man who wrote about his geographic travels in his book Travels, which was an account of his journey to discover tahiti and to New Zealand and Australia that became a best seller in Europe.

peterloo massacre

A mass protest by government detractors in which 11 were killed and led parliament to take more repressive measures as the government restricted large public meetings and the dissemination of pamphlets among the poor. At the same time, by making minor reforms in the 1820s, the Tories managed to avoid meeting the demands for electoral reforms.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

A massacre of Huguenots in August 1572 that occurred during the marriage of the sister of the reigning Valois king, Charles IX, and Henry of Navarre, the Bourbon ruler of Navarre and son of Jeanne d'Albret who had introduced Calvinist ideas into her kingdom. Henry was the acknowledged political leader of the Huguenots and many of them went to Paris for the wedding. The Guise family ended up persuading the king and his mother, Catherine de' Medici, that the Huguenots gathering was a threat to them. they decided to eliminate Huguenot leaders with one swift blow. Charles believed that a civil war would occur anyways and it would be easier to win a battle in Paris. The massacre occurred after the king's guards sought out and killed some prominent Huguenot leaders. This led to a three day frenzy of violence as Catholic mobs killed Huguenots in cruel ways. 3 days later, 3,000 Huguenots were left dead and the Valois dynasty was left discredited and the conflict remained.

Henry Stanley

A member of Belgium's International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa to establish Belgian settlements in the Congo.

Alexander VI

A member of the Borgia family who raised his nephews and scandalized the church by encouraging his son Cesare to carve out a state for himself from the Papal states in central Italy.

William III

A member of the House of Orange who was called upon by the United Provinces in 1672 because they were burdened by war with France and England. He established a monarchical regime but after he died without an heir, republican forces took control of the Dutch Republic once again.

Lorenzo the Magnificent

A member of the Medici family and grandson of Cosimo de' Medici who dominated Florence at a time when it was the center of the cultural renaissance.

Cosimo de' Medici

A member of the Medici family who participated in lavish patronage and careful courting of political allies, he and later his grandson Lorenzo the magnificent were successful in dominating the city at a time when Rome was the center of the cultural renaissance.

Admiral Kolchak

A member of the whites who insisted on restoring the tsarist regime opposed to others who understood that only a more liberal and democratic program had any chance of success. This man was a white general who led a white force to push Westward and advance almost to the Volga river before being stopped. Attacks also came from the Ukrainians in the Southeast and from the Baltic regions although he was unable to prevent the white forces from being defeated.

Credit

A method of finance which was used to back paper banknotes. This allowed for a paper substitute for gold and silver currency and increased the capital for financing large armies and other government undertakings which could be raised in ever-greater quantities.

Alexander Kerensky

A moderate socialist who became the prime minister in Russia's provisional government. In September when General Lavr Kornilov attempted to march on Petrograd and achieve power, he released the Bolsheviks from prison and turned to the Petrograd for help, actions that strengthened the Petrograd soviets and showed Lenin how weak the provisional government really was.

welfare state

A modern form of state which was used in Britain by the labour government under Clement Attlee. This began with the nationalization of the Bank of England, the coal and steel industries, public transportation, and public utilities. The national insurance act and national health service act created systems of social security and socialized medicine.

Reign of Terror

A movement established by the National Convention and Committee of Public Safety as well as Robespierre in which Revolutionary courts were organized to protect the Republic from its internal enemies. Victims of this movement were from all classes and included royalists such as Queen Marie Antoinette as well as former revolutionary Girondins such as Olympe de Gouges. Most victims were those who opposed the radical activities of the sans-culottes. In 9 months, 16,000 people were killed by the guillotine, although the number of victims was closer o 50,000. Most executions occurred in the Vendee and in cities like Lyons and Marseilles that were in open rebellion against the National Convention's authority. Military force in the form of revolutionary armies brought rebel cities and districts back under control. Marseilles fell to the army in August and Lyons starved and surrendered early in October after 2 months of resistance. 1,880 citizens of Lyons were killed by cannon fire when the guillotine was slow due to it being France's 2nd city after Paris but still rebelling. In the Vendee, armies killed many, even women and children. It was most destructive there and 42% of death sentences were in territories affected by the Vendee Rebellion. 8 % of victims were nobles, 25% were middle class, 6% were clergy, and 60% were peasants. It was believed that this bloodletting was just temporary until order was restores and it was ended with the Thermidorian reaction after Maximilian Robespierre, a leader of the movement, was killed.

Modern Devotion

A movement founded by Gerard Groote which spread from Germany into the Low Countries in a new form. The ideas were based on achieving a true spiritual communion with God which could be done by imitating Jesus and lead lives dedicate to serving the needs of their fellow human beings. He emphasized a simple inner piety and morality based on Scripture and an avoidance of the complexities of theology. The followers of this movement with the brothers and sisters of the common life.

Civil Rights Movement

A movement in America in the 1960s in which African Americans worked to gain equal rights for African Americans and began in 1954 when the supreme court took the step of striking down he practice of racially segregating public schools. Individuals such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X were leading figures in this movement and it ultimately was successful despite causing severe division of the American population.

Prague Spring

A movement in Czechoslovakia which was a period of euphoria which occurred following Novotny alienating members of his party and leading to a writer's rebellion which led to Novotny's resignation. Dubcek took control and introduced new reforms including freedom of speech, freedom to travel abroad, freedom of press, and a relaxation of secret police activities which worked to produce "communism with a human face". This was short lived and led to many more far reaching reforms such as the invasion by the red army and the takeover by Husak.

Catholic Reformation

A movement in Europe which countered Lutheranism and Calvinism through constructive and positive forces for reform within the Catholic Church which came to be directed by a revived and reformed papacy, giving the church new strength. The revival of Catholicism were directly aimed at stopping Protestants and it reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings and practices while rejecting the principles and practices advocated by the Protestant reformers. Examples included new religious orders including the Society of Jesus which worked to spread Christianity.

Mau Mau

A movement in Kenya among the Kikuyo peoples in which they used terrorism to demand uhuru, or freedom, from the British. This terrorism scared the European population and convinced the British to promise eventual independence.

Spanish Inquisition

A movement in Spain put into place by Ferdinand and Isabella with the help of the pope after many converted Jews kept reverting back to Judaism. This government expelled all professed Jews from Spain and 150,000 out of 200,000 fled. They also battled the Muslims by attacking the Kingdom of Granada. The war against remaining Muslims lasted 11 years until the final bastion of Granada fell. Muslims were encouraged to convert to Christianity but in 1502 Isabella made a decree that expelled all professed Muslims from her kingdom. It was thought that to be Spanish was to be Catholic and uniformity was enforced by this movement.

Great Schism

A movement in which there were two popes, one being in Rome and the other at Avignon. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome yet he died soon after, leading to Pope Urban VI being elected by a council and deciding to reform the papal curia and swamp the college of cardinals with Italians. He remained in Rome and his election was declared void. However, a French pope called Clement VII returned to Avignon, causing there to be two popes. This aggravated the financial abuses of the church and damaged the faith of Christian believers and was eventually ended by the Council of Constance.

Red terror

A movement instituted by the cheka which established terror against all of the classes, specifically the bourgeois, who opposed the new regime. Thousands were executed, and it ended a new element of terror to the Bolshevik regime.

fabian socialists

A movement of laborers who emerged from this group who stressed the need for workers to use their right to vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation that would benefit the laboring class yet they were not Marxist and consolidated to form the labor party.

Renaissance

A movement of rebirth and discovery in Europe which was a period in Ital in which there was a rebirth of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization, marking a new age in classical culture, arts, and literature.

protestantism- "awakening"

A movement that began in the 18th century with the enthusiastic emotional experiences of Methodism in Britain and Pietism in Germany. Methodist missionaries from England and Scotland carried their messages of sin and redemption to liberal protestant churches in France and Switzerland, winning converts to their strongly evangelical message. Germany, too, witnessed a Protestant awakening as enthusiastic evangelical preachers found that their messages of hellfire and their methods of emotional conversion evoked a ready response among people alienated by the highly educated establishment clergy of the state churches.

Dadaism

A movement that tried to enshrine the purposelessness of life. Tristan Tzara, a Romanian-French poet and one of the founders of this movement, talked about this contempt for the Western tradition. It was believed to be the great rebellion of artistic movements. Hannah Hoch used this movement to comment on women's roles in the new mass culture. She was the only female member of the Berlin Dada Club which used a photo-montage. her work was part of the first Dada show in Berlin in 1920 such as 'Dada Dance' that criticized the new woman by making fun of the way women were inclined to follow new fashion styles and she expressed interest in new freedoms for women.

Thatcherism

A movement under Margaret Thatcher which worked to lower taxes, reduce government bureaucracy, limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation. Her economic policy improved the British economic system at the price of cutbacks in education and old industrial areas failing.

suffrage movement

A movement which emerged in the 1840s and 1850s and called for the right to vote. Millicent Fawcett of Britain called for women to demonstrate their ability to use political power while the Women's Social and Political Union took a more radicalized approach. They wanted women to have full citizenship in the nation-state.

Mysticism

A movement which is the immediate experience of oneness with God which is characterized by the teaching of Meister Eckhart who sparked this movement in western Germany and showed the union of the soul with God and saw a union as obtainable by all those who pursued it wholeheartedly.

Zionist movement

A movement which merged in Eastern Europe after Jewish emancipation in which Jews saw Palestine as the land of their dreams and wanted independence. Herzl practiced this idea and gained financial support for the development of settlements in Palestine from wealthy Jewish banking families yet it was difficult, although this movement remained nothing more than a dream.

Easter Rebellion

A movement which occurred in Ireland when members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Citizens army occupies government buildings in Dublin on Easter Sunday in 1916. This revolt was crushed by British forces and the leaders were condemned to death.

Anarchism

A movement which was especially prominent in less industrialized and less democratic countries which stemmed from Marxist socialism. It initially was not a violent movement as early followers believed that people were inherently good but had been corrupted by the state and society. True freedom could be achieved only by abolishing the state and all existing social institutions. In the second half of the 19th century, however, followers in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Russia began to advocate using radical means to accomplish this goal and the Russian Michael Bakunin, for example, believed that small groups of well trained revolutionaries could disintegrate the state. Assassination was their primary institute of terror and they were unable to cause the collapse of governments.

Pluralism

A movement which was practiced by high church officials (bishops, archbishops, and cardinals_ to increase their revenues by taking over more than one church office. This movement led to absenteeism.

materialism

A movement which was the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was simply a result of physical forces. Truth was to be found in the concrete material existence of human beings and nor, as the Romantics imagines, in revelations gained by feeling or intuitive flashes and the importance of this movement was strikingly evident in the most important scientific event of the 19th century: the development of the theory of organic evolution according to natural selection.

War of attrition

A name for the Trench warfare between Germany and France. It was called this (meaning wearing down) because the goal was to break down the enemy.

Muslim League

A nationalist group created by Muslims in India that called for self-government. They also wanted to protect Muslim rights. They helped form Pakistan.

Cheka

A new Red secret police which replaced the old tsarists secret police which instituted a red terror aimed at the destruction of all opponents of the new regime. "Class enemies"- the bourgeois- were especially singled out, and they promulgated terror against members of all classes, including the proletariat if they opposed the new regime. The red terror added an element of terror to the Bolshevik regime.

Education Act

A new act passed by Gladstone which attempted to make elementary schools available for all children. These reforms were typically liberal and by eliminating abuses and enabling people with talent to compete fairly in order to strengthen the nation and its institutions.

Pop Art

A new artistic movement in the 1950s and 90s which took images of popular culture and transformed them into works of fine art. Several British art students incorporate science fiction and american advertising techniques into their exhibits. Andy Warhol was the most popular artist in this style and used commercial art to show the techniques of this style.

Post-impressionism

A new artistic movement which emerged first in France before spreading to other European countries. This retained the Impressionist emphasis on light and color but revolutionized it further by paying more attention to structure and form. They used color and line to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality rather than imitation of object and it shifted from objective reality to subjective reality and withdrew from the artists' traditional task of depicting the external world. Artists who practiced this style include Paul Cezanne and Vincent Van Gough.

Abstract Expressionism

A new artistic style which emerged in New York and was called "abstract painting" and was energetic and spontaneous, qualities evident in the enormous canvases of Jackson Polluck who showed paint seeming to explode.

Ecclesiastical Ordinances

A new church constitution accepted by the council of Geneva which was created by Calvin and created a church government that used both clergy and laymen in the service of the church and created the consistory which advanced Calvin's success in Geneva and enable the city to become a vibrant center for Protestantism.

Napoleonic Code-Civil Code (roles of family members, women, etc)

A new code of laws created by Napoleon that preserved many of the Revolutionary gains by recognizing the equality of all citizens before the law, giving individual the right to choose their own professions, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom and feudalism. Property rights were carefully protected and the interest of employers was guarded by outlawing trade unions and strikes. However, the Revolution made divorce an easy process for husbands and wives, restricted rights of fathers over children, and allowed all children (including daughters) to inherit property equally. This code of laws made it so divorce was allowed but difficult for women to obtain, fathers regained control over their children, women's property went under the control of the husband upon marriage, and women were treated as minors in lawsuits.

Thirty-Nine Articles

A new confession of ate created by Elizabeth which defined theological issued midway between Lutheranism and Calvinism. Elizabeth's religious settlement was basically Protestant, but it was a moderate Protestantism that avoided overly subtle distinctions and extremes.

39 Articles

A new confession of faith which defined theological issues midway between Lutheranism and Calvinism under Elizabeth which was basically Protestant but avoided extremes.

Constitution of 1791

A new constitution that established a limited constitutional monarchy. There was still a monarch, called the "king of the French" but he had few powers not subject to review by the new Legislative Assembly. This assembly had sovereign power and was to sit for 2 years and was made up of 745 representatives. Active and passive systems were distinguished with as indirect election went into effect. Only active citizens who were over the age of 25 and payed taxed equal to 3 days of unskilled labor could vote. They voted for electors who payed 10 days of labor in taxes. These electors chose deputies who payed 54 days in taxes. The National assembly also divided France into 83 departments that were then divided into districts and communes that were supervised by elected councils and officials who oversaw financial, administrative, judicial, and ecclesiastical institutions within their domains. Bourgeois and aristocrats were eligible for office based on property qualifications but few nobles were elected, leaving the bourgeoisie, especially lawyers, to hold local and departmental government positions.

Constitution of 1795

A new constitution that was written after the Thermidorian reaction. It reflected a more conservative republicanism or a desire for a stability that did not sacrifice the ideals of 1789. It established a two-chambered national legislative assembly in hopes of avoiding the dangers of another single legislative assembly. It also established the Directory.

Mass leisure

A new emergence of leisure as play or leisure activities were more widely available due to the new work patterns which also involved new technology and business practices. New technologies and urbanized transportation led to the emergence of music and dance halls, mass tourism, team sports, and mass consumption.

Mannerism

A new form of art which reflected the environment of uncertainty, suffering, and anxiety and was a deliberate attempt to break down the high renaissance principles of balance, harmony, and moderation. Italian painters in this style deliberately distorted the rules of proportion portraying elongated figures that conveyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion. It spread from Italy o other parts of Europe and reached its height in the work of el Greco who showed the world of intense emotion.

Joint-stock Company

A new form of commercial organization which had individuals who bought shares in a company and received dividends on their investment while a board of directors ran the company and made the important business decisions. The return of these investments could be spectacular.

welfare state and reforms

A new form of government seen in Britain after George crated new measures to better the lives of the people such as the national insurance act of 1911 which provided benefits for workers in case of sickness and unemployment which would be paid for by compulsory contributions from workers, employers, and the state. Additional legislation provided a small pension for retirees over 70 and compensation for workers injured on the job. To pay for this program the tax burden on the wealthy was increased.

functionalism

A new form of modern architecture which meant that buildings, like products or machines, should be "functional" or useful and fulfill a purpose for which they were constructed. Art and engineering were to be unified and all unnecessary ornamentation was to be removed. This style was based on the architects' belief that art had a social function and could help create a new civilization. The United States was the leader in this new architecture movement as was the Bauhaus school or art, architecture, and design which taught the union of arts and crafts to create buildings and objects of the future.

Trench Warfare

A new form of warfare which took over WWI on the Western front. This resulted in a stalemate and kept both sides in the same positions for four years. This form of warfare involved the digging of trenches to prevent mass casualties. These trenches were shaped in a zig-zag pattern and included sleeping quarters and other leisure. However, due to heavy rain the conditions in these trenches were horrible as diseases such as trench foot and cholera spread.

national assembly

A new government which emerged following the decline of the estates-general which was made up of primarily the third estate. This group vowed to constitute itself a national Assembly and vowed to meet until they had created a constitution in the tennis court oath which made up the first step of the French revolution. Moderate republicans eventually received the majority and were able to control the central government.

provisional government

A new government which was established and ordered that representatives for a constituent assembly convened to draw up a new constitution be elected by universal manhood suffrage. This government also established national workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc and were to be cooperative factories run by works, yet it ultimately led to a growing split between the moderate republicans and the radical republicans.

Bach system

A new governmental system developed by Alexander von Bach of Austria in which local privileges were subordinated to a unified system of administration, law, and taxation implemented by German-speaking officials. Hungary was under the rule of military officers and the Catholic church was declared the state church and given control of education.

multiculturalism

A new idea generated by global migrations which was the interaction between the Western and non-Western world which melded to create a more harmonious global environment as new art styles and contemporary art reflected this new idea.

German volkish thought

A new idea of race in which the Aryans were seen as the original creators of Western culture. The Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of such lower races as Jews, Negroes, and Orientals and Jews were singles out. Chamberlain was a proponent of this idea.

uncertainty principle

A new idea presented in physics by Werner Heisenberg which argued that no one could determine the path of an electron because the very act of observing the electron with light affected the electron's location. This was an explanation or the path of the electron and was a new worldview which shattered the confidence in predictability and dared to propose that uncertainty was at the root of all physical laws.

Reichsrat

A new imperial parliament of Austria established by Francis Joseph which was supposed to provide representation for the nationalities within the empire but the complicated formula used for elections instead insured the election of the German-speaking majority and alienated ethnic minorities, mainly the Hungarians.

Modernism-views toward religion, literature, art, symbolism, music

A new intellectual and art movement which in literature utilized naturalism which accepted the material world as real and felt that literature should be realistic. By addressing social problems which could help to understand the world. While this was a continuation of realism, it lacked optimism and was a pessimistic movement. Symbolism was another movement which believed that objective knowledge of the world was impossible. In the arts, this movement saw impressionism, post-impressionism, and cubism as artists such as artists such as Morisot, Monet, Cezanne, Van Gough, and others. Finally, in music a new nationalistic spirit emerged as composers such as Grieg, Debussy, and Diaghilev emerged as famous artists.

"new unionism"

A new more radical change of the economic system which called for "collective ownership and control over production, distribution, and exchange" which led to the union organization of many steel factory workers and to new confrontations in the streets of London.

deconstruction (poststructuralism)

A new movement created by Derrida who believed that culture is created and can therefore be analyzed in a variety of ways, according to the manner in which people create their own meaning. Hence, there is no fixed truth or universal meaning.

feminism

A new movement for the liberation of women which was renewed in the 1960s as prominent individuals such as Friedan contributed to working to gain equality with men in social and political sectors.

socialism

A new movement which emerged after the Industrial revolution which eventually became associated with a Marxist analysis of human society and was the product of a number of political theorists of intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to competition that characterized early industrial capitalism. However, this belief was later called Utopian socialism. Individuals who practiced this ideology included Fourier, Owen, Blanc, and Tristan.

fascism

A new movement which emerged in Italy under Mussolini and saw a new form of radical authoritarian nationalism, characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition and control of industry and commerce, which came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. These radical reforms were often marked by violence and limiting the freedoms of people. This ideal was enforced by the squadristi who turned attacks on Socialist offices and newspapers.

Marxism

A new political philosophy developed by Karl Marx off of the Communist Manifesto which accepted the imminent collapse of capitalism and the need for socialist ownership of the means of production. They espoused the struggle between the bourgeois and proletariat and the need for the proletariat to gain control through revolutionary means.

Society of Jesus

A new religious order created by Loyola which was grounded on the principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hierarchical order for the society, the use of education to achieve its goals, and a dedication to engage in "conflict for god". They came to resemble the structure of a military command and a two-year novitiate weeded out all but the most dedicated. Executive leadership was placed in the hands of a general. They pursued three major activities: established highly disciplined schools, propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians, and were determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism.

Fifth Republic

A new republic in France under Charles de Gaulle that was created in 1958. De Gaulle drafted a new constitution after he was given power by the Fourth Republic due to the Algerian crisis. This new constitution increased the power of the president who could now choose the prime minister ,dissolve parliament, and supervise defense and foreign policy. De Gaulle hoped to return France to the position of a great power.

existentialism

A new sense of meaningless which was born out of the depression caused by the two world wars and the breakdown of traditional values. This reflected the anxieties of the 20th century and became especially well known after World War II through the works of Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. The central point of this belief was the absence of God in the universe and the death of God meant humans had no preordained destiny and were utterly alone in the universe, with no future and no hope. The world was absurd and without meaning and the only hope for humans was themselves. It involved an ethics of action, of involvement in life and people could not define themselves without their involvement with others and its ethical measures was just as important as its philosophy of being and the message was one of authenticity. "The struggle to discover the huan person in a depersonalized age.

serialism

A new style of music which was inspired by Schonberg and had an order of succession set for specific values of pitch, loudness, and units of time. By predetermining the order o succession, the owner restricts his freedom and created a chain of unanticipated musical events. The first recognized composer in this style Oliver Messaian who was influenced by Italian and Greek music and the public did not like it. An offshoot of this style was minimalism.

realism

A new style of painting which soon spread to realism. The literary figures they were distinguished by their rejection of romanticism and wanted to deal with ordinary characters from real life rather than romantic heroes and they sought to avoid flowery and sentimental language and were in favor of prose and the novel. They often combined their interest in everyday life with a searching examination of social questions. The leading novelist was Gustave Flaubert. In Art, this movement paralleled Romanticism and showed everyday life with ordinary people and the French were the leaders in this new movement. Courbet and Millet were the main artists of this style.

social security

A new system of the welfare state established by the insurance act which nationalized medical insurance, enabling the state to subsidize the unemployment of the sick and the aged.

socialized medicine

A new system off the welfare state in Great Britain which required doctors and dentists to work with state hospitals, although private practices could be maintained. This measure was especially costly for the state and it became a model for most European states after the war.

Continental System

A new system put into effect by Napoleon between 1806 and 1807 that attempted to prevent British good from reaching the European continent in order to weaken the British economically and destroy its capacity to wage war. It failed and the allied states began to further resent the ever-tightening French economic hegemony. Some cheated and others resisted which opened the door to British collaboration. New markets in the eastern Mediterranean and in Latin America also provided compensation for the British, and by 1810, British overseas exports were approaching record heights, resulting in the system backfiring on Napoleon and France.

global warming

A new threat to the environment which created to the global crisis as all of the world's scientists agree that the greenhouse effect is contributing to devastating droughts and storms, the melting of polar ice caps, and rising sea levels which could drown coastal regions in the second half of the twenty-first century. Also alarming is the potential loss of biodiversity.

Blitzkrieg

A new time of warfare which played a role in rearmament which was "lighting war". This was commonly used by Hitler and some of his commanders to avoid trench warfare and depended on mechanized columns and massive air power to cut quickly across battle lines and encircle and annihilate enemy armies. This meant the quick defeat of an enemy and also determined much of Hitler's rearmament program, including the construction of a large air force called the Luftwaffe and the panzer divisons.

Theater of the Absurd

A new trend in postwar literature which began in France through artists such as Samuel Beckett in which no background information is given and nothing seems to be happening. The audience is never told what is real or not and suspense is retained by having the audience ask "what is happening now"?

Postmodernism

A new type of artistic and intellectual though which rejects the modern Western belief in an objective truth and instead focuses on the relative nature off reality and knowledge. Human knowledge is defined by a number of factors that must constantly be revised and tested by human experiences.

enlightened absolutism

A new type of monarchy which emerged in the late 18th century and included monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria who supposedly followed the advice of the philosophies and ruled by enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood.

"black man's burden"

A notion which stood opposed to the "white man's burden" which was enforced by Morel and encouraged the ideal that the intervention of imperialism negatively affected the blacks and forced them to endure more suffering while not providing any real benefits.

Canterbury Tales

A novel written by Geoffrey Chaucer who brought a new level of sophistication to the English vernacular language as he used beauty of expression and clear, forceful language to transform his East Midland dialect into the chief ancestor of the modern English language. This work was a collection of stories told by a group of 29 pilgrims journeying from the London suburb of Southward to the tomb of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury. It gave Chaucer a chance to portray an entire range of English society, both high and low born. He also used some of his characters to criticize the corruption of the church in the late medieval period yet he was still a pious Christian.

Leo Tolstoy

A novelist in Russia whose greatest work was War and Peace which was a lengthy novel played out against the historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. It is realistic in its vivid descriptions of military life and character portray and each person in delineated clearly and analyzed psychologically. He imposed a fantastic view of history that ultimately proved irrelevant in the face of life's enduring values of human love and trust.

women's right movement

A number of women in the United States were appalled at the injustices against women and sought improvements by focusing on specific goals. Family and marriage laws were singled out and these early efforts were not particularly successful, as women did not gain the right to their own property, legalized divorce, or the right to vote until much later. New professions also emerged through this movement as nurses and teachers became female oriented. The right to vote was eventually achieved as well, and was seen as the key to all other reforms involving freedom for women.

Saint Teresa of Avila

A nun of the Carmelite order who experienced mystical visions and believed that the Mystical experience should lead to an active life of service on behalf of her Catholic faith, causing her to found the Carmelite nuns.

Florence Nightingale

A nurse during the Crimean war whose insistence on strict sanitary conditions saved many lives and helped make nursing a profession of trained, middle-class women.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

A pact drafted by the American secretary of state Frank B. Kellogg and the French foreign minister Aristide Briand. 63 nations eventually agreed to the pact in which they pledged to "renounce war as an instrument of national policy". Nothing was said about what would happen if the treaty was violated.

Reparations

A payment required of the Germans in the Treaty of Versailles which was to be administered to the allies for all the damage to which they and their people were subjected as a result of the war imposed upon them by Germany and her allies.

Peace of Alais

A peace document created by Cardinal Richelieu in France in which Hugeuenots lost their fortified cities and Protestant armies and Calvinist aristocratic influence was reduced. Huguenots were still allowed to practice Calvinism, however.

Civil Disobedience

A peaceful policy established by Gandhi in which they refused to obey British regulations as a way to enact change.

civil disobedience

A peaceful policy practiced by Gandhi in which he refused to obey British regulations and began to manufacture his own clothes and dressed in simple clothes. While the British resisted this movement, they granted India internal self-government to be implemented to a gradual program.

"Jacqueries"

A peasant revolt in 1358 which broke out in Northern France. The destruction of normal order by the black death and the subsequent economic dislocation were important factors in causing the revolt but the ravages created by the hundred years' war also affected the french peasantry. Both the french and English forces laid waste to peasants' fields while bands of mercenaries lived off the land by taking peasants' produce as well. Peasant anger was also increased by growing lass tensions as aristocrats looked on peasants with utter contempt which caused the peasants to burn castles and murder nobles, yet this revolt failed as the privileged classes closed ranks, savagely massacred the rebels, and ended the revolt.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

A philosopher who at first welcomed the French Revolution for freeing the human spirit but soon became a proponent of a German national spirit radically different from that of France. His philosophical voice did little to overthrow he French but it did awaken a dream of German nationalism that would bear fruit later in the 19th century.

Baruch Spinoza

A philosopher who grew up in tolerant Amsterdam and was excommunicated at the age of 24 for rejecting the tenets of Judaism. He was ostracized by the local Jewish community and major Christian churches so he lived a quiet, independent life and earned a living by grinding optical lenses. He refused to accept an academic position in philosophy at university of Heidelberg for fear of compromising his freedom of thought. He was influenced a lot by Descartes. He believed that God was the universe and that all that is is in God and nothing can be apart from God. This philosophy of pantheism that was set out in his book 'Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner" that was published after that believed that human beings are as much a part of God or nature or the universal order as other natural objects. He attributed existence to God who must b worshiped to gain ends. When nature appeared unfriendly, it was God who was angry at man's wrongdoing. Humans made moral condemnations of others because they failed to understand human emotions. To explain emotions, they needed to be analyzed as movement of the planets would be. Everything had a rational explanation and humans could find it and true happiness using reason. Real freedom would come when humans understood order and necessity of nature and could achieve detachment from passing interests.

Barbara Bodichon

A pioneer in the development of female education and established her own school where girls were trained for economic independence and domesticity.

Black Death

A plague which spread through Europe in the mid fourteenth century which was the most devastating natural disaster in European history which ravaged Europe's population and caused economic, social, political, and cultural upheaval.

Olympe de Gouges

A playwright and pamphleteer who refused to accept the exclusion of women from political rights as said in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. She echoed the words of the official declaration in her 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen' in which she insisted that women should have all the same rights as men, although the National Assembly ignored her demands.

New Economic Policy

A policy created by Lenin that was a modified version of the old capitalist system. Peasants could now sell their produce openly, and retail stores and small industries that employed fewer than 20 employees could operate under private ownership. Heavy industry, banking, and mines stayed in the hands of the government. This policy prevented complete economic disaster but Lenin and other leading Communists only wanted it to be a temporary, tactical retreat from the goals of communism.

denazification

A policy followed after the second war which worked to eliminate the ideas and policies that the Nazis pursued and caused greater contention over Germany, along with the partitioning of Germany.

"place in the sun"

A policy followed by Emperor William II of Germany after his dismissal of Germany in which he was dedicated to enhancing German power by finding this for Germany.

de-Stalinization

A policy followed by the European satellite states in which they instituted five year plans with emphasis on heavy industry rather than consumer goods and began to collective agriculture, eliminate all non-Communist parties, and established the institutions of repression off the secret police and military forces. However, communism had not developed deep roots in Eastern Europe and the Soviet economic exploitation resulted in harsh living conditions for most people.

Isolationism

A policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.

mutual deterrence

A policy that was a search for security which believed that an arsenal of nuclear weapons prevented war by assuring that if one nation launched its nuclear weapons in a preemptive first strike, the other nation would still be able to respond and devastate the attacker. It included the assumption that neither side would risk using the massive arsenals that had been assembled and was practiced during the Cold War.

containment

A policy that was used by the Americans and was advocated for by George Kennan in his article, 'Foreign Affairs'. This policy was against further aggressive Soviet moves. Kennan favored the "adroit and vigilant application of counter-force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points, corresponding to the shifts and maneuvers of Soviet policy." This policy was executed after the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948 when Americans officially adopted this policy.

Magyarization

A policy undergone by the Magyars in Hungary by imposing the Magyar language being imposed on all schools and was the only language that could be used by government and military officials.

War communism

A policy used by communists in Russia which was used to ensure regular supplies for the Red army. This included the nationalization of banks and most industries, the forcible requisition off grain from peasants, and the centralization of state administration under Bolshevik control.

appeasement

A policy utilized by the British against Nazi Germany which was based on the belief that if European states satisfied the reasonable demands of dissatisfied powers, the latter would be content and stability and peace would be achieved throughout Europe.

Nationalism

A political creed that arose during the French Revolution with the French people's emphasis on brotherhood and solidarity against other peoples. It involved the unique cultural identity of a people based on a common language, religion, and national symbols. This spirit made mas armies possibly during the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.

Henry John Temple

A political figure, also known as Lord Palmerston, who was prime minister for most of the period from 1855 to 1865. He was a Whig but was without strong party loyalty and found it easy to make political compromise. He was not a reformer, however, and he opposed expanding the franchise.

African National Congress

A political group formed in South Africa in 1912 that was formed by local blacks. At first, it was a group of intellectuals whose goal was to gain economic and political reforms within the existing system. They hoped for full equality for educated Africans. Their efforts were not successful and the whites were making segregation laws such at the apartheid. The blacks rebelled and Nelson Mandela, the leader of this group, was arrested, resulting in this group calling for armed resistance to the white government. Most of South Africa was liberated.

labour party

A political party in Great Britain which forced the liberals to adopt new reforms as they were frustrated by the lack of reforms and wanted a collective ownership and control over production, distribution, and exchange which was a new unionism which led to the union organization of many steel factory workers and to new confrontations in the streets of London as British workers struck for a minimum wage and other benefits.

Russian Social Democrats

A political party in Russia which included the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The Mensheviks wanted them to be a mass electoral socialist party based on a Western model and were willing to cooperate temporarily in a parliamentary democracy while working toward achieving a socialist state. The Bolsheviks were a small faction led by Lenin which favored a violent revolution to destroy the capitalist system, and this faction of this party ultimately rose to power in Russia and assumed control of the government.

Christian Democrats

A political party in Western Europe which were not connected to the prewar church-based parties which were advocated of church interests and had crusaded against both liberal and socialist causes and were sincerely interested in democracy and in significant economic reforms. They were especially strong in Italy and Germany.

Social Democratic party

A political party led by Liebknecht and Bebel which espoused revolutionary Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the reichstag. They worked to enact legislation to improve the conditions of the working class and continued to grow until it became the largest single party in Germany.

conservatism

A political philosophy which was supported by Metternich and began with Edmund Burke which saw that sudden change was unacceptable but that did not mean that there should never be gradual or evolutionary movements.

Jean Bodin

A political theorist who believed that sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state's administrative system, and determine foreign policy. These powers made a ruler sovereign.

John Locke—background, beliefs

A political theorist who wrote 'Two Treastises of Government' which began with a state of nature before human existence became socially organized. He believed than humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than a state of war and that they had certain inalienable natural rights to life, liberty, and property. The government meant to ensure the protection of those rights. The people had to act reasonably to the government in exchange but could create a new government if the current one failed at its duties. He mainly just focused on the landed aristocracy rather than the masses, however. In his 'Essay Concerning Human Understanding', Locke denied Descartes's belief in innate ideas and argued that all people were born with a tabula rasa, or blank mind. He believed that knowledge was derived from environment and reason instead of heredity or faith. By changing the environment to create proper influences, a new society could be created following Enlightenment ideas based on reason.

Pope Sixtus IV

A pope who practices nepotism by promoting five of his nephews to cardinals

Pope John Paul II

A pope whose real name was Karol Wojtyla. he was the archbishop of Krakow in Poland before becoming the pope and he was the first non-Italian to become pope since the 16th century. He alienated many people by reasserting traditional Catholic teaching on such issues as birth control, women in priesthood, and clerical celibacy, his many travels around the world helped strengthen the Catholic Church in the non-Western world. He believed in social justice and was a powerful figure in reminding Europeans of their spiritual heritage and the need to end materialism in exchange for spiritual concerns. he condemned nuclear weapons and reminded leaders and laity of their duty to prevent war.

Georges Boulanger

A popular French military officer who attracted the public attention of all those discontented with the third republic including the monarchists, bonapartists, aristocrats, and nationalists who favored a war of revenge against Germany. He appeared as the strong man on horseback, the savior of France and when his strength grew to the point where many expected a coup d'etat, he lost his nerve and fled and this crisis was used to rally support for the resilient republic.

Vincent Van Gogh

A post-impressionist artists who saw art as a spiritual experience and was especially interested in color and believed that it could act as its own form of language. He maintained that artists should paint what they fell, as evident in his Starry Night.

Paul Cezanne

A post-impressionist artists who was influenced by impressionists but rejected their work. In his paintings such as Mont Saint-Victire, he sought to express the underlying geometric structure and form of everything he painted and pressed his wet brush directly on the canvas, forming cubes of color on which he built the form of the mountain which enabled him to break down forms to their basic components.

Derrida

A postmodernist who drew on the ideas of de Saussure to demonstrate how dependent Western culture is on binary oppositions. In Western thought, one set of oppositions is generally favored over the other such as speech being favored over writing. This man showed that the privileged depends on the inferior and rather than saying that writing surpassed speech, he showed that spelling often altered pronunciation. He formulated poststructuralism or deconstruction that believes that culture is created and can therefore be analyzed in a variety of ways, according to the manner in which people create their own meaning. Hence, there is no fixed truth or universal meaning.

Charles XII of Sweden

A powerful Swedish monarch who was able to regain power over the nobility and church but was killed in the Battle of Poltova and followed by the increase of noble power.

nepotism

A practice by which popes promoted their family members through granting them positions inside of the church.

"livery and maintenance"

A practice by which wealthy aristocrats maintained private armies of followers dedicated to the service of their lord which was ultimately demolished by Henry to end the private wars of the nobility.

Sati

A practice in India which was banned by the British. This practice called for a widow to immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre, and the abolition of this practice became central to Britain's image of itself as culturally superior.

Infanticide

A practice in which children were married which was often a result of the economic crisis where mothers saw children as such a burden to some families that they turned to this practice of abandoned their children at foundling homes.

Unrestricted submarine warfare

A practice that was utilized by the Germans during World War I which promoted the entrance of the United States into the war after the passenger liner Lusitania was sunk with over one hundred Americans on board. This practice was used by the Germans who retaliated to Britain's naval blockade on Germany and declared the area around the British isles a war zone and threatened to torpedo any ship caught in it.

Patronage

A practice used by many wealthy landed aristocrats to gain support by those who could vote in the boroughs which resulted in a number of "pocket boroughs" who were controlled by a single person.

Robert Walpole

A prime minister who served from 1721 to 1742 and pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. New forces emerging in the 18th century England as growing trade and industry led an ever-increasing middle class to favor expansion of trade and world empire.

unconditional surrender

A principle in which no guarantees are given to the surrendering party. This threat against the Germans and Japanese were discouraged from overthrowing their governments in order to arrange a negotiated pace and also cemented the Grand Alliance by making it nearly impossible for Hitler to divide his foes.

principle of intervention

A principle that means that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries here there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones. It was introduced by Metternich at the Congress of Vienna but Britain refused to accept it.

ministerial responsibility

A principle that the ministers of the king were responsible to the legislature. It was accepted by King Charles X of France but he ended up violating the commitment which paved the way for the French revolution.

petite rouquette

A prison in France that used the Walnut Street model of solitary confinement. Prisoners inside wore leather masks while they exercised and sat in separate chapel stalls. The goal was to force prisoners to examine their consciences, feel remorse, and change their evil ways.

pasteurization

A process created by Louis Pasteur which was created after he examined a disease threatening the wine industry which led to the development of a process for heating a product to destroy the organisms causing spoilage.

russification

A process enacted by Alexander II in Russia in which the numerous nationalities that made up the Russian Empire were forced to speak Russian, yet this angered the national groups and created new sources of opposition.

Americanization (Hollywood, rock music)

A process through which the United States spread its particular form of consumerism and American dream to millions around the world through movies, music, advertising, and television. Motion pictures were a main method of spreading American popular culture following the war and they continued to dominate the market afterwards. Europeans made films very unlike those from Hollywood with more cultural traits included in them. For Europeans, it was cheaper to purchase television shows from America than it was to produce their own. One example was the BBC who bought American shows and played them throughout Europe. The United States also dominated Europe with jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock-and-roll. They ll came from the U.S. and were rooted in African American musical innovations. with rock-and-roll, American artists like chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Elvis Presley inspired European performers like the Beatles. Rock music was very popular with young audiences and it became more widespread after Elvis Presley.

decolonization

A process which occurred after World War II where the power of the European states had been destroyed by the war and the greatest colonial empire, Great Britain, no longer had the energy or wealth to maintain its colonial empire. Given the combination of circumstances, a rush of this movement swept the world and virtually every colony achieved independence and attained statehood. Although some colonial powers willingly relinquished control, others had to be driven out by national wars of liberation.

mass education

A product of mass society as being educated meant attending secondary school or even a university which emphasized classical education based on the study of Greek and Latin and was expanded by the state. European States in Germany worked to establish states up until universal elementary education was established, creating free compulsory education available to both girls and boys and showing that education was crucial to both personal and social improvement and to supplant Catholic education with moral and civil training based on secular valued. Industrialization was also a motive due to the need of skilled labor.

Hermeticism

A product of the Florentine intellectual environment of the late 15th century which contained two types of writing, the first being the occult sciences and the other focusing on theological beliefs and speculations. Some of these writings espoused pantheism and saw divinity embodied in all aspects of nature and in the heavenly bodies as well as in earthly objects. This revival brought a new view of humankind and showed humans in a divine nature.

Zwingli

A product of the Swiss forest cantons who was the son of a prosperous peasant and went to university in Vienna and Basel an was strongly influenced by Christian humanism. He began the reformation in Switzerland and preached at the Gospel causing unrest that in 1523 the city council held a public disputation or debate in the town hall. The disputation became a standard method of spreading the reformation to many cities and it gave an advantage to reformers and became a standard method of spreading the reformation to many cities and the Catholics were not used to defending their teaching. His party was accorded the victory and he influenced the reforms in Zurich which replaced mass with scripture, abolished relics and images, and removed paintings from churches. Music was eliminated from the service and monasticism, pilgrimages, veneration of the saints, clerical celibacy, and the pope's authority were abolished and led to the movement spreading in Switzerland. This movement aced a serious political problem as the forest cantons remained staunchly catholic which led to the Swiss civil war in which he died.

New deal program

A program created by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt as a mean to combat the Great Depression and pursue a policy of active government intervention in the economy. The First one created many agencies designed to bring relief, recovery, and reform. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was made to insure the safety of bank deposits up to $5,000. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was made to give funds to help states and local communities to meet the needs of the destitute and homeless. The Civilian Conservation Corps was made to employ 2 million people in reforestation projects and federal road and conservation projects. After it became clear that the initial efforts of Roosevelt's administration would only have a slow recovery, more radical ideas were advocated for by critics. He made a new effort that was the Second one which included a better program of public works like the Works Progress Administration (WPA) that employed 2-3 million people to build bridges, roads, post offices, and airports. There was also social legislation made to create the American welfare state. The Social Security Act was made to create a system of old-age pensions and unemployment insurance. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 encouraged the rapid growth of labor unions. This program gave some social reforms that possibly averted the possibility of social revolution in the U.S. It did not solve the unemployment issues of the Great Depression, however.

nationalities program

A program in Austria-Hungary which worked to solve the nationalities program by magyarization and influencing the Hungarian language and working to supress the minorities.

propaganda

A program of distorted information out out by an organization or government to spread its policy, cause, or doctrine. Totalitarian states such as the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, and fascist Italy all used this in order to influence the population and bring the people to their side.

Margaret Cavendish

A prominent female scientist who came from an aristocratic background who was excluded from the royal society and wrote many works on a variety of scientific matters, including Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy, both of which attacked the defects of rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge and critical of the growing belief that through science humans would be masters of all of nature.

Scutage

A prominent practice following the Black Death which were money payments that were substituted for military service. Monarchs welcomed this development because they could now hire professional soldiers who tended to be more reliable anyway. As lord-vassal relationships became less personal and less important, new relationships based on political advantage began to be formed, creating new avenues for political influence and corruption.

Germaine de Stael

A prominent writer who refused to accept Napoleon's rowing despotism. She was educated in Enlightenment ideas and she set up a salon that became a prominent intellectual center in Paris by 1800. She wrote novels and political works that denounced Napoleon's rule as tyrannical. He banned her books in France and exiled her to the German states where she continued to write, anguished by the fact that she was absent from France. After the overthrow of Napoleon, she returned to her beloved Paris where she died two years later.

Landgrave Philip of Hesse

A protestant political leader who attempted to promote an alliance of the Swiss and German reformed churches by persuading the leaders of both to attend a colloquy at Marburg to resolve their differences.

Balfour Declaration

A public statement issued by the British government during World War I announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a minority Jewish population.

"the eastern question"

A question which government the European political scene over who would control the Ottoman Empire territories after it collapsed.

Malcolm X

A radical black leader during the civil rights movement in America who was the leader of the Black Muslims who used violence to advance the civil rights movement.

Emmeline Pankhurst

A radical feminist who founded the Women's Social and Political Union which enrolled mostly middle and upper class women who realized the value of the media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands. They were labelled as "suffragettes" and pelted government officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, smashed the windows of department stores, burned railroad cards, and went on hunger strikes in jail.

Sans-culottes

A radical group who made up a large part of the new Paris commune. They were ordinary patriots without fine clothes. They are usually associated with working people or the poor but many were merchants and better-off artisans who were the elite of their neighborhoods and trades.

Gracchus Babeuf

A radical in the directory who was appalled at the misery of the common people and who wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise. He created the Conspiracy of Equals which was crushed in 1796 and was executed in 1797.

Alexander Herzen

A radical writer and Russian exile whose slogan "land and freedom" epitomized his belief that the Russian peasant must be the chief instrument for social reform and her believed that the mir could serve as an independent self-governing body which would form the basis of a new Russia. His idea formed the populist movement.

Sepoy Rebellion

A rebellion against the private trading company known as the British east India company which was responsible for subjugating much of India. In 1858, however, after a revolt off the sepoys, or Indian troops of the East India Company's army, had been crushed, the British parliament transferred the company's powers directly to the government in London. In 1876 the title Empress of India was bestowed on Queen Victoria and the Indians were her colonial subjects.

Pugachev's rebellion

A rebellion under Catherine the great in which a man used discontent to star a mass revolt. His revolt spread across southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga River. Initially successful, he won the support of man peasants when he issued a manifesto in July 1774 freeing all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service. They were encouraged to seize their landlords' estates and the peasants responded by killing more than 1,500 estate owners and their families. This rebellion soon faltered, however, as government forces rallied and became more effective. Betrayed by his own subordinates the leader was captured, tortured, and executed and the rebellion collapsed, causing Catherine to respond with greater supression of the peasants.

Scottish Rebellion 1637

A rebellion which occurred after Archbishop Laud attempted to impose the Anglican book of common prayer on the Scottish Presbyterians Church, causing the Scots to rise up in rebellion. In order to defend against the Scots, the king was forced to call Parliament into session, ultimately leading to immense limits on Parliament's control.

Redistribution Act

A reform act passed in Britain which eliminated historic boroughs and counties and established constituencies with approximately equal populations and one representative each. The payment of salaries to members of the house of commons further democratized that institution by opening the door to people other than the country.

Brezhnev Doctrine

A reform under Brezhnev which gave the Soviet Union the right to intervene if socialism was threatened in another socialist state and it became an article of faith and led to the use of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Cardinal Mazarin

A regent for Louis XIV who attempted to carry on Richelieu's policies until his death. The most important event during his rule was the Fronde as he was greatly disliked by the French population. When he died, the greatest of the 17th century monarchs, Louis XIV assumed control.

Theatines

A religious order which placed emphasis on reforming the secular clergy and encouraging those clerics to fulfill their duties among the laity. They also founded orphanages and hospitals.

deism

A religious outlook shared by the majority of the philosophies that was built on the Newtonian world machine which suggested the evidence of a mechanic God who had created the universe but had no direct involvement in it.

Abbe Sieyes

A representative of the National Assembly who issued a pamphlet in which he asked, "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been thus far in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something." This insight did not represent the general feeling at the time.

reactionary- what purpose, effects?

A response delivered due to an event or series of events which took a more radicalized political approach. Both Alexander I and Nicolas I of Russia were transformed into this following revolutions which led them to prevent liberal reforms and utilize terror and military force to uphold their regimes.

Final Solution

A responsibility given to the Soviets for what the Nazis referred to as their plan for solving the Jewish problem through the annihilation of the Jewish people. Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Soviet Union's security service, was given administrative responsibility for this plan.

risorgimento

A resurgence in Italy after a previous failed revolution that was led by Giuseppe Mazzini, a dedicated italian nationalist who founded the Young Italy. This group set as its goal the creation of a united Italian republic. A number of italian women, including Cristina Belgioioso, joined he reform for Italian unification. This unification was almost achieves as rebellions began in Sicily and ruler after ruler granted a constitution. Citizens in Lombardy and Venetia also Rebelled against their Austrian overlords. The Venetians declared a republic in Venice. Charles Albert assumed leadership in a war against austria dominion, yet he was unsuccessful and the austrians reestablished complete control over Lombardy and Venetia. Counterrevolutionary forces also prevailed throughout Italy. French forced helped Pope Pius IX regain control of Rome, and elsewhere Italian rulers managed to recover power on their own. Only Piedmont kept its independence.

Jews in the European nation-state

A revival off racism combined with extreme nationalism produced new right-wing politics aimed at the Jews. Antisemitism was not new to the European civilization and Jews were portrayed as murderers of Jesus and subjected to mob violence, having their rights restricted and being physically separated from Christians in ghettos. Jews were increasingly granted legal equality and emancipation became a fact of life which enabled them to leave the ghetto and become assimilated as hundreds of thousands of Jews entered closed parliaments and universities.

decembrist revolt

A revolt in Russia that occurred after Alexander I suddenly died, causing Constantine to become the legal heir to the throne. Constantine abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Nicholas, but this abdication was not made public and in the confusion in December 1825, this revolt occurred. The military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against the accession of Nicholas. It was crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas and its leaders were executed.

greek revolt

A revolt of the Greeks in 1821 against their Ottoman Turkish masters. They had been subject to Muslim control for 400 years but they had previously been allowed to keep their language and Greek orthodox faith. A revival of Greek nationalism occurred which resulted in a desire for liberation. The Greek revolt was supported by Europeans. In 1827, a British and French fleet went to Greece and defeated the large Ottoman Armada. A year later, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire and invaded its European provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Russian-Turkish war was ended with the Treaty of Adrianople which allowed Russia, France, and Britain to decide Greece's fate. They declared Greece an independent kingdom an 2 years later, a royal dynasty was established. The revolution was only successful because the great European powers supported it and it was the only successful revolt in Europe until 1830, keeping the Conservative domination intact.

The Fronde; frondeurs

A revolt under Cardinal Mazarin due to dislike due to hid foreign background as the nobles, who particularly resented the centralized administrative power being built up at the expense of the provincial nobility, temporarily allied with the members of the Parlement of Paris who opposed the new taxes sent to pay for the thirty years' war. The nobles of the Robe led he first revolt, which broke out in Paris and was ended by compromise. The second revolt was led by nobles of the sword who were interested in overthrowing Mazarin for their own purposes to secure positions and power and it was easily crushed due to the nobles fighting them self instead of Mazarin. When this revolt ended, the vast majority of the French concluded that the best hope for stability in France lay in the crown.

Glorious Revolution

A revolution in England which was confirmed with William and Mary as the monarchs. In January 1689 the Convention parliament asserted that James had tried to subvert the constitution by breaking the original contract between king and people and declared the throne of England vacant. It then gave the throne to William and Mary, who accepted it and the declaration of rights which increased Parliament's control over the monarch. The bill of rights did not settle the religious questions, leading to the passing of the toleration act. This was viewed as the end of the 17th century struggle between king and parliament and demolished the divine right theory of kingship.

turnpikes

A revolution in transportation which constructed new roads and saw the creation of a network of canals which made transportation more efficient and effective.

Cultural Revolution

A revolution which worked to create a proletarian government under the communists of Mao and lasted for ten years where the red guards set out across the nation to eliminate the "four olds"- old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits. They destroyed temples, books written by foreigners, and jazz records and tore down street signs and replaced them with ones carrying revolutionary names.

william woodsworth

A romantic poet who expressed his love of nature. His experience of nature was almost mystical as he claimed to receive authentic tidings of invisible things. He believed that nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive and learn from. Nature served as a mirror into which humans could look to learn about themselves. Nature was, in fact, alive and sacred.

Great Elector-Frederick William

A ruler who laid the foundation of the Prussia State and came to power during the thirty years' war. He realized that Brandenburg Prussia was a small open territory with no natural barriers for defense and built a competent and efficient standing army. To sustain the army and his own power he levied taxes for the army to oversee its growth and training and established the general war commissariat which eventually evolved into a tool of the civil government as well. The nobles support for his policies came from a tactical agreement between them in while the nobles would help run the government while they would be exempt from taxation, have unlimited control of the peasants, and award them the highest ranks in the army and commissariat.

Isaac Newton

A scientist who invented calculus, or the mathematical means of calculating rates of change and who bean investigations into the composition of light as well as inaugurated his work on the law of universal gravitation. He wrote 'Principia' and later gained an administrative post as the warden of the royal mint and became the master of the mint later on. He was made president of the Royal Society and even knighted for his many achievements. He left behind studies of alchemy before becoming the warden of the royal mint. He considered himself a representative of Hermetic tradition but was viewed as a symbol of Western science. His major work, 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy', known as ' Principia' was written in Latin and contained mathematical proofs demonstrating the universal law of gravitation. His work was a cumulation of the theories of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and it defined the basic concepts of mechanics with three laws of motion. He outlined these in the first book of 'Principia'. The first was that every object is in a state of rest of uniform line unless deflected by a force, the next is that the rate of change of motion of an object is proportional to the acting force and the third is that to every action there is an equal opposite reaction. In the third book, he applied these theories of mechanics to astronomy showed how the laws of motions governed planetary bodies and terrestrial objects. The universal law of gravitation showed why planets traveled in elliptical orbits and showed that every object in the universe was attracted to other objects by the force of gravity that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of distances between them. This one universal law, mathematically proved, could explain all motion in the universe. Newtonian synthesis also created a new cosmology in which the world was seen in mechanistic terms. He believed that God was "everywhere present" and acted as the force that moved all bodies on the basis of his laws. His world-machines was operating absolutely in time, space, and motion and dominated western worldview. His ideas were soon accepted in England out of national pride and conviction and political reasons. Natural philosophers resisted his ideas until the 18th century when the were accepted everywhere and reinforced by other developments, especially in medicine.

Zimmerman telegram

A secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in January 1917 that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico in the prior event of the United States entering World War I against Germany. Mexico would recover Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents enraged American public opinion, especially after the German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann publicly admitted the telegram was genuine on March 3, and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April. The decryption was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events.

northern union

A secret society that opposed Alexander I. It was composed of young aristocrats who had served in the Napoleonic wars and who understood the world outside Russia as well as intellectuals alienated b censorship and lack of academic freedom in Russian universities. This group favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom, and after Alexander suddenly died, they found their chance. The military leaders participated in the December Revolt to oppose Nicholas I from taking the throne. They were crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas and the leaders were executed.

Treaty of Dover 1670

A secret treaty between France and England which required that Charles II of England would convert to the Roman Catholic Church and assist Louis XIV with 60 warships to help and 4000 soldiers in France's war of conquest against the Dutch Republic. In exchange, Charles would secretly receive a yearly pension of £230,000, as well as an extra sum of money when Charles informed the English people of his conversion, and France would send 6,000 French troops if there was ever a rebellion against Charles in England. The secret treaty was signed by Arlington, Arundell, Clifford and Bellings for England and Colbert de Croissy for France. Both kings exchanged letters of ratification and kept secret the existence of the treaty,

War of Roses

A series of civil wars between Henry of Lancaster and Richard II in which Henry Tudor was successful and the Tudor monarchy assumed control over Britain.

Hussite Wars

A series of civil wars that occurred in Bohemia after John Hus was burned at the stake for heresy after expressing his Lollard Sentiments and was supposed to have safe passage to the Council of Constance. These wars racked the Holy Roman Empire until a truce was arranged in 1436.

95 Theses

A series of doctrines issued by Martin Luther which has been debated whether they were nailed to a church door in Wittenburg or mailed to his ecclesiastical superior. In either case, it was a stunning indictment of the abuses in the sale of indulgences. It is doubtful that he intended to break with the church over this issue, as if the pope had clarified the use of indulgences Luther would be satisfied and the controversy would have ended. However, Pope Leo X did not take this issue seriously.

Mercantilism

A set of economic tendencies which came to dominate economic practices in the 17th century. A fundamental idea was that the total volume of trade was unchangeable. Therefore, states protected their economies by following certain practices: hoarding precious metals, implementing protectionist trade policies, promoting colonial development, increasing shipbuilding, supporting trading companies, and encouraging the manufacturing of products to be used in trade. The prosperity of a nation depended on a plentiful supply of bullion (gold and silver) and a greater amount of exports was more important than imports. This policy also focused on the role of the state and saw state intervention in some aspects of the economy being desirable for the sake of the national good.

july ordinances

A set of edicts issued by Charles X which imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolves the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections. His actions produced an immediate rebellion- the July revolution. This led to Charles X fleeing to Britain and a new monarchy was born.

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

A shift in the traditional European alliance system in which two new rivalries of Britain and France over colonial empires and Austria and Prussia over Silesia. France abandoned Prussia and allied with Austria. Russia, which saw Prussia as a hindrance to its goals in central Europe, joined the new alliance. In return, Great Britain allied with Prussia. his led to another war, with three major areas of conflict: Europe, India, and North America and the seven years' war, which could be considered the first world war.

"Peace, land, bread"

A slogan of the Bolshevik program, along with "Worker control of production" and "all power to the soviets" which summed up the Bolshevik program to gain control of opposition and use them to overthrow provisional government while also using the discontent and aspirations of the people, promising an end to the war, redistribution of land to peasants, and the relegation of government power from the provisional government to the soviets, all conveyed by this slogan.

Friedrich Ebert

A socialist who announced the establishment of a Republic after William II left Germany. Two days after he established a republic, on November 11 1918, an armistice agreed to by the new German government went into effect. The war was over, but the revolutionary forces set in motion by the war were not yet exhausted.

The Consistory

A special body for enforcing moral discipline created by the Ecclesiastical Ordinances which was set up as a court to oversee the moral life and doctrinal purity of the Genevans. As its power increased it went from "fraternal corrections" to the use of public penance and excommunication, and during Calvin's last years stricter laws against blasphemy were enacted and enforced the banishment and public whippings.

Council of Troubles

A special tribunal (called the Council of Blood by the Dutch) that started reign of terror during the revolt of the Netherlands in which even powerful aristocrats were executed. This allowed for the revolt to become organized, especially in the northern Provinces where William of Nassau and the e Beggars started to become more resistant.

Spirit of Locarno

A spirit of international prosperity was fostered by Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand who concluded this treaty in 1925. This guaranteed Germany's new western borders with France and Belgium. Although Germany's new eastern borders with Poland were conspicuously absent from the agreement, a clear indication that Germany did not accept those borders as permanent, this pact was viewed by many as the beginning of a new era of European peace. Germany's entry into the league of nations reinforced the new spirit of conciliation engendered there. Two years later similar optimistic attitudes prevailed in the kellogg-brians pact. This Treaty was based on little real substance, as Germany lacked the military power to alter its western borders and the issue of disarmament soon proved that even this treaty could not induce nations to cut back on their weapons.

totalitarian state

A state characterized by government control over all aspects of economic, social, political, cultural, and intellectual life, the subordination of the individual to the stage, and insistence that the masses be actively involved in the regime's goals. Between World War I and World War II, examples of this included Soviet Russia, Nazi Germany, and fascist Italy.

Protectorate

A state or territory partly controlled by (but not a possession of) a stronger state but autonomous in internal affairs. This policy was used almost unanimously across the European colonies in Africa.

authoritarian state

A state that has a dictatorial government and some other trappings of a totalitarian state but does not demand that the masses be actively involved in the regime's goals as totalitarian states do. China under Mao Zedong is an example.

schutzmannschaft

A state-financed police in Germany that was modeled after the London police for the city of Berlin. It formed after the 1848 revolution in Germany and it started as a civilian body but became more militaristic and was used for political purposes. Its military nature was reinforced by its weaponry which included swords, pistols, and brass knuckles.

general strike

A strike by all or most workers in an economy. It was espoused by Georges Sorel as the heroic action that could be used to inspire the workers to destroy capitalist society.

gothic literature

A style of Romantic writing which utilized history-mindedness and added an attraction to the bizarre and unusual. This style was especially evident in the short stories of horror by the American Edgar Allen Poe and in Frankenstein by Mary Shelly. It inspired some romantics to pursue extraordinary states of experience in dreams, nightmares, frenzies, and suicidal depression or by experimenting with cocaine, opium, and hashish to produce altered states of consciousness.

cubsim

A style of art which used geometric designs as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer's mind. This style was developed by Pablo Picasso.

Joseph Lister

A surgeon who developed the antiseptic principle and was one of the first people to deal with this problem. He perceived that bacteria that might enter a wound and cause infection and his use of carbolic acid proved effective in eliminating infections during the surgery. His discoveries dramatically transformed surgery wards as patients no longer succumbed to what was called "hospital gangrene".

W.B. Yeats

A symbolical poet who made it so poetry ceased to be part of popular culture because only through a knowledge of the poet's personal language could one hope to understand what the poem was saying.

transformism

A system in which old political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by political and economic bribery, a practice which was commonly used by Giovanni Giolitti, Italy's prime minister.

apartheid

A system of racial segregation in South Africa between whites and blacks. Blacks demonstrated against these laws which resulted in the white government brutally repressing the demonstrators.

Volkschulen

A system of state supported primary schools that existed in the Habsburg Austrian empire, which 1 in 4 school age children attended.

social welfare

A system provides assistance to needy individuals and families. The types and amount of welfare available to individuals and families vary depending on the country, state or region.

Mita

A system used by the Spanish in Peru that allowed authorities to draft native labor to work in the silver mines.

Taille

A tax that was levied by the king on his subjects or on lands held under him and that became solely a royal tax. The nobility and clergy were often exempt from paying this tax and this exemption became an outrage of the Third Estate and was taken away with National Assembly's taking away of feudal privileges.

Ems dispatch

A telegram from the French asking King William I never to place his nephew as candidate for the Spanish throne again. But Bismarck changed the request to sound more like an insult and pretended to angrily reply as the King of Prussia. This caused France to declare war on Prussia, starting the Franco-Prussian War.

reason of state

A theory created through the work of Giovanni Botero. It denotes a way of thinking about government that emerges at the end of the fifteenth century and remains prevalent until the eighteenth century. Putting the interests of the people and the government above personal interests.

Relativity theory

A theory developed by Einstein which said that space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer and both are interwoven into a four-dimensional space-time continuum. Neither space nor time had an existence independent of human experience and time and space disappear together with the things. Matter was nothing more than another form of energy.

Psychoanalysis

A theory put forth by Freud which used 'The Interpretation of Dreams' as the basic foundation for psychoanalysis. He believed that human behavior was determined by the unconscious, earlier experience, and inner forces. He used hypnosis and the dreams to see the unconscious and saw the human being as a battleground between the id, ego, and superego with the id being the center of the unconscious and was the pleasure principle and contained lustful drives and desires. The ego was the seat of reason and hence the coordinator of inner life and was governed by the reality principle while the superego was the locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral valued that society and general imposed on people and force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id.

Conciliarism

A theory taken up by many churchmen following the Great Schism which was the belief that only a general council could end the schism and bring reform to the church in its "head and members".

Triangular trade

A three part trade grouping consisting of Europe, Africa, and the American continents which categorized the new Atlantic economy. European merchant ships carried European manufactured goods such as guns, gin, and cloth to Africa where they were traded for a cargo of slaves. These slaves were then shipped to the Americas and sold. European merchants then bough tobacco, molasses, sugar, rum, coffee, and raw cotton and shipped them back to Europe to be sold in European markets.

Total War

A total war was a war which involved the entire country and affected the lives of all citizens, no matter however remote they might be from the battlefields. This total war involved members from all sectors of society, both of participation immediately on the battlefield and in other war efforts, such as participation in factories to produce wartime materials and other wartime positions.

The Spirit of the Law

A treatise created by Montesquieu which was a comparative study of governments where Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena and to ascertain the natural laws that governed the social relationships of human beings. he defined three forms of government, republics, monarchy, and despotism and stressed the need for separation of powers.

Concerning Character

A treatise on education by Pietro Paolo Verrgerio which stressed the importance of liberal studies as the key to true freedom.

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji

A treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Turks in 1774 in which the Russians gained some land and the privilege of protecting Greek Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. This allowed for Russian expansion westward which occurred at the expense of a neighboring Poland which was partitioned, Russia getting 50%.

Treaty of Campo Formio

A treaty created after war between Napoleon and the First Coalition that was between Austria and France. The treaty called for Austria to cede the Austrian Netherlands to France and to recognize the newly created Ligurian (formerly Republic of Genoa) and Cisalpine Republics as independent states. Austria had to accept French possession of the Ionian Islands including Corfu and to cede Lombardy to the Cisalpine Republic. In return Austria received the Italian lands east of the Adige River which included Venice, Friuli, Istria, and Dalmatia. Finally, a secret clause in the treaty stated that Austria agreed to the French occupation of the left bank of the Rhine River. This treaty ended the Napoleon's Italian Campaign and it gave Napoleon the credit for being the man who brought peace to Europe.

Treaty of Karlowitz

A treaty in 1699 after a European defeat of the Ottomans in which Austria took control of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia, establishing an Austrian empire in southeastern Europe. At the end of the Spanish war of succession, Austria gained possession of the Spanish Netherlands and received formal recognition of its occupation of the Spanish possessions in Italy and the house of Austria doubled its empire.

Treaty of San Stefano

A treaty made in 1878 which created a large Bulgarian state, extending from the Danube in the North to the Aegean Sea in the South. As Bulgaria was viewed as a Russian satellite, this Russian success caused the other great powers to call for a congress of European powers to discuss a revision of the treaty. However, the Congress of Berlin demolished this treaty, humiliating Russia.

Treaty of Kuchuk

A treaty of 1774 in which the Russians defeated the ottoman Turks and allowed them to gain some land and privileges of protecting Greek orthodox Christians and Russian expansion westward at the expense of Poland. In the three partitions of Poland, Russia gained about 50% of Polish territory.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

A treaty signed by the new Russian communist government with Germany which gave up eastern Poland, Ukraine, Finland, and the Baltic provinces. Lenin argued that it made no difference since the spread of socialist revolution throughout Europe would make the treaty largely irrelevant, and he did not deliver real peace to the Russians.

Reinsurance Treaty

A treaty signed with Russia in 1887 in the hopes of preventing a French-Russian alliance that would threaten Germany with the possibility of a two-front war.

Peace of Lodi

A treaty which ended almost a half-center war and inaugurated a relatively peaceful forty year era in Italy.

Treaty of Paris

A treaty which ended the French and Indian War after the British forced the French to take peace. The French ceded Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi to Britain. Their ally Spain transferred Spanish Florida to British control and in return the French gave their Louisiana territory to the Spanish. By 1763, Great Britain became the world's greatest colonial power.

Treaty of Paris 1856

A treaty which ended the War in Crimea and forced Russia to give up Bessarabia and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea. In addition, the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five great powers.

Treaty of Nimwegen

A treaty which occurred after Louis' first war in the Spanish Netherlands after France victories led to Brandenburg, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire to form a new coalition, forcing Louis to agree to this treaty. While Dutch territory remained intact, France receive Franche-Compte from Spain which served to stimulate his appetite for more land.

revolutionary socialism

A type of socialism made by Georges Sorel that believed that there was political potential of the non rational and he advocated violent action as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism. It was intended to occur through a general strike and the new socialist society would be governed by a small elite ruling body.

utopian socialism

A type of socialism that was considered to be impractical, idealized dreams. It was an early form of socialism that was the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism.

Great Fear

A vast panic that spread like wildfire through France between July 20 and August 6. Fear of invasion by foreign troops, aided by foreign troops, aided by a supposed aristocratic plot, encouraged the formation of more citizens' militias and permanent committee. There were many agrarian revolts occurring at the same time as this panic. The greatest impact of this panic was on the National Assembly meeting in Versailles, which then attempted to reform France.

Christine de Pizan

A vernacular writer who got a good education because her father had a good position at court. Her husband died when she was 25 and she was left with little income, 3 kids, and a mother to support. She became a writer to make a living and her poems became in demand. She wrote French prose in the defense of women like 'The Book of the City Ladies' which argued that men who controlled women were evil and that they could become just as good as men by getting proper educations.

mir

A village commune which was collectively responsible for the land payments to the government. The peasants were expected to repay the state in long-term installments and were subject to the authority of this commune, which collectively paid the state.

Austro-Prussian War

A war between Austria and Prussia in which Bismarck convinced Russia and France to remain neutral and used the occupation of Schlewig-Holstein to prompt conflict. he Prussians had better tactics and at Koniggratz the Austrians were defeated and lost no territory except Venetia to Italy but was excluded from German affairs. This war was a turning point in Prussian domestic affairs as Bismarck retroactively legalized the taxes he had collected and proved that nationalism and liberalism could be separated. He also created a new constitution for the North German confederation with the king of Prussia at the head of the confederation and a new parliament.

Northern War

A war between Denmark and Sweden. Christian IV of Denmark hoped to expand his state, but the system of electing monarchs forced the king to share power with the Dutch nobility who controlled the peasants who worked their lands. Danish ambitions for ruling the Baltic were curtailed by both the Thirty Years' War and this war. Danish military loses resulted in a constitutional crisis in which a meeting of Denmark's Estates passed a bloodless revolution in 1660. They curtailed the power of the nobility, reestablished a hereditary monarchy, and made an absolutist constitution in 1665, centralizing the administration under Christian V.

Spanish-American War

A war between Spain and America in which the Spanish were defeated and lost Cuba and the Philippines to the United States which led to discontent in Spain.

Russo-Japanese war

A war between the Russian and the Japanese in which the Japanese experienced a surprising defeat and led to the breakdown of the transportation system and food shortages in the major cities in Russia and overall devastates and embarrassed Russia.

Cold War

A war between the United States and the Soviet Union over the spread of communism which involved the growth of the nuclear arms race and immense ear over the threat of nuclear attack, causing heavy tensions and ultimately leading to the creation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

"Three Henries"

A war in France from 1588-1589 in which Henry Guise seized Paris and forced the king, Henry III, to make him chief minister. Henry III assassinated the duke of Guise and joined with Henry of Navarre to crush the Catholic Holy League and take back Paris. Henry III was successful but was assassinated by a monk in 1589. Henry of Navarre (Bourbon) became king. Henry Bourbon converted to Catholicism and when he was coronated in 1594, he finally instilled peace in France.

Franco-Prussian War

A war which was between France and Prussia after Bismarck and William I dominated all of northern Germany, and Austria was excluded from any significant role in German affairs. However, unsettled business led to new international complications and further change. Bismarck realized that France would never be content with a strong German state and Napoleon III needed a diplomatic triumph to offset his serious domestic problems. After successful revolution deposed Isabella II, throne of Spain offered to prince Leopold and Bismarck rejected this possibility as France would be encircled by the Hohenzollern. French objections caused Leopold to withdraw his candidacy and they pushed for a formal apology to France, leading to a telegram and a war between them. The southern Germans joined the war and Prussian armies advanced into French and the second French empire collapsed, although the official peace treaty wasn't signed until later when France had to give up Alsace and Loraine which left the French wanting revenge. The southern Germans entered the North German Confederation and German unity had been achieved, which meant the triumph of authoritarian militaristic valued over liberal, constitutional sentiments in the development of the new German State which made it the strongest power on the continent.

South Sea Company

A British joint-stock company founded in 1711, created as a public-private partnership to consolidate and reduce the cost of national debt. The company was also granted a monopoly to trade with South America and nearby islands, hence its name. When the company was created, Britain was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession and Spain controlled South America. There was no realistic prospect that trade would take place and the company never realized any significant profit from its monopoly. Company stock rose greatly in value as it expanded its operations dealing in government debt, peaking in 1720 before collapsing to little above its original flotation price; the economic bubble became known as the South Sea Bubble.

Cecil Rhodes

A British man who determined British policy in South Africa. He founded both diamond and gold companies which monopolized production of these precious commodities and enabled him to gain control of a territory north of the Transvaal which he called Rhodesia, after himself. He was a champion of British expansion and once said "If there be a God, I think what he would like me to do is to paint as much of Africa British red as possible". One of his goals was to create a series of British colonies "from the cape to Cairo" all linked via railroad. His imperialist ambitions ultimately led to his downfall, however, when the British government forced him o resign as prime minister of the Cape Colony after he conspired to overthrow the Boer government without British approval, causing a conflict between the British and the Boers.

T.E. Lawrence

A British officer who went to the middle east and incited Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overlords in 1916. 2 years later, British forces from Egypt and Mesopotamia destroyed the remaining Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. For these Middle East campaigns, the British mobilized men from India, Australia, and New Zealand.

Labour Party

A British political party which formed from a coalition of Fabian socialists and focused on legislation to benefit the working class.

John Knox

A Calvinist reformer in Scotland who spread Calvinism and helped it replace Lutheranism as the international form of Protestantism.

John Maynard Keynes

A Cambridge economist who published his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936 in which he condemned the traditional view that in a free economy, depressions should be left to work themselves out. Instead, he argued that unemployment stemmed not from overproduction but instead from a decline in demand and that demand could be increased by public works, financed through deficit spending to stimulate production.

transubstantiation

A Catholic doctrine which was denied by Lutheran which taught that the substance of the bread and wine consumed in the rite is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus.

Jansenism

A Catholic theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination.

Chiang Kai-shek

A Chinese nationalist leader who sought to appease Tokyo by granting Japan the authority to administer areas in North China. However, as Japan moved south, popular protests in Chinese cities against Japanese aggression intensified and when Chinese and Japanese forces clashed at the Marco Polo bridge, China refused to apologize and hostilities spread. He refused to capitulate and moved the troops up to try to seize Soviet Siberia with its rich resources and create a new "Monroe doctrine for Asia".

Marranos

A Christianized Jew or Moor in medieval Spaain, especially one who merely professed conversion in order to avoid persecution.

Baruch Spinoza

A Dutch philosopher of Sephardi/Portuguese origin. By laying the groundwork for the 18th-century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy.

Marshall Plan

A European Recovery program created by the United States. This program aimed to rebuild prosperity and stability, giving $13 billion for the economic recovery of war torn Europe. Americans believed that Communism spread due to economic turmoil. This plan did not include the Soviet Union and it helped speed up the division of Europe into two competing blocs. Some scholars think that this plan encouraged Stalin to push for greater control of Eastern Europe to safeguard Soviet interests.

Battista Alberti

A Florentine humanist who was the author of On the Family in which he describes the importance of family and the family structure.

Leonardo Bruni

A Florentine patriot, humanist, and chancellor of the city who was a civic humanist. He wrote a biography of Cicero called 'The New Cicero' that talked about the fusion of political action and literary creation in Cicero's life. He also wrote the 'History of the Florentine People' which was a secular work about political events and forces that affected Florence. He was also one of the first Italian humanists to gain thorough knowledge of Greek and he was a pupil of the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras who taught in Florence. Humanists like this man perused the works of Plato and those of Greek poets, dramatists, historians, and orators like Euripides, Sophocles, and Thucydides.

Vespucci

A Florentine who accompanied several voyages and wrote a series of letters describing the geography of the New World. The publication of these letters led to the use of the name "America" for these new lands.

Petrarch

A Florentine who spent much of his life outside his native city and his role in the revival of the classics making him a seminal figure in the literary Italian renaissance. His primary contribution to the development of the Italian vernacular through his sonnets and is considered on of the greatest European lyric poets. His sonnets were inspired by his love for a woman name Laura and he wanted to immortalize his own thought which reveals his individuality.

Friends of the Blacks

A French club that was influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality and that advocated for the abolition of slavery, which was achieved in France in September 1791.

General Ferdinand Foch

A French general who led an allied counterattack against the Germans at the Marne river and was supported by the arrival of 140,000 fresh American troops and ultimately able to defeat the Germans at the second battle off the Marne.

Journal des Savants

A French journal that was published weekly and printed the results of experiments as well as general scientific knowledge whose format appealed to both scientists and the educated public interested in the new sciences.

Montesquieu

A French noble who had a classical education and then studied law. His first work was 'Persian Letters' that had 2 Persians travelling through western Europe that sent back impressions criticizing the French monarchy and the Catholic Church that also attacked traditional religion, advocated for religious toleration, denounced slavery, and used reason to eliminate prejudice. His most famous work was 'The Spirit of the Laws' that was a study of governments and natural laws. He identified three types of governments: republics, monarchies, and despots. He believed in checks and balances to create a separation of powers so that executive, judicial, and legislative branches could limit each other's powers. His ideas were incorporated into the U.S. constitution.

Emile Zola

A French novelist who showed naturalism and used the urban slums and coal fields of northern France to show how alcoholism and different environments affected people's lives and he was influenced by Darwin's Origin of Species which showed the struggle for survival and importance of environment and heredity. These themes were central to his Rougon-Macquart and he maintained that the artist must analyze and dissect life as a biologist would a living organism.

Marquis de Lafayette

A French officer who served in the American war. He volunteered for service in America in order to "strike a blow against England," France's old enemy. He was closely associated with George Washington and returned to France with ideas of individual liberties and notions of republicanism and popular sovereignty. He became a member of the Society of Thirty, a club made of people from the Paris salons who believed firmly in liberty and were influential in early stages of the French Revolution.

Marie-Jean de Condorcet

A French philosophe who made an exaggerated claim for progress. He was a victim of the turmoil of the French Revolution and wrote 'On the Progress of the Human Mind' while hiding during the Reign of Terror. His survey of human history convinced him that humans progressed through 9 stages of history. With the spread of science and reason, humans were about to enter the 10th stage of perfection where they would find no limit of greatness. Shortly after composing this work, the prophet of humankind's perfection died in a French revolutionary prison.

Georges Sorel

A French political theorist who combined Bergson and Nietzsche's ideas on the limits of rational thinking with his own passionate interest in revolutionary socialism. he understood the political potential of the non rational and advocated violent action as a sure way to achieve the aims of socialism. To destroy capitalist society, he recommended the use of the general strike which was like a mythic image that had the power to inspire workers to take violent, heroic action against the capitalist order. He also believed that the new socialist society would have to be governed by a small elite ruling body because the masses were incapable of ruling themselves.

Jacques Callot

A French printmaker who used graphic arts. He had a series of prints documenting the horrors of war. He specialized in caricature, etchings, and grotesque pieces.

Marie Curie

A French scientist who discovered that the element radium gave off rays of radiation that apparently came from within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply hard, material bodies but small worlds containing subatomic particles as electrons and protons that behaved in seemingly random and inexplicable fashion which became the central theme of new physics.

Blaise Pascal

A French scientist who wanted to keep science and religion united. He was a scientist and mathematician who invented a calculating machine and devised a theory of chance or probability and did work on conic sections. After having a mystical vision that assured him that God cared for the human soul, he devoted the rest of his life to religious matters. He wanted to write an apology for the Christian religion but died before doing so but his notes for a larger work became 'Pensees', which meant 'Thoughts'. He tried to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to reason and emotions. He argued that humans were frail creatures, often devised by senses, misled by reason, and battered by emotions. He thought that Christianity was the only religion that recognized people's true state as vulnerable and great. Humans were fallen and God's special creation but one did not have to be emphasized at the expense of another. He also thought that God is a reasonable bet because one won everything by taking it and lost everything by not. He did not rely on rationality to attract people to God and believed that only God and Jesus could be relied on. He always rested on faith over reason but ultimate failed at uniting Christianity and science.

Bishop Bossuet

A French theologian and court preacher who expressed his ideas in a book titled Politics Drawn from the very words of Holy Scripture which argued that government was divinely ordained so that humans could live in an organized society and that God established kings, and they were responsible to no one except God.

Montaigne

A French writer and philosopher whose Essais (Essays) established a new literary form. In his Essays he wrote one of the most captivating and intimate self-portraits ever given, on a par with Augustine's and Rousseau's.

louis blanc

A Frenchman who had an early socialist approach to a better society. He wrote 'The Organization of Work' that said that social problems could be solved by government assistance. He denounced competition as the main cause of economic evils of his day and called for the establishment of workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale. The state would finance the workshops and workers would own and operate them.

Mustafa Kemal "Ataturk"

A General who led forces in creating a new republic of Turkey in 1923. He wanted to modernize Turkey along Western lines and the trappings of a democratic system were put in place, although the new president did not tolerate opposition. In addition to introducing a state-run industrial system, he also westernized Turkish culture. The Turkish language was now written with the Latin alphabet. Popular education was introduced and old aristocratic titles were abolished. All Turkish citizens were forced to adopt family names in the European style and he adopted the name father turk. Finally, new laws gave women equal rights showing how nationalism and western wars could create the modern Turkish nation.

Friedrich von Bernhardi

A German general who saw war as a biological necessity and a relative element which cannot be dispensed since without it there will not be advancements of the human race. "War is the father of all things"

Regiomantanus

A German mathematician and astronomer who was one of the first printers as well. He observed ellipses and comets and he printed many of his findings.

Albert Einstein

A German physicist who published "The Electro-dynamics of moving bodies" that contained his special theory off relativity which showed that space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into a four-dimensional space-time continuum. Neither space nor time had an existence independent of human experience and both time and space disappear together with things. Moreover, matter and energy reflected the relativity of time and space and matter was nothing but another form of energy. The eclipse confirmed his ideas and opened the scientific and intellectual world to his ideas which would become the "golden age" of physics.

Realschule

A German school that opened in Berlin that taught modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for careers in business. SImilar schools were also created for upper-class girls, although they focused primarily on religion and domestic skills.

Martin Luther

A German theologian who initially studied law but then he joined a monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits in Erfurt after surviving a vicious thunderstorm unscathed. He focused on the assurance of salvation and he had spent hours confessing his sins but felt doubtful and received no certainty. He then turned to the study of theology and became a professor in theological faculty at the University of Wittenberg, lecturing on the Bible. He believed that salvation was only achieved by justification of faith alone and his teachings began the Protestant Reformation. He criticized the power of the papacy and issued the Ninety-Five Theses which was a doctrine of discontent over the selling of indulgences and the abuses of the church. Lutheranism became a Protestant religion based on his ideas and it focused on the idea of justification by faith, ending the abuses of the church, and that Christ was actually present at the Eucharist along with many other ideas that called for a reform of the church.

Solomon Neumann

A German who pointed out that filthy living conditions were the primary cause of the epidemic problem and urged sanitary reforms to correct the problem.

johann wolfgang von goethe

A German writer during the Romantic movement, although he later rejected Romanticism in favor of Classicism. He wrote 'The Sorrows of the Young Werther' which was a model for the Romantics. In the novel, Weather was a Romantic figure who sought freedom in order to fulfill himself. He was misunderstood and rejected by society and he continued to believe in his own worth through his inner feelings. His deep love for a girl who didn't love him led to his suicide. After this work, many novels and plays appeared whose plots revolved around young maidens tragically carried off at an early age by disease to the sorrow and despair of their male lovers.

Zollverein

A Germans customs union formed by Prussia which eliminated tolls on rivers and roads among member states to stimulate the trade and prosperity of its member states. By 1853 all German states except Austria joined the Prussian-dominated customs union and it added to Prussia's popularity in the German states.

Galen

A Greek physician whose idea's dominated medieval medicine. He taught that there were two separate blood systems, one of which contained bright red blood moving upward and downward through the arteries and the other governed digestive functions and flowed in the veins. He relied on animal dissection to cultivate anatomy and based his medical practices on the four humours.

Emperor Frederick III

A Habsburg Emperor and the father of Maximilian who married his son to Mary and gained Franche-Comte, Luxembourg, and a large part of the low countries. This made the Habsburg dynasty an international power and brought opposition from the French monarchy.

Ferenc Deak

A Hungarian statesman whose negotiations led to the establishment of the dual Austrian-Hungarian Empire in the Augsleich and was mainly responsible for the creation of the "april laws".

Marcus Garvey

A Jamaican who lived in Harlem, New York and stressed the need for the unity of all Africans which influenced many Africans in the United States.

Frederick II

A King of Prussia who was called "The Great". He was not afraid to use his army. He invaded Austria, sparking the War of the Austrian Succession because he saw an opening to disregard the Pragmatic Sanction and gain more territory. He gained Silesia in this army. He also invaded Saxony, sparking the Seven Years War, but did not gain any territory. This king spent two-thirds of all Prussian money on the army, allowing Prussia to develop a very strong military. He proposed the First Partition of Poland from which he gained a some Polish-Lithuanian territory. He insisted that his court speak French and was personal friends with Voltaire. In Prussia, he instituted a uniform civil justice system, believed strongly in education, and encouraged agricultural innovation. He is an enlightened despot.

Andreas Carlstadt

A Lutheran who wished to initiate more radical reform by eradicating all relics, images, and the mass.

Wilhelm Liebknecht

A Marxist leader who was a director of the German Social Democratic Party who espoused revolutionary Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass political party competition in elections for the Reichstag (the German parliament). This party gained control in Reichstag and worked to enact legislation to improve the condition of the working class.

Albrecht Durer

A Northern Renaissance artist who was greatly affected by Italy and mastered the laws of perspective and renaissance theories of proportion.

General Thaddeus Kosciuszko

A Polish general and statesman who had a role in the american revolution and the resurrection of his homeland.

Lech Walesa

A Polish movement of independent labor who led the solidarity movement. It represented 10 million of Poland's 35 million people and had the support of individuals, the Catholic church, and many intellectuals and was able to win a series o concessions. He was arrested and the union was outlawed, leading to Kadar taking power.

Albuquerque

A Portuguese admiral who sea up port facilities at Goa on the western coast of India which became the headquarters for Portuguese operations throughout the entire region. He wanted to capture Malacca to destroy Arab spice trade and provide the Portuguese a route to the Moluccas, or Spice islands. This initiated a fierce struggle between the Portuguese and Arabs in which ultimately the Portuguese were successful.

Pierre Bayle

A Protestant philosophe who was a leading critic of traditional religious attitudes and who attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. He believed that compelling people to believe a certain set of religious ideas (as Louis XIV was doing in France) was wrong. He believed it created hypocrites and was contrary to what religion should be about. He thought that individual conscience should determine one's actions. He also argued for total religious toleration, maintaining that many religions would benefit the state. He was one of many intellectuals who believed that new rational principles of textual criticism should be applied to the Bible and secular documents. His most famous work was the 'Historical and Critical Dictionary' in which he demonstrated the results of his own efforts with a famous article on the Israelite King David. It undermined the traditional picture of the heroic David and portrayed him as sensual, treacherous, cruel, and evil. He attacked traditional religious practices and heros, and some regarded this work as the "Bible of the eighteenth century".

frederick william ii

A Prussian king which followed the advice of his chief ministers Stein and Hardenberg to institute political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon which included the abolition of serfdom, municipal self-government through town councils, the expansion of primary and secondary schools, and universal military conscription to form a national army. He grew more reactionary and was content to follow Metternich's lead and while reforms made Prussia strong, it remained largely an absolutist state with little interest in German Unity.

Frederick the Great- reforms, problems faced, outlook, leadership

A Prussian king who was well educated and versed in Enlightenment thought. He made the Prussian bureaucracy known for its efficiency and honesty. For a time he seemed willing to listen to the philosophies calls for reform. He established a single code of laws for his territories which eliminated the use of torture except in treason and murder cases. He also granted limited freedom of speech and press as well as complete religious tolerate. Although he was well aware of the condemnation of serfdom, he was too dependent on the nobility to interfere with it. He was a conservative who made Prussian society more aristocratic and reversed the policy of allowing commoners to hold higher positions in the civil service and the upper ranks of the bureaucratic came close to constituting a hereditary case. He took a great interest in military affairs and enlarged the Prussian army. He took advantage of the succession crisis of the Habsburg monarchy to seize Silesia which led to the war of Austrian succession and the seven years' war, and he succeeded in keeping Silesia. After the war he received the polish territory between Brandenburg and Prussia, bringing greater unity to Prussia. By the end of his reign Prussia was considered a world power.

hector berlioz

A Romantic composer who achieved fame in Germany, Russia, and Britain, although the originality of his work kept him from receiving much recognition in his native France. He was one of the founders of program music, which was an attempt to use the moods and sound effects of instrumental music to depict the actions and emotions inherent in a story, and event, or even a personal experience. His most famous piece was Symphonie Fantastique where he used music to evoke the passionate emotions of a tortured love affair, including a fifth movement in which he musically created an opium-induced nightmare of a witches' gathering.

February/March Revolution

A Russian Revolution that began due to strikes in Petrograd of the working class women who were protesting bread rationing ass well as their hard work with 12-hour days. This day became International Women's day as 10,000 women marched the streets. They were joined by other workers and a general strike ensued, shutting down all of the city's factories. Tsar Nicholas II believed that this was a hooligan's movement and ordered the troops to disperse the crowds and shoot if necessary. The situation got out of hand when soldiers joined the march, causing the Duma to meet and establish a provisional government, resulting in the Tsar abdicating that same day. Moderate Constitutional Democrats established the provisional government They wanted liberal reform to eventually get a parliamentary democracy with universal suffrage, civil equality, and an 8-hour work day. A challenge to this provisional government was the soviets which were councils of workers' and soldiers' deputies. The soviet of Petrograd was made who had more radical ideas of lower classes and were made up of many socialists. The Marxist Social Democratic Party was one of these groups and it included the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. The Mensheviks wanted a Western mass electoral socialist party which would cooperate with parliamentary democracy while working towards a socialist state. The Bolsheviks were led by V. I. Lenin and had an idea of violent revolution to destroy capitalism. They believed that a small party of well-disciplined professional revolutionaries could accomplish this. The German High Command wanted to make disorder in Russia and sent Lenin and a few others in a train through Finland to reach Russia. After getting there, he wrote the April Theses which was a blueprint for revolutionary action based on his own Marxist Theory that thought that Russia could get straight to socialism using soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants to get power. The Bolsheviks had to control these groups and overthrow the provisional government and the Bolsheviks promised to end war, redistribute land to peasants, transfer factories and industries to committees of workers, and give government power to the soviets. Peasants started land reform by seizing property on their own and the Petrograd soviet issued the Army Order No. 1 which encouraged military forces to remove their officers and replace them with elected members of lower ranks. This led to military chaos and the army ended up dissolving when the provisional government tried to make a new military offensive.

Bakunin

A Russian anarchist who believed that small groups of well-trained, fanatical revolutionaries could perpetrate so much violence that the state and all its institutions would disintegrate which would usher in the anarchist golden age.

Mendeleyev

A Russian chemist who classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation of the periodic law.

General Kornilov

A Russian general during the Bolshevik Revolution who tried to march on Petrograd to seize power but was blocked by Kerensky who released the Bolsheviks from prison and got help from the Petrograd soviets.

Catherine the Great- reforms, problems faced, outlook, leadership

A Russian queen who emerged as a Russian autocrat after Peter III was killed by a faction of nobles. She claimed that she wished to reform Russia along the lines of Enlightenment ideas but realized that her success depended on the support of the palace guard and the gentry class from which it stemmed. She could not afford to alienate the Russian nobility. Initially she seemed eager to pursue reform and called for the election of an assembly in 1767 to debate the details of a new law code. In her Instruction, written as a guide to the deliberations, she questioned the institutions of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and advocated for equality before the law. Her subsequent policies had the effect of strengthening the landholding class at the expense of the others, including Russian serfs. To reorganize local government she divided Russia into fifty provinces, each of which were subdivided into districts rules by officials chosen by the nobles. This allowed for the nobles to be responsible for day-to-day governing in Russia. The Gentry were now formed into corporate groups with special legal privileged, including the right to trial by peers and exemption from personal taxation and corporal punishment. The Charter of the Nobility formalized these rights. The governments attempt to impose restrictions on the peasantry caused peasant revolts, including the Pugachev revolution. In response, she strengthened her control over the peasantry. She was a worthy successor to Peter the Great by expanding Russia's territory west into Poland and South to the Black Sea. Russia spread southward by defeating the Ottoman Turks and gained land through the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, and Russia gained 50% of Polish territory.

alexander i

A Russian tsar who was aided by Speransky to relax censorship, free political prisoners, and reform the education system, although he refused to grant a constitution or abolish fuedalism. He became a reactionary after Napoleon's defeat and is government was strict and censorship.

David Livingstone

A Scottish missionary who first aroused popular interest in the jungles of Central Africa along with the British-American journalist Henry M. Stanley.

Adam Smith

A Scottish philosopher and Physiocrat who wrote 'Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations' that attacked mercantilism and enunciated three basic economic principles. First, he condemned mercantilist use of tariffs to protect home industries and believed that if a country could suply another with a product cheaper than the latter could make it, it was better to purchase than produce. He saw free trade as a fundamental economic principle. His second principle was the labor theory of value that claimed that gold and silver was not the source of a nation's true wealth bu instead it was labor of individual farmers, artisans, and merchants. Lastly, he believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters and should only protect society from invasion (army), defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police), and keep up certain public works such as roads and canals that private individuals could not afford. These ideas laid the foundation for economic liberalism.

ethnic cleansing

A Serbian policy of killing or forcibly removing Bosnian Muslims from their lands which revived memories of Nazi atrocities during World War II. It occurred during the War in Bosnia and was extremely violent. almost 8,000 men and boys were killed in the Serbian massacre at Srebrenica but European governments failed to take a decisive stand against these Serbian activities.

Rasputin

A Siberian peasant who achieved political power in Russia after Alexandra, the tsarina, fell under his influence. He was regarded as a holy man because he seemed to be able to stop the bleeding of her hemophiliac son, Alexis. His influence made him a power behind he throne and he did not hesitate to interfere in government affairs. As the leadership at the top experienced a series of military and economic disasters, the middle class, aristocrats, peasants, soldiers, and workers grew more disenchanted with the tsarist regime.

ferdinand vii

A Spanish King who restored the Bourbon dynasty and agreed to observe the liberal Constitution of 1812 which allowed for the functioning of an elective parliamentary system called the cortes, however he soon went back on his promises and was capitulated in March 1820 and once again promised to restore the constitution and the Cortes, although Metternich's policy of intervention came to his rescue and allowed for him to be restored to his throne.

Pablo Picasso

A Spanish artist of modern art who helped to develop cubism which used geometric designs as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer's mind. His work Les Demoiselles d'Avignon was the first cubist painting.

Pizzaro

A Spanish conquistador who landed on the Pacific coast of south America with 180 men and steel weapons, gunpowder, and horses. He was lucky because the Inca Empire had already succumbed to Smallpox due to a lack of immunity to diseases. In another stroke of good fortune, even the Inca emperor was a victim. He took advantage of the situation by seizing Atahualpa, a general, and then killing him. He captured Cuzco and captured the Incan capital and by 1535 he established a capital at Lima for a new colony of Spanish Empire.

Cortes

A Spanish explorer who landed at Veracruz on the gulf o Mexico and marched to the city on Tenochtitlan at the head of a small contingent of troops. As he went he made alliances with city-states that had tired of the oppressive rule of the Aztecs. Especially important was Tlaxcala, a state that the Aztecs were not able to conquer. When he arrived at Tenochtitlan he received a friendly welcome from the Aztec monarch Montezuma and at first Montezuma thought is visitor was a representative of a god and offered gifts of gold to the foreigners. However the Spaniards quickly wore out their welcome and took Montezuma hostage and pillaged the city, spreading smallpox and killing many Aztecs, allowing for a new wave of destruction and the fall of the mighty Aztec empire.

Peninsulares

A Spanish-born person residing in the New World or the Spanish East Indies.

Gustavus Vasa

A Swedish Baron who overthrew Christian II of Denmark and became king of an independent Sweden and established a Lutheran Reformation, ultimately creating the Swedish Lutheran National Church.

Jacob Burckhardt

A Swiss historian and art critic who created the modern concept of the Renaissance in the book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published 1806. Portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world and exaggerated the individualism and secularism as its distinguishing features but failed to understand the depth of the religious sentiment.

Sultan Mehmet II

A Turkish ruler who laid siege to Constantinople and used massive cannons, winning at Constantinople and attempting to complete their conquest of the Balkans but could not advance past Wallachia due to resistance from the Hungarians.

Cabot

A Venetian seaman who explored the New England coastline of the Americas under a license from King Henry VII of England.

Sigmund Freud

A Viennese doctor who put forth multiple theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind. His thought like the new physics and irrationalism of Nietzsche added to the uncertainties of the time. His major work was 'The Interpretation of Dreams' which had the basic foundation for psychoanalysis. He believed that human behavior was determined by the unconscious, earlier experience, and inner forces. He used hypnosis and and the dreams to see the unconscious and saw the human being as a battleground between the id, ego, and superego with the id being the center of the unconscious and was the pleasure principle and contained lustful drives and desires. The ego was the seat of reason and hence the coordinator of inner life and was governed by the reality principle while the superego was the locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral valued that society and general imposed on people and force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id.

General Denikin

A White general during the Russian civil war who was called the most effective white general. He swept trough Ukraine and almost reached Moscow.

Bank of England

A bank that received deposits, exchanged foreign currencies, and gave loan. In return for lending money to the government, the bank was allowed to issue paper banknotes backed by its credit. These notes became negotiable an became a paper substituted for gold and silver currency. The issuance of government bonds paying regular interest backed by this bank and the London financial community also created a sense of a public or "national debt" distinct from monarch's personal debts. Capital for financing larger armies and other government undertakings was raised faster.

Fugger

A banker who arranged loans for Charles V and in turn was granted a monopoly over silver, copper, and mercury mines in the Habsburg possessions of central Europe which produced profits of over 50% every year. However, his family went bankrupt at the end of the 16th century when the Habsburgs defaulted on their loans. Entrepreneurs such as him had considerable amounts of risk but also saw the greatest return on their investments.

Battle of Poltava

A battle between Russia under Peter the Great and Sweden under Charles XII. After Charles crushed the Danes, Poles, and routed the Russian army, Peter the Great fought back by reorganizing his army along Western lines. In this battle in 1709, Peter the Great decisively defeated Charles's army.

Battle of Muhlberg

A battle between the Lutherans and Charles V in the Schmalkaldic wars in which Charles won, making it appear as if the protestant cause was doomed.

Battle of Mohacs

A battle between the Ottomans and King Louis of Hungary in which the Ottomans won which allowed for them to advance as far as Vienna.

Battle of Kosovo

A battle between the Ottomans and the Serbians after Ottoman advancements into Serbian lands in which the Ottoman forces won.

battle of chacabocu

A battle between the Spaniards and the Latin American San Martin which occurred in Chile, routed Spanish forces and allowing for San Martin to move on to Lima, Peru, at the center of Spanish authority.

Battle of Omdurman

A battle between the Sudanese and the British in which the Sudanese were massacred. The Sudanese battled the British who had the recently developed machine gun which slowed for them to produce mass casualties. The battle casualties tell the story of the one-sided conflicts between the Europeans and Africans, 28 British death to 11,000 Sudanese. Military superiority was often joined by brutal treatment of the Blacks.

Battle of the Marne

A battle between the french and Germans under French commander General Joseph Joffre. This battle occurred at the Marne river 20 miles away from Paris and the Germans seemed on the verge of success but underestimated the speed which he British would be able to mobilize and put troops into battle in France. An unexpected counterattack by combined British and French force stopped the Germans, and the German troops fell back. However, the French were unable to pursue heir advantage which led to the four year long stalemate through trench warfare on the western front.

Battle of White Mountain

A battle during the Bohemian phase of the Thirty Years' War in which Emperor Ferdinand got help from the forces of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria and the Catholic League. This allowed the imperial forces to defeat Frederick and the Bohemian nobles at this Battle outside Prague on November 8, 1620.

Battle of Agincourt

A battle during the Hundred Years' War of the English under Henry V and the French under Charles VI. Henry V renewed the war because the French were experiencing civil war as the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans competed to control the weak French king, Charles Vi. In the summer of 1413, Paris exploded in bloodshed and Henry V took advantage and decided to invade France in 1415. this battle then occurred. The French had a disastrous defeat and 1,500 French nobles died when the heavy, armor-plated knights tried to attack across a field that was turned to mud due to heavy rain. The French had 6,000 dead and the English only had 300 dead.

Battle of Blenheim

A battle during the war of Spanish Succession which was a memorable defeat of the French troops in which allied troops led by English commander John Churchill who war down Louis forced, leading to the end of the war through the treaty of Utrecht.

Battle of Narva

A battle in 1700 which started the Great Northern War between Russia and Sweden. Charles XII of Sweden had crushedthe Danes and Poles and he used his well-disciplined force of 8,000 men to route the Russian army of 40,000 men at this battle.

Battle of Lepanto

A battle in which a large Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Spanish in 1571 after the Turks had already advanced up the Danube and seized Belgrade in 1521 and Hungary in 1526 and they tried to conquer Vienna in 1529. The Turks started to advance into the Western Mediterranean and threatened to turn it into a Turkish Lake which resulted in this battle. Despite the defeat, the Turks continued to hold some control over the southern shores along the Mediterranean.

Battle of Verdun

A battle occurring in 1916 in which the Germans took the offensive against the French when the men searched for the elusive breakthrough achieved by crossing no-man's land. In the ten months at the battle, 700,000 men lost their lives over a few square miles of terrain.

Battle of Tannenberg

A battle on the eastern front in which the Russian army moved into eastern Germany but was descisivley defeated. They were defeated again by the Germans, led by General Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff at the Battle at Masurian Lakes.

Battle of Austerlitz

A battle that occurred after Napoleon proceeded eastward from Ulm. He faced a large Russian army under Tsar Alexander I and some Austrian troops. The combined allied forces outnumbered Napoleon's forces, but the Tsar chose poor terrain for the battle and Napoleon devastated the allied forces. Austria sued for peace and Tsar Alexander took his remaining forces back to Russia.

Bay of Pigs

A battle that occurred in Cuba in which the Americans attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro during the Cold War. It was a complete failure for the Americans.

Battle of Waterloo

A battle that occurred on June 18 after Napoleon decided to strike first at his enemies so he raised an army and moved to attack the nearest allied forces stationed in Belgium. Here, he met a combined British and Prussian army under the command of the duke of Wellington. Napoleon faced a bloody defeat. He was exiled to Saint Helena, a small forsaken island in the South Atlantic. After this battle, Napoleon would never again contribute to French politics.

Battle of Lutsk

A battle which took place during World War I, from June 4 to June 6, 1916. This was the opening attack of the Brusilov Offensive under the overall command of Alexei Brusilov. The Russian 8th Army made a decisive breakthrough in the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian Fourth Army.

"justification by faith"

A belief which was followed by Luther which stressed that the act by which a person is made deserving of salvation can be acquired by faith alone.

Berlin Protest

A bloodily crushed revolution ended by the republican government which created a deep fear of communism among the German middle classes, a fear that would soon be manipulated by Hitler.

natural law

A body of laws or specific principles held to be derived from nature and binding on all human societies even in the absence of written laws governing such manners.

The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy

A book created by Jacob Burckhardt which created the modern concept of Renaissance and portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world with influence on individualism and secularism.

Book of Common Prayer

A book which was a liturgical guide during the reformation in England which aroused opposition and moved the church of England in a more protestant direction.

The Feminine Mystique

A book written by Betty Friedan in which she analyzed the problems of middle-class women and argued that women were being denied equality with men. I became a bestseller and she helped found the National Organization for Women and worked to called for an addition in the US constitution for equal rights or women.

"Babylonian Captivity"

A book written by Martin Luther in Latin for theologians that attacked the sacramental system as the means by which the pope and church had held the real meaning of the Gospel captive for a thousand years. He called for the reform of monasticism and for the clergy to marry because he believed that virginity is good but marriage is better and freedom of choice is best.

On the Fabric of the Human Body

A book written by Vesalius that was based on his lectures at the University of Padua in which he personally dissected a body to illustrate what he was discussing. His anatomical treatise is a careful examination of individual organs and the general structure of the human body. It was only feasible because of the artistic advances of the Renaissance and technical developments in the art of printing that allowed his illustrations to be superior to any others produced. His hands-on approach to teaching anatomy allowed him to correct Galen's incorrect ideas such as finding that blood vessels originated from the heart. However, it still had some incorrect ideas like the belief in two kinds of blood in veins and arteries that was not corrected until William Harvey.

Machiavelli, The Prince

A book written by the secretary to the Florentine Council of Ten who made many diplomatic missions, including trips to France and Germany, and saw the workings of statecraft first hand. His political activity occurred during the tribulation period and devastation for Italy after the French invasion in 1494. After French defeat and Spanish victory reestablished the Medicis in Florence, staunch republicans like the author were sent to exile. He had to give up politics, the love of his life, and he wrote this book that came from his knowledge of ancient Rome and his preoccupation with Italy's political problems. He knew that the small Italian state was no match for the large monarchical states outside its borders and it was now just a battleground for other armies. His major concerns in the treatise were the acquisition and expansion of political power as the means to restore and maintain order in his time. He thought that a prince's attitude towards power must be based on an understanding of human nature and that was self-centered. Political activity couldn't be restricted by moral considerations. The prince acts for the state and he must let his conscience sleep. He found Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, to be a good model of the new Italian ruler and he was one of the first to abandon morality as the basis for the analysis of political activity.

pantheism

A branch of Hermeticism that saw divinity embodied in all aspects of nature and in the heavenly bodies as well as in earthly objects. Giordano Bruno was one of the most prominent who said, "God a a whole is in all things."

The Spiritual Exercises

A brief and powerful book created by Loyola which was a training manual for the spiritual development emphasizing exercises by which the human will could be strengthened and made to follow the will of God as manifested through his instrument, the Catholic church.

Suez canal

A canal opened by the French in 1869 which the British took an active interest in. They believed that the canal was their lifeline to India and sought to control it. Egypt was a well-established state with an autonomous Muslim government, but that did not stop the British from landing an expeditionary force. Although they claimed that their occupation was only temporary, they soon established a protectorate over Egypt. From Egypt they moved south into the Sudan and seized it after narrowly averting war with France.

James Cook

A captain who made explorations of Australia that inspired Britain to take an active interest in the East.

Cardinal Caraffa

A cardinal who was a hard-liner who regarded compromise with protestant innovations as heresy and accused Contarini as selling out to the heretics. It soon became apparent that the conservative reformers were in the ascendancy when he was able to persuade Paul III to establish the Roman Inquisition or Holy Office to ferret out doctrinal errors. When he was chosen as pope Paul IV he increased the power of the Inquisition so liberal cardinals were silenced and called himself the first true pope of the catholic counter-reformation.

Prussian army characteristics

A central body of Prussia which was governed by Frederick William the Great which consisted of 40,000 men that absorbed more than 50% of state revenues and sustained the army and his own power. He established the general war commissariat to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training. The Junkers served as the military officers and became on of the strongest armies in Europe.

individualism

A characteristic of Romanticism that was an interest in the unique traits of each person. The Romantics' desire to follow their inner drives led them to rebel against middle-class conventions. They wore long hair, bears, and outrageous clothes to stress this characteristic.

individualism

A characteristic of the Italian Renaissance which emphasized the human and their unique characteristics and capabilities.

Pasteur

A chemist who approached medical problems in a scientific fashion. He went to Paris as director of scientific studies at Ecole Normale, where experiments he conducted proved that microorganisms of various kinds were responsible for the process of fermentation, and thereby launching the science of bacteriology. Government and private industry began to appreciate the practical value of his work and he discovered the process of pasteurization. In 1877 he turned his attention to human diseases and he developed a preventative vaccination against rabies. The principle of vaccination expanded to diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague which created modern immunological science.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

A chief propagandist of volkish thought who wrote the Foundations of the 19th Century which said modern day Germans were the only true Aryans and must be prepared to fight for western civilization and save it from the lower races.

National Guard

A citizens' militia that was created by Louis XVI after he found the royal troops to be unreliable after the fall of Bastille. It was led by the marquis de Lafayette. It participated in the women's march to Versailles as Lafayette and his men marched to Versailles to gain the king's return to Paris as well as grain.

Gentry

A class in England which included mostly well-to-do land owners below the nobility who mainly became puritans who formed an important and substantial part of the house of commons, and held important positions locally as justices of the peace and sheriffs.

Protestant Union

A coalition of German protestant states which was formed by Frederick IV and was countered by the Catholic league.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

A colonel who seized control of the Egyptian government and nationalized the Suez Canal Company, which had been under British and French administration. The British and French launched a joint attack on Egypt to protect their investment and they were joined by Israel. The United States and Soviet Union united to support the Egyptians and they brought the withdrawal of troops from Egypt. He emerged from the conflict as a powerful leader and began to promote pan-Arabism, or Arab Unity. He was named president of Egypt and his plans and the UAR came to an end when military leaders seized control of Syria and withdrew it from its union with Egypt.

Oliver Cromwell and "Roundheads"

A commander who led the New Model Army during the English Civil War and his soldiers who were given this name because of their haircuts. This commander trained his troops well and they were well-disciplined which allowed for parliament to end the first phase of the civil war by capturing King Charles I.

Vasco de Gama

A commander who rounded the cape of good hope and stopped at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants along the coast of East Africa. His fleet then crossed the Arabian sea and reached the port of Calicut on the southwestern port of India. He announced o his hosts that he had come in search of "Christians and spices" and returned to Europe with ships filled with spices and earned a profit of several thousand percent.

poor law commission

A commission in Britain which produced detail reports and were struck by the physically and morally debilitating effects of urban industrial life on the poor. They were especially alarmed by what they considered to the moral consequences of such living conditions including prostitution, crime, and sexual immorality, all of which they saw as effects of living in such squalor.

L'etat c'est moi

A common saying of Louis XIV to demonstrate his absolute authority, meaning "the state is me"

Reichstag

A component of Germany's parliament which had been established by Bismarck which was elected by universal male suffrage.

ludwig van beethoven

A composer who single handedly transformed the art of music. He wanted his music to reflect his inner feelings. During his first major period of composing (1792-1800) his work was largely within classical framework and the influences of Haydn and Mozart are apparent. But with the composition of the Third Symphony (1804) also called the Eroica, which was initially intended for Napoleon, Beethoven broke through to the elements of romanticism in his use of uncontrolled rhythms to create a dynamic struggle and uplifted resolutions. He wrote a vast quantity of works but in the midst of his productivity and growing fame, he was more and more burdened by his growing deafness. One of the most moving pieces of all time, the chorale finale of his 9th symphony, was composed when he was completely deaf.

Ausgleich

A compromise which was the result of the Austro-Prussian war in which a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was established. Each part of the empire now had a constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital. Holding the two states together were a single monarch, which was Francis Joseph) and a common army, foreign policy, and system of finance. In domestic affairs, the Hungarians were independent nation yet this compromise did not satisfy the other nationalities and simply enabled the German-speaking Austrians to dominate the minorities.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

A conference in the American civil rights movement who organized sit-ins and demonstrations across the South to end racial segregation and disintegration in the workplace. A voting act made it easier for blacks in the South but laws could not satisfy the civil rights movement.

Paris Peace Conference

A conference intended to be guided by the principle of self determination which was made up of five separate treaties with the defeated nations- Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Versailles was the most important, and it included a war guilt clause and ordered Germany to pay reparations for all the damage to which the allied governments and there people were subjected to a a result of the war imposed upon them. Ethnic differences also affected the ability to successfully draw boundaries along weak ethnic lines and the Ottoman empire was dismembered and Arab states independence was recognized. The main leaders of the Paris Peace Conference were France, represented by George Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson of the U.S, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and David Llyod George of Britain.

London conference

A conference which was arranged by Austria at the end of the two Balkan wars in which the Austrians had blocked Serbia's wished by creating an independent Albania. The Germans, as Austrian allies, had supported this move. in their frustration, Serbian nationalists increasingly portrayed the Austrians as monsters who were keeping Serbia from becoming a great nation and Russia intervened to attempt to benefit Serbia.

"Ship money" dispute

A conflict between Charles I and parliament in which Charles broke the Petition of right, which made him receive parliament's permission before taxation, and passed the ship tax which was a levy on seacoast towns to pay for coastal defense and aroused opposition from middle-class merchants and landed gentry and overall caused dispute. Eventually, under long-parliament, this tax was eliminated and overall, parliament had greater control over the royal authority.

Indian National Congress

A congress created in 1883 which was moderate and had educated Indians in search of self government. By 1919, Indians were demanding complete independence.

Constitution of 1875

A constitution of France which solidified the third republic and strengthened the Republicans by instituting ministerial responsibility and established the power of the chamber of deputies.

Mississippi Company

A corporation holding a business monopoly in French colonies in North America and the West Indies. This company went under the influence of John Law until the bubble burst, leading to an economic crisis in France and promoting an atmosphere of economic uncertainty and causing an economic crash, causing John Law to flee.

Council of Trent

A council convened by Paul III which was a general council for Christendom to resolve the religious differences created by the protestant revolt. A group of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians met but a variety of problems including an outbreak of the plague, war between France and Spain, and the changing of the popes prevented annual meetings. The final doctrinal decrees reaffirmed traditional catholic teachings in opposition to protestant beliefs. Scripture and tradition were affirmed as equal authorities in religious matter and following this council the Roman Catholic Church possessed a clear body of doctrine and a unified church under the acknowledged supremacy of the popes who had triumphed over bishops and councils and led the renewed confidence for the Catholic church.

Council of Constance

A council which was a new ecumenical church council which met at Constance from 1414 to 1418. Ending the schism proved a surprisingly easy task, as after the three competing popes wither resigned or were deposed, a new conclave elected cardinal Oddone Colonna, a member of a prominent Roman family as Pope Martin V, ending the great schism.

Sphere of Influence

A country or area in which another country has power to affect developments although it has no formal authority. For example, these were established in China by Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, and Japan.

Coup d'état of Fructidor

A coup that occurred when the Directory felt like it was losing favor with the country. It called for Napoleon to send a general to command troops to guard the legislature at the Tuileries palace. Pierre-Francois-Charles-Augereau commanded the troops and took out many royalists and counterrevolutionaries. The coup further confirmed the power of the army and was very effective in preparing the way for Napoleon's military despotism.

Coup d'état of Brumaire

A coup that overthrew the Directory for the Consulate that started the despotism of Napoleon, who became the First Consul. It is often seen as the effective end of the French Revolution. Sieyes helped plan this coup with Napoleon after Napoleon returned from a military loss in Egypt. Napoleon was only 30 years old at the time of this coup.

Coup d'état in 1799

A coup that was preceded by the Directory which used military to maintain power as it was battered by political opponents, financial problems, and wars from the Committee of Public Safety. This coup was when Napoleon Bonaparte, already a successful and popular general, seized power.

Star Chamber

A court created by Henry VIII which controlled the irresponsible activity of the nobles by not using juries and allowing torture to be used to extract confessions.

Philip Melanchthon

A coworker of Luther who spread Lutheranism and was called the teacher of Germany. He divided students into three classes or divisions based on their age and capabilities.

Dreyfus Affair

A crisis in the third republic of France were a Jew and captain in the French general staff was found guilty by a secret military court of selling army secrets and condemned to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. Evidence soon emerged which proved his innocence and another catholic officer was put on trial. The government partitioned him which impacted more than just France. It convinced Herzl, who covered the trial for a Vietnamese newspaper, that assimilation did not protect Jews from antisemitism and he advocated that Jews needed a country of their own, leading to the Zionist movement. This led to a change in government in France and moderate republicans lost control to radicals and the army was purged of anti republicans and the church and state were separated, and the political threats to the third republic was ended.

youth culture of 1960s

A culture of protests erupted as new revolutions in sexual mores were used and a drug culture emerged, especially among young people. New attitudes towards sex and the use of drugs influenced the youth and protests against the second Vietnam war were a unifying force between the youth of the 1960s.

Mary Astell

A daughter of a wealthy coal merchant who wrote A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, stating that women needed to become better educated. She believed men would reject her proposal, and in her later work called Some Reflections upon Marriage she argued for the equalities of the sexes in marriage.

cholera

A deadly disease that ravaged Europe in the early 1830s and late 1840s that was especially rampant in crowed cities. It was believed that filthy conditions caused the disease which led to support for new public health measures.

Declaration of Pillnitz

A declaration issued by Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia on August 27, 1791 that invited other European monarchs to take "the mos effectual means... to put the king of France in a state to strengthen, in the most perfect liberty, the bases of a monarchical government equally becoming to the rights of sovereigns and to the well-being of the French nation." However, European monarchs were too suspicious of each other to undertake such a plan. The French enthusiasm for war led the Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria on April 20, 1792.

reform act of 1832

A decree passed in Britain which gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in the British life by the Industrial Revolution. It disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns and cities and reapportioned others. This allowed for new industrial urban communities to have some voice in the government. A property qualification for voting was retained so the number of voters only went from 478,000 to 814,000. Thus, this act only benefited the upper middle classes and the change did not significantly alter the composition of the House of Commons. Nevertheless, a significant step was taken as the industrial middle class had been joined to the landed interests in ruling Britain.

"Balkan powder keg"

A description of the Balkans position in Europe, meaning that it caused continuous conflicts which could even drag the whole continent in. Ultimately, this crisis ended up being one of the causes behind the outbreak of WWI.

Golden Bull

A doctrine issued by Emperor Charles Iv that standardized the principle election of the German monarchy in 1356. It stated that four lay princes (the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, and the King of Bohemia) and three ecclesiastical rulers (the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne) would serve as electors with the legal power to elect the "king of the Romans and future emperor, to be ruler of the world and of the Christian people". "King of the Romans" was the official title of the German king and after his imperial coronation he would also have the title of emperor.

October Manifesto

A doctrine issued by Nicholas II after the revolution of 1905 which granted civil liberties and agreed to the establishment of the Duma.

Truman Doctrine

A doctrine issued by President Harry Truman in response to British weakness and the possibility of Soviet expansion into the eastern Mediterranean after the civil war in Greece and Turkey. It said that the United States would provide financial aid to countries that claimed they were threatened by Communist expansion. Truman requested $400 million from Congress for economic and military aid for Greece an Turkey. The goal of this doctrine was to stop the spread of Communism.

poor law act of 1834

A doctrine passed by Britain to address to issue of poverty by establishing workhouses where jobless poor people were forced to live. The intent of this policy was based on the assumption that the poor were responsible for their own pitiful conditions. Within a few years more than 200,000 poor people were locked up in workhouses where family members were separated, forced to live in dormitories, given work assignments, and fed dreadful food. Children were often recruited from parish workhouses as cheap labor in factories.

monroe doctrine

A doctrine written by James Monroe which allowed for the independence of the new Latin American nations and warned against any further European intervention in the New World. This brought both political and economic independence to Latin America.

Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen

A document adopted on August 26 that was a charter of basic liberties and that reflected the ideas of the major philosophes of the French Enlightenment and also owed much to the American Declaration of Independence and American state constitutions. It started with an affirmation of "the natural and imperceptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression." It affirmed the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to exemptions from taxation, freedom, and equal rights for all men, and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were couples with the outlawing of arbitrary arrests. It raised the question of women's rights and many believed that it included them, although ultimately the National Assembly disagreed.

English Bill of Rights

A document created after the Glorious Revolution that affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to do so without Parliament by making it so standing armies could only be made with Parliament consent. Election and debates of Parliament were free so the king couldn't interfere. Citizens had the right to petition the sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail. It made a system of government based on the rule of law and a freely elected Parliament, allowing or a Constitutional monarchy. It didn't settle the religious questions that occurred during English troubles in the seventeenth century.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A document put into effect in July 1790 that stated that bishops and priests of the Catholic church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state. All clergy had to swear an oath of allegiance to this document. However, the pope forbade it so only 54% of parish clergy took the oath, and most bishops refused.

Pragmatic Sanction

A document that Charles VI spent much of his reign negotiating due to his lack of a male heir. Different European powers agreed to recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa of Austria, as his legal heir. This document was pushed aside after Charles's death, especially by Frederick II of Prussia.

charter of 1838- 6 points

A document written by William Lovett which stated the ideological basis of the Chartist movement. The People's Charter detailed the six key points that the Chartists believed were necessary to reform the electoral system and thus alleviate the suffering of the working classes. The first was Universal suffrage (the right to vote) and proposed that the vote be extended to all adult males over the age of 21, apart from those convicted of a felony or declared insane. There would be no property qualification and candidates for elections would no longer have to be selected from the upper classes. Annual parliaments were to be held, and it abolished the worst excesses of 'pocket boroughs'. Payment of members would be given and the final point was that there would be a vote by secret ballot.

skepticism

A doubtful or skeptical attitude, particularly regarding religion.

Duke of Norfolk

A duke in England who plotted against Elizabeth I with Mary Queen of Scots. He wanted to restore Catholicism to England. This uprising was suppressed and the duke was captured but later released. He was involved in another plot with the Spanish king and was caught again and executed.

Jagiello

A dynasty in Poland that included the union of the grand prince of Lithuania with the Polish queen Jadwiga, resulting in a large Lithuanian-Polish state in 1386. The former merger of the two crowns occurred in 1569. This created the largest kingdom in Christendom at the start of the fifteenth century, allowing Poland-Lithuania to play a major role in eastern Europe as well as in Ukraine. Assemblies of nobles elected the king and limited royal power and they also kept peasants as serfs. This dynasty came to an end in 1572 and started the practice of choosing outsiders as kings.

Bolsheviks

A faction of the Marxist social democratic party who were a small faction under the leadership of V. I Lenin. This party was dedicated to violent revolution that would destroy the capitalist system. He believed that a "vanguard" of activists must form a small party of well-disciplined professional revolutionaries to accomplish the task. They wanted to seize power in Russia and launched the Bolshevik revolution where they ultimately were able to establish themselves as the leader of the provisional government and ultimately the communist government.

The Girondins

A faction of the National Convention of which the leaders were from the department of Gironde in southwestern France and were members of the Jacobin club. They were represented primarily in the provinces and feared radical mobs in Paris. They wanted to keep the king alive to limit future unfavorable outcomes. They were ultimately beat out by the Mountain.

The Mountain (Montagnards)

A faction of the National Convention of which the members' seats were located on the side of the convention hall with seats slanted upwards and were members of the Jacobin club. They represented the interests of the cit of Paris and owed much of its strength to the radical and popular elements in the cities. Many of the members of this group were middle class. They wanted to execute the king and were successful when the National Convention found Louis guilty of treason and sentenced him to death, fully destroying the ancien regime.

Mensheviks

A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party who wanted the Social Democrats to be a mass electoral socialist party based on a Western model. Similar to the Social Democrats of Germany, they were willing to cooperate temporarily in a parliamentary democracy while working toward the ultimate achievement of a socialist state.

Bundesrat

A federal council composed of delegates nominated by the states which was a component of the parliament of Germany which was established by Bismarck.

flora tristan

A female Utopian socialist who attempted to foster a Utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism. She traveled through France preaching the need for the liberation of women. Her Worker's Union, published in 1843, advocated the application of Fourier's ideas to reconstruct both family and work. She was largely ignored by her contemporaries yet the Utopian socialists laid the groundwork for later attacks on capitalism which would result in socialism.

Maria Sibylla Merian

A female entomologist at the start of the 16th century who was trained in her father's workshop where she learned the art of illustration. Her exact observation of insects and plants was demonstrated through her superb illustrations. In 1699 she took an expedition into the wilds of the Dutch colony of Surinam in South America to collect and draw samples of plants and insect life. This ed to her work 'Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam" which sued 60 illustrations to show the reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life.

Louise Michel

A female leader of the Paris Commune who proved tireless in forming committees for the defense of the revolutionary commune.

Kwame Nkrumah

A figure in the African independence movement. He formed the Convention People's Party in the Gold Coast. It was the first African political party in black Africa.

Spanish Armada

A fleet of warships prepared by Philip II of Spain. It would rendezvous with the army of the duke of Parma in Flanders and escort his troops across the English Channel for the invasion of England. It was a disaster. The fleet that set sail did not have the ships or troops that Philip wanted. It was battered by multiple encounters with the English and it ended up sailing back to Spain by a northward route around Scotland and Ireland, which was further battered by storms. the defeat of this fleet allowed England to remain a Protestant country. The Spaniards made up for the losses within a year and a half but the defeat was a psychological blow to the Spaniards. Also called the Armada Catolica.

Armada catolica

A fleet of warships prepared by Philip II of Spain. It would rendezvous with the army of the duke of Parma in Flanders and escort his troops across the English Channel for the invasion of England. It was a disaster. The fleet that set sail did not have the ships or troops that Philip wanted. It was battered by multiple encounters with the English and it ended up sailing back to Spain by a northward route around Scotland and Ireland, which was further battered by storms. the defeat of this fleet allowed England to remain a Protestant country. The Spaniards made up for the losses within a year and a half but the defeat was a psychological blow to the Spaniards. Also called the Spanish Armada.

Giotto

A forerunner of Italian Renaissance painting who started the first dramatic break with medieval tradition. He was born into a peasant family and got his painting skills in a Florentine workshop. He worked throughout Italy but his most famous works were done inn Padua and Florence. Coming out of the formal Byzantine school, e transcended it with a new king of realism and a desire to imitate nature that became a basic component of Classical art. His figures were solid and rounded and were placed realistically in relation to each other and their background. It looked three-dimensional. They had expressive faces and physically realistic bodies that gave sacred figures human qualities with which spectators could identified. He had no direct successors bu Florentine painting in the early 15th century pursued the direction his art represents.

Assignats

A form of paper money that were issued based on the collateral of the newly nationalized church property during the French revolution.

Warsaw Pact

A formal military alliance created by the Soviet Union which included Albania Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union which opposed NATO.

Wafd

A formal political party in Egypt which was organized to promote Egyptian independence and while it gained independence it remained under British control.

Johannes Sturm

A founder of Protestant schools in Strasbourg and served as a model for other protestant schools.

Boccaccio

A fourteenth century Italian writer who gave a classic description of possible reactions to the plague in his famous Decameron as he noticed how the wealthy fled while others were forced to suffer. He also wrote poetry but was primarily known or his prose. He used the Tuscan dialect and wrote prose romances and presented the society o his time from a secular point of view. His later work became gloomier and more pessimistic and he rejected his earlier works.

John Law

A french businessman who owned a company and tried to create a national bank and paper currency for France. When people went overboard and drove the price of the stock to incredibly high levels, the bubble burst and his company went bankrupt, leading to a loss of confidence in paper money that prevented the formation of a French national bank. Consequently, French public finance developed slowly in the 18th century.

Henry Bergson

A french philosopher whose accepted rational, scientific thought as a practical instrument fro providing useful knowledge but maintained that it was incapable of arriving at truth of ultimate reality. To him, reality was the "life force" that suffused all things and it could not be divided into analyzable parts.

John Sobieski

King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1674 until his death, and one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. His military skill, demonstrated in wars against the Ottoman Empire, contributed to his prowess as King of Poland. His 22-year reign marked a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and the Khmelnytsky Uprising. Popular among his subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for his victory over the Turks at the 1683 Battle of Vienna. After his victories over them, the Ottomans called him the "Lion of Lechistan"; and the Pope hailed him as the savior of Christendom.

Pope Julius II

Known as the "warrior pope" who commissioned Bramante to design a new basilica for Rome which eventually became the magnificent Saint Peter's after he tore down the Basilica of Saint Peter built by Emperor Constantine in order to make it more beautiful as part of policy.

Hegemony

Leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others. Many countries did this during imperialism in which there was complete military dominance over the colonies of a particular state.

Pugachev's rebellion

Led by Emelyan Pugachev and used the disparate elements of the disheveled serfs to start a mass revolt. Began in 1773 and spread across Southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga RIver. It was initially successful and won the support of many peasants by freeing all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service, but it was eventually crushed as government forces rallied and killed Pugachev.

Enclosure Act and Parliament

Legislation enacted by Parliament in England after small landholders resisted the process of the end of the open-field system and the demise of cooperative farming of the village commune. This series of acts allowed agricultural lands to be legally enclosed, and as a result England gradually became a land of large estates in which many small farmers were forced to become wage laborers or tenant farmers.

Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin

Lenin- A Russian leader who led the Russian social democrats and believed that violent revolution would destroy the capitalist system and that a "vanguard" of activists must form a small party of well-disciplined social revolutionaries to accomplish the task. He spent most of his time in Switzerland and when the provisional government was formed he believed that an opportunity for the Bolsheviks to seize power in Russia had come. During the Bolshevik revolution, he persuaded his fellow Bolsheviks to overthrow the provisional government and put himself at the head of the new communist government. He instituted social reforms and attempted to end the war, and led the Bolsheviks to victory during the Russian civil war. Trotsky- A fervid revolutionary and head of the Petrograd soviet who helped the Bolsheviks gain a position to seize power in the name of the soviets. He was a key figure in the success of the Bolshevik revolution and red army. Stalin- A man who joined the Bolsheviks in 1903 and came to Lenin's attention after staging a daring bank robbery to obtain funds for the Bolshevik cause. He was neither a dynamic speaker of a forceful writer and was content to be a general secretary, which was ultimately the most important in the hierarchy. He at first refused to support either the Let or right in the Politburo, he finally came to favor the goal of "socialism in one country" rather than a world revolution. He used his post as party general secretary to gain complete control of the communist party and succeeded in eliminating the old Bolsheviks of the revolution and establishing a dictatorship so powerful that the Russian tsars of old would have been envious.

liberals vs conservatives

Liberals- gained control of the House of Commons and held the government from 1906-1914 and saw that they would have to enact a program of social welfare or lose the support of the workers. This policy of reform was especially advanced by David Lloyd George and they abandoned Laissez-faire and voted for a series of social reforms such as the national insurance act and increased taxes of the wealthy classes. Conservatives- A political party in Britain who stemmed from land owners and a few wealthy industrialists. They did not want reform.

Lebensraum

Living space. It was the doctrine that Hitler used and it believed that superior individuals had the right through expansion to secure authoritarian leadership over the masses. This doctrine was espoused by Karl Haushofer, a professor of geography at the University of Munich, and it maintained that a nation's power depended on the amount and kind of land it occupied.

War of the League of Augsburg

Louis XIV's third war which was between France and the League of Augsburg, made up of Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, and England which was an eight-year struggle which brought economic depression and famine to France.

Peasants' War

Luther's greatest challenge was caused by this, which came from peasant dissatisfaction in Germany as peasants did not receive economic benefits from the early 16th century, social discontent which became entangled with religious revolt, and other social causes. It was Thomas Muntzer who ultimately caused the revolt, causing Luther to react quickly by calling on German princes to end the revolt. The peasants, who had previously been his greatest supporters, were now his enemies.

music videos

MTV introduced this new form of media that changed the music scene by making image important for selling records. Artists like Michael Jackson became superstars by treating this as an art film with short films with elaborate staging and special effects set to music. Technological advances were used in these with the advent of the synthesizer, an electronic piano with computerized sounds.

Mabillon, DuCange, and Muratori

Mabillon- A french benedictine monk who is the founder of the disciplines of palaeography and diplomatics. DuCange- A philosopher who mastered languages in order to pursue his main scholarly interests, medieval and Byzantine history. Muratori- an italian historian who wrote the Muratorian fragment, the earliest known list of New Testament books

prostitution

Many lower-class women were forced to become prostitutes to survive as when they flocked to the cities new opportunities were unavailable and employment was unstable. In most European nations this practice was licensed and regulated by the government and municipal authorities and while the British government had minimal regulation, they did enforce the contagious disease acts to examine for venereal disease yet opposition came from middle-class female reformers.

September Massacres

Mass killing of prisoners that took place in Paris from September 2 to September 6 1792. It was sometimes called the "First Terror" of the French Revolution. The people believed that political prisoners were planning to rise up in their jails to join a counterrevolutionary plot. In all, about 1,200 prisoners were killed, most after a summary trial by a quickly done popular tribunal. Of these, more than 220 were priests held for refusing to accept the Revolutionary church reorganization. They made a profound impression abroad, where they were publicized as proof of the horrors of revolution. The responsibility for the massacres became a political issue in party struggles in the ruling National Convention, where the moderate Girondins blamed their more radical enemies.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus. They had 3 major activities- establishing highly disciplined schools (using humanist methods) in order to educate the young to better combat Protestantism, propagate the Catholic faith among non-Christians (Francis Xavier was a Jesuit who traveled to the East and converted tens of thousands to Christianity in India and then went to Malacca and the Moluccas, ending in Japan where he converted thousands, especially in the southernmost islands. He died before reaching China. The Italian Matteo Ricci worked in China and showed parallels between Christian and Confucian concepts and he was very impressed by the greatness of Chinese civilization), and to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism, restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and eastern Europe, especially Poland.

Refractory priests

Members of the clergy who refused to take the oaths required by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and who attempted to flee. As punishment, they were often banished, imprisoned, or executed.

M.A.A.I.N

Militarism, Assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism

family allowances

Monetary allowances that were part of the welfare state. They were instituted in some countries to provide a minimum level of material care for children. Most of these types of programs gave a fixed amount per child. They also were meant to increase the population after the decline from the war. For example, the French increased the amount of aid for each new child after the first one.

His domestic policies-bureaucratic changes

Napoleon developed a powerful centralized administrative machine. He kept the 83 departments of France but eliminated locally elected assemblies and replaced them with new officials like prefects, who supervised local government. He made tax collection more systematic and efficient so that professional collectors employed by the state dealt with each individual taxpayers. Tax exemptions were not given, even due to birth, status, or special arrangement. This allowed for a balanced budget. Napoleon tried to develop capable officials based on demonstrated abilities. This led to an aristocracy based on merit in state service which allowed for 3,263 new nobles from 1808-1814. Almost 60% were military officers and the rest were from upper ranks of the civil service or were other state and local officials. Only 22% were from nobility of the Ancien Regime and almost 60% were of the bourgeoisie.

His policies with Catholic Church-Concordat of 1801

Napoleon knew that he would have to come to terms with the Catholic Church in order to stabilize his reign. He negotiated with Pope Pius VII to create the Concordat of 1801. The pope gained the right to depose French bishops but the state kept the right to nominate bishops. The Catholic Church could hold processions again and could reopen the seminaries. However, just by signing the Concordat, the pope acknowledged the accomplishments of the Revolution and agreed not to raise the question of the church lands confiscated during the Revolution. Napoleon recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of French people. The clergy would be paid by the state but to avoid the appearance of a state church, Protestant ministers were also put on state payroll. The Catholic Church was no longer an enemy of the French government. The agreement also reassured those who got church lands during the Revolution that they would not be stripped of them that made them supporters of the Napoleonic regime.

Jingoism

Nationalism in the form of aggressive foreign policy, such as a country's advocacy for the use of threats or actual force, as opposed to peaceful relations, in efforts to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests. It is excessive bias in judging one's own country as superior to others, an extreme type of nationalism. The term originated in the United Kingdom, expressing a pugnacious attitude toward Russia in the 1870s, and it appeared in the American press by 1893.

Nationalism vs. socialism

Nationalism was a divisive issue for international socialism as Marx and Engels said that working men have no country and that national differences and antagonism between peoples are daily more and more vanishing, owing to the development of the bourgeois. They proved wrong, and resolutions advocating joint action by workers to avert war but provided no real machinery to the revolutions. Socialist parties varies and remained tied to national concerns and issues and worried that national loyalties would outweigh class loyalties.

Naturalism vs. Realism

Naturalism- A movement in literature which accepted the material world as real and felt that literature should be realistic. By addressing social problems they could contribute to an objective understanding of the world. Individuals such as Emile Zola and Tolstoy were naturalist authors. They had a pessimistic view about Europe's future. Realism- Had an underlying note of liberal optimism about people and society.

multinational corporation (transnational corporation)

New additions to the global economy which either was an international identity as belonging to a particular home country where they are headquartered. The second type of company is border-less, as it does not consider any particular country as its base, home or headquarters.

physics and astronomy

New advancements were made in these scientists. In the first concept, Newton's three laws of motion allowed for a universal law for all movement in the universe. In the second concept, geocentric conception was replaced by heliocentric conception by COpernicus and Brahe supported this idea. Kepler believed the universe was constructed on a basis of geometric figures and eliminated the theory of circular motion of planets. Galileo created the first telescope and discovered mountains and craters on the moon, four moons of jupiter, phases of venus, and sunspots. These scientists contributed to these topics of the Scientific Revolution.

study of anatomy/physiology

New advances were made in these subjects through Paracelsus who identified that larger universal chemical reactions occurred on a smaller scale in the body, and Vesalius who had a better understanding of anatomy and careful examination of the individual organs and discovered that all blood originated from the heart, and William Harvey who made advancements in circulation by learning that circulation started in the heart, the same blood fires through both veins and arteries, and that the blood makes a full circulation through the body.

Challenges against the Church

New challenges emerged with conflicted with this traditional institution as industrialization and urbanization affected religious institutions and the migration of people prevented the strength of religion. The political movements were also hostile to the Christian churches and movements such as anti clericalism and science challenged religion.

"golden age" of western boureoise

New economic opportunities via industrialization led to this class gaining both political, economic, and social benefits. New ideologies of change allowed for this class to grow and overall achieve benefits which led to them experiencing a "golden age".

Nursing jobs

New employment opportunities which emerged for women as individuals such as Amalie Sieveking and Florence Nightingale revolutionizes this field and transformed it into a profession of trained, middle-class, "women in white".

parliament's remedies

New legislation was created to benefit the working class as legislation worked to better the lives of working children in coal mines, women, and pauper-apprentices and to help child labor and labor in mines. In addition, new legislation was enacted to better the standards of living by improving sanitation and the overall standard of living. Parliament attempted to enact new legislation through the Combination Acts which outlawed associations of workers which failed to prevent the formation of trade unions.

Entertainment

New leisure activities emerged including music and dance halls, tourism, and team sports. Music and dance halls appeared which enticed men, women, and children. Mass tourism involved the new business patterns and new transportation which allowed for weekend excursions and overseas tours. Team sports also became a more fundamental factor in new entertainment factors as sports institution grew in size and preeminence while simultaneously enabling the growth of a more democratized middle class and spread nationalistic feelings throughout Europe and the Americas.

Prefects

New officials created by Napoleon who acted as the central government's agents and were appointed by the first consul (Napoleon). They were responsible for supervising all aspects of local government, however they were not local men and their careers depended on the central government.

Mass society

New patterns of production, mass consumption, and working-class organization were one aspect of this new concept which emerged in 187 and had a larger and vastly improved urban environment, new patterns of social structure, gender issues, mass education, and mass leisure which shaped European society.

surgical advancement

New practices were made due to the discovery of germs and general anesthesia which created a new environment for surgical operations. Joseph Lister helped establish the anti-septic principle and Pasteur developed a system to rid bacteria. The inability to lessen pain was solved with sulfuric ether and chloroform as anesthetics.

urban renewal

New reforms were launched to improve living conditions, s reformers such as Chadwick and Wirchow and Neumann saw filthy living conditions as the cause of epidemic which led to new sewage systems, canals, board of health, building regulations, and regular private baths. Housing needs were also addressed with emphasis on the middle-class as model dwellings were rented at a reasonable price, although the private enterprise could not solve this crisis. Government stepped into the issue and worked to create housing.

Technological warfare-mustard gas, flamethrowers, tanks, weapons, U-boats

New technologies were created which revolutionized warfare. The creation of new weapons and technologies during warfare allowed the host nation's army/navy/air force to have an advantage over their enemies. examples) planes, bombers, tanks, aircraft carriers, U-boats, flamethrowers, etc.

white-collar jobs

New white-collar jobs were made available to women as the growth of heavy industry created new jobs and the expansion of government services opened the door to telephone operators, clerks, typists, and secretaries and compulsory education needed more teachers. These jobs were seen as an opportunity to escape the "dirty" lower class work.

Italy- north vs. south

North was industrializing and south was poverty stricken and were weakened by lack of community and the northerners treated the southerners with contempt.

Nantes

Occurred during the Terror in which the most notorious acts of violence occurred. Victims were killed by sinking them in barges in the Loire River.

Tennis Court Oath

Occurred on June 20, 1789 when deputies in the Estates-General of the Third Estate met after voting to constitute itself a "National Assembly" and decided to draw up a constitution. They arrived at their meeting spot but found doors locked and decided to move to a nearby indoor tennis court in which they swore to continue to meet until they produced a French Constitution. This was the first step in the French Revolution since the Third Estate had no legal right to act as the National Assembly.

Stalemate

Occurred on the western front after the Schlieffen plan failed in which the German troops and French troops both remained static in the trenches that they built for shelter in the western front. These lines of trenches went from the English Channel to the frontiers of Switzerland, resulting in the start of trench warfare. This remained the situation for almost 4 years.

Assassination of F. Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo. His wife and unborn child were also killed by a Bosnian organization called the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist organization dedicated to the creation of a pan-Slavic state. Although the Austrian government did not know whether or not the Serbian government was involved, it saw an opportunity to defeat Serbia. Fearful of Russian intervention on Serbia's behalf, Austrian leaders sought German backing through the blank check. Led by Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf, Austrian leaders sent Serbia an ultimatum with demands so extreme that Serbia had little choice but to reject some of them in order to preserve its sovereignty. Austria then declared war on Serbia, being one of the more immediate causes of the outbreak of WWI.

Women's March onto Versailles

On October 5, after marching to the Hotel de Ville, or city hall, to demand bread, thousands of Parisian women went to Versailles, which was 12 miles away, to confront the king and National Assembly. They were armed with broomsticks, lances, pitchforks, swords, pistols, and muskets and were called the fish women. Louis XVI met with a delegation of the women, who tearfully described their starving children, and promised them grain supplies for Paris which he thought would solve the problem. The women's action forced the National Guard under Lafayette to follow and march to Versailles. They now insisted that the royal family return to Paris. On October 6, the king went to Paris and brought along wagon loads of flour from palace stores, all of which were escorted by women armed with pikes singing, "We are bringing back the baker, the baker's wife, and the baker's boy." The king accepted the National Assembly's decrees and became a prisoner of Paris.

November 11, 1918

On this date World War I ended. At 5 a.m. that morning, Germany, who had no more manpower or supplies and was faced with imminent invasion, signed an armistice agreement with the Allies in a railroad car outside Compiégne, France. The First World War left nine million soldiers dead and 21 million wounded, with Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Great Britain each losing nearly a million or more lives. In addition, at least five million civilians died from disease, starvation, or exposure.

Danish War

One of Bismarck's wars which arose over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein when the Danish government moved to incorporate the two duchies into Denmark, yet German nationalists were outraged over the large population of Germans and the Austrians and Prussians declared war on Germany, a quick defeat as they surrendered Schlewig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia who agreed to establish a joint-administration and showed that Prussia needed to eliminate the threat of Austria to further expand its empire.

Thomas Muntzer

One of Luther's ex-followers who was a pastor who inflamed the peasants against their rulers with his fiery language and caused revolts to erupt in southwestern Germany in June 1524 and spread northward and eastward.

Jan Van Eyck

One of the first Northern Renaissance artists to use oil paint who used attention to detail although he had a lack of perspective and was indicative of northern renaissance painters.

Purgatory

One of the layers in Dante's Divine Comedy that is in the middle of hell and heaven. Virgil guides him through this zone until Beatrice takes over in guiding him to Heaven.

Marsilio Ficino

One of the leaders of the Florentine Platonic Academy who dedicated his life to the translation of Plato and Neoplatonism and undertook the synthesis of Christianity and Platonism into a single system.

Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man

One of the most famous writings of the Renaissance which combined the works of many philosophers of different backgrounds for common "nuggets of universal truth" that he believed were all part of God's revelation to humanity. In this book, he wrote that humans have unlimited potential and he also accepted Hermetic philosophy as the science of the divine in this work.

Guillaume Dufay

One of the most important composers of the Renaissance who changed the composition of the mass and was the first to use secular tunes to replace gregorian chants and composed a number of secular songs.

Maximilien Robespierre

One of the most important members of the Committee of Public Safety who was a small-town lawyer who had moved to Paris as a member of the Estates-General. Politics was his life and he was dedicated to using power to benefit the people who he loved in the abstract though not on a one-on-one basis. He started the Reign of Terror as an attempt to strengthen the revolution but was executed by the same people who supported him at the start as the violence of the revolution started to die down.

Francis Xavier

One of the original members of the Society of Jesus who carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. After converting tens of thousands in India, he traveled to Malacca and the Moluccas before reaching Japan and he spoke highly of the Japanese. He set out for China but died of a fever before he reached the mainland.

Directory- Council of Elders

One of the two chambers of the national legislative assembly that was the upper house of 250 members. It was composed of married or widowed members who were over 40 years old and its job was to accept or reject proposed laws. It also voted on the five directors based on a list given to them by the Council of 500.

Louis Saint-Just

One of the younger members of the Committee of Public Safety who rationalized the twelve man government of the Terror by saying that "Since the French people has manifested its will, everything opposed to it is outside the sovereign. Whatever is outside the sovereign is an enemy." He was referring to Rousseau's concept of general will but it is apparent that these twelve men, in the name of a Republic, took it upon themselves the right to ascertain the sovereign will of the French people and to kill their enemies as "outside the sovereign."

Pogroms

Organized massacres which occurred against helpless minorities throughout Europe, most commonly focusing on the Jewish minorities in Germany.

pogroms

Organized massacres which were often directed towards the Jewish populations.

Organizational structure /Uniqueness of Parliament

Parliament and the king underwent a struggle to determine the role each should play in governing the nation. However, a struggle over this political issue was complicated by a deep profound religious controversy. With the victory of Parliament came the foundation for constitutional monarchy by the end of the 17th century. to rule England with the monarch as a "balanced policy". Parliament expressed its displeasure by refusing his requests for additional monies needed by the king to meet the increased cost of government. Parliament controlled the power of the purse. They passed the petition of right, which limited the power of the royal authority, and ultimately were unable to meet due to Charles I not calling parliament until the long parliament met, allowing for parliament to regain much of its control over the monarchy.

glasnost

Part of Soviet policy during the Gorbachev era. It meant "openness". Soviet officials and citizens were encouraged to discuss openly the strengths and weaknesses of the Soviet Union. The Pravda, the official newspaper of the Communist Party, started to include official reports of corruption, sloppy factory work, and protests against government policy. Previously banned art works were now published and music based on Western styles like jazz and rock were openly preformed.

Dominions of Austria

Parts of the Austrian Empire. The nucleus was Lower and Upper Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Styria, and Tyrol. In the sixteenth century, the kingdom of Bohemia and parts of northwestern Hungary were added. The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 led to the addition of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia, creating an Austrian Empire in Southeastern Europe. After the War of Spanish Succession, Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands and got formal recognition of its occupation of Spanish lands in Italy like Milan, Mantua, Sardinia, and Naples. Austria never became highly centralized because of its many national groups who were only held together by personal union because the Habsburg emperor was archduke of Austria, king of Bohemia, and king of Hungary. Each area had its own laws, Estates-General, and political life. Landed aristocrats were connected via common bond of service to the Habsburgs as were military officers and government bureaucrats. Still, Austria was populous in central Europe and had great potential military strength.

social hirarchy of latin america, 4 classes

Peninsulares were at the top followed by Creoles, Mestizos/mulottos, and ending with the lowest class of the Africans and natives.

Creoles

People of mixed European and black descent, especially in the Caribbean.

plutocrats

People whose power derives from their wealth. This class grew due to big business as a result of industrialization.

Destruction of Polish state

Poland lay on a plain with few easily defensible borders and combined with a weak and ineffectual monarchy, set the stage for ______________. Austria, Prussia ,and Russia divided and conquered certain parts of Poland in the partitions of Poland and caused this.

Destruction of Polish state

Poland was an excellent example of why a strong monarchy was needed. The Polish king was elected by the Polish nobles and forced to accept drastic restrictions on his power, including limited revenues, a small bureaucracy, and a standing army of no more than 20,000 soldiers. For Polish nobles, these limitations eliminated an absolute king and gave Poland's neighbors an opportunity. The total destruction of the Polish state resulted from rivalries of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. To avoid war, these leaders decided to compromise by diving Poland and to maintain balance of power they agreed to the acquisition of roughly equal territories at Poland's expense. In 1772 Poland lost 30% of land and 50% population. Austria gained agriculturally rich Galicia, and Russia took the largest slice of land in Eastern Poland while Prussia acquired West Prussia, the smallest but most valuable territory because it united two of the chief sections of Prussia. the remaining Polish state was supposedly independent but it was dominated by the Russians who kept troops there. After the Poles attempted to establish a stronger state under a hereditary monarchy, the Russians gained the support of Austria and Prussia and intervened militarily. In the following year, Russia and Prussia undertook a second partition and under General Thaddeus Kosciusko, the remaining Polish state was obliterated by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the third partition of Poland and many historians showed Poland's demise as a cogent example of why building a strong, absolutist state was essential to survival in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Nihilists

Political group in Russia that believes in abolishing the existing political, economic, and social structures. They believe that life is meaningless and rejects all religious and moral principles.

Situation in Portugal, Italian States, Dutch Republic

Portugal: Experienced decline since glorious days of empire in 16th century. However, during the long ministry of the marquis of Pombal, who was the chief minister to many Portuguese kings, the nobility and Catholic Church were curtailed and the empire was temporarily revived. After Pombal was removed from office, the nobility and church regained much of their power. Italian States: After the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant force here during the eighteenth century. The duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and the kingdom of Naples were all surrendered to the Habsburg emperors but Sicily was given to the northern Italian state of Savoy that was emerging as a state trying to expand. In 1734, the Bourbons of Spain reestablished control over Naples and Sicily. Some of the Italian sates like Venice and Genoa remained independent but they all grew more impotent in international affairs. Dutch Republic: After its century in the sun, the Dutch Republic had a decline in economic prosperity. Local and national politics were dominated by the oligarchies that governed the Dutch Republic's towns. In the 18th century, the struggle continued between these oligarchs and the house of Orange who were the stadholders that headed the executive branch of government. The regents sought to reduce the power of Orangists but got divided when the Patriots, or Dutch burghers, started to try for democratic reforms to open up municipal councils to greater participation. The success of the Patriots led foreign interference wen the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister the wife of the Orangist stadolder. The Patriot were crushed and Orangists and regents reestablished the old system.

Increase in poverty-why? How to address it?

Poverty grew in the cities and countryside. In Venice, 3-5% of the population were licensed beggars and unlicensed beggars could have been as much as 13-15%. Beggars in Bologna were 25% of the population and in Mainz it was 30% of the population that were beggars or prostitutes. Prostitution was an alternative to begging. In France and Britain, about 10% of people relied on charity or begging to get their food. Earlier in Europe, the poor were seen as blessed children of God and assisting them was a Christian duty. A change in attitude occurred in the sixteenth century and became apparent in the eighteenth century. Charity to poor beggars was believed to encourage laziness and led them to vice and crime. Private charitable institutions like the religious Order of Saint Vincent de Paul and the Sisters of Charity were founded to help people but they got overwhelmed quickly. Some enlightened officials argued that the state should get involved to help but no action occurred. in the eighteenth century, French authorities tried to round up vagrants and beggars and put them in jail for eighteen months as a deterrent. It didn't work since the basic problem was socioeconomic. In the 1770s, the French tried to use public work projects like road building to give people jobs, but not enough funds were available to accomplish much, resulting in continuing problems of poverty.

cultural relativism

Practices that had seemed to be grounded in reason that now appeared to be merely matters of custom.

Dissenters

Protestants who disagreed with the English church.

Puritans

Protestants within the Anglican church who were inspired by Calvinist theology and wanted to remove any trace of Catholicism from the Church of England. Elizabeth managed to keep them in check during her reign.

radical republicans vs socialists

Radical republicans- upheld the principles of private property and secularism. Originally a left-wing group, but with the emergence of the French Section of the Workers' International in 1905, the Radicals shifted towards the political centre. In 1972 the left wing of the party split off to form the centre-left Radical Party of the Left (PRG). The Radical Party then affiliated with the centre-right, becoming one of the founder parties of the Union for French Democracy (UDF) in 1978. They criticized personal power and the attacks on freedoms. Socialism- Following the French revolution, It realized the two essential conditions for socialism: democracy and capitalism. But at its heart it meant the political advent of the bourgeois class.

Rene Descartes

Reflected doubt and uncertainty and created a philosophy that dominated Western thought. He was born into the French lower nobility and wrote the Discourse on Method, and he began to doubt his own existence. He emphasized the min and said he would only accept things that reason said to be truce. He said "the min cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different". He taught the absolute duality between the body and mind called cartesian dualism. Using the mind, the path to certain knowledge and its best instrument of mathematics, humans could understand the material world because it is a pure mechanism and God was the gret geometrician. He is called the father of modern rationalism.

Intendants

Royal officials used by Cardinal Richelieu that were sent to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government. As their functions grew, they often came into conflict with provincial governors, but they were usually successful which strengthened the power of the crown.

Philip V - Spain

Ruler of a temporarily rejuvenated Spain who chhanged laws, administrative institutions, and language of castile to be established in the other spanish kingdoms, allowing for the king of Castile to truly become the king of Spain. French-style ministries were used to replace the conciliar system of government and officials similar to the french intendants were implemented in the various French provinces.

Russia in Asia

Russian expansion in Asia. It started with Russian explorers in the wilderness of Siberia and later to the Pacific coast. They also established a claim on Alaska which they later sold to the U.S. Russian settlers gradually moved into Siberia, a total of 7 million Russians. They moved south towards the warmer Ottoman Empire, soon gaining control over the northern coast of the Black Sea and later into Central Asia, gaining the trans-Caspian area as well as Turkestan. This brought the Russians to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan. The British also wanted these lands to protect their lands in India which resulted in an agreement to make Afghanistan a buffer state between Russian Turkestan and British India. They also divided Persia into 2 spheres of influence. The Russians were halted b the British in the south. They moved east and occupied Manchuria to try to move into Korea. However, this led to war with Japan which they lost in a humiliating defeat. Japan made a protectorate in Korea and Russia's Asian expansion was temporarily halted.

"window to the west"

Saint Petersburg, the culture capital of Russia which also served as the center of westernization in Eastern Europe which connected Eastern Europe to Western through Westernization movements and reforms.

science vs christianity

Scientific spirit encouraged a number of biblical scholars to apply critical pricniples to the Bible, leading to higher criticism. One of the leading exponents was Ernst Renan who questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible and presented a new theory of Jesus as a human being.

caronari

Secret societies in Spain which were motivated by nationalistic dreams which continued to conspire for a revolution.

home rule

Self government by having a separate parliament but not complete independence, which was advocated for by the Irish to have from Britain. Soon Irish peasants were responding to British inaction with terrorist attacks and Irish Catholics began to demand independence.

secularism

Separation of church and state as well as church and society

Robert Walpole

Served as prime minister of England and pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. he was opposed by new forces as growing trade and industry led the increasing middle class to favor expansion of trade and world empire.

Potosi mines

Silver mines in Peru that opened in 1545 which resulted in the value of precious metals imported into Europe to quadruple. (From 1503-1650, about 16 million kilograms of silver and 185,000 kilograms of gold entered the port of Seville set off a price revolution that affected the Spanish economy.)

latin american revolutions-simon bolivar, jose de san martin

Simon Bolivar- Led the independence movement by starting in Venezuela as well as other northern parts of South America. He was hailed as the liberator of Venezuela and he went on to liberate Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru and he became president of Venezuela. When he was liberating northern South America, San Martin took over in the southern part of the continent. San Martin- A liberator of southern South America who led forces over the Andes and arrived in Chile where he defeated the Spaniards. He welcome Bolivars help and was replaced by Bolivar who took on the task of defeating the Spanish at Ayacucho and liberated Peru, Araguaya, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile. Although political independence brought economic independence to Latin America, old patterns were quickly reestablished.

Guild

Small workshops of masters, journeymen, and apprentices. Apprentices who acquired the proper skills became journeymen before entering the ranks of masters. More and more in the eighteenth century, however, these workshops became closed oligarchies as membership was restricted to the relatives of masters. Many skilled artisans then had to become low-paid laborers.

emigration

Some of the excess labor from underdeveloped areas that had a lack of need for labor due to new agricultural practices migrated to the industrial regions of Europe. By 1913 more than 400,000 Poles were working in the heavily industrialized Ruhr region of Western Germany, and thousands of Italian laborers had migrated to France. The industrialized regions of Europe were not able to absorb the entire surplus population of heavily agricultural regions like southern Italy, Spain, Hungary, and Romania, where the land could not support the growing number of people. In 1880 about 500,000 people left Europe each year on average, between 1906 and 1910 annual departures increased to 1.3 million and altogether between 1846 and 1932 60 million Europeans left Europe, half bound for the United States and the rest for Canada or Latin America.

Similarities between 3 old empires

Spain, Holy Roman Empire, and Poland all experienced a major decline during the 17th century. Spain experienced the most populous empire in the world, but their treasury was empty due to Philip II and III excessively spending on war and court. The armed forces were out-of-date and the government was inefficient, and the commercial class was weak. During the reign of Philip III Spain's weaknesses became apparent and nepotism was widespread. The HRE experienced an immense loss due to the thirty years' war. They lost the German empire but a new empire was created in eastern and southeastern Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was destroyed by the casualties of war and experienced a decline, leading to the Habsburgs focusing on Austria. Finally, Poland experienced a decline The struggle between the crown and the landed nobility created the largest kingdom in Christendom and the Jagiello dynasty came to an end. The elective nature of the Polish monarchy reduced it to impotence. The Sejm's powers had disastrous results for the monarchy and it reduced the government to virtual chaos. Poland became a confederation of semi-independent estates of landed nobles and became a battleground for foreign powers, who found it easy to invade but difficult to rule.

Conquistadors

Spanish conquerors who were hardy individuals motivated by typical 16th century blend of glory, freed, and religious crusading zeal. Although authorized by the Castilian crown, these groups were financed and outfitted privately and had incredible successes.

St. Ignatius Loyola

Spanish nobleman who founded the Society of Jesus. His injuries in battle cut short his military career and he experienced spiritual torment, thus deciding to submit his will to the will of the church. He couldn't be a real soldier so he vowed to be a soldier of God. Over 12 years, he prepared for his lifework by prayer, pilgrimages, going to school, and working out a spiritual program in The Spiritual Exercises. It was a training manual for spiritual development emphasizing exercises to strengthen the human will and made to follow the will of God as manifested through his instrument, the Catholic Church. His religious order was recognized by a papal bull as the Society of Jesus and was based on absolute obedience to the papacy, strict hierarchical order for society, using education to achieve goals, and engaging in conflict for God. It was similar to the structure of military command and a 2 year novitiate made it so everyone was dedicated. A general got executive leadership and nominated important positions and was the absolute head of the order. Loyola was the 1st general of the order. Jesuits also made a vow of obedience to the pope.

Manila Galleons

Spanish trading ships which for two and a half centuries linked the Philippines with Mexico across the Pacific Ocean, making one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of Acapulco and Manila.

elementary education

State-run compulsory education was provided for girls and boys which led to more female teachers and a reform in state education systems.

Cahiers

Statements of local grievances that were drafted throughout France during the elections to the Estates-General and advocated a regular constitutional government that would abolish the fiscal privileges of the church and nobility as the major way to rehabilitate the country. They were drafted mainly by the bourgeoisie.

Economic zone-"inner" vs. "outer"

Struggle for economic supremacy between Great Britain and Germany led to the upper zone of Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, the Western part of Austria-Hungary, and northern Italy which had an advanced industrialized core and a high standard of living. The Lower division was made up of southern italy, austria-hungary, spain, portugal, the balkan kingdoms, and russia and was focused on food and raw materials.

New products-chemicals, electricity, and petroleum

Substitution of steel for island allowed for lighter, smaller, and faster machines and railways, ships, and armaments. Great Britain fell behind in the new chemical industry as a change in the method of making soda, textile, soap, and paper led to Germans taking over in the development of organic chemicals and dyes. Electricity was a major new form of energy which could be converted to light, heat, and motion. The internal combustion engine allowed for liquid fuels and revolutionized transportation and liquid fuels allowed for some naval fleets to be more effective.

Riksdag

Sweden's parliament. Christina, the daughter and successor of Gustavus Adolphus, favored the nobility which resulted in the other estates of this parliament (burghers, clergy, and peasants) to protest, leading to Charles X replacing Christina on the throne and leading to a reestablishment of the old order in Sweden.

Richard Simon

The "father of high criticism" who was a French priest and longtime Oratorian, who was an influential biblical critic, orientalist and controversialist.

Isabella d'Este

The "first lady of the world" who was the daughter of the Duke of Ferrara and married to Francesco Gonzaga. Their court became an important center of art and literature in the Renaissance and she was known for her intelligence and political wisdom. She attracted artists and intellectuals to the Mantuan court and was responsible for amassing one of the finest libraries in all of Italy. After the death of her husband she effectively rules Mantua and won a reputation as a clever negotiator.

New Imperialism

The 1880s scramble for overseas territory led by the European states as the Europeans carved up Asia and Africa.

Pope Urban VI

The Archbishop of Bari ho became the pope after Gregory XI. He had plans to reform the papal curia and eliminate the French majority in the college of cardinals. However, many of the French cardinals withdrew from Rome in the late summer to escape the Roman mob and they issued a manifesto saying that they were coerced and that this pope's election was void. They then elected Clement VII to return to Avignon, resulting in 2 popes.

Compromise of 1867

The Augsleich which was the result of the Austro-Prussian war which created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part of the empire had a constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital and was held together by the monarch Francis Joseph and a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances. However, it did not satisfy the other nationalities and simple enabled the Austrians and Hungarians to dominate the nationalities.

metternich policies

The Austrian foreign minister who led the Congress of Vienna and was guided by the principle of legitimacy which reestablished peace and stability in Europe which would be done by restoring the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. He also wanted a new balance of power which would prevent any one nation from dominating Europe and strengthen Prussia and Austria which avoided a great danger and dictated the allied treatment of France.

Leopold I

The Austrian leader during the seventeenth century who encouraged the eastward movement of the Ottoman Empire, although he was challenged by the Ottomans. This resulted in the siege of Vienna in 1683, although the Austrians led a European army to defeat the Ottomans and ended up gaining many new lands and establishing a strong Austrian Empire in central Europe.

battle of Balaklava

The Battle in the Crimean war featuring the British Light Brigade. Britain and France attacked Russia's Crimean peninsula. Ended with Russia fort of Sevastopol falling. Russia later opted for peace.

Red Army

The Bolshevik side of the Russian civil war that ended up being successful. It was organized by Leon Trotsky who organized the army with strict discipline and reinstated the draft and recruited and commanded some former tsarist army officers. This army had rigid discipline and interior lines of defense which allowed for them to be successful. They were also successful because the army had a common goal of gaining a new socialist order.

BBC

The British Broadcasting Corporation which could buy American programs for 1/10 the cost per viewer of producing its own and only the establishment of quota systems prevented American television from completely inundating these countries.

Country house vs. peasant villages

The Country House was where the majority of aristocrats who did not participate in court society lived. They were large houses and showed the nobles' domination of the surrounding countryside. English aristocrats invested a lot of time, energy, and money in their rural estates, resulting in the country house holding an important role in English social life. Many of these houses in the 18th century were built in the Georgian style that was influenced by classical serenity of the architect Andrea Palladio. It used elegance and domesticity. It also had privacy with separate upper and lower floors. The lower floors were for public activities like dining, entertaining, and leisure, with the largest being the drawing room used for dances and card games. The entrance hall had a large staircase leading to the private upstairs that had bedrooms for husbands and wives, sons, and daughters. They were used for sleeping and private activities like playing for children and sewing, writing, and reading for wives. Servants also had their own wing of the house. The house arrangement usually reflected male interest but women also has special elements like the drawing room becoming more feminine. Many aristocratic landowners, especially in Britain, also expanded the open space around their country houses by creating walls and parks for more privacy, sometimes they even destroyed whole peasant villages for it. The peasant village were small, local villages that were the centers for peasants' social lives. Especially in western Europe, the village maintained public order, provided poor relief, a village church, and sometimes a school master; collected taxes for the central government; maintained roads and bridges; and established common procedures for sowing, plowing, and harvesting crops. Wealthier peasants usually dominated and they were resistant to innovations such as new agricultural practices.

Federigo de Montefeltro

The Duke of Urbino who received a classical education and was a condottiere. He was a good ruler and an unusual condottiere because he was reliable and honest and allowed for Urbino to become a well-known cultural and intellectual center.

Maria Theresa

The Empress of the Austrian Empire who decided to reform the empire to prepare for a seemingly inevitable conflict with the rival Prussia after the loss of Austrian Silesia to Prussia in the War of Austrian Succession. She curtailed the role of the diets in taxation and local administration, which made it so the clergy and nobles were forced to pay property and income taxes to royal officials rather than diets. The Austrian and Bohemian lands were divided into 10 provinces with districts in them that were administered by royal officials. This made Austria more centralized and bureaucratic, however these reforms were done to strengthen the Habsburg state and were accompanied by an enlargement and modernization of armed forces. This empress remained a staunch Catholic and conservative who was not open to the wider reforms suggested by philosophes.

George III

The English King after Pitt the Elder was dismissed. This kind used Lord Bute as his royal minister, a previous favorite. There was public criticism of this king due to the loss of American colonies and discontent over the electoral system. In 1780, the House of Commons affirmed that the influence of the crown was increasing and needed to be diminished. This King avoided drastic change by appointing William Pitt the Younger, the son of William Pitt the Elder as his prime minister in 1783. Pitt was supported by merchants, industrial classes, and the king which allowed him to stay in power. The King stayed an uncertain supporter because of periodic bouts of insanity. However, due to Pitt's successes, serious reform of the corrupt parliamentary system was avoided for another generation.

ECSC

The European Coal and Steel Community which was formed from France, West Germany, the Benelux countries, and Italy which worked to create a coon market for coal and steel products among the six nations by eliminating tariffs and other trade barriers. The success of this coalition encouraged the members to proceed further and they created the EURATOM.

EEC

The European Economic Community which included France, West Germany, the Benelux countries, and Italy, also called the Common Market. It eliminated customs barriers for the six member nations and created a large free-trade area protected from the rest of the world by a common external tariff. By promoting free trade, it also encouraged cooperation and standardization in many aspects o the economy. All the member states benefited economically

population growth

The European population increased dramatically between 1850 and 1910 rising from 270 million to 460 million. Between 1850 and 1880, the main cause of the population increase was a rising birthrate, at least in western Europe, but after 1880 a noticeable decline in death rates explains the increase in population. Medical discoveries and environmental factors allowed for this population growth, as the development of smallpox vaccines and improvements in urban environment as well as an increase in agricultural productivity allowed for the overall population growth.

Francis I

The French King who continued the war against Spain in Italy and ultimately was unsuccessful in dominating Italy.

Philip IV

The French King who died without a French heir, leaving the French throne unoccupied and causing a crisis which ultimately caused the Hundred Year's War. He came into conflict with Pope Boniface VIII over the issue of taxation of the clergy and ultimately ended in the death of Boniface IV.

Charles VIII

The French King who intervened in Italy in the Italian wars and advanced through Italy and occupied the kingdom of Naples.

Louis XI

The French King who worked to develop a French territorial state and who was called the Spider because of his wily and devious ways. He retained the taille as a permanent tax imposed by royal authority, thus securing a regular source of income. He was not fully successful in repressing the French nobility, whose independence was a threat to his state building. He faced opposition from his supposed vassal, Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Charles tried to make a middle kingdom between France and Germany from the Low Countries to Switzerland. The French king opposed this and after Charles was killed fighting the Swiss, the King added his possessions, the duchy of Burgundy, to his own lands in 1477. Three years later, he also secured the provinces of Anjou, Main, Bar, and Provence, creating a base for the later development of a strong French monarchy.

General Joseph Joffre

The French commander who stopped the Germans at the First Battle of the Marne, causing them to fall back. However, the French army became exhausted and both sides ended up digging trenches for shelter, resulting in a stalemate on the Western front.

Grand Empire

The French empire under Napoleon that had three major parts. The first was the French empire that was the inner core and consisted of an enlarged France extending to the Rhine in the east and including the western half of Italy north of Rome. The second was dependent states including Spain, the Netherlands, the kingdom of Italy, the Swiss Republic, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Confederation of the Rhine (a union of all German states except Austria and Prussia). The third was allied states that were defeated by Napoleon and forced to join his fight against Britain including Prussia, Austria, and Russia. The internal structure of the empire varied outside its inner core, Napoleon believed himself the leader of the whole. Within the empire, Napoleon demanded obedience because he needed a united front against the British and because his growing egotism required obedience to his will. He also sought acceptance everywhere of some revolutionary privileges. In the inner core and dependent states of his empire, Napoleon tried to destroy the old order. Nobility and clergy lost special privileges, equality and equal opportunity with offices open to talent were introduced, equality before law was put into effect, and religious toleration was implemented.

Estates-General

The French law-making body which included all three social classes, including the clergy, nobility, and commoners. It existed until 1789 in France.

Georges Clemenceau

The French representative in the Paris Peace Conference who was the premier of France and believed that the French people suffered the worst of French aggression. He wanted a demilitarized Germany, vast German reparations to pay for the costs of war, and a separate Rhineland as a buffer state between France and Germany which Wilson viewed as vindictive and contrary to the principle of national self-determination. He compromised to obtain some guarantees for French security and renounced France's desire for a separate Rhineland and instead accepted a defensive alliance with Great Britain and the U.S. Both states pledged to help France if it was attacked by Germany.

Konrad Adenauer

The German chancellor who was elected in September 1949. A month later, the separate German Democratic republic was established in East Germany and Berlin remained a divided city. He led the Christian Democrats and became the founding hero of the Federal Republic. He sought respect for West Germany by cooperating with the united States and Western Europe. He worked hard to reconcile with France, Germany's long-time enemy. During his chancellorship, the West German economy had an economic miracle, guided by the minister of finance, Ludwig Erhard. During his rule, Nazi war criminals were charged and often executed for their crimes at Nuremberg but after the Cold War, the German legal machine worked in prosecuting cases. This chancellor resigned in 1963 after 14 years of helping West Germany with postwar recovery. He was succeeded by Ludwig Erhard.

tories vs whigs

The Glorious Revolution (1688-89) greatly modified the division in principle between the two parties, for it had been a joint achievement. Thereafter most Tories accepted something of the Whig doctrines of limited constitutional monarchy rather than divine-right absolutism. Under Queen Anne, the Tories represented the resistance, mainly by the country gentry, to religious toleration and foreign entanglements. The die-hard Tories were discredited as Jacobites, seeking the restoration of the Stuart heirs to the throne, though about 100 country gentlemen, regarding themselves as Tories, remained members of the House of Commons throughout the years of the Whig hegemony. As individuals and at the level of local politics, administration, and influence, such "Tories" remained of considerable importance. After 1784 William Pitt the Younger emerged as the leader of a new Tory Party, which broadly represented the interests of the country gentry, the merchant classes, and official administerial groups. In opposition, a revived Whig Party, led by Charles James Fox, came to represent the interests of religious dissenters, industrialists, and others who sought electoral, parliamentary, and philanthropic reforms.

Economic Problems of HRE

The HRE experienced an economic failure following the thirty years' war due to heavy war expenses and the breakdown of the empire. After the German States separated and contributed to the financial destruction of the Holy Roman Empire, promoting a nature of economic failure in the Habsburgs.

Maximilian I

The Habsburg son of Emperor Frederick III who was married to Mary, the daughter of Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy. This gave the Habsburgs Franche-Comte in east-central France, Luxembourg, and part of the Low Countries which made the Habsburg dynasty an international power. When this man became emperor, a lot was expected. Through the Reichstag, the imperial diet or parliament, he tried to centralize administration by creating new institutions common to the whole empire. Opposition from German princes doomed this. His only real successes were in his marriage alliances. Philip of Burgundy, his son with Mary, was married to Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip and Joanna had a son, Charles, who became heir to the Habsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish lines after some unexpected deaths, turning him into a leading monarch.

Ferdinand II

The Holy Roman emperor during the Thirty Years' War who employed Wallenstein to be the general of the army which later backfired so he had Wallenstein assassinated. This emperor wanted to re-Catholicize the Holy Roman Empire but Protestants rebelled. He had help from Bavaria and the Catholic League and he eventually made Bohemia a hereditary Habsburg possession, confiscated the land of the Protestant nobles, and established Catholicism as the sole religion. The Emperor issued the Edict of Restitution in 1629 which prohibited Calvinist worship and restored to the Catholic Church all property taken by Protestants. He later repealed it in 1634 to end the war but the French had already joined the side of the Protestants.

Matthias

The Holy Roman emperor from 1612 to 1619 who, in a reversal of the policy of his father, Maximilian II, sponsored a Catholic revival in the Habsburg domains which led to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. He was backed the Counter-Reformation and he worked to suppressed any rebellions against him. His successor was Ferdinand II.

Problems of HRE imperial diet

The Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire that legislative body. Its members were the Imperial Estates, divided into three colleges. Problems included the fact that the Imperial Estates had, according to feudal law, no authority above them besides the Holy Roman Emperor himself. The holding of an Imperial Estate entitled one to a vote in the diet. Thus, an individual member might have multiple votes and votes in different colleges.

Vittorio Orlando

The Italian representative in the Paris Peace Conference. Although Italy was considered to be one of the big four, they had considerably less influence than France, Britain, and the U.S.

Kaiser Wilhelm II's policies

The Kaiser of Germany who embarked on an activist foreign policy dedicated to enhancing Germany's power by finding it's "rightful place in the sun". He dropped the reinsurance treaty with Russia which brought France and Russia together. In the next ten years, his policies abroad caused the British to draw closer to France and led to the creation of the Triple Entente. In the Balkans he intervened and demanded that the Russian's accept Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, causing the Russians to back down. Germany was the first to declare war, and did so on August first against Russia. German war plans determined other foreign involvement in the war, ultimately causing the outbreak of WWI.

Christian IV

The King of Denmark who was a Lutheran and intervened in the Danish phase of the Thirty Years' War, aiding the protestant cause by leading an army into Northern Germany. He made an anti-Habsburg and anti-Catholic alliance with the United Provinces and England and also wanted to gain territories for his own family. He ultimately was unsuccessful and had devastating losses to Wallenstein, ending Danish supremacy in the Baltic.

Victor Emmanuel II

The King of Piedmont with Cavour as hiss prime minister. The new Italian kingdom was proclaimed under a centralized government subordinated to the control of Piedmont and the king of the house of Savoy and he became the king of a united Italy.

Colonies affected after WWI

The Middle East- time between WWI and WW2 was transition period. with fall of Ottoman and Persian Empires came modernizing regimes in Turkey and Iran. Independent government was made in Saudi Arabia and Iraq got independence from Britain. The British and French kept their mandates in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. The British and French had plans to divide up the Ottoman territories in the Middle East but General Mustafa Kemal led Turkish forces in creating a republic of Turkey. He hoped to modernize it along Western lines with a democratic system with a strict president. Turkish culture was westernized as the language started to use the Latin alphabet, popular education was introduced, and old aristocratic titles were abolished. Turkish citizens had to adopt family names. Kemal took the name Ataturk and made Turkey a secular republic. He broke the power of the Islamic religion and gave women equal rights in marriage and inheritance and later gave them the right to vote and the right to education and any profession. India- Mohandas Gandhi was called India's Great Soul or Mahatma. He created a movement based on nonviolent resistance that aimed to force the British to improve the lives of the poor and give independence to India. When the British tried to suppress this, Gandhi called his followers to follow a peaceful policy of civil disobedience by refusing to obey British regulations. He made his own clothes and dressed in a dhoti or loincloth to resist imports of British textiles. The British eventually gave India internal self-government through gradual steps. Legislative councils at local levels were enlarged and got responsibility for education, local affairs, and public health. Responsibility for law and order, land revenue, and famine relief stayed under British control. Africa- Black Africans who fought for the British and French in WW1 wanted independence. The peace settlement after the war was very disappointing to them. Germany lost its African colonies but the British and French took them over as mandates for the League of Nations. Africans became more political after the war and they used ideas of freedom and nationalism to seek independence. In Nigeria and South Africa had workers organizing trade unions to try to get worker benefits. In British Nigeria, a group of women had a riot to protest high taxes on the goods sold in markets, calling for all white men to leave the country. to end it, the British killed 50 women. The colonizers made a few reforms but it was too little too late. New African leaders who had been educated in Europe emerged such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey. Du Bois was the leader of a movement to make Africans aware f their heritage Garvey stressed the need for African unity. In Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya's book 'Facing Mount Kenya' he wrote that British rule was destroying the traditional culture of the peoples of black Africa.

Rebellion of the streltsi

The Moscow uprising of 1682 was an uprising of the Moscow Streltsy regiments that resulted in supreme power devolving on Sophia Alekseyevna (the daughter of the late Tsar Aleksey Mikhailovich and of his first wife Maria Miloslavskaya). Behind the uprising lurked the rivalry between the Miloslavsky and Naryshkin relatives of the two wives of the late Tsar Aleksey (died 1676) for dominant influence on the administration of the Tsardom of Russia.

Execution of king and queen

The National Convention found the king guilty of treason and sentenced him to death. He was killed on January 21, 1793 which marked the destruction of the Ancien Regime. There was no turning back after his death. The queen was killed during the Terror for posing a threat to the Revolution along with many other people from all social classes.

National Convention's role in Saint-Domingue

The National Convention, after coming into power, was guided by the ideal of equality and, on February 4, 1794, abolished slavery in the colonies. However, after the slave rebellion, Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1802 and he sent an army to capture L'Ouverture. The French lost and slavery was abolished as western Hispaniola became the first independent state in Latin America.

Nazi New Order

The Nazis' plan for their conquered territories. It included the extermination of Jews and others considered to be inferior, the ruthless exploitation of resources, German colonization in the east, and the use of Poles, Russians, and Ukrainians as slave labor.

Imry Nagy

The New Hungarian leader who was appointed after the developments and upheaval in Poland. Internal dissent was directed towards both the Soviets and communism in general and the Stalinist secret police bred hatred and terror. This dissatisfaction and the accompanying economic difficulties created a situation for revolt. To prevent the rebellion he declared Hungary a free nation and promised free elections, yet the red army invaded and the Soviets reestablished control over the country, allowing for Kadar to be the next leader of Hungary.

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty organization was a military alliance including Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal where they signed with the United States and Canada. All the powers agreed to provide mutual assistance if any one of them was attacked and a few years later West Germany, Greece, and Turkey joined the alliance.

Temple of Reason

The Parisian temple of Notre-Dame that changed names with de-Christianization. In November 1793, a public ceremony dedicated to the worship of reason was held in this former cathedral. Patriotic maidens in white dresses paraded before the temple where the high altar once stood. At the end of this ceremony, a female figure personifying Liberty rose out of the temple, although de-Christianization ended up backfiring because Catholic was largely Catholic.

Long Parliament

The Parliament whose first session was from November 1640 to September 1641 who took a series of steps that placed severe limitations on royal authority which included the abolition of arbitrary courts, he abolition of taxes that the king had collected without Parliament's consent

Sejm

The Polish diet that was a two-chamber assembly in which landowners completely dominated the few members who were townspeople and lawyers. To be elected into kingship, prospective monarchs had to agree to share power with this diet in manners of taxation, foreign and military policy, and the appointment of state officials and judges. The power of this body was disastrous for the central authority of the monarchy. After the liberum veto was accepted in 1652 which allowed for the meetings of the diet to be stopped by one dissenting member, the government became chaos.

Boniface VIII

The Pope who fought with King Philip IV of France because Philip claimed the right to tax the French clergy. This pope said that the clergy of any state couldn't pay taxes to their secular ruler without the pope's consent. This opened the conflict between the claims of the papacy to universal authority over both church and state which necessitated complete control over the clergy and the claims of the king that all subjects including clergy were under the jurisdiction of the crown and subject to the king's authority on taxation and justice. The pope issued many papal bulls on his position, the most famous being Unam Sanctam. He excommunicated Philip IV which led to Philip sending French troops to capture Boniface at Anagni and bring him back to France for a trial. He was rescued by Italian nobles from the surrounding countryside but ended up dying from the shock of the experience.

Pope Leo X

The Pope who was Julius's successor who was a patron of Renaissance culture as a deeply involved participant. Raphael was commissioned to do paintings, and construction of Saint Peter's was accelerated as Rome became the literary and artistic center of Europe.

Martin V

The Pope who was originally Cardinal Oddone Colonna who was a member of a prominent Roman family who was elected by the Council of Constance, ending the great schism.

Junkers

The Prussian landed aristocracy who also served as members of the nobility and supported Frederick William's policies derived from the tacit agreement he made with them. In return for a free hand in running the government, he gave the nobles almost unlimited power over their peasants, exempted the nobles from taxation and awarded them the highest ranks in the army and commissariat with the understanding that they would not challenge his political control.

Nation in arms

The Republic's army created after the universal mobilization was decreed by the Committee of Public Safety in order to meet the foreign crisis and save the Republic from its foreign enemies. In less than a year, it was made of 650,000 men and by September 1794 it consisted of 1,169,000 men. It was the largest ever seen in European history and pushed the allies back across the Rhine and even conquered the Austrian Netherlands. By May 1795, the anti-French coalition of 1793 was breaking up due to the army. All of France united under the Revolutionary cause and helped to create a people's war as well as a people's army.

Republicans vs. other factions

The Republicans in France formed the independent Paris Commune and were supported by many working class men and women. Other political parties, however crushed these efforts led to hatred in French politics as the split between the middle and working classes increased and the new constitution saw the republicans strengthened and able to establish the chamber of deputies, strengthening the republican government and the republican party in France.

Boyars

The Russian nobility. Their power was crushed by Ivan IV the Terrible in an attempt to extend the autocracy, although during he Time of Troubles the aristocratic power reemerged.

siglo de oro

The Spanish golden age which began in the late 1400s with the marriage of Catholic Isabella and Ferdinand, which united the kingdoms of Aragon and Castille. Over the next two centuries, Spain became a mighty empire through marriage alliance, conquest, and war. Under the Hapsburg Kings, the empire came to include the Spanish peninsula, Austria, parts of Germany and Italy, Belgium, Holland, the Americas, the Philippines, and parts of northern Africa. Inspired by the Italian renaissance and with the support of Queen Isabella, humanities were developed in Spanish universities. Literature and the arts began to flourish.

Ferdinand of Aragon

The Spanish king who intervened in the Italian wars against Charles VIII who competed in the war to dominate Italy.

Michael Romanov

The Tsar who was elected by the Zemsky Sobor after the Time of Troubles and who started the Romanov dynasty. He was elected during the seventeenth century when Muscovite was very stratified with the Tsar at the top who was a supposed divinely ordained autocratic ruler. The upper class of landed aristocrats dominated and bound peasants to their lands through serfdom. Many merchants couldn't leave their cities without government permission and could not sell their businesses to people outside of their class. After merchant revolts, peasants revolts, and a schism in the Russian Orthodox Church, conditions were unsteady.

U.S. in Hawaii, Cuba, Philippines

The U.S. entered into the imperialist stage in the Samoan island which was their first important American colony and the Hawaiian islands were the next to fall. Soon after Americans made Pearl Harbor into a naval station and American settlers gained control of the sugar industry on the islands. When Hawaiian natives tried to reassert their authority, the U.S. marines were brought in to protect american lives. The american defeat of Spain encouraged Americans to extend their empire by acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands. Although the Philippines hoped for independence, the Americans refused and it took three years and 60,000 troops to pacify the Philippines and establish American control.

New improvements-housing, water systems, etc.

The ability to bring clean water to the city and expel sewage helped improve the health crisis as a system of dams, reservoirs, and sewage systems were established to carry in clean water and remove wastewater. Middle class reformers worked to reduce slums and create both private and government run housing. Cities were also redesigned as urban populations destroyed useless walls and reconstructed cities, expanding them and improving health conditions.

Censorship

The act of emitting certain ideas purposefully, generally done by the government if they are not in favor of a certain idea.

Stalinization

The adoption by Eastern European communist countries of features of the economic, political, and military policies implemented by Stalin in the Soviet Union.

Agricultural Revolution-inventions

The agricultural revolution saw many new advancements which led to an increase in food production due to more farmland, increased yields per acre, healthier and more abundant livestock, and an improved climate. The amount of land under cultivation was increased by abandoning the old ope-field system and the formerly empty fields were planted with new crops which stored nitrogen in their roots and restored the soil's fertility. They also provided winter fodder for livestock, allowing for landlords to have a larger umber of animals. The more numerous livestock increased the amount of meat in the European diet and enhanced food production through manure. Increased yields were also encouraged by landed aristocrats who shared in the scientific experimentation of the age. The hoe was used as well as a drill to plant seeds in rows instead of scattering them. There was a greater yield of vegetables, including the potato and maize and new agricultural techniques were considered best suited to large-scale farms. Consequently, a change in landholding accompanied the increased food production as large landowners and cooperative farming grew. Parliament enacted legislation allowing agricultural lands to be legally enclosed, and as a result of these enclosure acts, England became a land of large estates. The English were the leaders in adopting the new techniques which made the world of industrialization and urbanization possible.

Social Darwinism

The application of organic evolution to the social order which was preached by Spencer who argued that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment and that progress came from the struggle for survival while the weak declined. The state should not interfere in this natural process.

david ricardo

The author of 'Principles of Political Economy' which was an extension of the ideas of Thomas Malthus. In this work, he wrote about the iron law of wages. He said that an increase in population means more workers which causes wages to fall below subsistence level. This results in misery and starvation which then reduces population. Consequently, the number of workers declines and wages rise above subsistence level again, encouraging larger families until the cycle is repeated. He argued that raising wages arbitrarily would be pointless since it would just perpetuate the vicious cycle.

Jomo Kenyatta

The author of Facing Mount Kenya who was educated in Great Britain and argued that British rule was destroying the traditional culture of the peoples of black Africa.

Thomas Hobbes-background and beliefs

The author of Leviathan who believed in the absolute monarchy and stressed that all humans were born evil and a government served as a way to correct that evil.

Diderot

The author of the encyclopedia, a 28 volume series compiling the views of major philosophies and that changed the general way of thinking. He contributed literary attacks against Christianity and argued for a materialistic conception of the world. The encyclopedia advocated for society to become more cosmopolitan and a variety of other improvements.

Yersinia pestis

The bacteria which caused the black plague and was spread by black rats infested with fleas who carried this bacteria.

Battle at Gallipoli

The battle in which British forces landed in his spot that was southwest of Constantinople. When Bulgaria joined the war on the side of the Central powers and the British failed at this Battle, the British withdrew from the Balkan front.

pantheism

The belief that a there was a Great force in nature that was God. Many Romantics worshipped nature, and many carried this worship further through this belief.

economic liberalism

The belief that the state should stay out of the lives of the individuals, especially the economic liberty of those being governed created by Adam Smith and the Physiocrats.

Battle of Leipzig/Battle of the Nations

The biggest battle of the Napoleonic wars. It was decisive defeat against Napoleon, resulting in the destruction of what was left of French power in Germany and Poland. The battle was fought at Leipzig, in Saxony, between approximately 185,000 French and other troops under Napoleon, and approximately 320,000 allied troops, including Austrian, Prussian, Russian, and Swedish forces.e. After his retreat from Russia in 1812, Napoleon mounted a new offensive in Germany in 1813. His armies failed to take Berlin, however, and were forced to withdraw. On October 19, Napoleon began the retreat westward over the single bridge across the Elster River. A frightened corporal blew up the bridge while it was still crowded with retreating French troops and in no danger of allied attack. The demolition left 30,000 rear guard and injured French troops trapped in Leipzig, to be taken prisoner the next day. The French also lost 38,000 men killed and wounded. Allied losses totaled 55,000 men. This battle, one of the most severe of the Napoleonic Wars, marked the end of the French Empire east of the Rhine.

"Bubbles" effect on economy

The bubble "burst" was when people went overboard and drove the price of stock to incredibly high levels which caused detrimental economic effects such as inflation, bankruptcy, and loss of faith in the national bank and money systems.

matthew boulton

The business partner of James Watt who encouraged Watt to develop the first genuine steam engine which pumped water from mines three times as fast as previous engines and was soon able to power machinery.

"the woman question"

The catchphrase used to refer to the debate over the role of women in society. Women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and largely defined by family and household roles. Many women still aspired to the ideal of femininity popularized by writers and poets. Historians pointed out this traditional characterization of the sexes based on gender-defined social roles was elevated to the status of universal male and female attributes of the 19th century, due largely to the impact on the industrial revolution on the family. Marriage was a matter of economic necessity and a lack of meaningful work and the lower wages paid to women made it difficult for single women to earn a living. Birthrates dropped and birth control became more commonly used, allowing for the evolution of the modern family and the role of women to become more open to interpretation.

Mary Queen of Scots

The catholic cousin of Elizabeth who was one of Elizabeth's greatest challenges as next in line to the English throne. She was ousted from Scotland by rebellious Calvinist nobles and was under house arrest for 14 years before being killed after numerous attempts and involvements in assassination attempts on Elizabeth.

St. Petersburg

The center of Russia which showed the link between the East and the West. Through Western influence it became the cultural capital of Eastern Europe and the center of Russian politics.

Amsterdam-commercialism

The center of trade and commerce in Europe which was the financial and commercial capital of Europe. The exuberant expansion was in part due to their role as he commercial capital due to their mass fleets of ships and carrying of products for other countries. They unloaded their products at Dam Square and trading profits provided great capital for investment and allowed for economic growth and prosperity.

John Hus

The chancellor of the university at Prague who led a group of Czech reformers in Lollard ideas in Bohemia. He called for reform and urged for the elimination of the worldliness and corruption of the clergy and he attacked the excessive power of the papacy within the Catholic Church. His objections were welcomed y the Bohemians because the Catholic Church was one of the largest landowners in Bohemia and many of the clergymen there were German and the Czechs resented them. The Council of Constance tried to deal with this man's heresy by summoning him to the council. He was promised safe conduct by Emperor Sigismund and he hoped that his ideas would be heard. However, he was arrested, condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake. This resulted in revolutionary upheaval and a series of wars on the Holy Roman Empire.

Peter Stolypin

The chief adviser to Nicholas II who made agrarian reforms to dissolve the village ownership of land and opened the door to private ownership by enterprising peasants. He was assassinated after his reforms proved unpopular.

Policies of Colbert

The chief financial minister of Louis XIV who sought to increase the wealth and power of France through general adherence to mercantilism which stressed government regulation of economic activities to benefit the state. To decrease the need for imports and increase exports he attempted to expand the quantity and improve quality of French manufactured goods. He founded new luxury industries, drew up instructions regulating the quality of goods produced oversaw the training of workers, and granted special privileges. He built roads and canals and raised tariffs. Although his policies are given much credit for fostering the development of manufacturing in France, some historians doubt the usefulness of mercantilism policies. Regulations were often evaded and his policies were ultimately self-defeating.

Axel Oxenstierna

The chief minister of Gustavus Adolphus who persuaded the Swedish king to adopt a new policy in which the nobility formed a "First Estate" occupying the bureaucratic positions of an expanded central government, creating a stable monarchy and freeing the king to raise a formidable army and participate in the Thirty Years' War, however the king was killed in battle.

Cardinal Richelieu

The chief minister of king Louis XIII who directed the French to enter the war directly, beginning the fourth and final phase of the war, the Franco-Swedish phase.

Gaspar de Guzman

The chief minister to Philip IV who was clever, hardworking, and power-hungry who dominated the king's every move and worked to revive the interests of the monarchy. A flurry of domestic reform decrees, aimed at curtailing the power of the church and landed aristocracy, was soon followed by a political reform program whose purpose was to further centralize the government of Spain and its possessions in monarchical hands. All of these efforts were let with little real success, however, because both the number and power of Spanish aristocrats made them too strong.

Marquis of Pombal

The chief minister to a series of Portuguese king who helped curtail the power of the nobility and Catholic Church, helping revive the Portuguese Empire. After he was removed from office, the nobility and church regained much of their power.

General Erich Ludendorff

The chief of staff of General Paul von Hindenburg. He gained a good reputation after the decisive defeats of the Russians as they moved into eastern Germany in the Battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Later on, he and Hindenburg took control of the government as it came under military authority. He became a virtual dictator of Germany and together, the two men made a system for complete mobilization for total war. They passes the Auxiliary Service Law of December 2, 1916 that required all male noncombatants aged 17-60 to work in jobs that were crucial to the war effort. At the Second Battle of the Marne, he faced a brutal defeat and he demanded that the government sue for peace so that he and his army would not take the blame. He supported the new liberal government that was forming, but this fell apart.

Anglican Church

The church of England which was established by King Henry the VIII after he broke from the church after being denied an annulment by the pope.

Lazarus Spengler

The city secretary of Nuremberg who led an active city council to bring conversion, being the firm imperial city to convert to Lutheranism.

Anticlericalism

The close union of state authorities with established churches produced a backlash through this, especially in the liberal nation-states of the 19th century. An example is the French republican government substituting civic training for religious instruction.

Wallenstein

The commander for the imperial forces who was a Bohemian nobleman who took advantage of Emperor Ferdinand II's victory to become the country's richest landowner. His forces defeated a Protestant army at Dessau and then continued to work in northern Germany. After Christian IV's forces were defeated by an army of the Catholic League under Count Tilly and then this commander's forces caused an even greater loss in 1927. This commander now occupied parts of northern Germany including the Baltic ports of Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen. He fought at the Battle of Lutzen and defeated the Swedish forces. This commander ended up getting assassinated in 1634 on the orders of Emperor Ferdinand.

Paul von Hindenburg

The commanding general of Germany who was established in the battles of Tanneburg and the Masurian lakes. He became a virtual military dictator and declared a system of complete mobilization for total war and passed the auxiliary service law of December 2, 1916 which required all male noncombatants between ages 17-60 to work in jobs deemed crucial to the war effort.

Union of Utrecht

The composition of the seven North-most Dutch-speaking states which opposed Spanish rule and were led by William of Orange which stood opposed to the Catholic Union of Arras, led by the duke of Parma.

Union of Arras

The composition of the southern provinces which were led by the Catholic duke of Parma and were in support of Spanish rule. They stood opposed to the protestant union of Utrecht led by William of Orange.

separation of powers

The concept of dividing the functions and powers of the government between the different bodies, for example the sharing of power between parliament and the king in England.

Versailles

The court of Louis XIV which set a standard of excellence. It was the residence of the king, a reception hall for state affairs, an office building for members of the king's government, and the home of thousands of royal officials and aristocratic courtiers. It became a symbol for the French absolutist state and the power of Louis XIV and was a visible manifestation of French superiority and wealth and was intended to overawe subjects and impress foreign powers.

James I

The cousin of Queen Elizabeth of England and son of Mary, Queen of Scots, Jame VI of Scotland, who began the Stuart Line in England. He did not understand the laws, institutions, and customs of the English. He believed that kings receive their power directly from God and are responsible to no one except God. This alienated Parliament who had grown accustomed under the Tudors that Parliament ruled with the Monarch as a balanced polity. They expressed displeasure to this king by refusing his request for more monies to meet the increase cost of government. Some Parliament members such as the Puritans wanted the king to eliminate the episcopal system of church organization used in the Church of England. The king refused because he knew that the Anglican Church with crown-appointed bishops would support the monarchy. Many gentry, or well-to-do land owners below nobility, were Puritans and they made up a lot of the House of Commons as well as positions as justices of the peace and sheriffs. It was unwise to alienate them and this king left a big mess for his son, Charles I.

effects on social classes-new classes emerged

The creation of the industrial middle class was the result of industrialization as the bourgeois came to include people involved in commerce, industry, and banking as well as professionals such as lawyers, teachers, physicians, and government officials. The new industrial entrepreneurs were people who constructed factories, purchased machines, and figured out where the markets were. They had a large amount of jobs and fear of bankruptcy was constant. These new entrepreneurs were from diverse social origins and many came from a mercantile background. Members of dissenting religious minorities were among the early industrial leaders of Britain and the Darbys and Lloyds rose to prominence. Workers in the industrial age were more machine based and the guilds began to lose their prominence, and while the artisans and craftspeople were the largest groups of urban workers, they eventually began to be replaced by factory owners.

August 4th

The date in 1789 when the National Assembly voted, in an astonishing session, to abolish seigneurial rights as well as the fiscal privileges of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces.

Charles VII

The dauphin of France during the Hundred Years' War who was helped crowned by Joan of Arc. He was crowned king at Reims and he made policies to strengthen the authority of the king after the war. With the consent of the Estates-General, he established a royal army of cavalry and archers. He got the right to levy the taille, an annual direct tax on land or property, without further approval from the Estates-General, giving them less power.

Frequens

The decree passed by the Council of Constance that provided for the regular holding of general councils to ensure that church reform would continue. With Sacrosancta, it made a legislative system within the church that was superior to the popes.

Sacrosancta

The decree passed by the Council of Constance that stated that a general council of the church received its authority from God so every Christian, even the pope, was subject to its authority. With Frequens, it made a legislative system within the church that was superior to the popes.

Boers/Afrikaners

The descendants of the Dutch colonists and led them to migrate north on the great trek to the region between the Orange and Vaal rivers and north of the Vaal river. Tensions between the British and boers continued and in 1877 the British governor of the Cape Colony seized the Transvaal, but a Boer revolt led the British government to recognize the Transvaal as the independent South African Republic. These struggled led to the massacre of the Zulu and Xhosa and led to the Boer War in which the Boers' used guerrilla tactics and the British had heavy casualties to secure victory. Transvaal and the orange free state had representative governments and three years later the Union of South Africa was created and became self governing within the British empire.

Polish dissolution

The destruction of Poland which was a result of rivalries of its three great neighbors, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. To avoid war, the leaders of these powers decided to compensate themselves by diving up Poland. To maintain the balance of power in central and eastern Europe the three great powers cynically agreed to the acquisition of roughly equal territories at Poland's expense.

Prince Karl von Hardenberg

The director of he Prussian army after Baron Heinrich von Stein who allowed Prussia to embark on a series of political and military reforms, including the abolition of serfdom, election of city councils, and creation of a larger standing army. Prussia's reform, instituted as a response to Napoleon, allowed it to again play an important role in European affairs.

Henrich von Stein

The director of he Prussian army before Prince Karl von Hardenberg who allowed Prussia to embark on a series of political and military reforms, including the abolition of serfdom, election of city councils, and creation of a larger standing army. Prussia's reform, instituted as a response to Napoleon, allowed it to again play an important role in European affairs.

Charles the Bold

The duke of Burgundy who tried to oppose king Louis XI and make a middle kingdom between France and Germany, stretching from the Low Countries to Switzerland. He was killed in 1477 fighting the Swiss and Louis added part of his possessions, the duchy of Burgundy, to France's lands.

Ludovico Sforza

The duke of Milan who invited the French to intervene in Italian politics leaving Italy as the grounds for a war between Spain and France.

Hanoverians

The dynasty after the Stuarts of the Glorious Revolution that was established in 1714 when the crown was offered to the Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover. The first king was George I, who did not speak English. Next was George II who also did not speak English who was not familiar with the British system. Under this dynasty, the chef minsters of the king handled Parliament, and this exercise of ministerial power was a step in the development of the modern cabinet system in British government.

Hohenzollerns

The dynasty who helped turn Brandenburg into a powerful state and came to rule the insignificant principality in northeastern Germany. In 1609 they inherited some lands in the Rhine Valley and Western Germany and nine years later received the duchy of Prussia. By the 17th century they established Brandenburg-Prussia which consisted of three disconnected masses in western central, and eastern Germany and were connected by this ruling family.

Ecomienda

The economic and social system instituted by queen Isabella of Castile which was instituted in lands that the Spanish were conquering and made all natives become subjects of Castile. It allowed conquering Spaniards to collect tribute from the natives and use them as laborers. In return, the holders were supposed to protect the Indians, pay them wages, and supervise their spiritual needs. The government abolished this system to provide more protections for the natives after Bartolome de Las Casas, a Dominican friar, championed for Indian rights.

Francis Joseph

The emperor of Austria who, after Austria's defeat in the Italian war, attempted to establish an imperial parliament with the Reichsrat which would provide representation for the nationalities of the empire, yet the complicated system served more to alienate ethnic minorities, particularly the Hungarians. He served as the emperor of the new Austrian-Hungarian empire which had been created by the Augsleich.

Menelik II

The emperor of Ethiopia who began the process of territorial expansion and creation of the modern empire-state was completed by 1898, which expanded the Ethiopian Empire to the extent of the historic Aksumite Empire. He was also remembered for leading Ethiopian troops against the Kingdom of Italy in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, where he scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Adwa.

Archduke Maximilian of Austria

The emperor of Mexico who was installed by Napoleon III. When the French troops were needed in Europe he became an emperor without an army and surrendered to liberal Mexican forces before being executed, a blow to the prestige of the French emperor.

First Consul

The executive power of the new government that was a bicameral legislative assembly elected indirectly to reduce the role of elections. There were 3 consuls that held this executive power, but as Article 42 in the Constitution states, "the decision of the _____ shall suffice." Napoleon took this position and had overwhelming influence over the legislature, appointed members of the bureaucracy, controlled the army, and conducted foreign affairs. In 1802, Napoleon was given this position for life and by 1804, he crowned himself Emperor.

Middle class family values and expectations

The family was the central institution of middle-class life as men provided the family income while women focused on the household and childcare and often used domestic servants. Leisure was used for domestic purposes and encouraged the cult off middle-class domesticity. This family fostered an ideal of togetherness and created the Family Christmas, fourth of Jul, and other new holidays. Raising children was changes as children were viewed as unique beings and new toys and games and the emphasis on functional value of knowledge was shown through these games. Since the sons were expected to follow in the footsteps of their fathers, they were sent to schools and an emphasis on manliness was shows through the boy scouts and eventually a girls division. Some families could not afford servants and women had to work hard to achieve the appearance of a well ordered household.

Tudors

The family who assumed control of England following the War of Roses who were first led by Henry VIII and ultimately followed by Bloody Mary and then Elizabeth the Great.

Medici Family

The family who rose in prominence in Florence as a banking family who expanded from cloth production into commerce, real estate, and banking and was the greatest bank in Europe who was the bank of the Roman papacy for several years. They fell out of power due to poor leadership and a series of bad loans until the Medici financial empire collapsed.

Habsburgs

The family who ruled over Austria and established a monarchy over the Holy Roman Empire, becoming one of the most powerful families in Europe.

Henry VIII

The first Tudor king who worked to reduce internal dissension and establish a strong monarchical government by creating the court of star chamber and abolishing 'liberty and maintenance". He was partially successful in extracting the income from the traditional financial resources of the English monarch and won favor of the landed gentry. He broke from the church over the issue of annulment and had six wives after he created the Anglican church. He was succeeded by his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth.

Henry VII

The first Tudor king who worked to reduce internal dissension and establish a strong monarchical government. He abolished "livery and maintenance" and relied on special commissions reliant on nobles for military and established the court of star chamber.

Puritans and Anglicans

The first group is Protestants in the Anglican Church inspired by Calvinist theology who wanted a Presbyterian model of the Church in which ministers and elders, called presbyters, played an important governing role. The second group is members of the Anglican church who waned to keep the episcopal model that was already used in the Church of England that had bishops or episcopos playing a major administrative role.

pig iron / wrought iron

The first is a type of impure iron. The second is a high quality iron produced from the process of puddling that had lower carbon content and is malleable and able to withstand strain.

Independent Socialists vs. Social Democrats

The first of these were a political group in Germany formed in 1916 which was a minority and anti-war. The more radical members of this groups favored an immediate social revolution carried out by the councils of soldiers, sailors, and workers. Led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, these radical, left-wing socialists formed the German communist party. The second of these groups were the majority who still favored a parliamentary democracy as a gradual approach to social democracy and the elimination of the capitalist system, and they had enough numbers and organization to aid Germany after the November revolution.

Ivan the Terrible

The first ruler to take the title of 'tsar'. He expanded territories of Russia eastward after westward expansion was blocked by the powerful Swedish and Polish states. He also extended the autocracy of the tsar by crushing the power of the boyars.

Alexander Dubcek

The first secretary of the Communist party in Czechoslovakia who introduced many reforms including freedom of speech and press, freedom to travel abroad, and other reforms. He wanted to create "communism with a human face" and the Prague spring erupted under his rule. Czechoslovakia was invaded and the reform movement was crushed with Husak taking control.

Indirect vs. direct rule

The first was a system of colonial government under which the governor and a council of advisers developed laws for the colony but local rulers were given the opportunity to exert some degree of authority. The second was a form of colonial government in which local elites are removed from power and replaced by a new set of officials brought from the mother country

Lollards

The followers of John Wyclif who believed that the Bible was a Christians' sole authority and that it should be available in many vernaculars so all Christians could read it. They condemned pilgrimages, veneration of saints, and many rituals and rites from the Catholic Church. This movement later spread to Bohemia under John Hus.

Count Kaunitz

The foreign minister of Maria Theresa of Austria who worked diplomatically to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France, during the Seven Years War.

Gerard Groote

The founder of Modern devotion who entered a monastery after a religious conversion and gave practical messages of mysticism. He said that, to achieve true spiritual communion with God, people must imitate Jesus and lead lives dedicated to serving the needs of their fellow human beings. He emphasized a simple inner piety and morality based on Scripture and an avoidance of the complexities of theology. His followers were called the Brothers of the Common Life and the Sisters of the Common Life.

Vittorino da Feltre

The founder of the most famous humanist school in Mantua which based the educational system on the ideas of classical authors and offered the liberal studies, which used liberal arts and saw them as the key to true freedom.

Charles de Gaulle

The french leader of the Free French movement who created governments-in-exile in London. He granted Algerian independence and assumed leadership to created the Fourth Republic. He created a stronger presidency and created a new constitution for the fifth republic and enhanced the power of the president. He wanted to return France to a great power by a nationalization o traditional industry and using violent action to prevent student protests.

Western Front

The front which had the failed Schlieffen plan that led to a stalemate between the German forces and the French forces. Trench warfare was used on this front which involved dug trenches where armies stayed for long periods of time. There was little mobilization on this front and the stalemate lasted for four years.

Eastern front

The front which was more mobile but had the same loss of life. The Russian army moved into eastern Germany but was defeated. The Austrians were defeated by the Russians at first on this front and the Italians broke their alliance with the Germans and Austrians and sided with the Allies instead, attacking Austria on this front. The Germans and Austrians formed a joint army and routed the Russian army in Galicia and pushed the Russians back into their own territory. The Germans and Austrians were then joined by the Bulgarians and together they attacked and eliminated Serbia from the war.

Provisional Government

The government established in Russia following the March revolution. After the women marched through Petrograd, being joined by other workers they called for a general strike and shut down all of the factories in the city. Troops were ordered to disperse them but eventually joined in on the protests. The situation grew to be out of the tsar's control and the duma, or legislature, which the tsar had tried to dissolve, met anyway and on March 12 declared that it was assuming governmental responsibility and established this government on March 15: the tsar abdicated on the same day. This government was formed by the Constitutional democrats and represented a middle-class and liberal agenda working towards parliamentary democracy. Their problems came from the soviets, however, and they were eventually overthrown by Lenin and the Bolsheviks in the Bolshevik revolution.

Estates-General

The governmental assembly during the Ancien Regime that consisted of representatives from the three orders of French society. In the elections, the government ruled that the Third Estate should get double representation. The First and Second Estates had about 300 delegates each while the commoners had almost 600. 2/3 of the Third Estate representatives had legal training and 3/4 were from towns with over 2,000 inhabitants, leaving the representatives of legal and urban representation. Of the 282 nobility, about 90 were liberal minded, urban oriented, and interested in enlightenment ideals. Half of them were under 40 years old. The activists of the Third Estate and the reform-minded individuals were all young, had an urban background, and were hostile to privilege. This assembly opened at Versailles on May 5, 1789. It was divided over whether they should vote by order or head. Parlement decided that each order would vote separately and each would have veto power over the others, guaranteeing autocratic control. However, the patriots or "lovers of liberty" who opposed this created the Society of Thirty and split off into the National Assembly which led to the end of this establishment and the start of the French Revolution.

National Convention

The group established after the Paris Commune that started its sessions in September 1792. It was called to draft a new constitution and also acted as the sovereign ruling body of France. It was composed of lawyers, professionals, and property owners and included a few artisans. 2/3 of deputies were under age 45 and almost all had revolutionary political experience. Almost all were distrustful of the king and his activities. There were factions inside the group such as the Girondins and Mountains. Eventually, the Mountain won which led to the execution of the king. In western France, especially in the Vendee and in Lyons and Marseilles, the authority of this group was threatened. They created the Committee of Public Safety to administer the government. To meet domestic crises, this group with the Committee of Public Safety established the Reign of Terror. Anyone in rebellion against the authority of the National Convention or of the Revolution was executed. In 1793, a group of women asked for lower bread prices who adjourned until a later date. The women then created the Society for Revolutionary Republican Women. This group also pursued its policy of de-Christianization. The word saint was removed from street names, churches were pillaged and clothes, and priests were encouraged to marry. Notre-Dame became the Temple of Reason. The republican calendar was also created to celebrate the Revolution over religion. On February 4, 1794, this group abolished slavery in the colonies. An anti-Robespierre coalition in this group ended up executing him which ended the Terror. They then curtailed the power of the Committee of Public Safety, shut down the Jacobin club, and tried to better protect the deputies against Parisian mobs. A rule was made that 2/3 of the National Assembly had to come from this group which allowed it to live on through the Directory.

Third Estate

The group of society which included the everyone except for clergy and nobility and was regarded lowly and had little political, economic, and social power.

Paris Commune

The group that dominated politics before the National Convention at the start of the radical phase of the Revolution. It was led by the newly appointed minister of justice, Georges Danton, and was made up of many sans-culottes who were ordinary patriots without fine clothes. The sans-culottes wanted revenge on those who helped the king and ignored popular will. During the radical phase, this group outlawed women's clubs and forbade women from being present at its meetings. In 1794, the Committee of Public Safety ended up turning against the radical Parisian supporters and the executed many leaders of this Revolutionary group which turned it into a submissive tool.

Procurator

The head of the Holy Synod that made the decisions for the Russian Orthodox State when it was under state control. This head was a layman who represented the interests of the tsar and assured Peter of effective domination of the church.

First Estate

The highest Estate (like a social class) that included the clergy whose preeminence was grounded in the belief that people should be guided to spiritual ends.

Cardinal Wolsey

The highest-ranking English church official and lord chancellor to King Henry VIII who obtained an annulment from Pope Clement VII. After his fall he was replaced by Cromwell and Cranmer.

domino theory

The idea concerning the spread of communism where if the communists succeeded in Vietnam, all other countries in Asia would fall, like dominoes, to communism.

Collective Security

The idea of multiple countries working together to strengthen the security of each It was the idea behind the League of Nations, although it failed to work well.

"Family economy"

The idea that each member of a household has active participation in benefiting the economic status of the family. Men, women, and children all participated in the economic conditions of the house and held jobs or did other crucial work to maintain the well being of the house.

Divine-Right Theory

The idea that emerged in the 17th century which was taught by Bishop Jacques Bousset who argued that the government was divinely ordained so that humans could live in an organized society and that God established kings and through them reigned over all the peoples in the world. Since kings received their power from God, their authority was absolute and they were responsible to no one except God.

"dike vs flood" concept

The idea that events lead to the revolutions and when the events begin to build up, they eventually "spill over" causing a revolution.

Absolutism

The idea that the sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right. Jean Bodin, a political theorist in the late 16th century, believed that sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state's administrative system, and determine foreign policy.

Ptolemaic view

The ideas of Ptolemy who followed geocentric conception and believed that the universe consisted of a series of fixes spheres with the earth motionless at the center. He believed the universe was composed of material substance and that God was located beyond the tenth sphere.

"usury"

The illegal action or practice of lending money at unreasonably high rates of interest.

Don Juan

The illegitimate son of Charles V who wanted to wed Mary Stuart and invade England to become the next monarchs of England and restore Catholicism, with the approval of Philip II in 1576. His plan failed and he died in 1578 having lost trust with Philip.

prison reforms

The increase in crimes led to more arrests and imprisonment replaced capital punishment. The British initially sent prisoners with serious offenses to Australia, but it slowed down with Australian objections. Incarceration was the alternative because it allowed the isolation of criminals from society but it was not very effective yet. During the 1830s, governments wanted to reform them in order to rehabilitate the criminals. The British and French sent missions to the United States to examine American prisons. The Auburn Prison in New York had prisoners separated at night but working together during the day. At Walnut Street Prison in Philadelphia, prisoners had isolated cells. Both the British and French used the Walnut Street Model. At Petite Roquette in France and Pentonville in Britain, prisoners had leather masks during exercise and sat in individual stalls in the chapel. Solitary confinement was believed to force people to change their evil ways. However, as prison populations grew, solitary confinement got too difficult and expensive. The French returned to sending prisoners to French Giana to solve the overload. The hopes of all of these reforms was to create a more disciplined society.

proletariat

The industrial working class that clashed with the bourgeoisie. Marx and Engels predicted that this class would overthrow the bourgeoisie and organize a classless society.

New machines-technology

The introduction of raw cotton from slave plantations encouraged the production of cotton cloth in Europe with cheaper, lightweight cotton clothes. This resulted in English cloth entrepreneurs developing new methods and new machines. The flying shuttle sped up the process of weaving on a loom an increased the need for more yarn which resulted in Richard Arkwright's water frame powered by hose or water that turned out yarn very quickly. This abundance of yarn led to the development of mechanized looms. By the time they were popular, Britain was starting the Industrial Revolution.

richard trevithick

The inventor of the first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in southern Wales. It was able to pull 10 tons of ore and seventy people at 5 mph. Better locomotives soon followed.

daimler

The inventor of the light engine which was key to the development of the automobile and eventually led to thousands of cars emerging on the road.

samuel crompton

The inventor of the so-called mule which combined aspects of the water frame and the spinning jenny in order to increase yarn production even more. This machine provided new opportunities to entrepreneurs and allowed for greater efficiency in bringing workers to machines and organizing the labor collectively in factories.

richard arkwright

The inventor of the water frame spinning machine that was powered by water or horse and was able to produce more yarn faster.

Middle Passage

The journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas, also the middle leg of the triangular trade route.

King Leopold II

The king of Belgium and driving force being the colonization of Central Africa. He wanted to open to civilization the only part of our globe where it had not yet penetrated, to pierce the darkness which envelops whole populations, is a crusade worthy of this century of progress. However, profit was more important to him that progress and his treatments of Africans was so brutal that even other Europeans condemned his actions. He created the International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa and engaged Henry Stanley to establish Belgian settlements in the Congo.

Christian III

The king of Denmark who created a Lutheran state with the king as the supreme authority. He also was instrumental in spreading Lutheranism in Norway.

Frederick I

The king of Denmark who encouraged Lutheran preachers to introduce Lutheran liturgy into the Danish church service.

Christian VII of Denmark

The king of Denmark whose chief minister, John Frederick Struensee aided him in attempting enlightenment reforms modeling after those of Gustavus III. However, those efforts failed due to aristocratic opposition.

James II

The king of England who rules after Charles II and guaranteed a new constitutional crisis for England. As an open and devout Catholic, his attempt to further Catholic interests made religion once more a primary cause of conflict between king and parliament. Contrary to the test act, he named Catholics to high positions in the government, army, navy, and university and issued a new declaration of indulgence which ended all laws barring Catholics from office.

charles x

The king of France who granted indemnity to aristocrats whose lands had been confiscated during the revolution and who pursued a religious policy which encouraged the Catholic church to reestablish control over the French educational system. He accepted the principle of ministerial responsibility and violated this commitment, leading to new elections. He issued the July ordinances which imposed censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections. His actions caused the July revolution and he fled to Britain, allowing for a new moanrchy to be born.

Louis IX

The king of France who greatly advanced the process of developing a french territorial state and was called the spider for his devious ways. He replaced the taille for a permanent tax and secured a sound source of income. A major problem was his supposed vassal, Charles the Bold who tries to create a middle kingdom.

King Matthias Corvinus

The king of Hungary who broke the power of the wealthy lords and created a well-organized bureaucracy and patronized new humanist culture and made his court one of the most brilliant outside of Italy. However, following hi death Hungary was weak once again.

Frederick William I

The king of Prussia who developed the army and bureaucracy. He promoted the evolution of Prussia's civil bureaucracy by establishing the General Directory which was the chief administrative agent of the central government and supervised military, police, economic, and financial affairs. The bureaucracy had its own code with the supreme valued of obedience, honor, and service to the king. He closely supervised his officials to make sure they performed their duties. During his rule, rigid class stratification remained with the Junkers at the head.. The army grew to become the fourth largest in Europe. Nobles were used as officers which allowed for them to stay loyal to the absolute monarch. Peasants had few rights but non nobles were encouraged to take civil positions.

Philip II

The king of Spain and greatest advocate of militant Catholicism whose reign led to a Spanish age of greatness, both politically and culturally. His first goal was to consolidate and secure the lands he had inherited from his father which included Spain, the Netherlands, and possessions in Italy and the New World which meant strict conformity to Catholicism which would be enforced by aggressive use of the Spanish inquisition and the establishment of a strong monarchical authority. One of his aims was to make Spain a dominant power in Europe which depended on a prosperous economy fueled by its importation of gold and silver from the new world possession yet this also led to inflation. He is called the "most Catholic king" and was the champion of Catholicism in Europe.

Spain-King Alfonso XII Challenges

The king of Spain who drafted the 1875 constitution which established a parliamentary government dominated by two political groups, the conservatives and the liberals, whose members stemmed from the same small social group of great land owners allied with a few wealthy industrialists. Because suffrage was limited to the propertied classes, liberals and conservatives alternated in power but followed the same conservative ideology. Spain's defeat in the Spanish American war caused greater disputes and the Generation of 1898 called for political and social reform which led to radical solutions of socialism and anarchism. When violence erupted in Barcelona the military forces brutally suppressed the revels which showed that reform would not be easily accomplished because the Catholic Church, the large landowners, and the army remained tied to a conservative social order.

Philip V - Spain

The king of Spain who initiated reforms in laws, administrative institutions, and language of the Castile by establishing them in the other Spanish kingdoms, making the King of Castile truly the king of Spain. Moreover, French style ministries replaced the old conciliar system of government and officials similar to the French intendants were introduced into the various Spanish provinces. Since the treaty of Utrecht took away the Italian territories and Netherlands away from Spain, the latter had fewer administrative problems and less drain on its already overtaxed economic systems.

Charles I

The king of Spain who took over in the Italian Wars for Spain and ultimately sacked Rome and brought a temporary end to the Italian wars, allowing for Spain to dominate Italy.

Charles II of Spain

The king of Spain who was a sickly and childless Habsburg ruler who left the throne of Spain in his will to a grandson of Louis XIV, leading to the fear of a Spanish bourbon hegemony.

Gustavus Adolphus

The king of Sweden who entered into the thirty years' war during the Swedish phase who was responsible for reviving Sweden and transforming it into a great Baltic power. He was a military genius and brought a disciplined and well-equipped Swedish army to northern Germany and was a devout Lutheran who felt compelled to aid the Germans. His army swept the imperial forces out of the north and moved into the heart of Germany in which he won the battle of Lutzen, although he died during this battle.

Charles XII of Sweden

The king of Sweden who was primarily interested in military affairs. He was defeated in the battle of Poltava and became a second rate power due to the Russians achieving victory under Peter the Great. His grandiose plans and strategies, which involved Sweden in conflicts with Poland, Denmark, and Russia proved to be Sweden's undoing. By the time he died in 1718, he had lost much of Sweden's northern empire to Russia, and Sweden's status as a first class power ended.

King Gustavus III

The king of Sweden who was probed by the pro-russian and pro-french factions to restate the power of the monarchy and was one of the most enlightened monarchs of the time. He established freedom of religion, speech, and press and instituted a new code of justice eliminating torture. His economic reforms consisted of laissez-faire, reduced tariffs, abolished tolls, and encouraged trade and agriculture. He was assassinated by a small group of nobles.

King Gustavus III

The king of sweden who was probed by the pro-russian and pro-french factions to restate the power of the monarchy and was one of the most enlightened monarchs of the time. He established freedom of religion, speech, and press and instituted a new code of justice eliminating torture. His economic reforms smacked of laissez-faire reduced tariffs, abolished tolls, and encouraged trade and agriculture. He was assassinated by a small group of nobles.

Francesco Sforze

The last Visconti ruler of Milan and one of the leading condottieri who turned on his Milanese employers, conquered the city, and became its new duke. He worked on creating a highly centralized state and was especially successful in devising a system of taxation to generate revenue for the government.

Natural laws

The laws which governed all human beings. This is a philosophy asserting that certain rights are inherent by virtue of human nature, endowed by nature—traditionally by God or a transcendent source—and that these can be understood universally through human reason.

Martin Luther King Jr.

The leader o the civil rights movement who worked to end racial segregation and inequality and led the march on Washington for jobs and freedom to dramatize African Americans' desire for equal rights and opportunities. He was assassinated which led to riots and ultimately he is remembers as the hero of the civil rights movement.

Christian II

The leader of Denmark who was overthrown by Swedish barons led by Gustavus Vasa who became the king of an independent Sweden and lead the Lutheran Reformation in Sweden. He also had been deposed as king of denmark and was replaced by Frederick I.

Jean Jaures

The leader of French socialism who was an independent socialist who looked to the French revolutionary tradition rather than Marxism to justify revolutionary socialism. They succeeded in unifying themselves into a single mostly Marxist-oriented socialist party.

louis kossuth

The leader of Hungarian liberals in the Austrian revolt in 1848 who agitated for "commonwealth" status. The Hungarians were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature. In March, demonstrations in Buda, Prague, and Vienna resulted in Metternich's dismissal. In Vienna, revolutionaries took control of the capital and made it so a constituent assembly would be summoned to create a liberal constitution. Hungary was granted its wish for its own legislation, a separate national army, and control over its foreign policy and budget. Its only alliance to the Austrian Empire was allegiance to the Habsburg Emperor.

Josip Broz Tito

The leader of a band of guerrillas in Yugoslavia who led troops against German occupation forces and his army numbered 250,000 and included 100,000 women.

John Calvin

The leader of a new protestant movement whose religious experience influenced his life works as he was convinced of the inner guidance of God causing him to become the most determined of all protestant reformers and. His ideas included justification by faith alone and placed much emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God. He also placed emphasis on predestination and identified three tests to indicate possible salvation. He saw the church as a divine institution responsible for preaching the word of God and administering the sacraments and he kept the same two sacraments of the protestant reformers.

Mao Zedong

The leader of communist China who built a strong base in North China and utilized the People's liberation army. After the failure to form a coalition government between the nationalists and the communists, a full scale war broke out and the People's liberation army surrounded Beijing. The following spring, the Communists cross the Yangtze and occupied Shanghai and Chiang's government fled to Taiwan. He made a victory statement and embarked on the Great Leap forward which wanted to create people's communes, although it failed.

Nelson Mandela

The leader of the African National Congress of South Africa who was arrested after the blacks rebelled against the apartheid. This resulted in the African National Congress calling for armed resistance to the white government and eventually, most of Africa was liberated from European control.

louis-phillipe

The leader of the July monarchy who ruled the liberal constitutional monarchy. His actions in the Affair of the Spanish Marriages led to a breach with liberal Britain and closer alliance with French conservatives. His inability to win the allegiance of the new industrial classes led to his fall from power.

King Lazar

The leader of the Serbians who opposed the Ottoman advancements upon their rule. While he ultimately lost in the Battle of Kosovo, he provided strong opposition.

Prince of Parma

The leader of the fleet of warships which was sent by Phillip II to escort troops across the English channel for the invasion, leading the Spanish armada in their quest to invade the English channel.

William of Orange

The leader of the organized revolt in the Northern provinces of the Netherlands. He wished to unify all 17 provinces, while seemed to be realized under the Pacification of Ghent. This agreement said that he provinces would stand together under his leadership, respect religious differences, and demand that the Spanish troops be withdrawn. However, religious differences prevented a lasting union, and when the Duke of Parma arrived in the Netherlands he created a Catholic Union through the Union of Arras and accepted Spanish control. To counter this he united the seven northern, Dutch-speaking states into the protestant union of Utrecht which was opposed to Spanish control.

Francois Quesnay

The leader of the physiocrats who was a highly successful court physicians who claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society, with the first being that land constituted the only form of wealth and that wealth could be increased only by agriculture and that all state revenues should come from a tax on land. The second natural law was removing mercantilism, particularly the emphasis of state control over the economy.

Baron Haussmann

The leader of the reconstruction of Paris under Napoleon III in which the medieval Paris of narrow streets and old city walls was destroyed and replaced by a modern Paris of broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares, an underground sewage system, a new public water supply, and gaslights. It served both a military and aesthetic purpose.

Cromwell, Lord Protector

The leader of the round heads who was the commander in chief for the army. After the creation of the commonwealth, he had to crush a Catholic uprising in Ireland by using brutality. He also crushed an uprising in Scotland on behalf of the son of Charles I. He faced opposition at home, especially from radicals. The Levellers were an example who called for freedom of speech, religious toleration, and a democratic republic with voting rights for male citizens over 21 years old. They also wanted annual parliaments, women's equality, and government care for the poor. To this man who was a country gentleman, only people of property had the right to participate in state affairs. He smashed radicals by force. He also dispersed the Rump Parliament by force because it was difficult to work with them. He destroyed the king and Parliament. The army provided a new government when it drew up the Instrument of Government, the first and only English written constitution. Executive power went in the hands of this man, called the Lord Protector, and legislative power was in a reconstituted Parliament. It failed because this man couldn't work with Parliament as they debated his authority and again called for a Presbyterian state church. H dissolved Parliament and divided the country into 11 regions, each ruled by a major general who served as a military governor. He levied a 10% land tax on all former Royalists to meet the cost. He used military force to maintain rule of the Independents, using more arbitrary policies than Charles I. after he died, the monarchy was reestablished in the person of Charles II.

Georges Danton

The leader of the sans-culottes and a newly appointed minister of justice who sought led the sans-culottes to seek revenge on those who aided the king and resisted popular will.

Condottieri

The leaders of mercenary soldiers who sold the services of their bands to the highest bidder. These mercenaries wreaked havoc on the countryside and lived by blackmail and looting when they were not actively engaged in battles. Many were foreigners who flocked to Italy during the periods of truce of the hundred years' war.

Fuhrerprinzip

The leadership principle that the Nazi party was supposed to follow. It entailed nothing less than a single-minded party under one leader and Hitler expressed it by saying, "A good National Socialist is one who would let himself be killed for his Fuhrer at any time."

chamber of deputies

The legislature of the bourgeois monarchy which had a difference of opinion about the bourgeois monarchy and the direction that it should take. The Party of Movement, led by Adolphe Thiers, favored ministerial responsibility, the pursuit of an active foreign policy, and limited expansion of the franchise. The Party of Resistance was led by Francois Guizot who believed that France had finally reached the "perfect form" of government and needed no further institutional changes. The Party of Resistance dominated this legislature.

Thomas More

The lord chancellor of England who was a humanist who wrote Utopia, an account of the idealistic life and institutions of the community of utopia, and imaginary island by the new world. It reflected his own fascination with the new world and his concerns with the economic, social, and political problems of the day. He presented a new social system in which cooperation and reason replaced power and fame as the proper motivating agents for human society. Utopian society, therefore, was based on communal ownership rather than private property. He came face to face with the abuses and corruption by serving Henry VIII. His religious devotion and belief in the universal catholic church ultimately proved even more important that his service to the king and his intolerance to heresy led him to advocate persecution of those who would fundamentally change the catholic church and he gave up his life opposing England's break with the Roman Catholic church over the divorce of Henry VIII.

Dam Square

The main port in Amsterdam which became the trade center of Europe and had immense cargoes unloaded where all gods weighing more than fifty pounds were recorded ad tested for quality. The quantity of goods allowed for it to become the crossroads for many European products and was the chief port for the Dutch West Indian and East Indian trading companies.

Napoleon Bonaparte

The man who dominated French and European history from 1799 to 1815. He brought the Revolution to its end but was also its child and was called the Son of the Revolution. He once said on of an Italian lawyer who was of Florentine nobility. He was disciplined, thrifty, and loyal. He went to school in France due to his father's connections and learned to speak French and later went to military school. He was influenced by Rousseau, Alexander the Great, Charlemagne, and Frederick the Great. In the military, he quickly rose through the ranks and became a major general. He was married to Josephine de Beauharnais. He became the First Consul after establishing a consulate in France and he controlled the entire executive authority of the government. He later named himself consul for life and finally crowned himself Emperor. This satisfied his ego and stabilized the regime and was fully permanent. This led to a more dictatorial regime than the prior one. He made peace with the Catholic Church with the Concordat of 1801. He also established the Civil Code which gave rights and equality to all people but took many rights away from women. He also developed a centralized administrative machine as he created new government officials such as prefects. The prefects supervised local governments. He created a systematic tax collection system and created an aristocracy based on merit. The Grand Empire was created made up of the French Empire, dependent states, and allied states. He tried to combat Great Britain with his Continental system, which failed. He used nationalism to grow his army and spread the French ideals throughout Europe. His downfall was when he tried to invade Russia after they ignored the Continental System and ended up getting stuck there in the winter, where he was forced to make the Great Retreat. He ended up getting exiled to Elba and, after he attempted to return to France, he was permanently exiled to Saint Helena where he lived out the rest of his days.

Cardinal Fleury

The minister to King Louis XV who allowed for France to pull back from foreign adventures while commerce and trade expanded and the government promoted the growth of industry, especially in coal and textiles. The budget was even balanced for a while. However, when he died Louis XV decided to rule alone which lead to the destruction of the monarchy.

Marquis of Pombal

The ministry of Portugal who was the chief minister under a series of Portuguese kings who curtailed the nobility and catholic church and was eventually removed from office, allowing the nobility and church to regain much of their prior power.

Charles II of England

The monarch who was reestablished after the death of Oliver Cromwell. He was the oldest son of Charles I and was part of the Stuart monarchy, whose restoration ended England's time of troubles. After 11 years of exile, this king returned to England, already very unpopular. The return of a monarchy did not undo the English Revolution. Parliament kept much of the power that it won and still had to consent to taxation and arbitrary courts were still abolished. A religious problem disturbed this king's reign because after the restoration, a new Parliament (cavalier parliament) met and restored the Anglican Church as the official Church of England. Laws were passed to make everyone, mostly Catholics and Puritan Dissenters, conform to the Anglican Church. This king was inclined towards Catholicism and his brother, James, was openly Catholic. Parliament's suspicions grew when the King issued the Declaration of Indulgence that suspended Parliament's laws against Catholics and puritans. Parliament refuted with the Test Act of 1673 that said only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices. There was a purported Catholic plot to assassinate this king and replace him with his brother James but it was found to be fake, causing Parliament to have a failed attempt at passing a bill to bar James from the throne as a professed Catholic. This resulted in two political groups: Whigs who wanted a protestant king and to exclude James and the Tories who supported the king because they believed in lawful succession to the throne. To foil the efforts, this king dismissed Parliament, relying on French subsidies to rule. He was succeeded by James II.

William and Mary

The monarchs who were given power during the Glorious Revolution. William of Orange and his wife, Mary, were invited by a group of 7 prominent English noblemen to invade England while James, his wife, and his infant son fled to France. The Revolution Settlement confirmed that they became monarchs. The Convention Parliament asserted that James tried to subvert the constitution and so they offered the throne to these monarchs who also accepted the Bill of Rights. Parliament dissolved the divine right theory of kingship and confirmed Parliament's right to participate in government.

eugene delacroix

The most famous French romantic artists who was self-taught and fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color. Both characteristics are visible in The Death of Sardanapalus. Significant for its use of lights and its patches of interrelated color, this portrayal of the world of the last Assyrian king was criticized at the time for its garishness. This artists rejoiced in combining theatricality and movement with a daring use of color. His work reflects his belief that "a painting should be a feast to the eye".

Jacobins

The most famous radical political club that emerged as a gathering of radical deputies at the start of the Revolution. They formed in Paris as well as in the provinces where they were mainly discussion groups. Examples of members of this club were the Girondins and the Mountain. It was eventually shut down after the Terror by the National Convention.

Storming of the Bastille

The most famous urban rising that occurred when the king attempted to take defensive measures by increasing the number of troops at arsenals in Paris and along roads to Versailles, which ended up inflaming public opinion. More mob activity in Paris led Parisian leaders to form the Permanent Committee to keep order. They needed arms and organized a popular force to capture the Invalides, a royal army. They then attacked another royal armory. This armory was also a state prison but only held seven prisoners. There were not many weapons inside except for those held by a small group of defenders. It was a large fortress with eight towers connected by nine-foot-thick walls. It should have been easily protected, but its commander, the marquis de Launay, wanted to negotiate. Fighting erupted but de Launay refused to open fire with his cannon and the garrison soon surrendered. The fall of this fortress was seen as a great victory and it became a popular symbol of triumph over despotism.

Literacy and newspapers

The most immediate result of mass education was an increase in literacy as compulsory education and the growth of literacy were directly related. Adult literacy was basically 100% and the rise of mass-circulation of news papers grew. Known as the "yellow press" in the United States, these newspapers shared some common characteristics and pulp fiction for adults included westerns and new mass leisure.

humanism

The most important literary movement associated with the Renaissance which was an intellectual movement based on the study of classical literary works of Greece and Rome. They examined the studia humanitatis, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history. Petrarch is called the father of this movement and spread these ideas.

Unam Sanctum

The most important papal bull issued by Boniface VIII that was issued in 1302 and was the strongest statement ever made on the supremacy of the spiritual authority over the temporal authority. After it became clear that Boniface would act on his principles by excommunicating Philip IV, Philip sent a small group of French forces to capture Boniface and bring him to France for a rial. He was rescued from Anagni by some Italian nobles but died from shock.

Erasmus

The most influential Christian humanist who formulated and popularized the reform program of Christian humanism and wrote the handbook of the Christian Knight which reflected his preoccupation with religion. He called his conception of religion "the philosophy of Christ" which meant Christianity should be a guiding philosophy for the direction of daily life rather than the system of dogmatic beliefs and practices that the medieval church seemed to stress. He emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized the external forms of religion. To return to the simplicity of the early church people needed to understand the original meaning of the Scriptures and the writings of early church fathers and he saw the vulgate as containing errors which led to him editing the new testament in Annotations. He saw reform of the church as spreading an understanding of the philosophy of Jesus, providing enlightened education in the sources of early Christianity and making common sense criticisms about the abuses of the church. He also wrote the praise of folly criticism the most corrupt practices of society, although his program did not achieve the reform he desired.

countries affected by suffrage movement

The movement for women's right o vote which occurred in Britain, the United States, Finland, and Norway before spreading to the rest of Europe and the world.

"domestic enemy"

The name given for slaves who were considered dangerous and not worth the effort.

Zemsky Sobor

The national assembly of Russia who chose Michael Romanov as the new Tsar after ending the Time of Troubles.

Sejm

The national diet of Poland

francis joseph i

The nephew and successor of Ferdinand I of the Habsburg Empire. He worked to restore the imperial government in Hungary but the Austrian army couldn't defeat Kossuth's forces and they only crushed the Hungarian revolution with the aid of Nicholas I of Russia who sent an army of 140,000 men to help the Austrians. Revolutions in Austria had also failed, allowing the autocratic government to be restored, the emperor and propertied classes to maintain control, and keep control over the many different nationalities.

Peter III

The nephew of Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia who came into power after he death. This was in the European front of the Seven Years War. He admired Frederick the Great so he withdrew his Russian troops from the conflict and from Prussian lands that they occupied. His withdrawal guaranteed a stalemate and led to a desire for peace which allowed for Prussia to permanently control Silesia after the Peace of Hubertusburg. His wife was Catherine the Great and after he was murdered by a faction of nobles, Catherine II the Great became the autocrat of all Russia.

Frederick V

The new leader of Bohemia who was elected after the defenestration of Prague. His election could upset the balance of religious and political power in central Europe and give the protestant forces greater control of the Holy Roman Empire, causing opposition from imperial forces which defeated him at the Battle of White Mountain. He fled into exile in the United Provinces and once again was rem=placed by Ferdinand who declared Bohemia a hereditary Habsburg territory.

serjents

The new police in France after March 1829. They dressed in blue uniforms so they would be easily recognizable by citizens. They were lightly armed with a white cane during the day and a saber at night. Initially there were not many of them but their numbers did increase as time went on.

Battista Sforza

The niece of the ruler of Milan and the wife of Montefeltro who fostered art in Urbino and ruled while her husband was away.

"Stabbed in the back" theory

The notion that Germany didn't lose WWI but rather that it had been betrayed by civilians at home. "November Criminals" were the government officials who signed the Armistice and were commonly used as evidence for this theory.

Mulattoes

The offspring of Africans and Whites. Together with descendants of whites, Africans, and native Indians, Latin American society was very unique and had a multiracial society with less rigid attitudes about race.

Mestizos

The offspring of Europeans and native American Indians. Their intermarriage was authorized in 1501 by Spanish rulers.

Old regime, ancien regime

The old political structure of France with a monarch and the three Estates. The goal of the French Revolution was to overthrow this and replace it with a republic. This structure was challenged by ideas of the philosophes of the Enlightenment, its inability to make reforms, and financial crises due to royal extravagance and unnecessary wars.

Thermidorian Reaction

The parliamentary revolt initiated on 9 Thermidor, year II (July 27, 1794), which resulted in the fall of Maximilian Robespierre and the collapse of revolutionary fervor and the Reign of Terror in France.France became weary of the growing number of executions with the Terror and Paris was alive with conspiracies against Robespierre. Robespierre was executed and the French people tried to purge Jacobin clubs from Paris. The coup was primarily a reassertion of the rights of the National Convention against the Committee of Public Safety and of the nation against the Paris Commune. It was followed by the disarming of the committee, the emptying of the prisons, and the purging of Jacobin clubs.

New classes -conditions and its changes

The pattern of European social organization continued into the 18th century. Social status was still largely determined by the division into the traditional estates determined by hereditary. Although Enlightenment intellectuals challenged thee traditional distinctions, they did not die easily. However, some forces were at change in traditional society due to the ideas of the enlightenment. The peasant- because society was still mostly rural, the peasantry constituted the largest social group yet the most distinctions were between the free peasant and the serf. Small peasant proprietors or tenant farmers in western Europe were also not free from compulsory services as many owed tithes which went to the aristocratic landowners. They also owed a variety of dues and fees. Eastern Europe continued to be dominated by large laded estates owned by powerful lords and remained dependent on serfdom and feudalism. The local villages in which peasants lived were the center of their lives. The village maintained public order, provided poor relief, a village church, and sometimes a school master, collected taxes for the central government, maintained roads and bridges, and established common procedures for sowing, plowing, and harvesting crops. The diet consisted of dark bread, water, beer, and wine and soups and gruel made of grains and vegetables. Nobility- 2-3% of the European population who had a dominating role in society. They had a place at the top of the social order and their legal privileges included judgement by their peers, immunity from severe punishment, and exemption from many forms of taxation. The rights of landlords over serfs was overwhelming. They lived off the yields of their estates and loved to profit through exploitation. Nobles also played an important role in military and governmental affairs. They also played a role in the administration of the state. Nobles lived in the country house and lived on large estates isolated from their servants and the peasantry. It fulfilled the desire for privacy and classical serenity. Many aristocrats went on the grand tour in order to achieve an education, although this privileged was often abused. The diet of the nobility included meats and cheeses and fine wines and beer.

Amiens

The peace that Napoleon achieved in March 1802 that left France with new frontiers and a number of client territories from the North Sea to the Adriatic. The peace did not last because the British and French both regarded it as temporary and had little intention of adhering to its terms. It was achieved after the Second Coalition against Russia, Great Britain, and Austria.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

The peace treaty that ended the War of Austrian Succession. It promised the return of all occupied territories except Silesia. Prussia refused to return Silesia which guaranteed another war, at least between Prussia and Austria, which occurred with the Seven Years War.

Zulu

The peoples who lives in the South African regions and were massacred and subjugated by both the British and the Boers during their intense struggle for control over South Africa.

stagflation

The period from 1973-the mid 1980s in which there was a combination of high inflation and high unemployment.

Schlieffen Plan

The plan of the German army by which the army would move through Belgium into northern France using an encircling movement to sweep around Paris and surround most of the French army. It required a strong right flank to encircle Paris but German military leaders had moved forces from the right flank to strengthen the German army in the east against the Russians. When the plan commences, the Germans made it into Belgium with little resistance, but they were very destructive and destroyed villages and killed civilians. Soon, they reached the Marne river which was 20 miles from Paris, but the British and French forces under General Joseph Joffre quickly mobilized which caused the Germans to fall back. both sides were exhausted which eventually led to a stalemate and the start of trench warfare.

detente

The policy between the United States and Soviet Union that was a reduction of tensions between the two superpowers. A symbol of this was the Antiballistic Missile Treaty in which each nation agreed to limit their systems for launching antiballistic missiles to make it so each state had around an equal power balance and couldn't launch a preemptive strike on the other. The Helsinki Accords was signed by the U.S, Canada, and all European nations and it recognized the borders that had been established in Europe since the end of World War II, acknowledging the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. It also made it so the powers had to recognize and protect the human rights of their citizens. The next American president, Jimmy Carter, focused on protecting human rights but this policy was limited. The Soviets invaded Afghanistan to try to restore a pro-Soviet regime which caused President Carter to withdraw the U.S. from the Olympic Games in Moscow and place an embargo on the shipment of American grain to the Soviet Union. When Reagan became president, he called the Soviets an evil empire and build up the military and renewed his arms race, beginning the Strategic Defense Initiative, or Star Wars, which would create a space shield to destroy incoming missiles with. He also helped maintain a Vietnam-like war in Afghanistan which resulted in big casualties and limited power for the Soviets.

Paternalism

The policy or practice on the part of people in positions of authority of restricting the freedom and responsibilities of those subordinate to them in the subordinates' supposed best interest.

De-christianization

The policy pursued by the National Convention in creating a new order. In this new movement, the word 'saint' was removed from street names, churches were pillaged and closed by revolutionary armies, and priests were encouraged to marry.

third section

The political police under Nicholas I that had many powers over much of Russian life. They deported suspicious or dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance on foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion.

Pope Paul III

The pontificate of this pope was a turning point in the reform of the papacy. He continued renaissance papal practices by appointing his nephews as cardinals, involving himself in politics and patronizing arts and letters on a lavish scale. He perceived the need for change and expressed it decisively. Advocates of reform were made cardinals, and he took the step of appointing a reform commission to study the condition of the church which blamed the corrupt church practices on popes and cardinals. He formally recognized the Jesuits and summoned the Council of Trent, and eventually established the Holy Office which had no remorse for protestants.

developing nations

The poor nations which are located mainly in the southern hemisphere and include many of the nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America which often have primarily agricultural economies with little technology and explosive population growth which caused severe food shortages.

Pope Clement V

The pope at Avignon who intended to return to Rome but never did. This led to the Papacy at Avignon for the next 72 years.

Pope Gregory XI

The pope from Avignon who returned to Rome after he realized that there was a huge decline in papal prestige. He died soon after.

Pope Pius II

The pope who issued the papal bull Execrabilis which condemned appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical.

Pope Clement VII

The pope who joined the side of Francis I in the Habsburg-Valois wars and joined the side of Francis. However after Charles threatened to attack Rome, causing this pope to switch sides, leaving Charles V to stand supreme over much of Italy.

Nepotism

The practice of popes promoting their families' interests because they could not build dynasties over several generations since they weren't hereditary. For example, Pope Sixtus IV made 5 of his nephews cardinals and gave them many church offices to build up their finances. Similarly, Alexander Vi was a member of the Borgia family who raised 1 son, 1 nephew, and 1 mistress to the cardinalate and scandalized the church by encouraging his son Cesare to carve out a state for himself from the territories of the Papal States in central Italy.

President Johnson

The president during the civil rights movement who advocated for increased rights and allowed for the passing of the civil rights act of 1964 which created the machinery to end segregation and discrimination in the workplace.

Woodrow Wilson

The president of the United States who developed the "fourteen points" as an effort to justify the enormous military struggle as being fought for a moral cause. However, he found that other states had more pragmatic motives. He was one of the leaders of the Paris Peace Conference and was determined to establish the League of Nations, and to do so he willingly agreed to make compromised on territorial arrangements to guarantee the establishment of the league, thinking it could rectify bad arrangements. However, the U.S. failed to ratify the treaty of Versailles and the U.S. was unable to join the league of nations, ruining this man's dreams.

Edward von Taaffe

The prime minister of Austria-Hungary who attempted to "muddle through" by relying on a coalition of German conservatives, Czechs, and Poles to maintain a majority in parliament. But his concessions to national minorities, such as allowing the Slavic languages as well as German to be used in education and administration, antagonized the German-speaking Austrian bureaucracy and aristocracy and opposition to his policies led to his downfall without solving the nationalities problem.

William Pitt the Elder

The prime minister of England who furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada and India in the seven years' war but was dismissed by George III and replaced by Lord Bute.

Cavour

The prime minister to Victor Emmanuel II who was a liberal minded noble who favored a constitutional government. He pursued a policy of economic expansion, encouraged the buildings of roads, canals, and railroads, and fostered business enterprise by expanding credit and stimulating investments in new industries. The growth in the Piedmont economy and the increase of government revenues enabled him to pour money into equipping a large army. He knew he needed the French for military strength and he provoked the Austrians. The French helped defeat the Austrians at Magenta and Solferina yet made peace with Austria without informing their Italian ally, causing tensions. He feared that Garibaldi would cause war in Italy and led to Garibaldi yielding. A centralized government was created and he died three months later.

William Pitt the Elder

The prime minister under George III who was replaced by Lord Bute. He was a spokesperson for the exponents of the empire and furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada and India in the seven years' war.

Ivan III

The prince of Russia who allowed for the new Russian state of Moscow to be born. He annexed other Russian principalities and took advantage of dissension among Mongols to throw off their yoke.

Thomas Cromwell

The principle secretary to Henry VIII who worked out the details of the Tudor government's new role in church affairs based on the centralized power exercised by the king and Parliament. He also came to the kings financial rescue with a daring plan for the dissolution of the monasteries and was a key advisory to Henry VIII.

Inductive method

The principles of the scientific method created by Francis Bacon that was not based on assumed first principals from which logical principles could be deduced like old methods were and instead proceeded from the particular to the general. Carefully organized experiments and thorough, systematic observations came correct generalizations. Bacon believed that this method would be useful for practical science and allow humans to find new discoveries and gain power. He believed that it could be used to create devices used in industry, agriculture, and trade. He believed that new human power would be used to conquer nature in action.

Asciento

The privilege granted to the British that allowed them to transport 4,500 slaves a year to Spanish Latin America.

nationalization

The process of converting a business or industry from private ownership to government control and ownership.

cosmopolitan

The quality of being sophisticated and having wide international experience.

rapprochement

The rebuilding of harmonious relations between nations. It was the hope during the Cold War to avoid fighting but it did not work and tensions between the East and west grew, escalating the cold War.

Colombian Exchange

The reciprocal importation and exportation of plants and animals between Europe an the Americas. Europeans brought horses, cattle, and wheat to the New World and in exchange their got agricultural products like potatoes, chocolate, corn, tomatoes, and tobacco. Potatoes became especially popular as a basic dietary staple in some areas of Europe. They were high in carbs and Vitamins A and C, could be stored for winter use, and allowed for populations to grow. Europe also got cochineal, a red dye, as well as chocolate and coffee.

Philip IV and V of Spain

The reign of this first king of Spain seemed to offer hope for a revival of Spain's energies, especially with his chief minister Gaspar de Guzman. Most of his efforts were undermined by his desire to pursue Spain's imperial glory by a series of internal revolts and expensive failed military campaigns in the thirty years' war. He was succeeded by his so who was confirmed as the Spanish rule through the Treaty of Utrecht and initiated a Spanish-bourbon hegemony which would last into the 20th century and confirmed that the thrones of Spain and France would remain separated.

nicholas i

The replacement of Alexander I who crushed the Decembrist revolt and turned him from a conservative to a reactionary and was determined to avoid another rebellion. He strengthened the bureaucracy and the secret police and the third section were given sweeping powers over Russian life. They deported suspicious peoples, maintained close surveillance of foreigners, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion. He was also scared of revolution abroad and became known as the policeman of Europe.

New calendar

The republican calendar that was adopted on October 5, 1793. Years were to be numbered from September 22, 1792, when the French republic was proclaimed, which meant that it was already year II when it was adopted. It had 12 months, each of which had 3 10 day weeks called decades. The 10th day was a rest day called decadi. It eliminated Sundays and Sunday worships and de-emphasized Sundays, saints' days, and church holidays and festivals. Religious celebrations were to be replaced with revolutionary festivals. The 5 days left at the end of the year formed a 1/2 week of festivals that celebrated Virtue, Intelligence, Labor, Opinion, and Rewards. In leap years, the sixth celebrated liberty, equality, and fraternity. Eliminating church holidays brought nonworking holidays from 56 to 32 days. They also renamed months in the year to evoke seasons, temperature, or state of vegetation. (Veendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire, Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose, Germinal, Floreal, Prairial, Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor). The calendar had lots of opposition though and the government relied on coersion to gain its acceptance. Journalists had to use republican dates in newspapers, although peasants still did not use the calendar and even government officials ignored it. It was abandoned by Napoleon on January 1, 1806.

Restoration of 1660

The restoration of the English Monarchy in which Charles II returned to England after 11 years of exile. Both the monarchy and House of Lords were restored, although the work of the English Revolution was no undone. Parliament kept much of its power that it won: its role in government was acknowledged, the necessity for its consent to taxation was accepted, and arbitrary courts were still abolished.

Escorial

The royal palace in which Philip II worked and is known as the living center of the Spanish royal families. It was shaped like a grill to honor St Lawrence and Philip II was buried there.

Sultan Murad

The ruler of the Ottoman empire who seized land of the Seljuk turks and the byzantine empire and moved into the lands of the serbians and defeated the Serbs in the Battle of Koscovo against King Lazar.

Nicholas I -> Alex II -> Alex III -> Nicholas II

The rulers of Russia. Nicolas I- A tsar who changed from a conservative into a reactionary determined to avoid rebellion. He strengthened the bureaucracy and secret police and the Third section had great power. They deported people, maintained close surveillance of foreigners, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion. He also wanted to prevent revolution abroad and was known as the policeman of Europe. Alexander II- The successor to Nicholas I who sued for peace in the Crimean war in the Treaty of Paris and accepted the neutrality of the Black Sea and Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five great powers. Alexander III- The successor to Alexander II who turned against reform and returned to the traditional methods of repression. Nicholas II- believed that the power of the tsars should be preserved and worked so that the national state was the focus of people's lives.

House of Orange

The ruling house of the Dutch Republic during the Golden Age. It started with William of Orange and then this house occupied the stadholderate in most of the 7 provinces and favored the development of a centralized government with themselves as hereditary monarchs. The States General, an assembly of members from each province, opposed this house's ambitions and advocated for a republican government. For much of the 17th century, republicans were in control, but in 1672 due to war with France and England, the United Provinces turned to William III of his house to establish a monarchy. He died with no direct heir which led the republicans to take back control.

Stasi

The secret police of East Germany. They had files that were released to show that millions of East Germans spied on neighbors, colleagues, spouses, and parents during the Communist era. a few senior members were put on trial for past inhumane actions but many Germans just closed the door on this unhappy period.

Francois-Michel Le Tellier

The secretary of war to Louis XIV who helped France develop a professional army numbering 100,000 men in peacetime and 400,000 in war. Louis made war and almost incessant activity of his reign. To achieve the prestige and military glory benefiting the Sun King as well as to ensure the dominion of his Bourbon dynasty over European affairs, he aided Louis XIV in a series of four different wars.

Charles I

The son of James who ruled England. He initially accepted the Petition of Right, which prohibited taxation without parliament's consent, arbitrary imprisonment, the quartering of soldiers in private houses, and the declaration of martial law in peacetime, he went back on the agreement due to the limits on royal power. He decided that since he could not work with parliament he would not summon it to meet and pursued a course of personal rule which forced him to find new ways of taxation. One expedient tax was called hip money which aroused opposition from the gentry. His religious policy also proved disastrous as his marriage to a catholic and his efforts to introduce more ritual into the Anglican church led to him calling parliament after a Scottish rebellion. In the first session of the so called long-parliament, severe limitations were placed on royal authority and abolished ship money and passed the triennial act which said parliament must meet once at least every three years. When the king tried to take advantage of a split in parliament by arresting some of the more radical members, England slipped into civil war. In the first phase, this king was captured and ultimately beheaded, allowing for the revolution to succeed.

Charles V

The son of Philip of Burgundy and Joanna who inherited the Habsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish lines. One of his main rivals was with the Valois king of France, Francis I, who was surrounded by Habsburg possessions and disputed with this king over territories in southern France, the Netherlands, the Rhineland, northern Spain, and Italy. This led to the Habsburg-Valois Wars which prevented this Emperor to concentrate on the Lutheran problem in Germany. He also faced enemies from the papacy who would not act to help with the Lutherans. Pope Clement VII joined the side of Francis I in the 2nd Habsburg-Valois War. This Emperor's army then went crazy while attacking Rome and bloodily attacked it, eventually coming to terms with Clement and leaving this Emperor with supreme power over Italy. He also faced trouble in the east as the Ottoman Turks took over most of Hungary and moved as far as Vienna in Austria. By the end of 1529, he could deal with Germany. This was difficult due to individual states and princes, and his attempts t settle the Lutheran problem at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 failed, leading to the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League. The Turks renewed their threat on Austria and two more Habsburg-Valois Wars started up, keeping him busy for 15 more years. The Schmalkaldic Wars started up and the Emperor defeated the Lutherans at the Battle of Muhlberg. However, the League was reestablished and the new French king, Henry II, a Catholic, revived the war and the Emperor had to negotiate a truce He abandoned German affairs to his brother Ferdinand, abdicated all of his titles in 1556, and retired to his country estate in Spain to live the final 2 years of his life in solitude.

Cesare Borgia

The son of Pope Alexander VI who used ruthless measures to achieve his goal of carving out a state in central Italy and was used as a good example of a ruler by Machiavelli.

William Pitt the Younger

The son of William Pitt the Elder who was prime minister of England and supported by the merchants, industrial classes, and the king. He managed to stay in power and avoided serious reform of the corrupt parliamentary system.

Einsatzgruppen

The special strike forces of the Soviet Union which was ordered to round up all Polish Jews and concentrate them in ghettos established in a number of Polish cities, an attack order by Heyrich. They had more responsibilities as mobile killing units and underwent regular killings of Jews.

effects on populations and cities, slums

The standard of living greatly declined in the industrial revolution as wages were low and wages, prices, and consumption patterns were used to measure the standing of living as prices outstripped wages. New products were introduced but were often not available to the middle and working classes. The crisis of overproduction existed and furthered the economic hardship and led to cyclical depressions. The living conditions were crammed and lacked sanitary.

Republic of Virtue

The state of France after the war and domestic turmoil of the Terror in which the Committee of Public Safety took steps to control France and create a republican order with republican citizens. The committee was sending representatives on a mission as agents of the central government to all departments that would explain the war emergency members and to implement laws dealing with wartime emergency. It also tried to apply some economic controls by making a system of requisitioning food supplies for cities that was enforced by revolutionary armies in the country. The Law of General Maximum was created that had price controls on goods that were of 1st necessity. It ranged from food and drink to fuel and clothing. These controls failed, however, because the government did not have the power to enforce them. This was an idealistic view of France.

"Protestant Winds"

The storms that battered the Spanish Armada and prevented it from reaching England. The English hailed these storms as a miracle that allowed them to remain Protestant.

"courke"

The substance, also called coke, that was used in iron smelting. Henry Cort developed a method in which, when this substance was smelted with iron ore, wrought iron would be produced.

Charles XI of Sweden

The successor of Charles V who rebuilt the Swedish monarchy along the lines of an absolute monarchy. He retook the crown lands and the revenues attached to them from the nobility, weakening the independent power of the nobles. He built up a bureaucracy, subdued the Riksdag and church, improved the army and navy, and left his son Charles XII a well-organized Swedish state that dominated northern Europe.

Joseph II-reforms, problems faced, outlook, leadership

The successor of Maria Theresa who was determined to make changes and to carry on his chief goal of enhancing Habsburg power within the monarchy and Europe. He wanted to sweep away anything standing in the path of reason. His reform program was far-reaching and he abolished serfdom and tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings. A new penal code was instituted that abrogated the death penalty and established the principle of equality of all before the law. He introduced drastic religious reforms as well, including complete religious toleration and restriction on the church. Altogether he issued 6,000 decrees and 11,000 laws in his efforts to transform Austria. His reform program proved overwhelming for Austria. He alienated the nobility by freeing the serfs and alienated the church by his attacks on the monastic establishment. Even the serfs were unhappy and his attempt to rationalize the administration by appointing German as the the official language alienated non-German. His sucessors undid many of his reform efforts.

Electoral system

The system of choosing monarchs used in Poland. The king was elected by the Polish nobles and was forced to accept huge restrictions on his power including limited revenues, a small bureaucracy, and a standing army of no more than 20,000 soldiers. For the nobles, this eliminated an absolute king and for Poland's neighbors, it allowed for them to meddle in Polish affairs, leading to the dissolution of Poland.

utilitarianism

The theory associated with Jeremy Bentham that is the principle of utility, defined as the greatest good for the greatest amount of people. It should be applied to the government, the economy, and the judicial system, according to Bentham.

estates

The three grouping which made up the class hierarchical structure. The first estate was the clergy, whose preeminence was grounded in the belief that people should be guided to spiritual ends, the second estate which was the nobility whose privileges were based on the principle that the nobles provided security and justice for peasants and inhabitants of towns and cities. The final estate was the third estate which consisted of the peasants and inhabitants of towns and cities and experienced certain adaptations in the Renaissance.

Peace of Ryswick

The treaty that ended Louis XIV's third war, the War of the League of Augsburg, that forced Louis to give up most of his conquests in the empire, although he could keep Strasbourg and part of Alsace. The gains were not worth the bloodshed and misery of the French people.

Treaty of Hubertusburg

The treaty that ended the European conflict during the Seven Years War. All occupied territories were returned and Austria officially recognized Prussia's permanent control of Silesia.

Peace of Nystadt

The treaty that ended the Great Northern War in 1721. I formally recognized that Peter the Great achieved the acquisition of Estonia, Livonia, and Karelia. Sweden became a weakened power and Russia became a great European power.

treaty of adrianople

The treaty that ended the Russian-Turkish war. The Russians received a protectorate over the two provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. the Ottoman Empire also allowed Russia, France, and Britain decide the fate of Greece. They decided to declare it an independent kingdom.

Peace of Westphalia

The treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War. It ensured that all German states, even Calvinist ones, were free to determine their own religions. France gained parts of western Germany, part of Alsace, and the three cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, giving the French control of the Franco-German border area. While Sweden and the German states of Brandenburg and Bavaria gained some territory in Germany, the Austrian Habsburgs didn't lose much but saw their authority as rulers of Germany get worse. The three hundred plus states of the Holy Roman Empire were recognized as virtually independent and each got the power to conduct its own foreign policy. The Habsburg Emperor became a figurehead and religion and politics were clearly separated. The pope was ignored in this peace treaty.

Treaty of Utrecht

The treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. It confirmed Philip V as the Spanish ruler which created a Spanish Bourbon dynasty and it also affirmed that the French and Spanish thrones remain separate. Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, and Naples. Brandenburg-Prussia gained more territories. The main winner was England which received Gibraltar and French possessions in America of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay Territory, and Nova Scotia.

Twelve Years' Truce

The truce from 169 that ended the Revolt of the Netherlands. It virtually recognized the independence of the northern provinces. These "United Provinces" emerged as the Dutch Republic, although the Spanish didn't recognize them as independent until 1648. The 10 southern provinces remained a Spanish possessions.

"Aryans"

The true and original creators of Western culture who were maintained by the Germans and must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of such lower races, especially the Jews.

Vatican II

The twenty-first ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. This council was formed during the reign of Pope John XXIII and it liberalized many Catholic Church practices. The liturgy of the Mass was now in the vernacular instead of Latin. New avenues of communication with other Christian faiths were also opened for the first time since the Reformation. The goal was to rekindle people's faith but it did not work very well.

Ferdinand and Isabella

The two leaders of Spain, the first was from Castile and the second was from Aragon. After their union, both kingdom kept its own parliaments, courts, laws, coinage, speech, customs, and political organs. The royal council that supervised local administration was rid of aristocrats and replaced by the middle class. They reorganized the military to make a strong infantry and organized army. They also controlled the Catholic church and created a Spanish Catholic Church in Spain. Also, the two monarchs created the Spanish Inquisition to rid Spain of the Jews and Muslims.

Reds vs. Whites

The two sides during the Russian civil war. The first was a Bolshevik army that was forced to fight on many fronts as attacks came from Siberia, Ukraine, and from other fronts. They ended up retaking Ukraine after defeating most of the opposing army and they gained independent nationalist governments in Georgia, Russian Armenia, and Azerbaijan. This side also had a soviet group that murdered the Tsar and his wife. The reason why this side won was because they were well-disciplined under Lenin, they had a draft and good officers, they had rigid discipline, and they had a common goal of a new socialist order. The second side of the war had the main generals of Kolchak and Denikin. This side failed because political differences led to mistrust in the group and they had to work on the fringes of the Russian empire. They also could not agree on a common goal.

tourism

The upper and middle classes created the first market for tourism but with the use of paid vacations, this became a major form of mass leisure. Thomas Cook was a pioneer of mass tourism and was responsible for trips on a regular basis and offered overseas tours which could even be used by the working class for weekend excursions.

Landed gentry

The upper middle class in Britain who made up the House of Lords and had great control over the government and benefited economically from new reforms and mercantilism theory in the economy.

War impact on unskilled labor, skilled labor, middle class

The war served as a social leveler. All classes suffered casualties in battle. The unskilled workers and peasants who made up the masses of soldiers suffered heavy casualties, and the fortunate ones were the skilled laborers who gained exemptions from the military service because they were needed at home to train workers in the war industries. The burst of patriotic enthusiasm at the beginning of the war created a new sense of community that meant the end of the class conflict that marked European society. The owners of the large industries manufacturing the weapons of war benefited economically. Despite public outrage, governments rarely limited the enormous profits made by the industrial barons, and wartime governments tended to favor large industries. Inflation also caused inequities. The combination of full employment and high demand or scarce consumer goods caused pried to climb. Skilled workers were able to earn waged that kept up with inflation, but middle class and working class were doing poorly economically due to this inflation.

War of Austrian Succession

The war that occurred after the Pragmatic Sanction was ignored by European powers, especially Frederick II of Prussia. He took advantage of Maria Theresa, the new empress, to invade Austrian Silesia. Maria Theresa's vulnerability encouraged France to enter war against Austria, its traditional enemy. Maria then made an alliance with Great Britain because they feared a French hegemony over Continental affairs. This resulted in a war that was fought in Europe where Russia seized Silesia and France occupied the Austrian Netherlands, in the East where France took Madras in India from the British, and in North America where the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River. The peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and resulted in the return of all occupied territories except Silesia to the original landowners. Prussia refused to return Silesia.

Julius II

The warrior pope and a patron of the arts who was called the warrior pope due to personally leading his armies against his enemies and being active in furthering the territorial aims of the church.

Saint-Domingue (Hispaniola)

The western third of the island of Hispaniola that was a French sugar colony. In 1791, black slaves there rebelled against French plantation owners, inspired by the ideals of the Revolution in France. They attacked, killing plantation owners and their families and burning their buildings. White planters retaliated with equal brutality. The revolt was lead by Toussaint L'Ouverture and was eventually won by the slaves. On January 1, 1804, the western part of Hispaniola, now called Haiti, announced its freedom and became the first independent state in Latin America.

Catherine de Medici

The wife of Henry II of France and mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III as well as Margaret Valois. She was part of the Valois line. She was determined to keep the throne in her family and did so by marrying off her daughter to the future king.She also helped in massacring the Huguenots in 1572 in the St. Bartholomew's Massacre.

Catherine the Great

The wife of Peter III, a successor to Peter the Great, who learned Russian and was favored by the guard. After her husband was murdered she became the autocrat of Russia. She was intelligent and familiar with the works of the philosophies and her success depended on support from the palace guard and gentry class. She called for the election of an assembly to debate the details of a new law code and questioned serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and advocated for equality before the law. However, it produced no change and after Pugachev's revolt she strengthened serfdom.

"bible of romanticism"

The work of Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand called Genius of Christianity which defended Catholicism based on romantic sentiment. As a faith, Catholicism echoed the harmony of all things. Its cathedrals brought one into the very presence of God.

global economy

The world developed a stronger economic union in which the production, distribution, and sale of goods are accomplished on a worldwide sale. Several international institutions contributed to the rise of the global economy and the world bank and international monetary fund have contributed to this growth. The goal of the IMF was to oversee a global financial system by supervising the exchange rates and offering financial and technical assistance to developing nations. Another example is the multinational corporation or transnational corporations as well as free trade which led to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the World Trade Organization.

britain's great exhibition

The world's first industrial fair which occurred in the Crystal Palace. It contained 100,000 exhibits which showed the wide variety of products created by the Industrial revolution. Six million people visited the fair in six months and it displayed Britain's wealth to the work and was a symbol of British success. In addition, this represented Britain's industrial growth and imperial power as goods from India were the highlight of the expedition and it allowed Britain to become the world's first industrial nation and the wealthiest.

Meiji emperor and restoration

The young Mutsuhito rose in power after the samurai revolt which led to the restoration of the empire as the rightful head of the government. The new empire was Mutsuhito who called his reign to Meiji, also known as the enlightened government. The new leaders who controlled the emperor now inaugurated a remarkable transformation of Japan called the Meiji restoration. These new leaders attempted to modernize Japan by absorbing and adopting new military methods and were able to develop Japan as a powerful military state.

crime issues

There was a large increase of crime in the seventeenth century. Police were used to alleviate some of the pressures and fears caused by this increase but they weren't fully effective. Many believed that the increase of crime was related to the increase in poverty. Influenced by the middle-class belief that unemployment was due to laziness, some European states passed poor laws that forced paupers to either find work on their own or enter workhouses designed to make people so miserable that they would reenter the labor market. Other reformers said that the poor laws didn't address the real issue which was the moral degeneracy of the lower classes who were called "dangerous classes" because of the threat they supposedly posed to the middle-class. Some secular reformers made institutes to instruct the working class in applied sciences so they could be productive. The London Mechanics Institute in Britain and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in the Field of Natural Sciences, Technical Science, and Political Economy of Germany were two secular institutions. British evangelicals made Sunday schools to improve morals of working kid. German evangelical Protestants made nurseries for orphans and homeless kids, women's societies to care for the sick and poor, and prison societies to prepare women for prison work. The Catholic Church tried to revive its religious orders with priests and nuns using spiritual instruction and recreation to help young male workers from avoiding gambling and drinking and keeping young women away from prostitution.

King vs. Parliament

There was a power struggle between these two groups in England. After the glorious revolution, parliament gained control over the king and the king chose ministers responsible to himself who set policy and guided parliament while parliament made laws, levied taxes, passed the budget, and indirectly influenced the king's rule. The landed aristocracy dominated this first groups and challenges between the two of them led to corruption in the government.

anti-Semitism in Austrian Empire and Germany

These achievements represented one side of the picture as in Austrian politic Christian socialists combined agitation for workers with anti-semitism and they were the most powerful in Vienna and were led by Karl Lueger. They blamed the Jews for corruption and Adolf Hitler found his worldview in Vienna. Germany also had right-wing anti-Semitic parties such as the Christian social workers who used Anti-semitism to win the votes of traditional lower-middle-class groups who were threatened by the new economic forces of the times and these parties were based on race.

sports

These were a popular form of mass leisure, despite not being a new activity as they were strictly organized with written rules and official rules to enforce them. Athletic groups were created and they helped participants develop individual skills and became rapidly professionalized. Professional teams helped nationalism. This was mostly male oriented and drew mass audiences.

Helsinki Accords

This agreement was signed by the U.S, Canada, and all European nations and it recognized the borders that had been established in Europe since the end of World War II, acknowledging the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. It also made it so the powers had to recognize and protect the human rights of their citizens. The next American president, Jimmy Carter, focused on protecting human rights but this policy was limited around the world.

Berlin Conference

This congress was dominated by Bismarck and effectively demolished the Treaty of San Stefan, much to Russia's humiliation. The new Bulgarian state was considerably reduced and the rest of the territory was returned to Ottoman control. The three Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania which had previously been under Ottoman control, were recognized as independent. The other Balkan territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian protection and Austria was allowed to occupy but not annex them. In addition, after this congress the Europeans sought new alliances to safeguard their security in which Russia ended the Three Emperors' League. Bismarck then made an alliance with Austria that was joined by Italy, and the Triple Alliance committed Germany, Austria, and Italy to support the existing political order while providing a defensive alliance against France. At the same time, Bismarck wanted to remain of friendly terms with the Russians and signed the Reinsurance treaty with Russia, created a new Bismarckian system of alliances.

Ottoman Empire Problems

This empire saw their failure in the 17th century. The Turks tried to complete their conquest of the Balkans yet the resistance of Hungarians prevented their success. Sultan Suleiman I brought the turk's back to Europe's attention and their defeat at Lepanto allowed for them to continue to hold nominal control over the southern shored along the Mediterranean. Although Europeans frequently spoke of new Christian Crusades against the infidel Turks by the 17th century with the Ottomans being treated as any other European power by European rulers seeking alliances and trade concessions. This empire had a highly effective governmental system, yet Ottoman politics degenerated into bloody intrigues as factions fought one another for influence and the throne . A new European coalition pushed them out of Europe and led to their failure.

2nd Industrial Rev. affects on countries

This stage in European history led to population growth due to a rising birthrate and a noticeable decline in death rate. Emigration also became a more common practice due to excess labor, and the urban environment was transformed and improved upon.

Catholic Church and conservatism

This traditional institution was targeted by Bismark in the Kulturkampf who distrusted Catholic loyalty to the new Germany and used strong-arm tactics against the Catholic clergy and institutions.

Treaty of Versailles provisions

This treaty was the most extreme of those at the Paris Peace Conference which was considered harsh by Germany. The Germans were particularly unhappy with the war guilt clause which declared them as responsible for the war and ordered Germany to pay reparations for all the damage to the allied governments and their peoples. The military and territorial provisions forced Germany to reduce its army to 100,000 men, cut back its navy, and eliminate its air force. German territorial losses included the cession of Alsace and Lorraine to France and sections of Prussia to the new Polish State. German land west and as far as 30 miles east of the Rhine was established as a demilitarized zone and stripped of all armaments or fortifications to serve as a barrier against future German military moves westward against France.

Boer war

This war began in 18999 and dragged on until 1902 as the Boers were effective opponent. Due to the Boer's use of guerrilla tactics, the British sustained heavy casualties and immense expenses in securing victory. Almost 450,000 British and imperial forces were needed o defeat 87,000 Boers a a cost of 22,000 British deaths. Mass newspapers in Britain reported on the high casualties, costs, and brutalities against Boer women and children caused public outcry and aroused antiwar sentiment at hoe. Despite Britain's victory, the cost of he Boer war demonstrated hat increased military and monetary investment would be needed to maintain the British empire. British attitudes toward the defeated Boers was conciliatory, as Transvaal and the Orange Free State had representative governments by 1907 and in 1910 the Union of South Africa was created and it became a self governing dominion within the British empire.

Zhenotdel

This was a women's bureau which was created by Alexandra Kollontai and was a part of the communist party. This bureau sent men and women to all parts of the Russian Empire to explain the new social order, and members were especially eager to help women with matters of divorce and women's rights. In the Eastern provinces, several members were brutally murdered by angry males who objected to any kind of liberation for their wives and daughters. To Kollontai's disappointment, many of these Communist social reforms were later undone as the Communists came to face more pressing matters.

Marriage and domesticity

Throughout most of the 19th century, marriage was viewed as the only honorable and available career for most women and this class glorified domesticity and saw marriage as a matter of economic necessity. The lack of meaningful work and lower waged made it difficult for single women to earn a living and there was an increase in marriage rates.

"waning of liberalism"

Trade unions began to advocate more radical change of the economic system which led to the decline of this political belief, as they were forced to adopt significant social reforms due to the presence of trade unions and the labour party.

New trade relations

Trade within Europe erupted, although colonial trade emerged as colonies were seen as valuable sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods. Mercantilism theory on the role of colonies was matched in practice by European overseas expansion. Although trade within Europe still dominated total trade, overseas trade boomed with African trade producing the greatest profits. Trade between the European states and their colonies increased dramatically and flourishing trade had a significant impact on the European economy, especially visible in the growth of towns and cities. The rise of Atlantic trade added to the prosperity of sea-port cities.

Treaty of Utrecht and Rastadt

Treaties drafted following the War of Spanish succession which confirmed Philip V as the Spanish ruler and initiated a Spanish bourbon hegemony which would last into the 20th century. They also affirmed that the roles of Spain and France were to remain separated. The Spanish Netherlands, Milan, and Naples were given to Austria and the emerging state of Brandenburg-Prussia gained additional territories. The real winner, however, was England which received Gibraltar and French Newfoundland, Hudson bay territory, and Nova Scotia.

Battle of Jena and Auerstadt

Two battles in which Napoleon decisively defeated the Prussian forces in October 1806. The Prussians had initially refused to join the Third Coalition but once Napoleon started to reorganize German states, they reversed course which led to these battles.

Tories v. Whigs

Two political groups that emerged after Parliament tried to pass a bill to bar James from the throne as a professed Catholic during Charles II's rule in England. The first group supported their king, despite their dislike of James as Catholic, because they believed that Parliament shouldn't mess with lawful succession. The second group wanted to exclude James and establish a Protestant king with toleration of dissenters.

Schleswig and Holstein

Two provinces which caused the Danish war and were gained by Austria and Prussia, who formed a joint coalition and caused friction between the two nations.

Vendee, Marseilles, Lyon's reactions

Vendee: A department in France where peasants revolted against the new military draft. It soon became a full-on counterrevolutionary appeal as some people said "long live the king and our good priests. We want our king, our priests, and the old regime." Marseilles: Favored a decentralized republic to free themselves from the ascendancy of Paris. They said that "it is time for the anarchy of a few men of blood to stop". They did not favor breaking up the indivisible republic. Had to surrender during the terror. Lyons: Broke away from the central authority of Paris and wanted a decentralized republic. They did not want to break up the indivisible republic. Ultimately starved out and surrendered during the Terror and many citizens were executed.

Rousseau-backgound, beliefs

Very quiet and antisocial man who did not like to interact with other philosophies and withdrew himself into lengthy periods of solitude. He wrote Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind and believed all humans were equal in their primitive nature and wanted to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority. He was the leader of the romanticism movement and believed that education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts, although he himself did not allow that for his own children.

Sanitation and hygienic methods

Virchow and Nemann saw filthy living conditions as the primary cause of epidemic disease and urged sanitary reforms to correct the problem. Urban medical officers and building inspectors were authorized to inspect dwellings for public health hazards and new building regulations made it more difficult for private contractors to build shoddy housing. The Public Health act of 1875 prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water, a key idea to he public health which was done by a system of dams and reservoirs and regular private baths and later electric heaters. The treatment of wastewater was improved by underground pipes and new sewage systems.

Opium war

War between the UK and China (1839-42) in which the UK wanted to secure economic benefits in China but China wanted to stop the UK from smuggling opium into China. The Treaty of Nanjing ended this conflict.

consumer society

Western society that emerged after world War II as the working classes adopted the consumption patterns of the middle class and payment plans, credit cards, and easy credit made consumer goods such as appliances and automobiles affordable.

Four Humors

What pre-plague medicine was based on. It was a Classical Greek theory and each connected to a particular organ: blood (from the heart), phlegm (from the brain), yellow bile (from the liver), and black bile (from the spleen). Each corresponded in turn to the four elemental qualities of the universe- air (blood), water (phlegm), fire (yellow bile), earth (black bile). A human being was thought to be a microcosm of the cosmos. Good health resulted from a perfect balance of these and sickness meant that they were out of balance. The task of medieval physicians was to restore a balance using remedies such as rest, diet, herbal medicines, or bloodletting.

U.S role in WWI

While the U.S initially attempted to remain neutral, they were forced to intervene after the German's used unrestricted submarine warfare and sunk the Lusitania which had over one hundred Americans on board. On April 6, 2017, the U.S. entered into the war and while American troops did not arrive in Europe in large numbers until the following year, the entrance of the U.S into the war in 1917 gave the allied powers the psychological boost when they needed it. Allied offensives on the western front had been defeated, and the Italian armies were smashed. The U.S fought one major campaign called Meuse Argonne offensive. Following the end of the War they encouraged Self Determination and ordered that lasting peace be achieved by not punishing Germany too harshly.

new jobs for women

Women had enhanced employment opportunities and were able to work to better their families, although they were often exploited and forced to work in sweat-shops which had horrible conditions and horrible pay.

Women-in the medical field

Women took roles in medical schools and created clinics or became nurses. Women such as Elizabeth Blackwell achieved breakthrough's for women in medicine and while they were not always able to access medical schools or find job opportunities in the medical field, by the 1980s this policy changed.

expansionism goals

Worked to expand industries and cities which led to more political participation and growing sentiment for reforms which would produce greater democratization. Conservatives wanted to broke this movement as they believed it would divert people from further democratization.

The Social Contract

Written by Rousseau, tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority and believed social contract was an agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will, and if an individual chose to follow their general interest they were abiding against they would be compelled to abide by the general will. Since the general will represented the community, individuals would do what is best and adhere to the laws. True freedom is adherence to the laws that one has imposed on himself.

Carnival

____________ was celebrated in the weeks leading up to the beginning of lent which was a time of great indulgence in which people had hearty consumption of food, articularly meat and other delicacies, as well as heavy drinking. Songs with double meanings could be sung at this time and it was a time of free agression.

querelles des femmes

a centuries long debate on the nature and value of women; male opinions carried on from medieval values, women portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and sexually insatiable; difference in anatomy; reaffirmed traditional views about women

Hanseatic League

a commercial and military association formed by North German coastal towns which had more than 80 cities belonging to it and established settlements and commercial bases in many cities in England and northern Europe, including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They had a monopoly for almost 200 years on timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, and wines. Flanders became the economic crossroads of Europe in the 14th century and served as a meeting place between merchants and the Flanders fleet of Venice. They were unable to compete with the developing larger territorial states, yet they allowed for a dramatic trade recovery.

reason of state

a concept that emerged in the 18th century that was on the basis that a ruler, such as Frederick II, and a minister, such as William Pitt the Elder, looked beyond dynastic interests to the long-term future of their states.

Szlachta

a legally privileged noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Samogitia and the Zaporozhian Host.

july monarchy

a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I, starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the conservative government of Charles X and the House of Bourbon.

War of Polish Succession

a major European war sparked by a Polish civil war over the succession to Augustus II, which the other European powers widened in pursuit of their own national interests.

feminism

a modern movement working to ensure the rights of women, Mary Wollstonecraft is viewed as the modern founder of this movement.

populism

a movement formed by Russian students and intellectuals who followed Herzen's ideas. This movement's aim was to create a new society through the revolutionary acts of the peasants. However, the peasant's disinterest in these revolutionary ideas led to some of these revolutionists to resort to violent means to overthrow the tsarist autocracy.

Pietism

a movement in Germany that was a response to a desire for a deeper personal devotion to God. Started by a group of German clerics who wished their religion would be more personal. Spread by Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf.

agricultural revolution

a movement in the 18th century in which change were made in farming and stock breeding that led to a significant increase in food production. This movement occurred in Britain and allowed for more people to be fed at lower prices for less labor.

"National debt"

a notion created by the Bank of England and the London financial community which was a public debt, separate from the monarch's personal debt. This process meant that capital for financing larger armies and other government undertakings could be raised in ever-greater quantities.

Empyrean Heaven

a part of geocentric conception; beyond the tenth sphere was the location of God and all the saved souls.

Eurocommunism

a political system advocated by some communist parties in western European countries, stressing independence from the former Soviet Communist Party and preservation of many elements of Western liberal democracy. This was especially advocated by Italian communists.

james watt

a scottish engineer who created an engine powered by steam that could pump water from mines three times as quickly as the previous engines. In 1782 he developed a rotary engine that could turn a shaft and drive machinery, which allowed for steam power to be applied to spinning and weaving cotton. Because steam engines were powered by coal they did not need to be located near rivers and thu added to the flexibility of location.

Nation-state

a sovereign state whose citizens or subjects are relatively homogeneous in factors such as language or common descent.

zemstvos

a system instituted by Alexander II which was a system of local assemblies that provided a moderate degree of self-government. Representatives to these assemblies were to be elected from the noble landowners, townspeople and peasants, but the property based system of voting gave a distinct advantage to the nobles. They were given a limited power to provide public services such as education, famine relief, and road and bridge maintenance and they could levy taxes to pay for these services, but their efforts were frequently disrupted by the bureaucrats, who feared any hint of self government. The hope of liberal nobles and other social reformers was that it could be expanded into a national parliament remained unfilled, bu legal reforms of 1864 proved to be successful.

Patronage

a way for the landed aristocracy to gain support where individual members of the nobility provided paid support in order to gain the favor of the voting class, particularly of Great Britain.

Mandates

acquisitions which were granted during the treaty of Versailles due to Wilson opposing the outright annexation of colonial territories by the allies and a system whereby a nation officially administeres a territory on behalf of the league of nations. However, this system could not hide the fact that the principle of national self-determination at the PPC was largely for Europeans. Examples include France taking control of Lebanon and Syria and Britain receiving Iraq and Palestine.

lord byron

an English nobleman, poet, peer, politician, and leading figure in the Romantic movement. He is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential. Among his best-known works are the lengthy narrative poems Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage as well as the short lyric poem "She Walks in Beauty".

Taille

an annual direct tax usually on land or property without need for approval from the estates-general

cotton industry

an industry which britain had been surging in through the production of cheap cotton goods using the traditional methods of the cottage industry. The development of the flying shuttle sped up the process of weaving on the loom which allowed for outputs to be doubled and thus shortages of yarn, which was solved when James Hargreaves created the spinning jenny to produce large quantities of yarn. Richard Arkwright's water frame machine and Samuel Crompton's mule increased yarn production even more. Edmund Cartwright's power loom allowed weaving of cloth to increase and these new machines greatly enhanced the ability to create finished cotton goods.

Romanticism

an intellectual movement that dominated Europe in the 18th century and placed emphasis on the heart and sentiment. This movement was practiced and spread by Rousseau.

Cult of domesticity

an opinion about women in the 1800s. They believed that women should stay at home and should not do any work outside of the home. There were four things they believed that women should be, including more religious than men, pure in heart, mind, and body, submissive to their husbands, and staying at home.

Upper classes-role in 2nd IR

aristocrats merged with the most successful bankers, industrialists, and merchants to form a new elite. A wealthy group of plutocrats were created by the industrial revolution and they invested in infrastructure projects. Gradually, the greatest fortunes shifted into the hands of the upper middle class and the aristocrats and plutocrats fused as the wealthy upper middle class purchased landed estates and common bonds were formed. marriage also served to unite the two groups.

trade unions and labor unions

associations that were formed by skilled workers in a number of new industries, including the cotton spinners, ironworkers, coal miners, and shipwrights. These groups served two purposes, the first being to preserve their own workers' position by limiting entry into their trade and the other was to gain benefits from the employers. They favored a working-class struggle against employers but only to win improvement for the members of their own trade.

the great insaturation

bacon

historical and critical dictionary

bayle

Scientific Revolution

brought dissolution of medieval ideas; new scientific figures and ideas; educated Europeans took interest in the world around them since it was "God's Handiwork".

the progress of the human mind

condorcet

travels

cook

on the revolutions of the heavenly spears

copernicus

system of nature

d'holbach

discourse on method

descartes

Moriscos

descendants of Spain's Muslim population that had converted to Christianity by coercion or by Royal Decree in the early 16th century.

world-machine

developed by Newton; universal law could explain all motion in the universe, secrets of natural world could be known by human investigations, created new cosmology in which world was seen largely in mechanical terms; universe was one huge, regulated, and uniform world machine that operated according to natural laws in absolute time, space, and motion; God was everywhere present; Newton's ___________ operated in time, space, and motion and dominated Western worldview until 20th century.

encyclopedia

diderot

scientific method

established proper means to examine and understand the physical world; Francis Bacon emphasized importance of organized experiments, systematic observations, and to go from particular to general; Descartes emphasized deduction and mathematical logic; Newton merged this rationalism and empiricism to form scientific method.

capital

financial assets or the value of financial assets. England had a ready supply of this ready for investment in the new industrial machines and the factories needed to house them, allowing for Britain's industrialization.

plurality of worlds

fontenelle

dialogue

galileo

the starry messenger

galileo

Working class family values and expectations

hard work was for women and daughters were expected to work until married and childhood ended at 9 or 10 until they became employed. However, family patterns began to change as women could afford to stay at home and there were higher-levels of consumption. They also limited the size of their families and children were viewed as dependents due to new child labor laws and people chose to have fewer children and developed deeper emotional ties with them.

on the motion of the heart and blood

harvey

William Pitt the Younger

he prime minister following Lord Bute who helped to avoid drastic change. He was supported by the merchants, industrial classes, and the king and managed to stay in power. Thanks to his successes, serious reform of the corrupt parliamentary system was avoided for another generation.

treatise on human nature

hume

oath of horatii

jacques-louis david

essay concerning human understanding

locke

observations upon experimental philosophy and grounds of natural philosophy

margaret cavendish

metamorphosis of the insects of surinam

maria marian

a serious proposal to the ladies

mary astell

some reflections upon marriage

mary astell

vindication of the rights of woman

mary wollstonecraft

march revolts / march laws

measures enacted by the Hungarian Diet at Pozsony (modern Bratislava) during the Revolution of 1848 that created a modern national Magyar state. After revolutions had broken out in Paris (Feb. 24, 1848) and in Vienna (March 13), liberal Hungarians, who dominated the lower house of the Diet, sought to avoid radical social revolution by emphasizing reform and national liberation. They also stated that Hungary was to control its own national guard, budget, and foreign policy and that it was to have its own ministry responsible to the Hungarian parliament at Budapest; the parliament was to replace the feudal Diet at Pozsony, and suffrage was to be based on a property qualification. These Laws were constitutionally confirmed by Emperor Ferdinand I and the Hungarian Revolution was legalized. Although Austria denied the validity of the laws after the revolution was defeated, Hungary continued to insist on their legality. Under the 1867 Ausgleich, Hungary received full internal autonomy.

persian letters

montesquieu

the spirit of the laws

montesquieu

Nationalistic spirit in music and composers

nationalism influenced music as Grieg showed Norwegian nationalism in his work such as Peer Gynt Suite which paved the way for a national music style in Norway. Impressionist music followed with Debussy using stylistic idioms and imitating primitive forms to create more genuine feelings.

principia

newton

NGOs

nongovernmental organizations which are important instruments in the cultivation of global perspectives and are often represented at the United Nations and include professional, business, and cooperative organizations; foundations; religious, peace, and disarmament groups; youth and women's organizations; environmental and human rights groups; and research institutes.

pogroms

organized massacres, which occurred primarily in Jewish communities as they were looted and massacred which caused Jewish existence to become precarious and dependant on the favor of territorial rulers.

pensees

pascal

depression

recessions and crises which were a constant part of economic life which occurred from 1873 to 1895 and characterized the economic climate of the time.

Parliamentary reform

reforms were instituted in the British government after the glorious revolution in which parliament gradually gained the upper hand. The king chose ministers himself and helped to guide parliament and parliament had the power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget, and indirectly influence the king's ministries. the parliament was dominated by the aristocracy of the peers and landed gentry and they were both landowners with similar economic interests. The practice of pocket boroughs acquired through patronage and bribery caused corruption in the parliamentary system up until the Hanoverian were elected.

developed nations

rich nations who are located mainly in the Northern hemisphere and include countries such as the united States, Canada, Germany, and Japan, which all have well organized industrial and agricultural systems, advanced technologies, and effective educational systems.

discourse on the origins of the inequality of mankind

rousseau

emile

rousseau

the social contract

rousseau

pamela

samuel richardson

the wealth of nations

smith

ethics demonstrated in the geometrical manner

spinoza

burschenschaften

student societies created by liberal and national movements in the german states which was dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany. Their ideas and their motto "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland", were partly inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn. This group pursued a variety of activities that alarmed German governments and they were eventually closed after the diet of German confederation and the decrees of 1819.

heliocentric conception

sun-centered conception; created by Copernicus that consisted of eight spheres with the sun motionless at the center and spheres of the fixed stars at rest in the eighth sphere; planets revolved around the sun in the order of Mercury, Venus, the earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; moon revolved around earth; what appeared to be motion of sun and stars was actually the daily rotation of earth on an axis.

second republic and legislative assembly

the Republic of France under Napoleon III and his legislative body

Expansionism vs. democratization

the conservatives of landowning forces and representatives of heavy industry tried to block this new movement as they thought it would divert people from further democratization.

Global economy-causes and impacts

the global economy expanded to include the colonial empires as mercantilism theory supported the use of gold and silver and the acquisition of colonies. Colonies were seen as valuable sources of materials and markets for finished goods and they helped to encourage overseas expansion. Although trade within Europe still dominated total trade, overseas trade boomed and the most profitable were the African slaves. During the 18th century, trade between European states and their colonies increased dramatically. Flourishing trade also impacted the European economy and was especially visible in the growth of town and cities, especially port cities due to Atlantic trade.

new markets

the growth of industrial production depended on the development of markets for the sale of manufactured goods and the best foreign markets were heavily saturated which forced Europeans to take a renewed look at their domestic markets. As Europeans were the richest consumers the markets offered abundant possibilities as dramatic population increases led to a rise in nation incomes. The leading industrial nations of Britain and Germany tripled their national incomes and lower transportation costs led to the decline of food and manufactured goods prices. Department stores were established and a new consumer ethic became a critical part of the modern economy.

"home sweet home" concept

the idea that a women's place was in the home and that mothers could afford to stay home to the the wages of husbands and grown children.

high culture

the literary and artistic world of the educated and ruling classes that consisted of a learned world of theologians, scientists, philosophers, intellectuals, poets, and dramatists where Latin was the international language. The landed aristocracy and wealthier upper classes in the city supported their works.

Lord Brute

the new prime minister under George III who replaced William Pitt the Elder. Discontent over the electoral system and the loss of the American colonies led to public criticism of the king. In 1780 the House of Commons affirmed that the influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished. George III managed to avoid drastic change by appointing William Pitt eh Younger.

Purdah

the practice among women in certain Muslim and Hindu societies of living in a separate room or behind a curtain, or of dressing in all-enveloping clothes, in order to stay out of the sight of men or strangers.

globalization

the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.

Estates General

the representative assembly of the three "estates," or orders of the realm: the clergy and nobility—which were privileged minorities—and a Third Estate, which represented the majority of the people.

Hanoverians

the ruling dynasty of England established in 1714 following the death of the last Stuart leader, queen Anne. The crown was offered to the Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover and the first in this dynasty was George I, followed by George II and George III.

panzer division

the tanks, mechanized infantry, and mobile artillery formed the new strike fores that which air force support would lead the Blitzkrieg attack, and each of these divisions consisted of about 300 tanks with accompanying forces and supplies.

popular culture

the written and unwritten lore of the masses, most of which was passed down orally. examples include taverns, carnival, and a variety of other activities for the public based around a sense of community.

"stake in society" in france and britain

those who govern should have something to lose so that they are able to best represent the interests of the society, a theory which was commonly practices in both France and in britain.

on anatomical procedures

vesalius

on the fabric of the human body

vesalius

edipe

voltaire

henriade

voltaire

philosophic letters on the english

voltaire

treatise on toleration

voltaire

balance of power

worked to counterbalance the power of one state by another to prevent any one state from dominating the others.

Hundred Years' War

A war which was cased by Henry III of England relinquishing his claims to all the French territories previously held by the English monarchy except for a small possession called Gascony. A dispute over the right of succession to the French throne also complicated the struggle between the French and the English as Philip IV died without an heir and the closest in line for the throne was Edward II although Edward III also had a claim to the French throne. The immediate cause of the war between France and England was another quarrel over Gascony when Edward III of England refused to do homage for Philip VI for Gascony causing the French to seize it, leading to the war. The was began in a burst of knightly enthusiasm as knights saw battle as an opportunity to demonstrate their fighting abilities although peasant foot soldiers began to take over warfare. The English army included peasants as foot soldiers and relied more heavily on foot soldiers. Edward III's early campaigns in ranch achieved little and the larger French army had no battle plan which led to them being defeated by the English archers. The Battle of Crecy was a French loss, and England Campaigns under the Black Prince caused devastation to French lands. The Treaty of Bretigny was created to end the war yet it wasn't enforced, causing the French to recover their lost lands and ultimately leading to a revival of the war under English Henry V who renewed the war at a time when the French were enduring civil war. At the Battle of Agincourt the French suffered a disastrous defeat and Henry went on to reconquer Normandy and forge an alliance with the duke of Burgundy. The seemingly hopeless French cause fell to Charles the dauphin of France who saved the French monarchy with the help of Joan of Arc. The war ended in a French victory due to the use of the cannon and the death of Englandd's best commanders.

Joan of Arc

A woman born in 1412 to a peasant family from the village of Domremy in Champagne. She was very religious and had visions that told her that her favorite saints commanded her to free France and have the dauphin crowned as king. She went to the dauphin's court in February of 1429 and was allowed to accompany a French army. The French armies were inspired by the faith of this peasant girl and found a new confidence, allowing them to liberate Orleans and change the course of the war. Within weeks, the Loire valley was freed of the English. In July of 1429, the dauphin was crowned a Charles VII. The war reached a decisive turning point. She was captured by the Burgundian allies of the English in 1430 and they wanted to eliminate the "Maid of Orleans" for political reasons so the English handed her over to the Inquisition for witchcraft. Spiritual visions were thought to be inspired by God or the Devil and since she dressed in men's clothing, she was condemned to death as a heretic and burned at the take at 19 years old. At her end, she claimed that her voices came from God and had not deceived her. 25 years later, a church court cleared her charges. The French writer Christine de Pizan called her a feminist hero. In 1920 she was made a saint of the Roman Catholic Church.

Laura Cereta

A woman educated in Latin by her father who defended the ability of women to pursue scholarly pursuits.

Elizabeth Blackwell

A woman who achieved the first major breakthrough for women in medicine. She had been admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake but her perseverance and intelligence won her the respect of her fellow male students, She received her M.D. degree and eventually established a clinic in NYC.

Vera Zasulich

A woman who advocated the use of violence to counteract the violent repression of the tsarist regime. She was the daughter of a poor nobleman and worked as a clerk before joining Land and Freedom, an underground populist organization advocating radical reform. In 1878 she shot and wounded the governor-general of Saint Petersburg. SHe was put on trial and acquitted by a sympathetic jury.

Alexandra Kollontai

A woman who had become a supporter of revolutionary socialism after the Bolshevik's took control of the government in Russia and instituted a number of social reforms, was an exile in Switzerland and took the lead in pushing a Bolshevik program for women's rights and social welfare reforms. As minister of social welfare, she tried to provide health care for women and children by establishing "places for the protection of maternity and children". Between 1918 and 1920 the new regime enacted a series of reforms that made marriage a civil act, legalized divorce, decreed equality of men and women, and permitted abortions. She also was instrumental in establishing a women's bureau, known as the Zhenotdel within the Communist party. This bureau sent men and women to all parts off the Russian empire to explain the new social orders and were encouraged to help women with divorce and women's rights. Many of these members were brutally murdered by angry men, and to her disappointment many of these Communist social reforms were later undone as the Communists came to face more pressing matters, including the survival of the new regime.

Isotta Nogarola

A woman who mastered Latin and wrote numerous letters and treatises which brought her praise from many male intellectuals.

Rosa Luxemburg

A woman who was a more radical member of the German independent socialists who formed the German Communist Party in December 1918 which resulted in two parallel governments being established in Germany, the first being the parliamentary republic proclaimed by the majority Social Democrats and the second being the revolutionary socialist republic declared by the radicals.

Cassandra Fedele

A women who learned both latin and greek from humanist tutors and became prominent in Venice for her public recitations of orations.

Communist Manifesto

A work which started Marxism and was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels which wanted to arouse the working class to revolution and was one of the most influential political treatises in history. The ideas of this work were that throughout history, oppressed and oppressor have stood in constant opposition to each other, in the case of society being the proletariat and the bourgeois. The proletariat would revolutionize society by defeating the bourgeois and establish a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production and ultimately create a classless society which would foster progress in science, technology, industry, and lead to greater wealth for all.

Annotations

A work written by Erasmus which was a detailed commentary on the Vulgate bible which is considered his most outstanding achievement and was used by Martin Luther as the basis for his German translation of the New Testament.

Dante

A writer who came from an old Florentine noble family that had fallen on hard times. He held high political office in republican Florence but a factional conference led to his exile from the city in 1302. He wanted to return for his whole life but never did. He wrote in the Italian vernacular, with his most famous work being 'Divine Comedy' which was a story about the soul's progress to salvation. It was in three sections, each corresponding to a realm of the afterword: hell, purgatory, and heaven or paradise. In the "Inferno" the author is led by his guide, Virgil, a classical author and symbol for human reason. Virgil can only lead the poet so far and at the end of Purgatory, Beatrice, the author's true love and representative of revelation that explains heaven's mysteries, becomes his guide into Paradise. She presents the author to Saint Bernard, a symbol for mystical contemplation. The saint gives him to Virgin Mary since grace must be achieved to enter the presence of God where the greatest love is finally found.

Castiglione, Book of a Courtier

A written work that was a fundamental handbook for aristocrats for centuries after it was published. In it, the author described the 3 basic attributes of the perfect courtier. First, nobles should have fundamental native endowments, such as impeccable character, grace, talents, and noble birth. They must also cultivate certain achievements, primarily he should participate in military and bodily exercises because the principal profession of a courtier was bearing arms. They must also have a Classical education and adorn his life with arts by playing an instrument, drawing, and painting. The Renaissance ideal of the well-developed personality became popular and nobles had to follow a code of conduct in which they were modest but also show their accomplishments with grace. The aim of the perfect noble was to serve his prince in an effective and honest way.

Frederick the Great

AKA Frederick II, one of the best educated and cultured monarchs in existence who invited Voltaire to live at his court. He made few innovations in the administration of the state but made the Prussian bureaucracy known for its efficiency and honesty. He established a single code of laws that eliminated torture except for treason and murder cases and granted limited freedom of speech and press and religious toleration but was too dependant on serfdom to eliminate it. He reserved the bureaucracy for members of the nobility and like his predecessors focused on military use and reform.

Principia

AKA Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy which was written in Latin and demonstrate the universal law of gravitation through a culmination of the theories of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. In this work the basic concepts of mechanics was defined through the three laws of motion and proved that if one universal law was mathematically proven could explain all motion in the universe.

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

AKA Principia which was written in Latin and demonstrate the universal law of gravitation through a culmination of the theories of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. In this work the basic concepts of mechanics was defined through the three laws of motion and proved that if one universal law was mathematically proven could explain all motion in the universe.

Enlightened despotism

AKA enlightened absolutism, included monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria who followed the advice of the philosophies and ruled by enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood.

enlightened absolutism

AKA enlightened despotism, included monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria who followed the advice of the philosophies and ruled by enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood.

"the gutter"

After Prussian delegates from the Frankfurt Assembly asked Frederick William IV of Prussia to become the new Emperor of the unified Germany, he refused and said that the request came from ___________.

Coronation of Napoleon

After being named Consul for life, Napoleon wanted more power so in 1804, he returned France to monarchy when he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I. He grabbed the crown out of the pope's hands and placed it on his own head, showing his arrogance and ignorance.

"bloody june days"

After moderates of the National Assembly closed the national workshops, workers flooded into the streets, causing four days of bloody fighting that ended with the government crushing the revolt and killing thousands and sending four thousand others to the French colony of Algeria in North Africa. Aided by this revolt, the constitution of 1848 was created and Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, was able to take power.

Bismarckian System

After the Congress of Berlin, Bismarck developed a new system of alliances as the Europeans sought new alliances to safeguard their security in which Russia ended the Three Emperors' League. Bismarck then made an alliance with Austria that was joined by Italy, and the Triple Alliance committed Germany, Austria, and Italy to support the existing political order while providing a defensive alliance against France. At the same time, Bismarck wanted to remain of friendly terms with the Russians and signed the Reinsurance treaty with Russia, hoping to prevent a French-Russian alliance that would threaten Germany with the possibility of a two front war. This new system of alliances was geared at preserving peace and the status quo which worked until 1890 when Emperor William III dismissed Bismarck and began to chart a new direction for Germany's foreign policy.

The Rump

After the Presbyterian members of Parliament were purged, this was left. It was made up of 53 members of the House of Commons who tried and condemned Charles I on a charge of treason and had him decapitated, temporarily destroying the English monarchy. Cromwell dispersed it by force when he found it difficult to work with them.

Battle against Russia

After the Russian's defected from the Continental System, Napoleon decided to invade them in 1812. He knew the risks but also knew that if the Russians could challenge the continental system unopposed, others would follow. In June 1812, Napoleon's grand army of over 600,000 men entered Russia, hoping to quickly meet and defeat the Russian armies. The Russians refused to give battle and they retreated hundreds of miles while torching their own villages and countryside to prevent Napoleon's army from finding food and forage. Heat and disease took their toll as well, and the vast Russian territory led many of them into desert. When the Russians finally stopped to fight at Borodino, Napoleon's forces won an indecisive victory. 45,000 Russian troops were killed and 30,000 French were killed with no reinforcements. When the remaining troops of the Grand Army returned to Moscow, the city was ablaze. They lacked food and supplies, resulting in Napoleon abandoning Moscow in late October when he made the "Great Retreat" across Russia in terrible winter conditions. Only 40,000 troops made it back to Poland in January 1813 and this military disaster soon led to a war of liberation all over Europe, later resulting in Napoleon's defeat in April 1814.

Italian states

After the Treaty of Utrecht Austria replaced Spain as the dominant power over _____________. The duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and the kingdom of Naples were surrendered to the Habsburgs and Sicily was given to Savoy, which was slowly emerging as a state. The bourbons of Spain reestablished control over Naples and Sicily, and some ______________ such as Venice and Genoa remained independent.

Italian states

After the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant force here during the eighteenth century. The duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and the kingdom of Naples were all surrendered to the Habsburg emperors but Sicily was given to the northern Italian state of Savoy that was emerging as a state trying to expand. In 1734, the Bourbons of Spain reestablished control over Naples and Sicily. Some of the Italian sates like Venice and Genoa remained independent but they all grew more impotent in international affairs.

Arab-Israeli Conflict

After the United Arab Republic broke up, the dream of Pan-Arabism continued to live on. At a meeting of Arab leaders in Jerusalem, Egypt formed the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to represent the interests of the Palestinians. They believed that only Palestinian peoples had the right to form a Palestinian state. A guerrilla movement called al-Fatah led by the Palestine Liberation Organization's leader Yasir Arafat started to perform terrorist acts on Israeli territory. This conflict intensified in the 1960s. Israel was alone besides the support from the U.S. and a few Western European countries so they used a policy of immediate retaliation against any hostile act by the PLO and its Arab neighbors. Nasser in Egypt stepped up his military activities and made a blockade against Israeli shipping through the Gulf of Aqaba. Israel knew that an attack was imminent so they launched preemptive air strikes against Egypt and many of its Arab neighbors. Israeli warplanes bombed 17 Egyptian airfields and wiped out much of the Egyptian air force. Israeli armies broke the blockade at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba and occupied the Sinai peninsula. Other Israeli forces seized Jordanian territory on the West Bank of the Jordan River, occupied all of Jerusalem, and attacked Syrian military positions in the Golan Heights along the Israeli-Syrian border. It was called the Six-Day War and Israel devastated Nasser's forces and tripled the size of its territory. The new Israel caused more hatred among the Arabs and another million Palestinians now lived in Israel's new borders, mostly on the West Bank.

Treaties of Tilsit

Agreements made by France with Prussia and Russia after Napoleon's victories at Jena and Auerstadt. France and Russia became allies and divided Europe between them, reducing Austria and Prussia to small powers. Alexander I of Russia accepted the reduction of Prussia. Out of the Polish provinces that were detached from Prussia came a new Grand Duchy of Warsaw for the king of Saxony who was allied with Napoleon. The Kingdom of Westphalia in northern Germany was also created. Westphalia was also partly made of former Prussian lands. Napoleon's hegemony in western and central Europe was established. Many countries, including Russia and Prussia, were made to join the Continental System against Britain and the alliance between Russia and France made from this agreement was kept until Russia decided to ignore the Continental System.

Lower Classes-role/change

Almost 80% of Europeans were in this class and many were land holding peasants, agricultural laborers, and sharecroppers, especially in Eastern Europe. Many prosperous, land-owning peasants shared the values of the middle class. Military conscription brought them into contact with the other groups of society and state-run elementary schools forced the children to speak the national dialect and accept their national loyalties. The urban working class consisted of many groups including skilled and unskilled laborers and domestic servants. Urban workers did experience a real betterment in the material conditions of their lives and more consumers allowed for more money for consumer goods and leisure.

L'uomo universale

Also called the universal or renaissance man which was an ideal that developed in Renaissance Italy from Leon Battista Alberti who claimed that a "man can do all things if he will".

October/November Revolution

Also known as the Bolshevik Revolution in which Lenin and the Bolsheviks were falsely accused of trying to overthrow the provisional government. By the end of October the Bolsheviks achieved a slight majority in the Petrograd and Moscow soviets. The number of party members grew from 50,000 to 240,000 and Lenin gained support for his policy. With Leon Trotsky as chairman of the Petrogradsoviet, the Bolsheviks were in a position to seize power in the provisional government. The government quickly collapsed with little bloodshed and Lenin announced the new Soviet government, the Council of People's commissars, with himself at the head. They were able to overthrow the constituent assembly with force and overall created a new government with a number of social changes that ultimately included benefiting the lives and well being of women and the creation of the treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Grand Alliance of 1701

Also known as the League of Augsburg which was composed of Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, and England which led to Louis' third war, the war of the league of Augsburg which was an eight year struggle which brought economic depression and famine to France.

Mass consumption

Amusement parks, dance halls, organized tourist trips, and athletic events became part of this movement, as did the growth of purchasing material goods which was made possible by improvements in the standard of living, the factory system, population growth, expanded transportation systems, urbanization, and the modernization of retailing in which standardized merchandise was sold in large volumes.

Jackson Pollock

An "action painter" who participated in abstract expressionism and painted Lavender Mist, showing paint exploding, enveloping the viewer with emotion and movement. His swirling forms and seemingly chaotic patterns broke all conventions of form and structure. His drip paintings, with their total abstraction, were influential to other artists and he eventually become a celebrity. He was inspired by native American sand painters and painted with canvases on the floor.

Enlightened despotism

An 18th century type of monarchy which took influence from the philosophies and were ruled by enlightenment principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood.

Act of Supremacy

An Act passed by Parliament to complete the break of the Church of England with Rome that declared that the king was "taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England" which meant that the English monarch now controlled the church in all manners of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline.

Treason Act

An Act passed by the Parliament in England during the reign of Henry VIII that made it punishable by death to deny that the king was the supreme head of the church.

public health act

An Act passed in Britain which created the National Board of Health which formed local boards that would establish modern sanitary systems.

W.E.B. Du Bois

An African American educated at Harvard who was the leader of a movement that tried to make all Africans aware of their own cultural heritage.

Nineteenth Amendment

An Amendment to the U.S. constitution that gave women the right to vote in 1920.

Andy Warhol

An American pop artist who began as an advertising illustrator who adapted images from commercial art, such as Campbell's soup cans and photographs of celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe. Derived from mass culture, these works were mass-produced and "of the moment", expressing the fleeting whims of popular culture.

Austrian Peace Society

An Austrian group which was devoted to protesting the growing arms race and was led by Bertha von Suttner.

Silesia

An Austrian territory which was lost to Prussia in the war of Austrian Succession. In preparation to allow for it to return, Maria Theresa rebuilt her army and worked to separate Prussia from France. France abandoned Prussia and allied with Austria and Russia joined the new alliance, leading the the seven years' war. However, this conflict only reaffirmed Frederick's conquest of this well sought-after territory.

john stuart mill

An English philosopher and advocate of liberalism who wrote 'On Liberty' which was a classic statement on liberty of the individual. He argued for "absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects" that must be protected from government censorship and the tyranny of the majority. He expanded the meaning of liberalism by supporting womens' rights. He tried to include women in the voting reform bill of 167 which caused him to publish 'On the Subjection of Women' which he wrote with his wife, Harriet Taylor. he argued that the "legal subordination of one sex to the other" was wrong and that differences between men and women were not due to nature but simply social practices. With equal education, women could achieve as much as men.

Sir Francis Drake

An English pirate who plundered Spanish fleets loaded with gold and silver from Spain's New World empire. He was unofficially hired by Queen Elizabeth to weaken the Spanish.

faraday

An Englishman who discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electricity, although economically efficient generators were not built until the 1870s.

Francis Bacon

An Englishman with few scientific credentials who was a lawyer and lord chancellor who rejected Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. In his work The Great Instatauration, he called to refigure the sciences, arts, and all human knowledge. His scientific method was passed on inductive principles and urged scientists to go from particular to general. He wanted carefully organized experiments and wanted to contribute to the mechanical arts.

Gandhi

An Indian man called "Great Soul" or Mahatma who set up a movement based on nonviolent resistance whose aim was to force the British to improve the lot of the poor and grant independence to India. When the British tried to suppress Indian calls for independence, he called on his followers to follow a peaceful policy of civil disobedience by refusing to obey British regulations. He also began manufacturing his own clothes and dressed in simple dhoti to symbolize his resistance to imports of British textiles.

Matteo Ricci

An Italian Jesuit who participated in conversion efforts in China and recognized Chinese pride in their culture to draw parallels between Christian and Confucian concepts.

Garibaldi and 1,000 Red Shirts

An Italian patriot who supported Young Italy and raised an army of 1,000 Red Shirts to pacify Sicily, where a revolt had broken out. He began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula and Naples and the two Sicilies fell before Cavour entered the scene, thinking he intended to start a civil war. This led to the patriot and his army yielding rather than provoke conflict.

giuseppe mazzini

An Italian who wrote In the Duties of Man which urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the nation. He was the leader of the Risorgimento, you led Young Italy in the revolts in the Italian states. While his invasion was unsuccessful, it did later get renewed in later efforts to liberate Italy.

John Wyclif

An Oxford theologian who was disgusted by clerical corruption and therefore made a far-ranging attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices. He alleged that there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and advocated for the pope to be stripped of authority and property. He believed that the Bible should be a Christians' sole authority and urged that it be available in vernacular languages to be read by all Christians. He rejected all practices not mentioned in Scripture and condemned pilgrimages, veneration of saints, and a series of rituals and rites that were developed in the medieval church. His followers were called Lollards.

Act of Union

An ac which united the English and Irish Parliaments.

Defense of the realm act

An act passed by Britain by the British parliament at the very beginning of the war which allowed the public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors. This act was later extended to authorize public officials to censor newspapers by deleting objectionable material and even to suspend newspaper publication. In France, government authorities had initially been lenient about public opposition to the war, but by 1917 they began to fear that open opposition to the war might weaken the French will to fight and after Georges Clemenceau became premier, the lenient French policies came to an end and basic civil liberties were suppressed for the duration of the war.

Navigation Act of 1651

An act passed by Cromwell which was aimed primarily at the Dutch, required all trade between England and the colonies to be carried in English or colonial vessels, resulting in the Anglo-Dutch War in 1652.

Reform act of 1884

An act passed by Gladstone which gave the right to vote to all men who paid regular rents or taxes and enfranchised agricultural workers.

Test Act of 1673

An act passed by Parliament after the restoration of Charles II in which only Anglicans were able to hold military and civil offices.

coal mines act 1842

An act passed by Parliament that eliminated the employment of boys under ten and women in the mines.

ten hours act 1847

An act passed by Parliament that reduced the workday for children between thirteen and eighteen to ten hours.

reform act of 1867

An act passed by the Tory Disraeli which was an important step toward the democratization of Britain and lowered monetary requirements for voting and enfranchised many male urban workers and the number of voters increased from 1 million to over 2 million and although Disraeli believed that this would benefit the conservatives, industrial workers helped produce a huge liberal victory in 1868.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

An act passed under President Johnson which created the machinery to end segregation and discrimination in the workplace and all public places. A voting rights act the following year allowed for Blacks o have easier access to voting in the South, yet laws alone could not end the civil rights movement.

Solemn League of Covenant

An agreement between the English and Scots by which the Scots agreed to support the English Parliamentarians in their disputes with the royalists and both countries pledged to work for a civil and religious union of England, Scotland, and Ireland under a Presbyterian-parliamentary system.

Pragmatic Sanction

An agreement created by the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI who feared the consequences of the succession of his daughter Maria Theresa. This agreement involved different European powers agreeing to recognize his daughter as his legal heir. After Charles's death, however, this agreement was pushed aside, especially by Frederick II of Prussia, which resulted in the War of Austrian Succession.

"blank check"

An agreement made between Austria and Germany in which Austria-Hungary could rely on Germany's "full support" even if "matters went to the length of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia".

Act of Settlement 1662

An agreement that confirmed William and Mary as monarchs which began the Glorious Revolution.

frederick william iv and frankfurt assembly

An all-German parliament to meet in Frankfurt, the seat of the Germanic Confederation. It aimed to prepare a constitution for a united Germany. It was dominated by middle-class delegated like professors, lawyers, and bureaucrats. There was some controversy as the assembly claimed to be the government for all of Germany. They also could not agree on the composition. of the new German state. Some wanted Grossdeutsh which would include Austria and others wanted a Kleindeutsh which would not include Austria and would make the Prussian king the new emperor of the German state. Austrians withdrew but Frederick William IV of Prussia refused to become the emperor and he sent the delegates home. He said that the request came from the gutter. The Assembly disbanded because they couldn't compel the German states to actually accept their constitutions, making this revolution a failure.

Three Emperors' League

An alliance composed of the traditionally conservative powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. This alliance ultimately collapsed due to the Russian-Austrian rivalry in the Balkans.

Triple Alliance

An alliance made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy which stood opposed to the Triple Entente made up of Great Britain, France, and Russia.

neo-expressionism

An art movement in the 1980s and 90s. Some artists were Anselm Kiefer who combined parts of Abstract Expressionism, collage, and German Expressionism to create stark and haunting works to show the horrors of the Nazi regime. Another was Jean-Michel Basquiat who used graffiti to express himself in New York.

Baroque

An art movement which replaced mannerism and began in Italy before spreading to the rest of Europe. The style was most wholeheartedly embraced by the Catholic reform movement as is evident at the Catholic courts, especially those of the Habsburgs. These artists sought to bring together the classical ideals of renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the 16th century religious revival.It is known for the dramatic effects to heighten emotional intensity. Peter Paul Rubens and Gian Lorenz Bernini were famous for this artistic style.

Rococo

An art style that came into being in the 1730s that affected decoration and architecture in Europe. It emphasized grace and gentle action and rejected strict geometrical patterns for curves such as the wandering lines of natural objects like seashells and flowers. It used interlaced designs colored in gold with delicate contours and graceful curves. It was highly secular and its lightness and charm demonstrated the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love. Antoine Watteau used this style to show aristocratic life with upper-class pleasure and joy with an element of sadness to show fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life. It was also decorative work that was often used with Baroque architecture, such as in Versailles. This dual style was used in palaces and churches, including in Balthasar Neumann's Pilgrimage Church of the Vierzehnheiligen and the Bishop's Palace that were both secular and spiritual and used fanciful ornament, light colors, and elaborate detail.

Michelangelo

An artist of the High Renaissance who was a painter, sculptor, and architect and who was driven by his desire to create. He used passion and energy to make a large number of works. He was influenced by Neoplatonism, especially evident in his figures on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Pope Julius II called this artist into Rome in 1508 and commissioned him to decorate the chapel ceiling which was not finished until 1512. He tried to show the Fall of Man by using 9 scenes from the biblical book of 'Genesis'. His 'Creation of Adam' was a well-proportioned figure of Adam that was an ideal type of human being with perfect proportions. In Neoplatonic fashion, the beauty of these figures is supposed to be a reflection of divine beauty because the more beautiful the body, the more God-like the figure. His huge marble statue commissioned by the Florentine government in 1501 called 'David', finished in 1504, was carved out of a 50-year old unused piece of marble. It was 14-feet high and it was the largest Italian sculpture since the time of Rome. this statue is of an awe-inspiring hero and shows the beauty of the human body and the glory of human beings.

Da Vinci

An artist of the High Renaissance who was part of the transition in the shift to High Renaissance principles. He used 15th century experimental tradition by studying everything and he even dissected human bodies to see how nature worked. He stressed the need to advance beyond realism and initiated the preoccupation with the idealization of nature, or the attempt to generalize from realistic portrayal to an ideal form. His 'Last Supper' was painted in Milan and it showed the trends of organization of space and the use of perspective to depict subjects three-dimensionally. The figure of Philip is idealized and it had profound psychological dimensions. Each apostle reveals his personality and his relationship to Jesus and each person's inner life is revealed through gestures and movement.

Raphael

An artist of the High Renaissance who was regarded as one of Italy's best painters when he was just 25 years old. He was acclaimed for his many Madonnas in which he tried to achieve an ideal of beauty beyond human standards. He is known for his frescoes in the Vatican Palace as well. His work 'School of Athens' reveals a world of balance, harmony, and order which are the underlying principles of the art of the Classical world of Greece and Rome.

Masacio

An artist who created a cycle of frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel which is regarded as the first masterpiece of early renaissance art.

Paolo Uccello

An artist who used figures as stage props to show off his mastery of the laws of perspective.

romanticism-art, literature, religion, poetry, music

An artistic and intellectual movement which challenged the enlightenment's preoccupation with reason in discovering truth. They tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing. Writers emphasized emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings and writers such as Johann von Goethe represented these ideals. Individualism was another characteristic of this movement and saw them rebelling against middle-class conventions. Sentiment and individualism came together with the stress on the heroic. Thomas Carlyle used historical events to show heroes. A historical focus was also present in many works and Gothic literature showed horrifying short stories of the absurd, with authors such as Allen Poe using the unusual in their works. In poetry, they saw it as a direct expression of one's soul and authors such as Shelley portrayed this style along with a love of nature by embodying pantheism. Artists such as Friedrich, Turner, and Delacroz embodied this style of art while composers such as Beethoven, and Berlioz showed this style in music.

Surrealism

An artistic movement that arose between World War I and World War II. The artists portrayed recognizable objects in unrecognizable relationships in order to reveal the world of the unconscious. One artist from this movement was Salvador Dali.

Impressionism

An artistic movement which was the prelude to modern painting which originated in France when a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went to paint nature directly. Their subjects included figures from daily life, street scenes of Paris, and nature and they sought originality and distinction from past artworks. Artists such as Camille Pizarro, Claude Monet, and Berthe Morisot.

The Dawes Plan

An attempt in 1924 to solve the World War I reparations problem that Germany had to pay, which had bedevilled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. The occupation of the Ruhr industrial area by France and Belgium contributed to the hyperinflation crisis in Germany, partially because of its disabling effect on the German economy. The plan provided for an end to the Allied occupation, and a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations. Because the Plan resolved a serious international crisis, Dawes shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925 for his work. It was an interim measure and proved unworkable. The Young Plan was adopted in 1929 to replace it

charles fourier

An early socialist who proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries which were self-contained cooperatives, each consisting ideally of 1,620 people. Communally housed, the inhabitants would live and work together for their mutual benefit. Work assignments would be rotated frequently to relieve workers of undesirable tasks. He was unable to gain financial backing for this plan and it remained untested.

Trade deficit vs. trade surplus

An economic condition in which a country's imports exceeds its exports. It represents an outflow of domestic currency to foreign markets. vs. An economic condition in which a countries exports exceeds its imports.

laissez-faire

An economic doctrine that meant "let the people do as they choose" and that advocated for natural economics of supply and demand instead of government interference in the economy. This doctrine opposed mercantilism and was created by Adam Smith.

Cottage industry

An economic system in which capitalist entrepreneurs sold the finished product, made a profit, and used it to manufacture more. The finished product was made from the domestic or putting out system in which the merchant-capitalist entrepreneur bought raw materials, mostly wool and flax, and put them out to rural workers who spun the raw material into yarn and then wove it into cloth on simple looms. This system got this name because spinners and weavers worked in their own cottages. It was a family enterprise because women and children spun while men worked on looms, allowing rural people to supplement their agricultural wages.

domestic system

An economic system that begins with a merchant-capitalist that brought raw materials (usually wool and flax) and put them out to rural workers to spin them into yarn and then woven into cloth. The merchants sold these for a profit then manufactured more. This system was part of the cottage industry because spinners and weavers worked in their cottages. It was a family enterprise since everyone, even women and children, worked to bring income. It was also called the "putting out" system.

"putting out" system

An economic system that begins with a merchant-capitalist that brought raw materials (usually wool and flax) and put them out to rural workers to spin them into yarn and then woven into cloth. The merchants sold these for a profit then manufactured more. This system was part of the cottage industry because spinners and weavers worked in their cottages. It was a family enterprise since everyone, even women and children, worked to bring income. It was also called the domestic system.

Edict of Restitution

An edict issued by Emperor Ferdinand II which prohibited Calvinist worship and restored all property taken by Protestant princes or cities during the past seventy-five years to the Catholic church. However, this sudden growth in power of the Habsburg emperor frightened many German princes leading to the dismissal of Wallenstein.

Edict of Nantes

An edict issued in 1598 which acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the tight to worship in selected placed in every district and allowed them to retain a number of fortified towns for their protection. They also were allowed to enjoy all political privileges, including holding public offices. Although it recognized the rights of the protestant minority and ostensibly the principle of religious toleration, it did so only due to political necessity, not out of conviction.

Balance of power

An eighteenth century concept that was an attempt to counterbalance the power of state by another to prevent any one state from dominating the others. It did not imply a desire for peace, however, as large armies used to defend a state's securit was also often used for offensive purposes.

Uraniborg Castle

An elaborate building created by Tycho Brahe that consisted of a library, observatories, and instruments that were designed for more precise astronomical observations.

cortes

An elected parliamentary assembly which was created by the liberal constitution passed by Ferdinand VII which was dissolved by the king and the members were persecuted, which led a combined group of army officers, upper-middle-class merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt.

Joseph II

An enlightened despot who carried his mother's chief goal of enhancing Habsburg power within the monarchy and Europe. His mother was Maria Theresa. This ruler believed he needed to sweep away anything that stood in the path of reason. He abolished serfdom and tried to give peasants hereditary rights to their holdings. A new penal code was instituted that abrogated the death penalty and established the principle of equality of all before the law. He introduced religious reforms including complete religious toleration and restrictions on the Catholic church. He issued 6,000 decrees and 11,000 laws in his efforts to transform Austria. These reforms alienated nobility by freeing serfs and alienated the church by attacks on the monastic establishment. Even serfs could not comprehend the drastic changes. Trying to rationalize the administration by imposing German as the official bureaucratic language alienated all non-Germans.His successors undid many of his reforms.

"Prides Purge"

An event during the English civil war in which Cromwell and the New Model Army forcibly removed Presbyterian members of Parliament, leaving a Rump Parliament that only consisted of 53-members of the House of Commons.

Cuban Missile Crisis

An event in Cuba during the Cold War in which the Soviet Union decided to station nuclear missiles in Cubaa. The United States didn't want to have nuclear weapons so close to mainland so, when U.S. intelligence learned of a Soviet fleet carrying missiles to Cuba, President Kennedy made a blockade on Cuba to prevent the fleet from making it. This delayed confrontation and allowed both sides to come to a peaceful resolution. Khrushchev agreed to turn back the fleet if Kennedy pledged not to invade Cuba which allowed for the two powers to avoid a nuclear war.

Sinking of Lusitania

An event in which Germans, who were utilizing unrestricted submarine warfare, sunk the passenger liner Lusitania on May 7, 1915 with over 100 American passengers on board which forced the Germans to briefly suspend the use of unrestricted submarine warfare.

"Defenestration of Prague"

An event which occurred during the Bohemian phase of the war in which the protestant nobles rebelled against Ferdinand in May 1618 and proclaimed their resistance by throwing two of the Hapsburg governors and a secretary out of the window o the royal castle in Prague, the seat of the Bohemian government. The Catholic side claimed that their seemingly miraculous escape from death in the 70 foot all from the castle was due to the intercession of the Virgin Mary, while protestants pointed out that they fell into a manure pile. Te result was the Bohemian rebels seized control of Bohemia, deposed Ferdinand, and elected Elector Frederick V as the new replacement, who was also the head of the Protestant union.

Eduard Bernstein

An evolutionary socialist who was a member of the German SPD who wrote Evolutionary Socialism in which he said that the capitalist system had not broken down and the middle class was expanding rather than declining. At the same time the proletariat was sinking lower down. He said the workers must continue to organize in mass political parties and work together to bring about change and evolution by democratic means, not revolution.

Committee of Public Safety

An executive committee created by the National Convention that was initially dominated by Danton. For the first year, the same 12 members were reelected and gave the country leadership that it needed to deal with domestic and foreign crises of 1793. One of the most important members was Maximilien Robespierre. It decreed a universal mobilization of the nation to meet foreign crises which led to the creation of the Republic's army. With the National Convention, this group established the Reign of Terror. It executed many people, including many people in Lyons after they rebelled. It believed that it was temporary until the Republic of Virtue would occur. It established some economic controls such as the Law of General Maximum and the requisition of food supplies for cities. The Law of 14 Frimaire was when this committee sought to centralize the administration of France and to exercise greater control to check the excesses of the Reign of Terror. In 1794, this committee turned against its radical Parisian supporters and executed the leaders of the revolutionary Paris commune. However, this alienated an important group of supporters. An anti-Robespierre coalition ended up guillotining Robespierre which led to the decline of this committee.

Magellan

An explorer who passed through the strait named after him at the southern tip of South America and sailed across the Pacific until he reached the Philippines where he was killed by natives. Although only one of his fleet of five ships was able to complete the return voyage of Spain, his name is still associated with the first known circumnavigation of Earth.

Open door policy

An idea encouraged by American secretary of state John Hay in which one country would not restrict the commerce of the other countries in its sphere of influence.

natural selection

An idea established by Charles Darwin which was presented in the book On the origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection which showed that animals evolved based on their environment.

Predestination

An idea of Calvin's teachings (although Luther also believed in it) that was derived from his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God and that was an "eternal decree" that meant that God had predestined some people to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate). Calvin believed that there were 3 tests to indicate salvation: an open profession of faith, a decent and godly life, and participation in the sacraments of baptism and communion. He did not indicate that worldly success or material wealth was a sign of election. He stressed that there could be no certainty of salvation but some of his followers didn't make this distinction. The psychological effect was to give some later Calvinists a conviction that they were doing God's work on faith, resulting in Calvinism becoming a dynamic and activist faith and later a militant international form of Protestantism.

fundamentalism

An idea that meant the turn to traditional religious values. In Islam, it meant the return to traditional Islamic values, especially in opposition to a perceived weakening of moral values due to corrupting influence of Western ideas and practices. It was also applied to militant Islamic movements after the Iranian Revolution of 1979 like the Taliban in Afghanistan who favored militant action against Western influence.

Rise of racism

An idea which prevailed as Darwin's ideas were used to justify it and the idea of "struggle for existence" was maintained. The combination of nationalism and racism was the most extreme in Germany where the German Volkish thought promoted violent reactions against the Jewish people in the name of the preservation of the Aryan race.

Social Darwinism

An idea whose followers believed that in the struggle between nations, the fit are victorious and survive. Superior races must dominate inferior raced by military force to show how strong and virile they are. As Karl Pearson argues, the path of progress is strewn with the wrecks of nations and the white man must aid the black and yellow who must forever be inferior, as the former must not be higher.

American exceptionalism

An ideology holding the United States as unique among nations in positive or negative connotations, with respect to its ideas of democracy and personal freedom.

nationalism

An ideology of change which arouse out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs which constitutes a "nation" and it becomes the focus of an individuals political loyalty. This ideology rose to prominence after the French revolution and it threatened to upset the existing political order, both internationally and nationally.

liberalism, economic and political

An ideology which became more significant during the industrial revolution. In the economic version, also called classical economics, utilized the concept of laissez-faire, or the belief that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand. Government should not restrain the economic liberty of the individual and should restrict itself to defense of the country, police protection of individuals, and the construction and maintenance of public works. This would bring maximum good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society. This case was made by Malthus and Ricardo. In terms of politics, the beliefs of protection of civil liberties, religious toleration, and a constitutional monarchy or constitutional state was upheld. They also advocated ministerial responsibility which would be a system of checks and balances.

Camille Pissaro

An impressionist painter who founded the impressionist movement and sought to put into their paintings their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature. They sought originality and distinction from past artworks. This artist created The Hermitage at Pontoise.

Claude Monet

An impressionist painter who was especially enchanted with water and painted many pictures in which he attempted to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere, especially evident in Impression, Sunrise. But they also painted scenes from streets and cabarets and where people tended to congregate.

Siege of Vienna 1683

An incident in Austria in which the Ottomans moved into Transylvania and then pushed westward, laying siege to Vienna. A European army led by the Austrians counterattacked and decisively defeated the Ottomans in 1687. The Treat of Karlowitz was the result.

Paris Commune

An independent republican government formed in Paris by the radical republicans after the national assembly. The national assembly decided to crush this body and many working class men and women stepped out to defend it. Louis Michel emerged as a leader of this organization, yet all of these efforts were in vain as government troops massacred thousands of the defenders and caused hatred and repression which split the middle and working classes and made the conditions of women first.

Oratory of Divine Love

An informal group of clergy and laymen in Italy who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of charity. The "philosophy of Christ" was especially appealing to many of them and included a number of cardinals who favored church reform, including Cardinal Ximenes.

legislative corps

An instrument of the French government under Louis Napoleon which gave an appearance of repressive government since its members were elected by universal male suffrage but it could neither affect the budget or initiate legislation.

Friedrich Nietzsche

An intellectual who glorified the irrational and saw Western bourgeoisie society as decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity, primarily because of its excessive emphasis on the rational faculty at the expense of emotions, passions, and instincts and that reason played little role in human life because humans were at the mercy of irrational life forces. He believed that Christianity should shoulder much off the blame for Western civilization's enfeeblement and the "slave morality" of Christianity obliterated the human impulse for life and crushed the human will. He said they must recognize that God is dead and that it was no longer possible to believe in some kind of cosmic order. Eliminating God and Christian morality liberated human beings and made the superman possible. He rejected and condemned political democracy, social reform, and universal suffrage.

Fluyt

An invention created by the Dutch which was a shallow-draft ship of large capacity which enabled the transport of large quantities of cereals, timber, and iron.

george stephenson

An inventor who built engines for locomotives which allowed for the first modern railways. His rocket was used on the first public railway line and went at 16 mph. Within 20 years, these speeds reached 50 pmh.

Stadholder

An official of each province in the Dutch Republic who was responsible for leading the army and maintaining order. William of Orange and her heirs were he leaders in most of the seven provinces and favored the development of a centralized government with themselves as the monarchs.

John Wesley

An ordained Anglican minister who believed that the "gift of God's grace" assured him salvation and led him to become a missionary to the English people who he brought salvation to, despite opposition from the Anglican church that criticized this emotional mysticism or religious enthusiasm as superstitious nonsense. He believed that all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace. He preached to the masses in open fields, appealing to lower classes by neglecting the socially elitist Anglican church. His charismatic preaching often provoked highly charged and violent conversion experiences. After, converts were organized into Methodist societies or chapels in which they could aid each other in doing the good works that he considered a component of salvation. He sought to keep Methodism within the Anglican church but after his death it became a separate sect. Methodism was an important revival off Christianity and proved that the need for spiritual experience was still there in the 18th century search for reason.

National Organization for Women (NOW)

An organization formed by Betty Friedan whose states goal was to 'take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities in truly equal partnership with men".

National Liberation Front (FLN)

An organization formed by a group of Algerian nationalists. This group initiated a guerrilla war to liberate their homeland which resulted in French division over the subject. Charles de Gaulle accepted the inevitable and granted Algerian independence in 1962.

Boxer Rebellion

An outburst of violence against the foreigners which was given to the Chinese who belonged to the secret organization called the Society of Harmonious Fists, whose aim was to push foreigners out of China. They murdered foreign missionaries, Chinese who had converted to Christianity, railroad workers, foreign businessmen, and even the German envoy to Beijing. Response to the killings was immediate and overwhelming and an allied army consisting of British, French, German, Russian, American, and Japanese troops attacked Beijing, restored order, and demanded more concessions from the Chinese government.

Fourteen points

An outline created by Woodrow Wilson submitted to the U.S. Congress in which he justified the enormous military struggle as being fought for a moral cause. Later Wilson created additional steps for a truly just and lasting peace. Wilson's proposals included "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at" instead of secret diplomacy; the reduction of national armaments to a "point consistent with domestic safety" and the self determination of peoples so that "all well-defined national aspirations shall be accorded the utmost satisfaction". He characterized WWI as a people's war waged against "absolutism and militarism" and believed a general association of nations could end the war.

millenarianism

An sector of Anabaptist which developed in Munster and which believed that the world's end was coming and that they would usher in the kingdom of God with Munster as the New Jerusalem.

revolution 1905

An uprising in Russia after their defeat against Japan which led to a middle class calling for liberal institutions and a liberal political system. Nationalities were dissatisfied with their domination by ethnic Russians and peasants were suffering from a lack of land while laborers felt oppressed by their living and working conditions. The breakdown of the food-transport system led to food shortages and a massive procession of workers went to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the tsar and troops opened fire on the peaceful demonstrators, and this "bloody Sunday" incited workers to call strikes and form unions.

edwin chadwick

An urban reformer who worked to eliminate poverty and squalor in metropolitan areas and was the secretary of the Poor Law Commission who work to ind detailed facts about the living conditions of the working classes and summarized his results in his Report on the Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain, which showed the various forms of epidemic, endemic, and other disease were directly caused by atmospheric impurities produced by decomposing animal and vegetable substances, by damp and filth, and close overcrowded dwellings. He was advocating a system of modern sanitary reforms. Many middle-class citizens were willing to support the public health reforms due to a fear of cholera.

Women's Liberation Movement

Another name for a new movement for the liberation of women which was renewed in the 1960s as prominent individuals such as Friedan contributed to working to gain equality with men in social and political sectors.

revisionists

Another name for evolutionary socialism which advocated for gradual reform over time. One of the leading members of this party was Eduard Bernstein and they wanted evolution by democratic means rather than revolution.

"politics of reality"

Another name for realpolitik, a political stance based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations with the intent of bettering the state. Bismarck practices this stance.

War guilt cause

Article 231 in the treaty of Versailles which made the Germans particularly unhappy. This clause declared Germany (and Austria) responsible for starting the war and ordered Germany to pay reparations for all the damage to which the Allied governments and their people were subjected as a result of the war "imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.

"exploding diet"

As a result of liberum veto, or a rule obeyed in the central diet (the major meeting of all the governments) which required for any action to occur there be a unanimous agreement. Should a person announce an unalterable opposition to any action, they could force the diet to disband. Through this process, a diet could be forced to disband.

guest workers

As the economies of Western Europe revives, a severe labor shortage encouraged them to rely on foreign workers. Government and business actively recruited so-called guest workers to staff essential jobs. Groups of Turks and eastern and southern Europeans came to Germany, North Africans to France, and people from the Caribbean, India, and Pakistan to Great Britain. There were probably 15 million guest workers in Europe. Although these workers were recruited or economic reasons, they often found themselves unwelcome socially and politically. Foreign workers complained that they received lower wages and inferior social benefits and there was unemployment and legislation to restrict new immigration.

Austria's "international" characteristics

Austria under Leopold I used an army to challenge the Ottomans who were attempting to move into the Austrian Empire. Austria gained many new territories by defeating the Ottomans, in the War of Spanish succession, and with previous possessions. Austria focused more on foreign affairs than on domestic issues that they faced such as the nationality problem, however.

Medieval philosophy- "deductive"

Avoiding the use of reason and logic and merely basing conclusions off of observations and similar inferences and generalizations. Often on par with superstition and religion.

squadristi

Bands of armed fascists that were formed in 1920 and 1921 to loosely attack Socialist offices and newspapers. World War I veterans and students were attracted to these groups because of the use of unrestrained violence. Mussolini gained respect for his free hand with this group, allowing for the fascists to take power in Italy.

joint-stock investment bank

Banks which were encouraged by the government and which were crucial to continental industrial development because they mobilized enormous capital resources for investment and were important in the promotion of railway construction.

Neo-Platonism

Based on the ideas of Marsilio Ficino who was one of the leaders of the Florentine Platonic Academy which waas an informal discussion group interested in the work of Plato. Cosimo de' Medici commissioned a translation of Plato's dialogues from Ficino and in two major works, Ficino undertook the synthesis of Christianity and Platonism into 1 system. It was based on 2 ideas- Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love. The hierarchy of substances was the great chain of being. Lowest form of physical matter (plants) to the purest spirit (God). Humans had a central position They were a link between the material world (through the body) and the spiritual world (through the soul) and their highest duty was to ascend toward that union with God that was the true end to human existence. His theory of Platonic love was that all people were bound together in their common humanity by love and all parts of the universe are held together by bonds of sympathetic love.

"new women"

Bertha von Suttner was an example of this as they renounced traditional feminine roles and wanted new freedoms outside of the household. Maria Montessor was a good example of this as she attended medical schools and devised new teaching technologies for disabled children and established a system of childhood education based on natural and spontaneous activities and embodied some of these freedoms.

Birthrates and birth control

Birthrates dropped significantly due to a decline in the average fertility rate and the invention of condoms as well as a change in attitude which led to limiting he number of children as well as the growth of infanticide and abortion or even abandonment. Authorities prosecuted those who were depraving public morals but were unable to stop them and there were birth clinics formed as well as "family planning" services.

Bismarck vs. Social Democrats

Bismarck persecuted this group after they elected 12 deputies to the Reichstag and he believed that their antinationalistic and anticapitlistic and antimonarchial stance represented a danger to the empire and he wanted social welfare legislation to pass laws which established sickness, accident, and stability benefits.

Challenges to liberalism

Bismarck practiced realpolitik and abandoned to attack on Catholicism, leaving this group without his support and to the persecution of socialists.

"Blut en Eisen"

Bismarck's Blood and Iron Speech. The speech focused on trying to convince Prussian liberals to reorganize the army.

Bismarck vs. Wilhelm II

Bismarck- the Prussian chancellor under Wilhelm II who practiced realpolitik and had an active role in foreign politics. He helped to unify Germany and launched attacks on numerous groups on society, including the Catholic Church, the socialists, and other groups. Wilhelm II was the Prussian King who allowed for Bismarck to dominate until he dismissed him so he could pursue his own policies.

Four phases of the war

Bohemian Phase- Bohemian estates accepted Habsburg archduke Ferdinand as their king but grew unhappy, he wanted to re-Catholocize Bohemia and strengthen royal power which led to the defenestration of Prague in which the Calvinists were able to seize control of Bohemia and depose Ferdinand, replacing him with Frederick V. The Danish Phase- King Christian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran, intervened on behalf of the Protestants by leading an army into Northern Germany and he made an alliance with the United Provinces and also wanted to gain possession of some Catholic territories in Northern Germany to benefit his family. Ferdinand gained a new commander called Brecht con Wallenstein who defeated a protestant army and ultimate allowed for imperial victories. The edict of restitution was issued, banning Calvinist worship and restoring all catholic property to their original owners. The Swedish Phase- Religious issues were losing significance, the Catholic French were supporting the Protestant Swedes against the Catholic Hamburgs of Germany and Spain. The Battle of Rocroi was decisive as the French beat the Spanish and brought an end to Spanish military greatness, and allowing for the treaty of Westphalia, officially providing an end to the war.

The "45"

Bonnie Prince Charlie assembled troops and supporters made up of the Jacobites and made it nearly to London before being stopped.

why britain?

Britain was the first nation to industrialize because it had the necessary factors in terms of geography, prior economic accomplishments, markets, and politics. The agricultural revolution of the 18th century set up the framework for the industrial revolution in Britain. New changes in methods of farming and stock breeding led to an increase in food production, allowing for greater yields of food for less labor and less costs. Because of this, British families did not have to spend their entire income on food and were able to purchase manufactured goods, and rapid population growth provided a surplus of labor which could support the growing industry. In addition, Britain's geography left it with shorter transportation times as well as an abundance of natural resources to be used in new markets. There were large supplies of iron and coal which were crucial to the manufacturing process and Britain's size made it so these resources only had to be transported short distances. In terms of politics, liberal minded individuals who favored a laissez-faire policy which promoted industrialization were in charge of England which allowed for industrialization to prosper. New markets such as the cotton industry, which was one of the most profitable industries, iron industry, and textiles allowed for Britain to rise as an economic power. In addition, advances in these industries were made, especially in the cotton industry, which promoted further innovation and industrialization. New machines such as the water frame, power loom, spinning jenny, and flying shuttle allowed for the process of textile manufacturing to rapidly increase, and in turn drove innovation in travel, such as through the steam engine, and in the availability of railroads which greatly advanced trade, travel, and overall industrialization in Britain.

Liberals in Britain and Germany

Britain- The Liberals had previously been in power in Britain but the First World War interrupted any further electoral advance for the liberals who were forced to join with the labour party and still unable to advance politically. Germany- Liberal political party of the North German Confederation and the German Empire, which flourished between 1867 and 1918. During the Prussian-led unification of Germany, it became the dominant party in the Reichstag parliament.

Battle of Somme

British campaigns in 1916 in which senseless trench warfare became evident. The plan of the generals in all trench warfare battles was to break through enemy lines by throwing men against the lines that were first damaged by artillery. Then, it was thought that war movement could commence. First, artillery barrage would occur to flatten the barbed wire and shock the enemy, then masses of soldiers would use bayonets and try to make it to enemy trenches, but they were usually mowed down by machine guns, causing huge loss of life.

Battle of Ypres

British campaigns in 1916 in which the British were searching for the elusive breakthrough by crossing no-man's land and ultimately showing the senselessness of trench warfare.

bobbies

British police who formed after the local constables failed at keeping order, preventing crimes, and apprehending criminals which resulted in this new approach. These uniformed police officers received their name after Sir Robert Peel, who made the legislation that formed the force. The goal of the police was to prevent crime but they also imposed order on the working-class urban inhabitants. On Sundays, they cleaned up after drinking bouts. They began to develop a sense of professionalism as demands for better pay and treatment led to improved working conditions.

Entrepreneur

Businessmen who organize, operate, and assume the risk in a business venture in the expectation of making a profit.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Came from a family of musicians and was an organist and music director in small german courts before becoming the director of church music at the Church of Saint Thomas in Leipzig. He is called one of the greatest composers of all time and music was his means to worship God.

Countries' statistics and results of WWI

Casualties during WWI: Russia- 1,700,000, Germany-1,700,000, France- 1,300,000, Austria- 1,200,000, Italy- 650,000, Romania- 335,000, Turkey- 325,000, USA- 126,000, Belgium- 13,800, Japan-300

Great Depression causes/effects

Causes- Downturn in domestic economies and an international financial crisis caused by the collapse of the American stock market in 1929. Prices for agricultural goods rapidly declined due to overproduction. Farmers in Argentina, Australia, Canada, and the U.S. expanded food production during the war to meet demands but they did not curtail production after the war. New tariffs were imposed which closed markets to foreign goods and the coal industry declined due to greater use of oil and hydroelectricity. A lot of Europe's prosperity was also due to American bank loans to Germany, but the Americans pulled money out to invest in the New York Stock market. This stock market crashed which cause a greater withdrawal of funds that weakened Germany's banks. The Credit-Anstalt, Vienna's most prestigious bank, collapsed. Trade slowed down, industrialists cut back production, and unemployment became a bigger problem. Effects- 25% of British were unemployed and 40% of Germans were unemployed. Industrial production plummeted almost 50% in the United States and almost the same in Germany. This led to huge numbers of unemployed and homeless filling the streets. Women also kept low-paying jobs as servants, house cleaners, and laundresses and men stayed unemployed. They often joined gangs and incited fear in residents in the areas they lived in. Traditional liberal remedies for depression like balances budgets of lowering wages and raising tariffs made matters worse. Marxism got more popular and some people even turned to fascism.

War campaigns for Cavour and Bismarck

Cavour- War with Austrians through an alliance with the French in which Piedmont would be extended into upper Italy by adding Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part of the Papal States and France would receive nice and Savor and a kingdom of Central Italy which would b ruled for Prince Napoleon. In the initial stages of fighting the French defeated the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino and made peace without informing Italy, as Prussia was mobilizing which led to many northern Italian states being liberated and hostilities between the French and Italians. Bismarck- Guided Prussia's unification of Germany and reorganized the army despite not having parliament's permission. He waged three wars, the first being the Danish War which arouse over Schleswig and Holstein as Austria and Prussia declared war on Denmark and agreed to divide the two duchies, however this joint-union caused tensions between Prussia and Austria. His second war was the Austro-Prussian war where Russia agreed to remain neutral and Bismarck bought Napoleon III's neutrality. He used Schleswig-Holstein to launch a war and the Austrian war was a turning point in Prussian domestic affairs as he worked to combine nationalism and authoritarian government. He showed that liberalism and nationalism could be separated. His final war was the Franco-Prussian war which led to Prussia dominating northern Germany and Napoleon III was in need of diplomatic victory. After Spain was offered to Leopold, a Hohenzollern, the French demanded his to recede and to apologize leading to the war through a telegram and led o war in which Prussia advanced and defeated the French, causing the collapse of the second French empire and making them give up Alsace-Lorraine to the German state.

Natural Rights

Certain inalienable rights to which all people are entitled, including the right to life, liberty, and property; freedom of speech and religion; and equality before the law.

challenges within the empire

Challenges to the Austrian-Hungarian empire included minorities in the nationalities problem, Francis Joseph ignoring ministerial responsibility, and Magyarization.

Portolani

Charts made by medieval navigators and mathematicians in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries that were more useful than old medieval maps. These charts had details on coastal contours, distances between ports, and compass readings. They were drawn on a flat scale, hover, which made it more useless for longer overseas voyages so they were mainly used for trips on European seas.

Janissaries

Christian boys who were taken from their parents, converted to the Muslim faith, and subjected to rigid military discipline to form an elite core of 8,000 troops that were personally loyal to the sultan in the Ottoman Empire.

Christian Socialists vs. Marxist party

Christian socialists- a group in Austria-Hungary which was a nationalistic socialist party who combined agitation for workers with antisemitism. Marxist party- made up of the social democrats who feared that the autonomy of different nationalities would hinder industrial development and prevent improvements for workers and were heavily nationalist.

Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand

Colonies established by Captain James Cook which started due to the availability of land for grazing sheep and the discovery of gold which led to an influx of settlers who slaughtered many of the native settlements. On January 1, 1910 all the colonies were unified into this group and New Zealand was granted dominion status in 1907.

Tithe

Compulsory services that peasants owed that consisted of 1/3 of their crops. They were intended for parish priests but in France, only 10% of priests received them. Instead, they ended up in the hands of towns and aristocratic landowners.

Middle Classes-role/change

Consisted of a variety of groups including professionals, civil service, industrialists, and merchants and new groups of business managers and new professionals were added to this group. A new class of white-collar workers merged the lower and upper middle class and were committed to middle class ideals and optimistic ideas of improving their status. The moderately prosperous and successful middle class shared a common lifestyle and dominated 19th century society.

national workshops

Cooperative factories run by workers as imagined by Louis Blanc. They were established in France by the provisional government and were part of the reason for the Revolution of 1848. These workshops provided unskilled obs like leaf raking and ditch digging for unemployed workers. The cost of this program was very burdensome on the government. They were closed as the number of unemployed in these workshops went from 10,000 to 120,000, emptying the treasury. Moderates closed the workshops which caused workers to flood into the streets, causing four days of bloody fighting that ended with the government crushing the revolt and killing thousands and sending four thousand others to the French colony of Algeria in North Africa.

Copernicus vs. Kepler

Copernicus believed in heliocentric conception, with the sun motionless at the center and the daily rotation of the earth on its axis. He did not reject Aristotle's principles of the existence of heavenly spheres. Kepler believed the universe was constructed on a basis of geometric figures and that the harmony of the human soul was mirrored in the numerical relationships between the planets. He eliminated the idea of circular motion and believed in elliptical orbits.

Stephen Razin

Cossack leader who led a major uprising against the nobility and tsarist bureaucracy in southern Russia in 1670-1671.

Index of Prohibited Books

Created by Cardinal Caraffa which was a list of books that Catholic were not allowed to read and included all the works of protestant theologians as well as authors considered "unwholesome", including the work of Erasmus.

geocentric conception

Created by Ptolemy; universe was seen as a series of concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless earth at its center, composed of material substances of earth, air, fire, and water and earth was imperfect and constantly changing; spheres surrounding earth made of crystalline transparent substance and moved in circular orbits around the earth.

"Ironsides"

Cromwell's cavalry troops during the English Civil War. They were heavily armored and were successful in the war.

organic evolution

Darwin's idea that all plants and animals had evolved over a long period of time from earlier forms of life. He used influence from Malthus to establish this theory and it was the basic idea of his book. He saw the process of natural selection as guiding this idea.

karlsbad decrees

Decrees drawn up by the diet of the Germanic Confederation on Metternich's orders after a deranged student of the Burschenschaften assassinated a reactionary playwright. These decrees closed the Burshchenschaften, provided censorship of the press and placed the universities under close supervision and control. It maintained a conservative status quo.

Cartesian dualism

Descartes argued that "mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different"; absolute duality between mind and body called ___________.

rationalism

Descartes was the father of this movement; believed human beings could understand the world- itself a mechanical system- by the same rational principles inherent in mathematical thinking; wrote Discourse to emphasize this principle.

Maria Theresa

Due to the pragmatic sanction, this Habsburg was able to inherit the Austrian hereditary possessions. She was the empress of the Austrian empire who was stunned by the loss of Austria Silesia to Prussia in the war of the Austria Succession who resolved to reform her empire in preparation for the seemingly inevitable next conflict with Prussia. She curtailed the role of the diets or provincial assemblies in taxation and local administration. Now clergy and nobles were forced to pay property and income taxes to royal officials rather than the diets. The Austrian and Bohemian lands were divided into en provinces and subdivided into districts, all administered by royal officials rather than representatives of the diets, making Austria more centralized and bureaucratic. However, these reforms were for practical reasons which strengthened the Habsburg state and were accompanied by an enlargement and modernization of the armed forces. She remained staunchly Catholic and conservative and was not open to the wider reforms of the philosophies. However, her successor Joseph II was enlightened. She refused to accept the loss of Silesia and prepared for its return by rebuilding her army while working diplomatically with her foreign minister Wendell von Kaunitz to separate Prussia from France which achieved a diplomatic revolution.

Differences between East and West

East- The East saw a rise in absolutism as the three major powers of Prussia, Austria, and Russia gained power and control. The treaty of Westphalia officially disbanded the German States and destroyed the HRE. Brandenburg-Prussia emerged as a powerful state which focused on military authority and a basis of serfdom with heavy nobility control and emphasis. Austria focused on territorial expansion and was never highly centralized, primarily due to the abundance of different nationalist groups. Finally, Russia grew as a major power. The tsars expanded their territory and were dominated by the nobility and utilized serfdom. Peter the Great used Western influence to gain power and control. West- The West saw a continued rise of major powers such as France and England who preached absolutism. In France, Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin were heavy supporters of the monarch and served as regents to supports the monarch. When Louis XIV assumed control, he continued a policy of war and gained power for France while also embarking on social welfare reforms and a series of public works projects. England experimented with a parliament and utilized a system of cooperation between the monarchy and the parliament to assume control.

Old Believers

Eastern Orthodox Christians who maintain the liturgical and ritual practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church as they existed prior to the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow between 1652 and 1666. Resisting the accommodation of Russian piety to the contemporary forms of Greek Orthodox worship, these Christians were anathematized, together with their ritual, in a Synod of 1666-1667, producing a division in Eastern Europe between the Old Believers and those who followed the state church in its condemnation of the Old Rite.

Economic, social, religious, humanitarian, political motives

Economic- Demand for natural resources and products not found in the West such as rubber, oil, and tin. They wanted direct control of the areas where they were found. Bankers and industrialists also wanted higher rates of profit in under developed areas. Businesses went where it was most profitable, even if it was not where their own country was occupying. Social- White Man's burden was the idea that Europeans had a moral duty to help the natives become more civilized. Religious- Extension of white man's burden as well as the hope to spread the religions. For example, Protestant and Catholic missionaries went abroad to seek converts. Humanitarian- Belief that Europeans where superior meant that they were obligated to impose modern industries and new medicines on the primitive nonwhites. Political- Powers wanted ports and coaling stations for their navies and wanted to keep other powers from getting strongr navies. It was also used for international prestige and gaining worldwide power. It was inspired by nationalism, patriotic fervor, and adventure.

Peter the Great policies-economically, politically, socially, religiously

Economic- To obtain the enormous amounts of money needed for an army and navy, he adopted mercantilism policies to stimulate economic growth and tried to increase exports and develop new industries while exploiting domestic resources. However, his military needs were endless which led to him relying on old taxation systems and imposing additional burdens on the peasants. Political- One of his major priorities was the reorganization of the army an the creation of the navy. He reorganized the central government by creating a senate to supervise administrative machinery of the state while he was away on military campaigns and the senate became a ruling council. Its ineffectiveness led to the creation of colleges, or boards of administrators entrusted with specific functions and Russia was divided into eight provinces. While he hoped to create a "police state" he was unsuccessful. He had all members of the landholding class serve military or civil offices. Social- Provided many benefits to women, as he shattered the seclusion of upper class women and demanded that they remove the traditional veils that covered their faces. He also decreed that social gatherings be held three times a week in the large houses of Saint Petersburg where men and women could mix for conversation, card games, and dancing, and could marry out of their own free will. Religious- He sought to gain control of the Russian orthodox Church and abolished the position of patriarch and created a body called the holy Synod to make decisions for the church with himself as the procurator.

ego vs superego

Ego- the seat of reason and hence the coordinator of the inner life which was governed by the reality principle. Superego- the locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral values that society in general and parents in particular impose don people and forced the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id.

Napoleon's military career -Egyptian campaign, Italian campaign

Egyptian campaign: Napoleon wanted to invade England but did not think that the French could handle that invasion, he proposed to do an indirect strike by taking Egypt and threatening India, a major source of British wealth. However, the British controlled the seas and cut off supplies from Napoleon's army in Egypt. He did not see success in his future so he abandoned his army and returned to Paris, where he participated in the coup d'etat of Brumaire that ended up leading to his gaining of power. Italian Campaign: Napoleon became the commander of the French army in Italy shortly after his marriage. There, he took some poorly disciplined soldiers and turned them into an efficient fighting force. He had many victories and defeated the Austrians and gained peace in 1797. He won the confidence of his men through his charm, energy, and ability to understand complex issues quickly. He was tough with officers but king to soldiers and this allowed him to influence people and win their support. He believed himself to be a military genius who had a "touch for leading, which could not be learned from books, nor by practice."

salons

Elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy where invited philosophes and guests engaged in witty, sparkling conversations centered around the ideas of the philosophes. These rooms brought together writers and artists with aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy bourgeoisie. Women hosted these rooms which allowed them to affect the decisions of the king, saw political opinion, and influence literary and artistic taste. These places were havens for people and views unwelcome in the royal court.

Commonwealth's policies

England became a republic which was also called a commonwealth. Its policies were that it was led by Cromwell although the Parliament was meant to work with him. The Instrument of Government was a written constitution that put executive power in the hands of a Lord Protector, a position held by Cromwell, and legislative power occurred in a new Parliament since Cromwell dismissed the Rump parliament. However, it did not work and Cromwell ended up turning England into a military government.

Parlement

England's law-making body which cooperated with Elizabeth in initiating the religious settlement (thirty-nine articles) in 1559 and also repealed Mary Tudor's Catholic settlement. The new Act of Supremacy passed by this body declared Elizabeth the "only supreme governor of the English realm" as well.

European industry

European cottage industry grew during the 17th century. The cottage industry relied on traditional methods through a family domestic system, or putting out system which was a family enterprise and supplemented agricultural wages. New methods and machines were also introduced, including the water frame, power loom, and mechanized loom which sped up the manufacturing process of cotton while simultaneously and allowing for industrialization to be introduced.

Scramble for Africa

Europeans controlled relatively little of the African continent before 1880, as earlier when their economic interest were more limited they had generally been satisfied to deal with existing independent states rather than attempting to establish direct control over vast territories. For the most part, Western presence in Africa was limited to controlling the regional trade network and establishing a few footholds where the foreigners could carry on trade and missionary activity, yet during the last two decades of the 19th century the quest for colonies became a scramble as all of the major European states engaged in a land grab.

Problems of the Polish government

Faced many problems due to a struggle between the crown and landed nobility. The union of Jagiello and he Polish queen which created a large poland-Lithuanian state. This union created the largest kingdom in Christendom at the beginning of the 15th century and played a major role in eastern Europe in the 15th century ad ruled much of Ukraine. The elective nature of the Polish monarchy reduced is control as the sejm was a two chamber assembly which was unable to meet effectively. Because of this, Poland was basically a confederation of semi-independent estates of landed nobles and also became a battleground of foreign powers, causing it to fail.

scientific societies

First appeared in Italy but those in France and England became the most significant. The English Royal Society evolved out of informal gatherings of scientists and received a formal charter from King Charles II in 1662. The French Royal Academy of Sciences was sponsored by the state and monitored by the state and created a committee to investigate technological improvements for industry and could help to serve the state. these places allowed for cooperation and allowed for ideas to spread more easily.

Gladstone

First liberal administration was responsible for a series of impressive reforms and legislation and government orders opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage, introduced the secret ballot for voting, and abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions. The Education Act of 1870 was introduced and these reforms were typically liberal, eliminating abused and enabling people with talent to compete fairly, thus strengthening the nation and its institutions. During his second ministry he passed the reform act and the redistribution act and gradual reform through parliamentary institutions. Gradual reform failed to solve the problem of Ireland through the Act of Union which united the English and Irish parliaments. He attempted to alleviate Irish discontent through land reform, but they called for home rule and ultimately he created the home bill, leaving the Irish question unsolved.

Breakdown of empires

Five nations, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were defeated and addressed at the Paris Peace Conference. Germany was lost through the war guilty clause and the reparations they were forced to pay and the military and territorial provisions which limited their control. Austria, Germany, Russia, and Hungary were broken up and their territories were dispersed as mandates and created as independent sovereign territories.

Ciompi

Florentine wool workers in the most prominent industry who revolted due to a wage decline which won them some concessions from the municipal government, including the right to form guilds and be represented in the government although these advantages were short lived.

Berlin Airlift

Following the conflict between West and East Berlin, instead of retreating from West Berlin, the U.S. and its allies decided to supply their sectors of the city from the air.

trade unions

Formed by workers to improve their working conditions and attempts to organize the workers did not come until after unions won the right to strike which proved necessary to achieve the worker's goal. These did not develop as quickly on the continent as they had in Britain. In France, this movement was closely tied to socialism and in Germany they were also closely related to political parties.

France's issues-domestically and internationally

France had a variety of problems. Internally they saw a revival of strength yet the monarchy resisted enlightenment reforms. Louis XIV left France with enlarged territories, enormous death, unhappiness, and a five-year-old as his successor. The governing of France fell into the hands of the Duke of Orleans and pulled back from foreign adventures while commerce and trade expanded. The government encouraged the growth of industry and while it was balanced, when Cardinal Fleury died, Louis XV decided to rule alone and his laziness weakened the empire. The seven years' war caused devastating economic losses and burdensome taxes. Finally, Louis XV was succeeded by an incompetent king and caused further devastation to France.

"Big four"

France, Britain, United States, and Italy. France was represented by Georges Clemenceau, Britain by David Lloyd George, U.S. by Woodrow Wilson, and Italy by Vittorio Orlando. While Italy was considered a main power, it had a much less important role than the other countries.

"new monarchies"

France- After the Hundred Years' War, the monarchs used French national feeling toward a common enemy to reestablish monarchical power. Charles VII made a royal army with cavalry and archers. He got the right to levy the taille which was an annual direct tax on land or property without further consent from the Estates-General, taking power from the Estates-General. King Louis XI also strengthened the monarchy by making the taille into a permanent tax and he crushed opposition by Charles the Bold and he added lands to France. These lands were the duchy of Burgundy from Charles the Bold and the provinces of Anjou, Maine, Bar, and Provence. England- After the Hundred Years' War and the War of the Roses, England became stronger and Henry Tudor defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, and he established the new Tudor dynasty. Henry VII was the first Tudor king and he worked to reduce internal dissension and establish a strong monarchical government. He ended the private wars of the nobility by ending livery and maintenance and used trusted nobles to raise troops for specific campaigns, then disbanded them. He made the Court of Star Chamber to control the nobles and he got income from traditional financial resources of the English monarch like the crown lands, judicial fees and fines, and customs duties. He used diplomacy to avoid war and did not have to call Parliament on a regular basis to give him fund. He did not overburden the middle classes with taxes and won their favor, allowing for a stable government. Spain- Ferdinand and Isabella joined together Castille and Aragon with their own parliaments courts, laws, coinage, speech, customs, and political organs. They strengthened the royal government and removed aristocrats from the royal council which supervised local administration and oversaw the implementation of government policies. They filled it with middle-class lawyers. They operated the monarch based on the power of the state. They created a professional royal army and they made a strong infantry force for Spain. They also controlled the Catholic Church by gaining the right to select the most important church officials in Spain and making a Spanish Catholic Church. They also made reform by eliminating immorality among the monks and secular clergy. They also went through the Inquisition to get rid of the Jews and Muslims in Spain.

revolutions of 1848- france, german states, italian states, austrian empire

France: After there was a severe industrial and agricultural depression starting in 1846 workers, middle class, and peasants in France faces hardships and unemployment. The government refused to grant suffrage to the disenfranchised middle class. Louis-Philippe's government continued to refuse to make changes and opposition grew. Radical republicans and socialists joined by the upper middle class under the leadership of Adolphe Thiers agitated for the dismissal of Guizot. They were forbidden by law to have political rallies so they instead used the political banquet to call for reforms. They had around 70 and banned a large one for Paris on February 22, but the government banned it. People came anyway and students and workers made barricades in Paris. Louis-Philippe now proposed reforms but he couldn't form another ministry so he abdicated and fled to Britain. A provisional government was made by moderate and radical republicans, the latter including the socialist Louis Blanc. This provisional governments had a constituent assembly make a new constitution and be elected by universal manhood suffrage. The provisional government also made workshops under Louis Blanc that employed unemployed workers but it was very costly to the government, resulting in a split between moderate republics who were supported by most of France and radical republicans who were supported by the working class. the moderates gained the majority, then monarchs, then radicals in elections for the new National Assembly. After thee number of unemployed in workshops grew, the moderates closed them, causing the Bloody June Days revolt. A new constitution of 1848 was created which established the Second Republic with a unicameral legislature of 750 chosen via universal male suffrage. Charles Louis Napoleon became the new president and later Emperor. German States: News of the French revolution caused a revolt in Germany as revolutionary cries for change made many German rulers promise constitutions, free press, jury trials, and other liberal reforms. In Prussia, King Frederick William IV agreed to abolish censorship, make a new constitution, and work for a united Germany. Many states allowed elections by universal male suffrage for deputies to an all-German parliament to meet in Frankfurt, the seat of the Germanic Confederation. It aimed to prepare a constitution for a united Germany. It was dominated by middle-class delegated like professors, lawyers, and bureaucrats. There was some controversy as the assembly claimed to be the government for all of Germany. They also could not agree on the composition. of the new German state. Some wanted Grossdeutsh which would include Austria and others wanted a Kleindeutsh which would not include Austria and would make the Prussian king the new emperor of the German state. Austrians withdrew but Frederick William IV of Prussia refused to become the emperor and he sent the delegates home. The Assembly soon disbanded because they couldn't compel the German states to actually accept their constitutions, making this revolution a failure. Italian States: Failures from 1830s put the revolution in the hands of Giuseppe Mazzini who founded Young Italy that aimed to create a united Italian republic. He wrote 'The Duties of Man' to influence Italians to dedicate their lives to the Italian nature. Many women, such as Cristina Belgioioso, also worked for Italian unification. The rebellion started in Sicily and then north after many rulers granted constitutions. Citizens in Lombardy and Venetia also rebelled against their Austrian leaders. Venetians declared a republic in Venice. The King of Piedmont, Charles Albert, took leadership for a war of liberation from Austria. He had an unsuccessful invasion of Lombardy and Austria reestablished control over Lombardy and Venetia. Counterrevolutionary forces like the French with help of Pope Pius I also hindered the revolts and other Italian rulers retook control. Only Piedmont kept its liberal constitution. Austrian Empire: Hungarian liberals under Louis Kossuth called for a commonwealth. Marches in Buda, Prague, and Vienna led to Metternich's dismissal and revolutionary forces took Vienna and called a constituent assembly to make a liberal constitution. Hungary got its own legislature, a separate national army, and control over its foreign policy and budget. In Bohemia, Czechs also demanded independence. Emperor Ferdinand I and Austrian officials waited for a chance to reestablish control. Divisions between moderate and radical revolutionaries helped as General Alfred Windishcgrattz suppressed Czech rebels in Prague. After a minister for war died in a Viennese mob, Windishgrat attacked Vienna. Ferdinand I abdicated for Francis Joseph I who restored power in Hungary with help from Nicholas I of Russia. The autocratic government was restored, emperor and propertied classes maintained control, and nationalities stayed in the Austrian empire.

empiricism

Francis Bacon wanted more practical rather than pure science, created ___________ which states that knowledge comes primarily from a sensory experience.

"Germanic Liberties"

Freedom of member states of the Holy Roman Empire from the control of the Holy Roman Empire and the emperor, which they fought to continue to have.

Huguenots

French Calvinists who came from all levels of society. Nearly 40-50% of nobles joined this groups including the House of Bourbon. The conversion of so many nobles made this group a potentially dangerous political threat to monarchical power.

Parlements

French provincial law courts who were controlled by Louis XIV which showed how he was able to establish both political and economic control over these courts which were responsible for registering new laws sent to them by the king.

factory acts of 1802, 1819, 1833, 1844, 1867

From 1802 to 1819, there were factory acts passed that limited labor for children between the ages of nine and sixteen to twelve hours a day and forbade the employment of children under nine years old. Laws also stipulated that children must receive instruction in reading and arithmetic during working hours. These acts only applied to cotton mills, not the factories or mines that were worse and they were not well enforced. The factory act of 1833 strengthened earlier labor legislation and included all textile factories. Children age nine to thirteen could only work eight hours a day and children thirteen to eighteen could only work twelve hours. Factory inspectors were appointed to fine any law breakers. There was also a legislation in 18333 that made it so kids from nine to thirteen had to have at least two hours of elementary education during the working day. The factory act of 1844 outlawed excessive working hours for women in textiles and mines. The factory act of 1867 outlawed excessive working hours for women in craft workshops.

George I, II, III

George I- The first Hanoverian king of Great Britain who did not speak English and did not have much familiarity with the British system, allowing for his chief minister to handle parliament. George II-The Hanoverian king who did not have much familiarity with the British system and allowed for his chief minister to handle parliament. Many historians believe that this exercise of ministerial power was an important step in the development o the modern cabinet system in British government. Robert Walpole was the chief minister. George III- A Hanoverian king who dismissed William Pitt the Elder and replaced him with Lord Bute. Discontent over the electoral system and the loss of the American colonies led to public criticism of the king and in 1780 the house of commons affirmed that the influence of the crown had increased and should be diminished, leading to the new prime minister William Pitt the Younger who helped avoid parliamentary change through gaining the support of the merchants, industrial classes, and the king.

Morocco Crisis

German naval presence in Morocco caused dispute between Germany and France and Britain. Germany backed down but only after humiliated France gave them parts of Kamerun.

Political changes in Britain

Great Britain saw reform through the expansion of suffrage as Gladstone passed the reform Act and enfranchised new boroughs and allowed universal male suffrage and the redistribution act eliminated historic boroughs and counties and payed salaries to members of the house of commons which represented the British system of gradual reform through parliamentary institutions.

grossdeutsch vs. kleindeutsch

Grossdeutsh: "Big German". It was a plan proposed at the Frankfurt Assembly for the unification of German states that would also include the German province of Austria. Kleindeutsh: "Small German". It was a plan proposed for the unification of German states at the Frankfurt Assembly that would not include Austria and that would make the Prussian king the emperor of the new German state. This solution was the favorite but Frederick William IV refused to become the emperor.

Shogun and samurai

Groups of individuals in Japan who were the product of Westernization. Before 1868, a shogun was a powerful hereditary military governor assisted by a warrior nobility known as the samurai who had true power in Japan. The emperor's functions were primarily religious and after concessions to the Western nations, anti-foreign sentiment led to a revolt and the restoration of the emperor as the rightful head of the government, causing the Meiji government to come to power.

House of Commons vs. House of Lords

House of Commons- The section of parliament who served as justices of peace in the counties and were made up of the landed gentry, House of Lords- the peers, who sat for life in this group of parliament

revolutions of 1830- france, britain, poland, belgium, italy

In 1830 a series of new revolutions broke out which led to these new reform movements. Supporters of liberalism played a role in the July Revolution in France, but nationalism was the crucial force in three other revolutionary outbursts in 1830. In an effort to create a stronger state on France's northern border, the Congress of Vienna added the Austrian Netherlands to the Dutch Republic and the merger of Catholic Belgium into the Protestant Dutch Republic never sat well with the Belgians, and they rose up against the Dutch and succeeded in convincing the major European powers to accept their independence. The revolutionary scenarios in Italy and Poland were much less successful and Metternich sent Austrian troops to crush the revolts in Italy. Poland also had a nationalist uprising but a lack of support from France and Britain saw the Russians crush the revolt and the Russians established an oppressive military system. In great Britain, new parliamentary elections brought them Whigs to power and the July revolution in France catalyzed change in Great Britain. The Whigs realized that the concessions to reform were superior to revolution and the demands of the wealthy industrial middle class was unable to be ignored, leading to the passing of the reform act of 1832 which recognized the changed of the British industrial revolution and saw the industrial class added to the landed interests in Britain. New reform legislation was also introduced and the aristocratic landowning class was the driving force of legislation. The industrialists and manufacturers who were in parliament opposed his legislation and favored economic liberalism. The poor law of 1834 and the corn laws were instituted yet the year ended without major crisis in Britain.

Induldgences

In Christian theology, a practice in which the remission of part or all of the temporal punishment in purgatory due to sin could be granted for charitable contributions and other good deeds. This became a regular practice of the Christian church in the High Middle Ages and their abuse was instrumental in sparking Luther's reform movement.

Parliamentary reform

In England, the king and Parliament shared power although the parliament was gradually gaining the upper hand. The king chose ministers responsible to himself who set policy and guided Parliament which had power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget, and directly influence the king's ministers. The parliament was dominated by a landed aristocracy that were divided into two groups: the peers who sat for life in the House of Lords and the landed gentry who sat in the House of Commons and served as justices in the peace in the counties. Both were landowners with similar economic interests and often intermarried. The deputies to the House of Commons were chosen from boroughs and counties, not by popular voting. Wealthy landed aristocrats gained support by patronage and bribery that resulted in many "pocket boroughs" controlled by one person. For example, the duke of Newcastle controlled representatives from 7 boroughs. Out of 405 borough deputies, about 293 were picked by less than 500 voters. Aristocratic control also extended to county delegates, 2 from each of England's 40 counties. Holders of property worth at least 40 shillings a year could vote but members of landed gentry families were always elected. With the Hanoverian dynasty royal ministers handled Parliament instead so the corrupt Parliamentary system remained.

british economic partners with latin america

In Latin America, Great Britain dominated the economy as British merchants moved in in large numbers while investors poured in the funds, especially in the mining industry. Old trade patterns reemerged and the emphasis on exporting raw materials led to dominion by foreigners.

Industrialization changes and effects in Russia

In the 1890s, Russia experienced a massive surge of state-sponsored industrialization under Sergei Witte who saw industrial growth as crucial to Russia's national strength and believed that railroads were powerful weapons in economic development. He pushed for massive railroad construction and encouraged protective tariffs to help Russian industry and his program was made possible by the rapid growth of a steel and coal industry in Ukraine. New factories also emerged and so did pitiful working conditions. The Marxist Social Democratic party, for example, held a congress and worked to overthrow the tsarist autocracy and establish peasant socialism.

Political democracy

In this, political power of the state is equally shared by the citizens. citizens have the real power to legislate, which can be done through voting. The growth of this form of government was halted after 1894.

natural rights

Inalterable privileges that ought not to be withheld from any person. They included equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble ,hold property, and seek happiness. These rights were summarized in the American Declaration of Independence.

tariffs and cartels

Increasing competition for foreign markets and the growing importance of domestic demand led to a reaction against free trade and these were used to guarantee domestic markets for the products of their own industries. There were also new independent enterprises formed who worked together to control prices and fix production quotas and were the strongest in Germany due to eliminating the "anarchy of competition".

WWI propaganda

Individual governments made active use of this material to arouse enthusiasm for the war. At the beginning, public officials needed to do little to achieve this goal. The British and French, for example, exaggerated German atrocities in Belgium and found their citizens willing to believe these accounts. But as the war dragged on and morale sagged, governments were forced to devise new techniques to stimulate declining enthusiasm.

entrepreneur

Individuals who invested in new industries to find financial and economic reward by receiving return on their investments.

spread of industrialization

Industrialization spread from Great Britain to the Continents and the United State. On the continent, the low countries were still largely agrarian as some of the continental countries experienced developments similar to those of Britain. They achieved population growth, made agricultural improvements, expanded their cottage industries, and witnessed growth in foreign trade. These countries borrowed techniques and practices from the British, although the British tried to prevent it. However, British equipment was being sold abroad and the continent began to achieve technological independence. The government played an important role to bring industrialization and furthered the development by providing the costs for education and using tariffs to further industrialization. The centers of continental industrialization included the cotton industry and the cottage industry and in the United States the industrial revolution saw the initial application of machinery from Great Britain and new products through reduced costs and revolutionized production by slave labor. The need for transportation was necessary in the United States which led to new machines and locomotives.

Balkan Crises and country's roles

Initially, the Balkans was a by-product of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Russia saw the Balkans as the shortest overland route to Constantinople and the Mediterranean. Austria saw the Balkans as fertile ground for Austrian expansion. Although Germany had no interest in the Balkans, Bismarck was fearful of the consequences of a war between Russia and Austria. The Congress of Berlin recognized Balkan territories as independent and places Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian protection. The second Balkan crisis occurred a few years later. The Balkans were a land area which caused conflict between the European nations. The Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909 initiated a chain of events which eventually spun out of control. The Austrians annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina as they saw a large Serbia as a threat to the unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Backed by the Russians, the Serbs prepared themselves for war against Austria. William II intervened and demanded that Russia moves away, and they did.

Philosophes

Intellectuals of the eighteenth century Enlightenment who believed in applying a spirit of rational criticism to all things, including religion and politics, and who focused on improving and enjoying this world, rather than on the afterlife. These intellectuals included Rousseau, Voltaire, Smith, Diderot, and Montesquieu among many others.

Internationalism

Internationalism is a political principle which transcends nationalism and advocates a greater political or economic cooperation among nations and people.

Emancipation Edict

Issued by Alexander II which declared that peasants could now own property, marry as they chose, and bring suits in the law courts. However, the benefits of this edict was limited as the government provided land for the peasants by purchasing it from the landowners, but the landowners often chose to keep the best lands which made it so the Russian peasants had inadequate amounts of arable land.

April Theses

Issued on April 20 by Lenin which presented a blueprint for revolutionary action based on his own version of Marxist theory. He did not think it was necessary for Russia to experience a bourgeois revolution before it could move toward socialism. Instead, Russia could move directly into socialism. He maintained that the soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants were ready-made instruments of power and the Bolsheviks must work toward gaining control of these groups and then use them to overthrow the provisional government. At the same time, they articulated the discontent of the people and promised to end the war.

The "15"

James III wanted to form a league of supporters to take control of the English throne. However, his efforts were unsuccessful.

jazz, blues > rock-and-roll > hip-hop > "grunge" music > "gangsta rap" > pop music

Jazz, blues: Music that started in America and was based off of music from African Americans. It was sultry and used instruments like the saxophone. Rock-and-roll: A movement in music starting in America with singers like Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Elvis Presley from the U.S. and the Beatles from Europe. This music was very popular. Hip-hop: A new music style that developed in New York City. It included break dancing, graffiti art, and new styles of language and fashion. It also included the growth of rap who rose awareness about social conditions in American cities. Grunge music: A style of music in response to the excesses of the Reagan Era. It included bands like Nirvana, Sonic Youth, and Pearl Jam who reflected disillusion and angst. They wore ripped jeans and weathered flannel attire to protest the excesses of capitalism. Gangsta Rap: Rappers like Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg made this offshoot of hip-hop with raw lyric praising violence and drugs. Pop Music: An art movement following gansta rap that was popular among teens and preteens with lighthearted music such as the work of Ricky Martin and Britney Spears.

New jobs

Jobs that women took when men left them to fight in the war that were thought to be "beyond the capacity of women". This included chimney sweeps, truck drivers, farm laborers, and jobs in heavy industry. Many males resisted the entrance of women into these jobs because women were payed less and it was said to depress the men's wages. This resulted in a minimum wage law in France in 1915 for textiles. It was also decreed that men and women should get equal pay for piecework. Still, women were paid less for the same jobs as men.