AP European History Study Questions (currently ch. 2-20/apmeh)

Who were the SA? (19)

- "sturm abteilung" - Nazi paramilitary forces, or stormtroopers - chief Nazi instrument of terror and intimidation BEFORE the party controlled the government

Description of the Western Front. (18)

- (400 miles between Germany and France) --- Stalemate for 3.5 years until Armistice (ceasefire) in 1918. - trench warfare, barbed wire, poison gas (1915) and tanks (1916), airplanes and zeppelins for reconnaissance (some dogfights in the air but not significant). - Battle of the Marne September 1914 (Stopped the Schlieffen Plan - just!) - Battle of Verdun (Feb-Dec 1916) German attack, French held, 700,000 dead, no advance. - Ludendorff Offensive (spring, summer 1918) German attempt to break through before United States arrived in large numbers, failed.

What year did he declare himself a dynastic emperor? (10)

- 1804, after a bomb threat on his life

What was the Boxer Rebellion? When? (17)

- Boxers = Righteous and Harmonious Society of Fists; attempted to resist Western incursions in China, supported by a section of the Qing court, hated missionaries and thought they represented imperial power, killed thousands of Chinese converts - Rebellion = 3 months in 1900, key moment was when attacks on foreign diplomatic missions for 3 months lead to Western troops seizing Beijing in 1900; set the stage for the collapse of the Qing dynasty

How was the British government organized during WWII? (20)

- British Parliament gave the government emergency powers in 1940 - this measure allowed government to institute compulsory military service, rationing, and economic controls - every British political party joined a national government under Winston Churchill - campaign to reclaim scrap metal perpetuated by everyone working together

Briefly review the Dutch and British involvement in South Africa. (17)

- British captured Cape Town from the Dutch - Great Trek in the 1830s and 1840s, where Afrikaners (Dutch descendants) moved north and east of the cape; migration was key moment in forging of Afrikaner national consciousness; founded states outside British control - conflicts over non-Boer discrimination in Boer - 1899 to 1902 war, British won, put Boer (Dutch) women and children into concentration camps once Boers turned to guerrilla tactics

H.S. Chamberlain (16)

- British-born German philosopher - wrote about political philosophy and natural science - "racialist writer" - advocates for the superiority of the Aryan race

What three colonies did Great Britain control in the early 1800s? (17)

- Canada, Australia, New Zealand (India kinda)

How did Cavour's nationalism differ from the Republican Nationalism of Mazzini and Garibaldi? (14)

- Cavour favored nationalism via a constitutional monarchy, Garibaldi wanted a republic

On the Medici in Florence (Zophy, chapter 4, pp. 62-63): How did Cosimo de Medici legitimize his power in the city of Florence? (2)

- Cosimo de Medici legitimized his power through the commissioning of great art and architecture. Through the creation of art specific to his family, like he and his sons inclusion in the Precession of the Magi, painting them as divine figures and raising them above the other people of success in Florence. Also the creation of great works of architecture and his grand palace really gave his wealth more meaning than the material it was.

Who were the Sea-Beggars? (4)

- Dutch pirates and patriots who fought against the Spanish at sea

Know the BIG 3 of Enlightened Absolutism: Fred2, Joseph2 and Catherine2 the Great. What motivated these three to become 'enlightened'? How 'enlightened' were they, in your opinion? (9)

- Frederick II of Prussia; corresponded with philosophes, gave Voltaire and others places at his court, wrote history/political tracts/literary criticism/music - Joseph II of Austria; continued various initiatives begun by his mother (Maria Teresa), imposed a series of religious, legal and social reforms that contemporaries believe he got from philosophe suggestions - Catherine II of Russia; visited by the likes of Voltaire and Diderot, adept at public relations, wanted to create the image of being an enlightened ruler; read and cited philosophe work, but was doing this so as to appear favorable - Frederick II and Joseph II = actually enlightened, wanted to better their kingdoms - Catherine II only wanted to appear enlightened; selfish goals

When and where were French involved in Asia? (17)

- French Indochina, i.e. Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia - Vietnam partially gained in 1830s and 1840s, Cambodia and Vietnam fully gained in 1880s, Laos in 1896

Why did Garibaldi give up his hope of a republic in order to create a unified nation? (14)

- Garibaldi had to give up his republican ideal in order to get the nation-state that he wanted

What is Smith's view of human social/economic development? What was the legacy of this type of view point in terms of relations between Europe and the rest of the world? (9)

- Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) - best way to pursue economic growth is to allow individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests —> buying for oneself benefits the economy as a whole - "laissez-faire" economic concept - four-stage theory of human society involving hunter/gatherer, pastoral/herding, agricultural, commercial - his outlook allowed Europeans to justify their economic and imperial domination of the world during the following century —> bringing a "higher level of civilization" to those elsewhere

James Joyce and Ulysses (16)

- Irish novelist, short story writer and poet - contributed to the modernist avant-garde and is regarded as extremely influential - Ulysses (1922), parallel to Homer's Odyssey - use of stream of consciousness (like Virginia Woolf)

Russian Revolution 1917 Summary (18)

- Lenin saw opportunity to achieve political alliance between workers and peasants - theme of peace, bread, and land - first coup attempt failed, Trotsky imprisoned and Lenin fled to Finland - Trotsky organized a coup on Nov. 6 1917 on the PG and the Bolsheviks came to rule Russia - Lenin takes Russia out of the war (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) - civil war erupts between the Red and White Armies, Red Russians (Bolsheviks) murder tsar and family in 1918 - Red Army overcame White Army, by 1921 Lenin is in firm power

What were the date, participants and outcome of the Battle of Nations? (10)

- Lepizig, October 1813, ended up in a French defeat by the allied Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia (Spain was also involved)

What year did Italy finally unify as a modern nation? In what sense was the unification not complete, according to some Italians? (14)

- March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy - incomplete; many Italians believed other territories should be added to their nation; most important of these were Venetia and Rome - Venetia gained in 1866, French guarded Rome until 1870

Name specific critiques of Christianity brought by both radical and moderate Enlightenment thinkers. Know Voltaire, Locke, Lessing, Hume, Spinoza and Mendelssohn and what they said on the subject. Let other names go. (9)

- Mendelssohn = main Jewish Enlightenment philosopher, Jewish "Socrates", agreed with Spinoza about entry of Jews, disagreed by thinking that Jews could combine loyalty to Judaism with adherence to rational Enlight. values, wanted to advocate for toleration while keeping the traditional values of Judaism intact - Spinoza = a century before Mendelssohn, advocated for entry of Jews into modern Euro. life, looked to the power of human nature to reconceptualize traditional thought, pro-assimilation and toleration - Lessing = argued for toleration, used Mendelssohn as his model for the character "Nathan the Wise" - Hume = philosopher and historian, known for system of empiricism, skepticism, naturalism

How did Romanticism influence religion? Know John Wesley, Chateaubriand and Schleiermacher. (11)

- Methodism - originated in England as a revolt against rationalism and deism - leader of the Methodist movement = John Wesley - Chateaubriand wrote The Genius of Christianity (1802) to express the sentiments of disapproval in the religious policy of the revolution and in the anticlericalism of the Enlightenment - Schleiermacher published a response to both Lutheran orthodoxy and Enlightenment rationalism; Speeches on Religion to its Cultured Despisers - religion = an intuition or feeling of absolute dependence on an infinite reality - Christianity is the "religion of religions" but all religions are unique in their expression of primal intuition of the infinite in the finite

Impressionists all (16)

- Monet, Manet, Degas, Renoir, Pissarro

Why did Russians pull out of the Treaty of Tilsit? (10)

- Napoleon violated the ToT by annexing Holland, and then his recognition of the French marshal Bernadotte as the future King Charles XIV of Sweden and his marriage to Marie Louise disturbed the Russian tsar - withdrew so that they could begin to plan for war

What was Napoleon's Hundred Days? Outcome? Battle of Waterloo? (10)

- Napoleon was defeated by Wellington with the help of the Prussians in June 1815 (Battle of Waterloo) - Napoleon was exiled for a second time to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821 - Hundred Days = the name for the period of Napoleon's return - French army was still loyal to their former leader, many people in France preferred his rule to that of the Bourbon family - the QA put in an occupation on France and a war indemnity - the Holy Alliance is formed for European rulers to act in accordance with Christian principles - became a symbol of extreme political reaction - HA does not replace QA; QA is renewed in October 1815 in the name of maintaining peace in Europe while pursuing victory over France - Congress of Vienna strove to establish peace and to keep Napoleonic rule from happening again; lead to France accepting the new situation

You do need to remember a rough sketch of Niccolo Machiavelli's biography. Which city did live in? How did his fortunes rise and fall? What is new about his political philosophy as expressed in "The Prince? (2)

- Niccolo Macchiavelli lived in Florence in a minor elite family. He worked in foreign correspondence under Savonarola, so the Medicis exiled him when they regained power. He wrote the Prince in 1513 to outline how to be the ideal leader. This work shifted the focus on virtues only to vice and virtue

Henrik Ibsen and A Doll's House (16)

- Norwegian playwright - "the father of realism" - one of the founders of modernism - A Doll's House (1879), three act play

What was new about Charles Darwin's work? When did these theories become popular? How is Darwin's work a challenge to Christianity and to Deism? (16)

- On the Origin of Species (1859) - Darwin develops natural selection - representing the triumph of naturalistic explanation - acceptance of Darwinism in 1920s-1930s, combined into modern genetics - many European intellectuals leaving the faith, secular and liberal nation-states attacked the church

What was the codename for the German invasion of the USSR. You do need to know month and year of this largest of land invasions in history. (20)

- Operation Barbarossa = German invasion of Russia - June 22, 1941 - almost succeeded but Hitler waited too long before advancing on Leningrad and Moscow, gave Stalin precious time to prepare, and in November/December the USSR annihilated the German army

What new fronts were opened up 1915 - 17? (18)

- Ottoman Empire joined Central Powers (October 1914) - Bulgaria joined Central Powers (1915) - Japan joined Allied Powers (1915) - Italy joined Allied Powers (1915) - Romania joined Allied Powers

How is Castiglione's work, The Courtier, part of the project of the Classical Renaissance? (2)

- Outlines the ideal life for noble men and women

Know that cities finally solved sanitation problems but no need to get names here except: Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch and Joseph Lister (as in Listerine!). (15)

- Pasteur was french, Koch was German, Lister was British - all their discoveries played into the bacterial theory of disease - new modes for government intervention in the lives of citizens

How and why did the Terror end? (10)

- Robespierre's execution in 1794 after being arrested for making a badly-received speech - people feared they would become Robespierre's next victim after the execution of Jacques Danton, who had previously provided heroic national leadership - revolutionaries turn against themselves - Robespierre executes members from the left and the right, extremists (ex. enragés) - Robespierre was identified as one of the internal enemies which he had outlined himself initially

What is Romantic or Gothic literature? Where and when did it start? (11)

- Romantic as a term appeared in English and French lit. as early as the 17th century - literature described by Neoclassical writers as unreal, sentimental, or excessively fanciful - later, term applied to all literature that did not observe classical forms/rules and gave free play to imagination - poetry involved following the influences of the mind PS: Madame de Stäel Describes the New Romantic Lit. of Germany: - daughter of the finance minister to Louis XVI - friend to major French political liberals, critic of Napoleon absolutism - relates Romantic poetry to a new appreciation of Christianity and the Middle Ages - the word romantic has been lately introduced in Germany to designate that kind of poetry which is derived from the songs of the Troubadours, that which owes its birth to the union of chivalry and Christianity - if we do not admit that literature has been divided between paganism/Christianity, north/south, etc., we will never succeed in forming a philosophical judgement of ancient and of modern taste - romance lit. is capable of further improvement because, being rooted in our own soil, that alone can continue to grow and acquire fresh life; it expresses our religion, it recalls our history, its origin is ancient - affirms that Christianity is the source of all modern genius

What was the SS? The Nuremberg Laws? Kristallnacht? (19)

- SS = Hitler's secret police, headed by Heidrich Himmler - Kristallnacht = Night of Broken Glass, November 9, 1938, an unplanned release of rage felt by Germans when a French official was killed by a Jewish teenager --> in 2 days, over 250 synagogues burned, dozens of Jews killed, the morning after it ended 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps - Nuremberg Laws = at the annual rally in 1935, Nazis institutionalized new laws which held many racial theories; excluded Jews from Reich citizenship and banned Jew/"German" relations

How were Salutati and Bruni CIVIC humanists? Select evidence from their biographies to show that you understand what civic humanism was. (2)

- Salutati used his position as the chancellor of Lucca to spread the use of humanism - Salutati used the leadership skills learned from civic humanism in order to help the city handle the Ciompi (Cloth Workers) Revolt of 1378 - Salutati refused to abandon his post during the black plague, cared about the community and wanted to remain a leader - Bruni used his education to become part of the papal chancery in Rome and then the chancellor of Florence - Bruni used intellectual skill to encourage others to become well-read in the classics - Bruni also used eloquence to write a history book about Florence and a patriotic book that praised the city, both of which showed his support for improving the community and informing others about the city's past

At the end of this section on government economic policy, we suddenly get a long paragraph on Irish independence. OK. Be able to define Sein Fein and know what year Ireland declared independence and that is enough. (19)

- Sein Fein: "We Ourselves" or "Ourselves Alone" - name of an Irish political party founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, Irish republican nationalism - declared independence in January 1919

List British colonies in Western Africa. (17)

- Sierra Leone, Gambia, Nigeria, Gold Coast (Ghana)

Describe the nature of the power relationship between HRE Charles V and the German princes of the HRE. What do Turks have to do with this relationship? (3)

- The relationship between the HR Emperor and the princes was giving the princes more power and autonomy so that they were willing to give troops and loyalty to the HRE when they needed to battle threats like the Turks. When the Turks arrived Charles V couldn't order the Princes around because he needed their help because they provided his armies.

Know the story of why and how Henry VIII of England and Cardinal Wolsey created the Act of Supremacy in 1534 and its significance. (3)

- Wolsey was the cardinal whom Henry VIII asked to get a formal papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon because he wanted a male heir to the throne - Wolsey failed in doing this, but instead of being killed was essentially fired.

Obviously, this is a BIG simplification, but what three factors contributed to create an economic depression in Europe? (19)

- a financial crisis stemmed directly from the war and peace settlement; added to a crisis of production and distribution of goods in world market, plus these difficulties became worse because no major European country or the US responded with strong economic leadership to face the challenge of the GD

What was the First International in 1864 and what was its purpose? (15)

- a group of British and French unionists founded the International Working Men's Association in 1864 (known as First International) - membership encompassed a vast array of radical political types, including socialists, anarchists, and Polish nationalists - organization gathered statistics, kept labor groups informed of mutual problems, provided a forum to debate socialist doctrine, etc. - Marxism emerged from this as the most important type of socialism

Bloomsbury Group (16)

- a group of associated English writers, philosophers, artists - founded by Virginia Woolf (fiction writer and essayist) and Vanessa Bell (post-impressionist painter)

Be able to describe Lenin's New Economic Policy and WHY this revolutionary communist pulled back and didn't implement communism! (19)

- a limited revival of capitalism, especially in light industry and agriculture, introduced by Lenin in 1921 to repair the damage inflicted on the Russian economy by the Civil War and War Communism - implementing communism would have been detrimental to Russia's economy; he needed to fix the country before he could revert back to communism

What sort of government did Prussia have after 1850? (14)

- absolute monarchy???

You should know the how the work of the Ursulines, Theatines and Capuchins contributed to the revival of Catholic piety in the 1500s. (3)

- all three were monasteries/nunneries → types of monks/nuns - Ursulines taught girls, Theatines and Capuchins both just taught boys - reassertion of Catholicism because Luther said monasteries weren't Sola Scriptura, places were built to teach children about the importance of these religious facilities - to teach the next generation about Catholicism while building more monasteries

Pages 747 - 750 all concern the Nazi invasions of Austria and Czechoslovakia and the Munich Conference and British leaders' evaluation of the conference (Chamberlain and Churchill). Be able to define 'appeasement' and explain why France and Britain 'appeased' Germany in the 1938 crisis? (20)

- allowing Hitler to expand German territory unchecked - associated with British PM Neville Chamberlain - the policy of making concessions to the dictatorial powers in order to avoid conflict, governed Anglo-French foreign policy during the 1930s - based on the assumption that Germany had real grievances and that Hitler's goals were limited and ultimately acceptable behind this approach was the universal dread of another war; firmer policy would have required rapid rearming; British were reluctant because they believed that arms had been the cause of the last war, and French were happy to hide behind the Maginot Line

Why did middle-class women concern themselves with the legal struggle over how to regulate prostitution? (16)

- angered middle class women, women are being made victims of the state(?) - defined woman's need to assert herself as equal in intelligence and humanity - laws like the Contagious Diseases Act literally put women's bodies under the control of male customers - Ladies' National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act (1869) - ^distinctly middle class organization run by Josephine Butler

What form of government did it have? What internal challenges did it face? (14)

- armed resistance continued in the South until 1866, North was industrialized but South was poor and backward, political framework couldn't overcome there differences and political leaders avoided talking about major problems - constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system

What is meant by the historical term "proletarianization"?*** (13)

- artisans and factory workers eventually came to participate in a wage-labor force in which their labor became a commodity of the labor marketplace - in the process of becoming wage workers, artisans gradually lost both significant ownership of the means of production (like equipment) and of control over the conduct of their own trade - occurred rapidly wherever the factories arose and displaced previously skilled labor

What new laws were issued in the National Assembly on August 4, 1789? (10)

- as of that day, all French citizens were subject to the same laws

I assume you know the Fall of Japanese Empire section from US History. (20)

- atomic bombs - loss of the Pacific islands

According to Vergerio, why is history the most important of the Liberal Arts? (I mean, he is CLEARLY correct, but what reasons does he give...) (2)

- attractiveness and utility - these qualities appeal equally to scholar and statesman - praise of the Roman Empire is connected to history

What happened in the 1923 Beerhall putsch (attempt at military takeover)? (19)

- band of followers and Hitler attempted an unsuccessful putsch from a beer hall in Munich - Hitler and Ludendorff arrested, tried for treason; Ludendorff acquitted but Hitler used the trial to make himself a national figure - the trial made him famous, brought attention to Nazism, gave him time to write Mien Kampf

How was WWI a total war? (18)

- battlefront vs. homefront - war bonds, rationing - military vs. military, society vs. society, economy vs. economy - the girl behind the gun behind the bullet - no matter how honorable the soldiers on the field are, they can't win without bullets, and in order to have bullets made they NEED women role of government in the economy - enlightenment freedoms get thrown out the window because the government needs to tell the factories that they need to convert their products → need to completely control culture and economy - doesn't matter if that sounds oppressive or socialist → seen as NATIONALIST - laissez-faire is gone, everything must support the war, you can't think whatever you want to think because you need to believe propaganda - disruption of enemy society and economy

Why didn't Europe have an overpopulation problem in the late 1800s? (15)

- birth and death rates began to slow down or stabilize in Europe and other industrialized regions, leading to a slowing down of population growth - migration lead to people spreading out across Europe and migrating to different countries, which helped with the surplus of people - mass exodus was the main way that the population was relieved

What is Mein Kampf? (19)

- book that Hitler wrote while in prison - brought attention and fame to Nazism - Hitler's statement of his political program, published in 1924 - not taken seriously enough at the time

Know the basic outline of Napoleon Bonaparte's early life and rise to power as a general by the mid-1790s. (lecture will help) (10)

- born in 1769 to a poor family of lesser nobles at Ajaccio, on the island of Corsica - France annexed Corsica in 1768, Napoleon went to French schools and got a commission as a French artillery officer in 1785 - pro-revolution, was a Jacobin - 1793; reclaimed the port of Toulon from the British - Bonaparte crushed the Austrian and Sardinian armies in 1795, independently concluded the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 against the wishes of French government - Constitution of the Year III; helped w/ a coup but then overran the person who had asked him to help so that he could become the first person to use the rhetoric of nationalism and revolution

Fascism defined itself against what political traditions? Where was this ideology born? (19)

- born in Italy - derived from the movement under Mussolini - synonymous with ultranationalism - rejection of liberal democracy, free-market capitalism, and communist internationalism - one party system - cult of personality - violence highly valued - physical strength = country strength - heroic past i.e. Roman Empire

The Spanish Civil War is an incredibly interesting, multi-sided conflict. For our purposes, it is important as a training ground for the German Air Force. You should know which side won in Spain and when. (20)

- broke out in July 1936; monarchy had collapsed in 1931 and left a democratic republic, completely ineffective because it either antagonized people or didn't help them - Falangists = Spanish fascists, wouldn't accept defeat in the polls in 1936, and in July 1936 the Spanish army, lead by Francisco Franco, invaded from Spanish Morocco - war lasted for almost three years, provided a training ground for WWII; Italy and Germany supplied Franco with troops, planes, supplies - USSR sent equipment and advisers to the republicans, liberals from Europe and America volunteered to fight on the republican side against fascism - brought Germany and Italy closer together, lead to the creation of the Axis Powers - Barcelona fell to fascist control/Franco in 1939, fascists won control of Spain

What is a cahier de doleance and why were they important in raising the expectations of French people in the months leading up to the EG meeting? (10)

- brought with representatives on their way to the royal palace to EG meeting - lists of grievances to be presented to the king - demand for equality of rights among subjects -made it overwhelmingly clear that conflict was going to run through the EG meeting

How did British industrial production match up to German industrial production during the war? (20)

- by the end of 1941, surpassed Germany in production - factory hours extended, many women joined the workforce - unemployment disappeared, working class had more money than they had had in years on avg

What was Nicolaus Copernicus' contribution to the Sci Rev? Know the title of his 1543 text. (6)

- came up with the idea of heliocentrism - ideas weren't known until after his death - "On the Revolutions of Celestial Spheres" (1543)

Why did the Marburg Colloquy of 1529 fail? What might have happened if it had succeeded? (3)

- cardinally because of disagreements between Luther and Zwingli - Lutherans and Zwinglians have differing opinions of role of Eucharist in Mass; Lutherans = believe Eucharist is the key to eternal life and Zwinglians = believe Eucharist is a memorial of the Last Supper - Luther said God was spiritual and bodily in Eucharist, Zwingli said he was spiritual - If Marburg Colloquy succeeded, Protestantism would not have broken off into as many groups or caused as much tension between different branches of Protestantism

Why is it fair to call the government of France from 1789-1792 a "liberal" government? How did the National Assembly change France's political structure? Economic policy? Religious culture? What elements of French society gained from these changes? What elements did not gain advantage? (10)

- championed civic equality under the law, social equality and extensive democracy —> served as an example for 19th century liberals to follow - creating a constitution and a unicameral Legislative Assembly - monarch could suspend law creation but could not veto - indirect elections to get rid of popular pressure on the govt - transferring political power from aristocratic wealth to all forms of propertied wealth in France - women can neither vote nor hold office - applying the rational spirit of the Enlightenment; abolished ancient French provinces, established 83 units of roughly the same size (départements) - indirect elections for local assemblies in these units - parlements abolished and replaced by uniform courts with elected judges - new policies on economic freedom were disappointing to peasants and urban workers: forbade workers associations, left to the mercy of the marketplace - confiscating church lands and trying to manage taxes, but only getting more inflation, religious schism and civil war - assignats; government bonds, proved so acceptable to the public that they circulated as currency which lead to more being produced to end the national debt, but was overdone and lead to more inflation - Civil Constitution of the Clergy; transformed Roman Catholic Church in France into a branch of the secular state

According to Zophy, what is CIVIC humanism? (2)

- civic humanism is humanism that is focused on communities and bettering the community as a whole instead of bettering oneself - humanism itself is a movement that was concentrated on the form and content of classical learning

Filippo Brunelleschi and the Dome of Florence Cathedral (2)

- commissioned by the Medici to create the dome on the Florence Cathedral - connects back to why Medici patronized the arts; it improved his reputation, and had religious and cultural significance

What was the Schlieffen Plan? (p.680 box) What did the Germans do in order to try and make the Schlieffen Plan work? Did it work? (18)

- complete failure - plan of the Germans to invade France by going through neutral Belgium - France pushes them back, ends in a complete stalemate that lasts essentially into the end of the war - They wanted to defeat France in six weeks, as in the Franco-Prussian War, hold off Russia, which the German high command estimated would take six months to fully mobilize, and invade France through neutral Belgium, by being granted access, in order to outflank the French armies and seize Paris. The plan wasn't adequately implemented. The Belgians protested and put up unexpectedly stiff resistance. The Russians mobilized with great speed, drawing German forces to the Eastern Front to bolster the Austrians in the field, and the French counterattacked heroically at the Battle of the Marne River to stop the German drive to Paris. STALEMATE occur on the Western Front.

What was the state of Germany by the end of WWII? (How was that different from WWI in 1918?) (20)

- completely destroyed by air raids - huge damage, wasn't attacked at all in WWI and was only on the offensive; contrast

Was the industrial revolution a 'good thing' for British women? (13)

- concerns about the safety of women in the industrial rev. rose from the new idea that women should stay in the home - displacement of women in factories, overtaken by machines or men (ex. hand spinning) - bounce back of unmarried women getting employed in the 1820s, but the work required less skill than that of men or even that of women previously - married women were usually not, if ever, hired, and widows were sometimes allowed back - women in the cities had fewer familial and communal ties than before - married women worked outside the home only when forced

How were the domestic fronts disrupted? What did countries do in order to try and ruin other nations from the inside out? (18)

- counterfeit money --> inflation - Central Powers (i.e. Germany) paid to have Lenin smuggled back into Russia - Central Powers tried to provoke a religious war between Muslim states (Egypt, India, Algeria) against the British and the French for attacking the Ottoman Empire - Zimmerman Telegraph, inciting US war with Mexico - Allied Powers promised a "homeland" for both Jews and Muslims in the same area of the Ottoman Empire

What was the Golden Bull and how did it protect the decentralized status quo in the HRE? (2)

- created to unite the hundreds of states within the Holy Roman Empire - put seven lords as the leaders of a centralized legislative body (seven different leaders trying to be the most powerful of the group, emperor has no real power) - these princes elected an emperor who would provide trans-regional authority and a sense of unity - having an emperor didn't actually help much, and most power was still held by lords and local authority

How did Enlightenment generally approach Christianity, Judaism and Islam? (9)

- criticized and attacked the religions - these religions thought that improvement during one's Earthly life was either meaningless or impossible, so the Enlightenment had a fundamental disagreement -some attacked specifically Christianity, saying that much of their divine philosophy had no bearing in evidence - undermining authority of the Old and New Testaments, secondhand encounters leading to a totally skewed and overly-hostile depiction of Islam

In the late 1790s, who were the Directory's main supporters? Main critiques? In the elections of 1797, what form of government did the majority of elected officials favor? (10)

- critiques: weren't providing stability to French people (esp. property owners including peasants), royalists wanted to legally bring power back to Bourbon family - election of 1797 brought constitutional monarchists and their sympathizers to power - after the coup, Directory had their own supporters take over from where ^ had sat previously

Why were farmers particularly hard hit by the global economic situation in the 1920s? (19)

- demand for European goods shrank - improvement in agricultural techniques called wheat prices to fall to record lows --> helped consumers but hurt farmers - at the same time, higher industrial wages raised the costs of the tools farmers needed; they made less money but their tools cost more - had difficulty paying off mortgages and loans

What was the Directory? Upon whom did it depend for support? (10)

- democratic constitution of 1793 had never gone into effect, and was abandoned - Convention issued the Constitution of the Year III, which reflected the Thermidorian determination to reject monarchy and democracy

What was at stake at the battle of Stalingrad in 42-43? (20)

- either the USSR or the Nazis - if the USSR wins, the Nazis will fall apart, and the other way around if the Nazis win

What was the agenda of the Vichy government in France during WWII? (20)

- encouraged intense, chauvinistic nationalism - had begun kicking Jews out of positions of power before the "final solution" even hit France (it wasn't a thing in Germany until 1942) - Dreyfus Affair → early anti-Semitism in France

Herbert Spencer (16)

- english philosopher, anthropologist, biologist, sociologic, liberal theorist in the Victorian era - individualist, believed human society progresses through competition - involved with social darwinism

In Russia, when did industrialization start? Who was Sergei Witte? (15)

- entered the age in the 1890s - Count Sergei Witte lead Russia into the industrial age; appointed finance minister in 1892, planned economic development, protective tariffs, high taxes, bringing Russia to the gold standard, etc. - established a strong financial relationship with the French money market, enabled Russia to finance its modernization program with French loans, diplomatic tie between them

When and to what extent were the Italians involved in the Scramble for Africa? (17)

- failed to conquer Ethiopia in 1896 - seized Libya from Turkey in 1911-1912

Why did Francesco Petrarch turn to the history and literature of the classical world after the plague? What did he claim the classical studies would do for fourteenth-century Italy? (2)

- felt that society as a whole needed to rebuild after the plague - chose to challenge the legitimacy of leadership in Italy → used the classics to teach people how to be leaders, thought that leadership would be more effective if it followed the classics - returning to the "greatness" that was Ancient Rome - looked to the classics as "therapy" for teaching him how to overcome his grief about the losses he dealt with as a result of the plague - ONLY the classics can heal one's innermost being

What was the Nazi vision for Europe? (19)

- fierce radical anti-Semitism - Germany must expand eastward into Poland and Ukraine to get a greater "living space" - resurgence of German military power - transferred the foreign policy goals and racial outlooks previously associated with German overseas imperialism to European politics

Donatello's David statue (in the film) (2)

- first free-standing statue since classical era - modeled off of a real person (posed)

What happened at the Battle of Valmy on September 20, 1789? (10)

- first major victory by the revolutionary army of France against Prussian troops that were attempting to get to Paris - emboldened the National Constituent Assembly to end the monarchy and declare the radical republic

What was Galileo's contribution to the Sci Rev? Know the title of his 1610 text and the significance of his 1615 letter t the Duchess of Tuscany. (6)

- first person to look at the sky with a telescope - Starry Messenger (1610) ???

What was the Encyclopedia and how was it a part of the Enlightenment project? Who edited it?

- first volume created in 1751 under leadership of Denis Diderot and Rond d'Alembert - "in part a collective plea for freedom of expression, reached fruition only after many attempts to censor it and halt its publication" - included critical ideas to the time about religion, government, philosophy - instructions on manufacturing and general articles

In Germany, when was the SPD founded? (Don't need to know Lasalle, Liebknecht or Bebel). (15)

- founded in 1875

Britain experienced an economic depression in the late 1830s/early 1840s. Not coincidently, these years also saw the rise of the first working-class political organization. What group did William Lovett found in 1836? (13)

- founded the London Working Men's Association along with other London radical artisans

Where was the famous Western Front? What was new about the experience of warfare on the Western Front and what factors created these new conditions? (18)

- from the English Channel down through France - stopped at neutral Switzerland - war of attrition, trench warfare, use of industrial weapons - STALEMATE, millions of deaths - much more concentrated than the Western Front, made it much harder to actually gain land

Get a good sense of the work of the Council of Trent. What did the council reform in Catholic practice? What did they choose to maintain? (3)

- general council of the church called for by Pope Paul III for reasserting church doctrine - council met in Trent, Italy in 1545, met scattered throughout the reigns of four different popes - meetings were completely under the pope's control and laity had no say in their decisions - decisions made concerning internal church discipline: - curtailing sales of religious goods (indulgences) - many bishops living Rome had to move to their dioceses - strengthened local authority of bishops - mandated high visibility of bishops in their dioceses - better dress/education/celibacy requirements for priests - seminary for priest-training in each diocese - no doctoral concessions were made to Protestants - reaffirming traditional Scholastic education of clergy - new legislation was slow to take hold, but did work - Theology and ideology, didn't change doctrine - Changed overall internal discipline - No more absent bishops - No more bribing for high offices - teaching orders

What is significant about the inclusion of the Medici family in the Procession of the Magi (biblical story), a large fresco in their family chapel? How is this composition a significant change in style from earlier medieval Christian art? (2)

- gives Medici family more legitimacy to be distinctly depicted in iconic religious scene - actual people, still alive and obviously not in biblical procession from Bible, were depicted in a religious scene (Medici family added people to painting if they were members of Medici bank)

What specific changes did Stalin make in order to create Rapid Industrialization after 1927? What were the results like? (19)

- goal was to overtake the USSR's enemies in industry - state plan and commission (Gosplan) set goals for production in every area of economic life and urged people to meet those goals (5 Year Plans) - rapid construction of heavy industries: iron, steel, tool manufacturing, railroads, electricity, tractors - lead to the creation of the first large-scale labor force in Russia - result = ~400% increase between 1928-1940 - new industries in Russia challenged national counterparts - industrial cities became massive urban sprawls

How did Isabella and Ferdinand use Catholicism to unify Spain? (2)

- got everyone to rally against non-Catholics with Inquisition (religious unification) - Grenada was under the rule of the Muslims, kicked Muslims out - Cisneros = main Inquisitor

When and what event fundamentally changed the war experience for Germans on the homefront? How did their lives change? (20)

- governments intruding into private life manufacture of armaments replacing manufacturing of consumer goods, serious shortages arising in Germany - prices and wages controlled but standard of living dropped - food rationing beginning in 1942, severe shortages until Nazis were able to start stealing food from occupied territories teenagers, women, and retired workers were compelled to work in factories - labor and material shortages by 1943, growth of forced labor of non-Germans in Germany - women treated essentially as in charge of birthing soldiers and ~pure Aryans~ - Josef Goebbels, minister of propaganda, in charge of spreading exaggerated claims of Nazi victory, etc. - Nazi party gains more power in WWII, every area of economy or social policy comes under Nazi control

How did Nazi policy view the slavs (Polish, Russians, Serbs, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats..) and what were Nazi plans for the Slavs who lived in Eastern Europe? (20)

- hated Slavs, literally didn't see them as human - "Untermenschen" = subhuman creatures like beasts who need not be treated as people - in parts of Poland, upper and professional classes entirely removed; deported, killed, jailed - limited Polish marriage, closed schools and churches - Heinrich Himmler (head of SS) planned to kill 30 million Slavs to make room for Germans, formed extermination squads - roughly 6 million Russian POWs and deported civilians died by Nazis

How and why did Cavour ally with France and create war with Austria in order to further Italian nationalism? (14)

- helped Britain and France capture something as a part of the war in 1855, contribution allowed Cavour the opportunity to raise his question at the Paris conference - achieved international political respect for opposing Mazzini - 1858; Cavour represents a moderate monarchist alternative to Mazzini's radical nationalist uprisings - Napoleon III of France helps Cavour unify Italy; the two plot to provoke a war in Italy that would allow them to defeat Austria (1858 treaty)

What subjects and skills did students learn in Vergerio's school? (2)

- history, moral philosophy - letters, disputation, logical argument - shift towards classical culture and history as opposed to religious education - gymnastics, music were studied by the Greeks (as well as drawing but Vergerio didn't agree that drawing was a useful skill)

What happened at Dunkirk? (20)

- huge defeat of British and French forces - massive retreat, civilian British ships had to go in and rescue thousands of soldiers stranded on the beach - France surrendered very quickly after

How did the Great Depression affect the reputation of free-market capitalism and its associated political partner, liberal democracy, within 1930s Europe? (19)

- made capitalism look bad - if the GD in liberal, democratic, capitalist America had ruined the economy of millions of people across multiple countries, capitalism was clearly a failure

Leonardo da Vinci (2)

- master of different disciplines - all of those disciplines fall into the category of renaissance - Mona Lisa

What were the major 'tools' by which Europeans were able to dominate other regions in the late 1800s? (17)

- steamboats, specifically iron ones - quinine - machine gun, the advance of weaponry, percussion caps for bullets, dum-dum bullets

How did the subject matter of visual art change in as the 1400s advanced? What NEW subjects for paintings? (2)

- went from all religious figures to painting actual humans and focusing on pagan art

When (month, year) did the Western war get going in WWII? Why did Nazi Germany invade north first? (20)

- western front quiet until April 1940 - April 1940: invasion of Denmark and Norway - needed Norway in order to stage an air raid on Britain

You do not need to memorize the dates and events of the lives of Isotta Nogarola or Laura Cereta but you should be able to discuss the extent to which women were permitted to participate in the classical Renaissance. (2)

- women were severely limited in what they could and couldn't do in the Renaissance - women were usually not allowed to attend university and in the case of Isotta Nogarola, her education was stopped short due to marital pressures and conflict due to her sister getting married - women couldn't study the male nude or use the fresco technique because it was deemed inappropriate - women were rarely recognized for anything other than painting - very few women in the cities even owned books, which were a key to becoming educated

Take a look at the map on p. 763 Note that Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the Croatian part of Yugoslavia all allied with Nazi Germany while Serbia and Greece fought, lost and were occupied. Also note the French split. (20)

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The most important outcome of the Crimean conflict for us is that it signaled a new willingness on the part of European nations to wage war against each other. Note historian Gordan Craig's quote.

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What did Luther write and where do you see Christian humanism in his ideas? (3)

95 Theses(1517); sola scriptura, sola fides, AD Fontes to the Bible

(16) What did we discuss in class about the paradoxical nature of late 19th c. Christianity as BOTH a great period of criticism of the church and a great period of religious revival?

???

By 1850, what percentage of English/Welsh society lived in cities? (13)

???

By 1850, what percentage of German and French society lived in cities? (13)

???

By the 1830s, industrialization had spread to western continental Europe. Generally the concentration of industrial production was more diffuse there than in Britain BUT there were some industrial centers/regions. Where were they? Be as specific as possible: (13)

???

Did the triumph of science advance the feminist cause? (16)

???

How and why was Jewish experience different in Western and Eastern Europe in the 1800s? (15)

???

How did the assumptions of scientists change after 1850? (16)

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How did the era of royal centralization after 1450 create social and political tensions that helped to spark religious reformation? (3)

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How did the goals of British feminism differ from those of French and German feminism? (15)

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In 1903 Russian Social Democrats (Communists) split between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. What issue split them? (15)

???

In what parts of the world did the British sell these new mass-produced goods? (13)

???

What was Francis Bacon's contribution to the Sci Rev? Know the title of his 1605 text. (6)

Advancement of Learning

Page 137 is a quick look at the 'culture wars' of the era. How were baroque art and architecture a reassertion of Catholic values and theology? How was the plain style and destruction of statues/church art carried out by Protestants an assertion of their values and theology? (4)

Baroque because Elaborate rep. of God; elaborate art distracts from scripture so got rid of

Why was Bismarck confident that Russia would never ally with France or Great Britain? (18)

Bismarck believed that monarchical, reactionary Russia would not seek an alliance either with republican, revolutionary France, or with increasingly democratic Britain.

What were the general goals of Bismarck's foreign policy from 1871, after the achievement of the German Empire, until he was 'fired' in 1890? What situation did he seek to avoid at all costs? (18)

Bismarck, after 1871, wanted to avoid a new war that might undo his achievement of German unification. He tried to assuage French resentment by pursuing friendly relations and supporting French colonial aspirations. Bismarck sought to prevent an alliance between France and any other European power - especially with Austria or Russia - that would threaten Germany with a two front war.

How did Martin Luther's ideas about how humans attain eternal life differ from that of the Roman Catholic papacy's ideas? (3)

CHURCH: - "works" i.e. penance, confession, tithes, charity, etc. LUTHER: - eternal life = solely a gift from God - "works" don't mean anything - no mention of monks or nuns in the New Testament essentially de-legitimizes the entire branch of the Church

After forty years of civil war and religious violence, describe the religious composition of France in 1600. (4)

Calm now, but stark divide; Huguenot South and Catholic Paris and surrounding

The Treaty of Westphalia is WICKED important in European history. How its terms finally end the era of religious wars in the HRE? How did its terms influence the political future of the HRE? Which German states started to emerge as more powerful than others in the HRE?

Calvinist recognized; still decentralized; Netherlands independent from Spain; end of hope for Christendom

What was the catalyst for the revolt of Dutch of 1566 and why did this first revolt fizzle out? (4)

Catalyst: Margaret(Phillip's sister) called them beggars; fizzles out when the Duke of Alba imposed reign of terror

General rule for monarchs mentioned in chapter 4: know the family tree and the religious affiliation of each ruler. We will look at the family trees together in class. (4)

Catherine medici(catholic), Francis II(catholic), Mary Stuart(catholic), Henry of Navarre(catholic), Charles IX(catholic)

What was Rene Descartes' contribution to the Sci Rev? Know the title of his 1637 text. (6)

Discourse on Method; disproved scholasticism

Why did French folks become Huguenots? Which members of French society? (4)

Dislike authoritative Catholics; nobles for territorial sovereignty

Which elements (ha!) of European society experienced the Sci Rev? (6)

Elite

Why did the birth of James' II son in 1688 trigger the Glorious Revolution? What was the Glorious Revolution? (5)

English people hoped that the successor to James II would be Mary (eldest Protestant daughter) James II's son is born and thereby is a Catholic male heir to the throne —> Parliamentary opposition invited William of Orange to preserve it's "traditional liberties" i.e. Anglican Church and parliamentary government

Actual fighting broke out in 1619-20. Who were the major players? What sides were they on? Which side was winning at the end of 1620? (4)

Ferdinand( HRE Catholic), Frederick( Palabtibe Calvinist); Catholics winning

The fourth phase of the war (another 13 years of fighting) was devastating for the Germany-speaking territories. Most of the soldiers were not German by this point. What nations were doing most of the fighting in this phase? (4)

French, Swedish, Spain

In 1630, what Lutheran king enters the fight? Who bankrolled his military campaigns? What leaders died in the early 1630s? Why didn't the war end in 1635 with the Peace of Prague? (4)

Gustavus II; Max and Gustavus; French still want to fight

Why did Elizabeth order the execution of her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots and how did this lead to the Spanish Armada? What was the outcome of the invasion? (4)

Mary tried to kill Elizabeth; Spanish Armada came because Mary was Catholic; England won

What was Isaac5 Newton's contribution to the Sci Rev? Know the title of his 1687 text. (6)

Mathematical Principle of Natural Philosophy

What was the religious culture and composition of the Netherlands? Remind yourself - how were the Netherlands atypical in terms of economic and social structure? (Hint- they share the same structure as northern Italy) (4)

Merchant states split Catholic and Calvin

What new roles for women did Protestant culture create? Which roles did it take away? (3)

Mom and housewife are new; don't like nuns

Which Enlightenment thinkers expressed an interest in 'human rights' and the limitation of European imperial control? (9)

Montesquieu

In 1619, the year after the conflict in Prague between Ferdinand and the Bohemian nobles, Ferdinand's older brother, the Holy Roman Emperor died and Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor in addition to being King of Bohemia. How did this new role help to widen the conflict between Calvinists and Catholics? (4)

Now the hre has to pick sides as their king would want

What is the French term for rulers who rejected the new focus on religious identity and continued to act out of political interest regardless of the religions of their allies or enemies? (4)

Politique

Take some notes on the life story (religious conversions, eventual fate) of William of Nassau, the Prince of Orange (1533 - 1584). (4)

Politique, Calvinist, Luther, and Catholic all at the same time; killer by crazy Catholic

How did critique of the clergy and the papacy in the 1300s and 1400s among the laity (non-priests) also help to spark religious reformation? (3)

Protestant was better option because laity could get to heaven without help of clergy

What two historical events inform the era of the scientific revolution? (6)

Reformation and the discovery of the new world

Skim the section on Education and the Reformation. Know the name Philip Melanchton. (3)

Scholasticism undermines Greek ancients

Elizabeth I tried to rule as the head of a national church of moderate Protestantism. She was criticized by both Catholics and Calvinists (called Puritans in England). What policies of the Anglican church angered Puritans? What is the difference between Calvinist Presbyterians and Calvinist Congregationalists? Which group was the more extreme? (4)

Semi-autonomous congregations governed by presbyters anger puritans; Congregationalists more extreme because want autonomous congregations

Ferdinand of the house of Hapsburg, the younger brother of Holy Roman Emperor, succeeded to the throne of Bohemia (modern Czech Republic) in 1618. What did he do as soon as he became king? How did this action lead to the defenestration of Prague? Who did the Bohemian nobles name as their king instead of Ferdinand? (4)

Take a firm stance against Protestantism; Fred IV new king; emperor's envoys sent to tell Fred to leave, but he threw them out the window into poop

What was the Edict of Nantes? *** Very important (4)

The decree in 1598 by Henry the IV that granted Huguenots(French Calvinists) substantial rights within France

After 1689, the 'Tory' party became the parliamentary opposition in England. What did Tories want? (5)

Tories = supporters of the monarchy, pro-absolutism Locke's Second Treatise of Government directly opposed the Tory's support for absolutism as well as absolutist political thought on the UK continent

Who was P.A. Stolypin? (15)

Tsar Nicolas II's minister, administration of noteworthy agricultural reforms, helped to suppress revolutionaries in 1905, made sure the Duma did nothing

What or who were the challenges to the French Monarchy in the early seventeenth century? (5)

What or who were the challenges to the French Monarchy in the early seventeenth century? nobles; military control in their territories, still in control of 'intendents' powerful religious minority (Huguenots)

How did William II's foreign policy goals differ from Bismarck's? (18)

William II was filled with a sense of Germany's destiny as the leading power of Europe. He wanted recognition of at least equality with Britain, the land of his mother and of his grandmother, Queen Victoria. To achieve a "place in the sun", he and his contemporaries wanted a navy and colonies like Britain's → these ran counter to Bismarck's limited continental policy.

How did William II's foreign policy decisions alienate the British and drive them into alliances with the French and with the Russians? (18)

Within a decade of William II's accession, Germany had become the enemy in the British minds. This remarkable transformation has often been attributed to economic rivalry between Germany + Britain, in which Germany challenged and even overtook British production in various materials + markets. However, the real problem lay in the foreign and naval policies of the German emperor and his ministers. William II admired Britain's colonial empire and mighty fleet. At first, Germany tried to win the British over to the Triple Alliance, but when Britain clung to its "splendid isolation", German policy changed. The idea was to demonstrate Germany's worth as an ally by withdrawing support + even making trouble for Britain. This odd manner of gaining an ally reflected the Kaiser's confused feelings toward Britain, which mixed dislike and jealousy with admiration → This freaked Britain out and drove them into alliances with the French and with the Russians.

According to the textbook authors, why did Louis XIV pursue his aggressive foreign policy (30 + years of wars against various coalitions of European states)? (5)

because he was surrounded by Habsburgs and wanted to limit the power of them around France invaded the Netherlands several times, went to war with Spain (?)

How did the Vichy government treat French Jews? (20)

watched what Germans did to Jews in occupied France and did nothing to stop them

Read the "Revolution in Religious Practices & Institutions" carefully. What changes did the Reformation era produce in the daily experiences of Europeans? (3)

Less taxes, less days of obligation, less cloisters

List some reasons why France and Russia DID end up allying with each other. What events drive them together from 1890 to 1907? (18)

Political isolation and the need for foreign capital drove the Russians towards France. The French encouraged investors to pour capital into Russia if the investment would help against Germany. SERGEI WITTE

What was the Fronde and how did it affect Louis XIV? (5)

failed nobility revolt against Louis XIV when he was a child sparked his distrust of nobility, influenced his strict policies

What did Robert Walpole do and in what capacity did he serve in government? (5)

maintained peace abroad and maintained status quo in England spreading foreign trade from England to India, keeps central govt from interfering with local political influence of nobles and landowners Britain became a European power because of it

What was the Act of Settlement?

passed in 1701 William and Mary have no kids, Anne is Mary's sister, Anne has no kids, so the heir goes to the House of Hanover, i.e. Sophia of Hanover, so her son becomes King George I

**** What specific policies did Louis XIV pursue that helped him to become Europe's most famous example of an 'absolute' ruler? (5)

policy of having the high nobles move to Versailles and the tax agreement with the low nobles

What was the trigger event for war between Charles I and parliament in 1642? What were the sides in this civil war called? (5)

"Cavaliers" = king's men, "Roundheads" = Parliament's army Charles I stormed Parliament to try to arrest his enemies

What are the beginning and end dates for WWI fighting? (18)

- July 28, 1914 (assassination) - November 11, 1918 (Armistice Day/ToV)

What precautions does the text make concerning the use of the term 'scientific revolution'? (6)

- it wasn't exactly a revolution, since it wasn't rapid and it doesn't include all people

How did Henry IV, Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu contribute to the increasing centralization of royal power in France in the early 1600s with creation of "intendants"? (5)

'indendants' were in opposition to 'parlements' (noble-run courts) essentially the "not-so secret" police that would go to the territories of nobles and be the eyes and ears for the king

What new legislation in the 1830s changed the game a bit in terms of which members of a family a factory owner could employ? (13)

- English Factory Act of 1833 forbade the employment of children under age nine, limited the workday of children aged nine to thirteen to nine hours a day and required the factory owner to pay for two hours of education a day for these children

Why did fascism appeal to some Italians in 1919? (19)

- Italian Parliament was useless, made liberal democracy look bad - Italy had emerged from the war as less than a victorious nation despite being on the winning side - had been treated poorly by other Allied nations - industrial strikes occurred, workers occupied factories - fascism looked like a way out - fear of a communist revolution drove society - MARCH ON ROME: in October 1922, Fascists dressed in black marched on Rome and forced the king to abdicate, cabinet resigned, made Mussolini the prime minister

Who was Cesare Beccaria and what was his contribution to the Enlightenment? (9)

- Italian aristocrat and philosophe - published On Crimes and Punishments, applying critical analysis to the problem of making punishments both effective and just - Enlightenment thinking —> the best way of punishing - used utilitarian philosophy, anti-torture and capital punishment

What date did Hitler become Chancellor of Germany? (19)

- January 30, 1933

Theodor Herzl (16)

- Jewish Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist and writer - father of modern political Zionism - dreamed of a Jewish state AKA Israel

What was the fuss about opportunism in France in 1904? Who was the leader of the new Socialist party? (15)

- Jules Guesde and Jean Jaures lead the two major factions of socialist groups in France - Jaures believed that socialists should cooperate with middle class Radical ministries to ensure the enactment of needed social legislation - Guesde opposed this idea and argued that socialists could not, with integrity, support a bourgeois cabinet they were theoretically dedicated to overthrowing - opportunism condemned by France's Congress and they told the socialists to form one party - they began to work together until Jaures was assassinated in 1914

Description of the Eastern Front. (18)

- (longer, shifting front all over Eastern Europe) --- In north, Germans beat the Russians badly but in south the Russians beat the Austrians badly before they had to leave the war due to revolution. - It began well for Russians fighting against Austrians BUT - Battle of Tannenberg, Battle of Masurian Lakes: German victories against the Russians.

How and why did Cosimo de Medici patronize the arts in Florence? (2)

- -looked for people who were pursuing innovative art styles -in the Renaissance in Florence, art was indicative of wealth and culture, and Cosimo wanted to appear cultured as well as wanted to flaunt his wealth -good friends with Donatello, who he patronized so that Donatello could pursue his more uncommon style of art despite having his style not line up with what was "expected" and was religiously conforming

What year did Johann Gutenberg use movable type to produce his Bible? (2)

- 1454

The first paragraph of the chapter divided the history of European interaction with outside regions into three basic chronological periods. What are the dates of these chronological periods? (17)

- 1490 - 1830: mercantilism, slavery, Catholic missionaries, leaders are Portugal, Spain, American colonies, Asian trading posts, cultural racism - 1830 - 1870: free market capitalism, no slavery per se, Protestant missionaries, Britain only - 1870 - 1914: most Great Powers, RAPID pace, Africa, some coordination (Berlin Conference), direct or indirect rule, less colonization (people), scientific racism

What policies are associated with the Reign of Terror in 1793-94? How did Max Robespierre justify 'terror'? (10)

- 1793; Jacobins begin to direct French government, France is currently at war with Austria, Prussia, Britain, Spain, Sardinia and Holland (aka the First Coalition) - RoT = series of arbitrary arrests and executions in the name of protecting what the Rev. fought for - Committee of Public Safety (and Committee of General Security) - Levée en Masse - military requisition on the entire population, conscripting males into the army and directing funds towards the military - De-Christianization - new calendar, new holidays, new names for the months, etc. - Temple of Reason - Repression of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women - bringing Rousseau's separate spheres ideology forward despite other revolutionary attitudes - Robespierre believed that bringing so much suffering to Europe was good for humanity as a whole, used the "republic of virtue" concept as an outline aka whole-hearted support of the republican government, renunciation of selfish gain from political life, and the assault on foreign and domestic enemies of the revolution - revolutionary tribunals

Who were the Romantic Republican Nationalists and what did they want in the 1830s/1840s? What was the outcome? (14)

- 1831; leadership of romantic republicanism passes to Giuseppe Mazzini; brought fervor to the cause of nationalism - "nationality is the role assigned by God to a people in the work of humanity" - founded the Young Italy Society to make an Italian nation and to drive Austrians out of Italian territory - Mazzini conducted guerrilla warfare with Giuseppe Garibaldi; both spent time in exile - republican nationalism frightened moderate Italians, who wanted to get rid of the Austrian power over them but not to establish a republic - by 1860, despite the failure of the Roman Republic of 1849, an Italian nation-state was created under a constitutional monarchy and Count Camillo Cavour (PM of Piedmont, not a romantic republican) made it possible via force of arms combined with secret diplomacy

What decades did free government-sponsored elementary education begin? (16)

- 1860s, 1870s, 1880s

What caused the Russian Revolution of 1905? What changes did Nicolas II promise? Did he keep them? (15)

- 1903: Nicolas II dismissed Witte - 1904: in response to conflicts over Manchuria and Korea, Russia went to war against Japan and hoped that the war would rally public opinion to favor the tsar —> Russia lost the war, government headed into an internal political crisis, Japanese captured Russia's Port Arthur in 1905, George Gapon lead a group of people to present a petition to the tsar a few days later regarding improving industrial conditions, but the crowd was open fired upon and forty people were killed; massacre lead to a final death toll of ~200 —> BLOODY SUNDAY - Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto which promised a constitutional government, created the Duma, within two years had gained almost all the land he conceded and was actively repressing the revolution

Don't stress about the details of the 'muddle' of Italian politics in 1919 but do focus on the specific means and methods that Mussolini and the fascists used to gain and maintain power in Italy by 1926. (19)

- 1922: Parliament grants 1 year of dictatorial authority to Mussolini in order to bring order to the lower government levels - 1924: elections brought Fascist party into complete Parliamentary control - series of laws passed in 1925-1926 that allowed Mussolini to effectively rule by decree

What was Kulturkampf and why was it called Bismarck's greatest blunder? (16)

- ??? - power struggles between Roman Catholic church and emerging constitutional and democratic nation states (aka Germany)

When and to what extent did the French go into Algeria? (17)

- Algeria - Charles X launches an expedition in 1830 after CoV in 1815 cost them land - by 1871, over 275k settlers lived in Algeria

What was the Spiritualists' focus? The Antitrinitarians' focus? (3)

- Antitrinitarian = Sola Scriptura beliefs led to rejection of belief in 3-part Christian divinity - burned by order of John Calvin in Geneva in 1553. - Spiritualists = Bible is not the only basis of authority; God speaks through spirit = no need for church, clergy, institutions → complete individualism

Who could become artists and participate in artistic production -- one of the most exciting and lucrative aspects of the Classical Renaissance? (2)

- Art was pretty gendered, not many female artists, only one known female sculptor, and the daughters of painters often received some painting training themselves. - Women were also not allowed to study many artistic ideas like male nudity, and they couldn't learn "fresco," a new painting technique. - The entire renaissance did not really affect those living in villages or rural areas at all.

How did new ideas about the Artist (capital A!) emphasize the new emphasis on individual achievement which became prevalent in the classical Renaissance? (2)

- Artists finally recognized as people with incredible talent, and as geniuses. - Still, artists were required to train in the workshops of older artists, because even though they were thought to be geniuses, they still need classical training. - Before it was only thought that God had the power to create such intricate and artistic things, but now people recognized that artists were people with incredible minds and talent, and possessing gifts which transcend ordinary laws. These were people such as Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo

What happened to the monarchy after August 10, 1792? (10)

- Aug 10: crowd invades Tuileries palace and force Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to take refuge in Legislative Assembly - thereafter, royal family imprisoned; leaving constitutional monarchy with no monarch

When did Hitler become the Fuhrer and what did that mean? (19)

- August 2, 1934 - "Fuhrer" = ruthless, solo, tyrannical ruler - actually means "leader" or "guide"

What is positivism? Who championed it? Why significant? (16)

- Auguste Comte, French philosopher - positivism: the philosophy of human intellectual development that culminated in science - three stages: theological, metaphysical, positive - positive laws of social behavior could be discovered in the same fashion as the laws of physical nature

What was included in the Treaty of Versailles? (18)

- B(lame) R(reparations) A(rmy) T(erritory) - sent Germany into economic disparity, inflation made German currency basically worthless

What was the Spanish Fury of 1576 and how did it affect the rebellion? What was the Pacification of Ghent? Did the Pacification last? (4)

- large-scale Spanish massacre of the Dutch people during the 30 Years War - 1576 was the ransack and destruction of the Dutch city of Antwerp

For the Napoleonic Wars from 1803-1815, know significance and dates of: Battle of Trafalgar, Battle of Austerlitz, creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, Battle of Jena and Treaty of Tilsit. (10)

- Battle of Trafalgar: October 1805, Britain destroyed French and Spanish ships off the Spanish coast. British admiral leading the troops died in the battle, but it destroyed French hopes of invading Britain and ensured that Britain would be about to maintain its opposition to France - Battle of Austerlitz: Napoleon defeats combined Austrian and Russian forces at Austerlitz in 1805, lead to Treaty of Pressburg - Confed. of the Rhine: 1806, executive political changes in German states; withdrawing the majority of German princes from HRE and leading the Emperor (Habsburg Francis II) to dissolve the ancient political body and proceed to rule as Emperor Francis I of Austria - Battle of Jena: Napoleon crushes Prussian army at Jena in 1806 after the dissolving of the HRE; leads to the issuing of the Berlin Decrees - Treaty of Tilsit: Russia is struggling, Tsar Alexander I is ready to make peace. in 1807, he and Napoleon signed the ToT on a raft on the Niemen River, confirming France's gains. Prussia lost half its territory, Prussia openly and Russia secretly became allies of Napoleon. Napoleon's family were established as the collective rulers of Europe, expanding the French Empire

How did Huguenots justify political rebellion? (Read Theodore Beza primary source on p. 141) (4)

- Beza believed that they had a right to overthrow a leader who was unfit to continue being a leader - Beza was a disciple of John Calvin - anti-divine right of kings

When and to what extent were the Germans involved in the Scramble for Africa? (17)

- Bismarck declared protectorates over modern-day Namibia, Togo[land], and Cameroon - none were particularly important or strategic - used German colonial activities to pressure the British to be reasonable about European affairs - Berlin Conference (1884) - short-lived imperial control since they lost everything after WWI

Why did the French population ultimately accept Napoleon's acquisition of absolute power? What specific domestic policies did he embrace and how did he manage to keep both republicans and traditionalists happy enough to continue to support his rule? (10)

- Bonaparte was the person who could give security to people; he didn't take away any of the ways in which the leading elements and peasants of the 3rd Estate had just become satisfied with - since a lot of France's instability came from war and conscription, Bonaparte worked to make peace with their enemies - worked to bring peace at home by having people of all political factions working for him, but violently opposed opposition - embraced a concordat with the Roman Catholic Church (Pope Pius VII); refractory clergy and revolution-accepters must resign, state pays salaries of priests and bishops but church still gives out spiritual investiture, church gives up claims to confiscated property - Napoleonic Code (aka the Civil Code of 1804); safeguarded all forms of property and tried to secure French society against internal challenges, privileges based on birth remained abolished

You need to know and be able to describe D-Day, the Battle of the Bulge and the Capture of Berlin in one sentence each. (20)

- D Day: a combination of American, British and Canadian forces stormed five beaches on the coast of Normandy, France in 1944 and successfully took out nests of German soldiers despite facing devastating losses - Bulge: the last major offensive campaign of WWII in 1945, took place in the Ardennes, largest battle fought on the Western Front - Berlin: the final major offensive in the European theater of WWII, when the USSR finally captured Berlin in April/May 1945, Hitler committed suicide at the end of this battle

The Great Purges after 1934 are one of the most exceptional parts of Stalinist history. Who did Stalin target? (19)

- DATE: 1935-1938 = USSR Purges - political enemies, anyone who dissents from his policies, anyone who poses a threat to his authority - anyone who is competent enough to be a threat years down the line will be killed way before hand - the better of a communist you are, the more danger you are in - started with the oldest communists who remembered Lenin, wanted himself to be - the only face people thought of when they thought of communism - trials extremely corrupt, forcing people to confess - giving themselves away for execution Stalin may have personally signed over 58,000 execution orders

Be able to explain how Social Darwinism developed and its relationship to Darwin's own work. (16)

- Darwin's use of "survival of the fittest" gave it the prestige associated with advanced science - social darwinism = the application of Darwin's concept of the survival of the fittest to explain evolution in the nature of human relationships - influential on public policy, originating from a rise in significance of evolutionary ethics and social thought

The US stock market crashed in 1929. What year did the ripple effect and the withdrawal of American credit hit Europe? How did governments act to contain the damage from credit crisis in the early 1930s? (19)

- Dawes Plan of 1924 helped Germany with reparations - DP was unworkable by 1929 - impacted the European markets by 1931

What was Johannes Kepler's contribution to the Sci Rev? (6)

- Discovered the planets orbits were elliptical not circular, but couldn't describe why - combining Copernicus + Brahe's ideas

You do not need to know Valla's birth and death dates but you should know the date of the Donation of Constantine and be able to describe how it is a part of classical humanism. We will look at it in class. (2)

- Donation of Constantine was 1440 (Valla's writing about how it was forged) - forgery probably took place during the 10th-11th centuries even though it was claimed to have been written in the 4th century - proof that by studying history, grammar and language, you can question the legitimacy and divine right of the church

How are the early modern and modern periods distinguished from each other? (17)

- EARLY MODERN: countries seized or settled land, exploited the resources of the area, actually settled there - MODERN: the same, but they had advanced technology and economic strategy

How did Hitler justify his rule by emergency decree? What was the Enabling Decree? (19)

- Enabling Act permitted Hitler to rule by decree, aka to do basically whatever he wanted - justified by February 1933 fire in assembly/Reichstag; fire was set by a mentally ill Dutch communist - feeds into not only nationalism, but anti-communist sentiment - used as a way for Hitler to push the Enabling Act through

James I of England was simultaneously king of what country? (5)

- England and Scotland

Who were the major figures in German Romantic nationalism? Know Herder, Fichte and Hegel and be able to describe their contributions. (11)

- Fichte was a German philosopher and nationalist who identified the individual who with the Absolute that underlies all existing things; the world is as it is because especially strong persons conceive of it in a particular way and impose their wills on the world and other people - Herder saw human beings as developing organically, like plants over time; revived German folk culture by urging the collection and preservation of distinctive German songs and sayings; opposed the use of a common language; ability go the Romantic imagination to be at home in any age or culture spurred the study of non-Western religion, comparative literature, and philology - Hegel was the most important philosopher of history in the Romantic period; believed that ideas develop in an extraordinary fashion that involves conflict; at any given time, a predominant set of ideas, which he termed the "thesis" and conflicting ideas aka the "antithesis" hold sway; as the patterns of thought clash, a "synthesis" emerges that eventually becomes the new thesis; belief that all periods of history have been of almost equal value because each was necessary to the achievements of those that came later; all cultures are valuable because each contributes to the necessary clash of values

Why was it heart-breaking to be a Polish noble in the late 1700s? (9)

- First Partition of Poland = an extraordinary division of land in the late 1700s - Russian victories along Danube River were unwelcome by Austria, Ottoman Empire was pressing Prussia for aid against Russia; Frederick of Prussia made a proposal to Russia and Austria that would work for all three of them --> Russia agreed to abandon the conquered Danubian provinces in return for a large portion of Polish territory with almost 2 million inhabitants. As a reward for staying neutral, Prussia annexed most of the land between Prussia itself and East Prussia - Austria took southern Poland with it's salt mines and 2.5 million inhabitants, leading to 1/3 of Polish land being taken - demonstrates that any nation without a strong monarchy, bureaucracy and army was no match for other European powers - by the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, Poland was erased entirely for about a century —> nobles lost everything; only power is in land, now they have nothing

Know the five major powers in Renaissance Italy and be able to explain how they operated in a balance of power until the French invasion of 1494. (2)

- Florence, Papal States, Naples, Milan, Venice - operate in a fluctuating series of alliances, always 2v3ish - until the Treaty of Lodi is broken (broken by 1494 when Milan calls in the French) - Milan wants to beat Naples so badly that they call in French to help them

Who organized the resistance to Nazi occupation and the Vichy government? (20)

- General Charles de Gaulle and other influential Frenchmen fled to Britain after the surrender - organized French National Committee of Liberation, aka the Free French - until the end of 1942, Vichy govt controlled French North Africa, but the Free French began operating in Central Africa - fear of German retaliation deterred many people from joining the resistance, so the overall number of people involved was small; others disliked the violence of resisting - organized Resistance never attracted more than 5% of French population - in late 1944 from Algeria, Free French declared the Vichy government illegitimate

What was the London Blitz? (20)

- German bombing offensive against London in 1940-1941 - most immediate and dramatic experience of the war for the British people - many families removed their children after the bombings began and sent them to the country

Note the growth of German steel industry in the late 1800s. Makes a nice statistic for essays. (15)

- German steel production surpassed Britain's in 1893 and was nearly 2x that of Britain's by the outbreak of WWI (1914)

What was the Nazi view of the role of women in society? (19)

- German women given the "special task" of preserving racial purity - women were supposed to breed strong men and women for the state - women in childbirth = men in battle - provided loans to encourage early marriage, tax breaks on families with children, child allowances

I will hand out a chart with dates of Nazi infringements on the Versailles settlement from 1933 - 1939 but you will learn it even better if you also create a list from pages 744-750 of these events. (20)

- Germany rearms (1933; withdraws from disarmament conference and League of Nations) - non-aggression pact with Poland (1934; concerned France) - building the German air force and reinstating conscription (1935; Versailles violation) - remilitarized the Rhineland (1936; violated Versailles and Locarno agreements) - Anschluss, union of Germany and Austria (1938; meant that Czechoslovakia was surrounded) - rioting in the Sudetenland in 1938 after Hitler's speech about the Nuremberg Laws, Sudetenland went under martial law, eventually became part of Germany since Chamberlain conceded it (appeasement); - Hitler invades and occupies Prague in 1939

When and where did Germany declare the establishment of the German Empire? (14)

- Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles - 1871

Again make a family tree of rulers and their religious affiliations. This tree is particularly interesting and tells you the majority of what you need to know about the English Reformation. (Include Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor, Elizabeth Tudor and Mary Queen of Scots - know the order in which they ruled and what religious affiliation they claimed) (4)

- Henry VII = Catholic, ruled until 1509 (early 1500s) - Henry VIII = son of Henry VII, Catholic, ruled until 1547 (mid 1500s) - (1) Mary (Tudor) = daughter of Henry VIII and Catharine of Aragon, extremely Catholic, ruled until 1558 (mid 1500s) - (2) Elizabeth I = daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Anglican, ruled until 1603 (early 1600s) - (3) Edward VI = son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Protestant, ruled until 1553 (mid 1500s) - James I = cousin to the above siblings, son of Mary Queen of Scots and Francis II, great great grandson of Henry VII, ruled until 1625 (early/mid 1600s)

What is a Huguenot? Who led the Huguenot church (inference from chapter 3 knowledge)? (4)

- Huguenot = French Protestant (Calvinist) - lead at one point by Henry of Navarre (Henry IV pre-reign/conversion)

George Bernard Shaw (16)

- Irish playwright, critic, political activist

What is the significance of the attack on the Bastille? Is it fair to say that it kept the revolution going? What date? (10)

- July 14 1789 - redirected the course of the revolution, signaled that the National (Constituent) Assembly alone would not decide the political future of France - causes king to publicly recognize that he lacks the military strength to turn back the Revolution

Carl Jung and Modern Man in Search of a Soul (16)

- Jung was a Swiss psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who founded analytical psychiatry. He was influenced by Freud and Nietzsche. "Modern Man in Search of a Soul" was published in 1933, and it is a book of psychological essays. - collaborated with Freud on an initially joint vision of human psychology - the two eventually broke apart due to ideology; Freud believed that libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality, but Jung didn't

What kinds of reading were available to newly literate Europeans? (16)

- Le Petit Journal, Daily Mail - alerting readers to consumer opportunities - specialized political and religious viewpoints - different ideas making it into print more than ever before

Why is the Belgian Congo notorious in history? (17)

- Leopold II gathered explorers, geographers and antislavery reformers in Brussels in 1876 and organized the International African Association - recruited English-born Henry Morton Stanley, who explored Africa on Leopold's behalf and made "treaties" with tribe leaders who had no idea what they were signing - Leopold through this basically became the leader of an African domain seventy times the size of Belgium and continued to cultivate the image of a humanitarian who was "helping" native African people - actually was using slave labor, intimidation, torture, mutilation, and mass murder —> was exposed and formerly turned the Congo over in 1908 - memorialized in Heart of Darkness (1902), novel with photos and eyewitness accounts of what Leopold did

What was the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791? What result? (10)

- Leopold and Frederick II of Prussia issuing a joint declaration expressing concern about the state of France - French interpreted this as a threat to its sovereignty and responded with provocations that lead to the French declaring war on Austria in 1792

Who were the major English and German Romantic writers? (11)

- Lord Byron, Wordsworth [Lyrical Ballads] and Mary Goodwin Shelley [Frankenstein] (English) - Goethe [Faust] (Germany)

Hitler expected Great Britain to sue for peace rather than fight. Why didn't Britain do that? What was the Battle of Britain? Know the terms Luftwaffe and RAF. (20)

- Luftwaffe = German air force - Churchill replaced Chamberlain as minister, appeasement disappeared; he was an early critic of Hitler, hatred of tyranny made him reject any possible compromise with Hitler -Churchill established a close relationship with Roosevelt which helped the UK - RAF = Royal Air Force - Battle of Britain was an air battle where the RAF defended Britain against the Luftwaffe

Know why the U.S. entered the war in 1917 (troops arriving in 1918). (18)

- Lusitania - UK ship but there were something like ~1200 Americans onboard who died when it was hit by a German U-Boat

Why didn't Martin Luther support the peasants in the Peasant's Revolt of 1525? Read the primary source pages as well. (3)

- Luther had many people who were against his ideas - Lutheran followers didn't want to intertwine with the peasant rebellion - Peasant Revolt cited Luther's name, he deemed them un-Christian

What happened at the Diet of Worms in 1521? (3)

- Luther presented his ideas about religion to the Diet of Worms, presented his ideas for a religious reformation of the Catholic Church - was ordered to recant his testimony, refused, was excommunicated

Gustav Flaubert and Madame Bovary (16)

- Madame Bovary (1856), debut novel of Flaubert (writer) - character lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life - example of literary realism

Michelangelo and Pope Julius II and the Sistine Chapel (2)

- Michelangelo didn't like that Pope Julius II wanted him to paint the Chapel as quickly as possible - still had to obey the orders of the patron

What was the Holocaust? (20)

- Nazi extermination of millions of European Jews from 1940-1945 - "final solution to the Jewish problem" - attempted genocide

`Up until the meeting of the Estates General in spring 1789, the nobility of France had seemed to lead the effort to reform the absolutist French monarchy. How did the nobles/parlementaire judges lose that title of "leaders of reform" to the lawyers of the Third Estate in the months leading up to the EG meeting? (10)

- Parlement of Paris goes into deadlock so that only the Estates General can approve the tax that De Brienne suggested - nobles wanted to restore the privileges that they had in the early 1600s

How did James I anger members of Parliament? Puritans? The English nobility? All of his subjects? (5)

- Parliament: other sources of income other than Parliamentary revenues i.e. impositions (extra-parliamentary impositions) - Puritans: sticks to episcopal system, but was raised Calvinist so it was surprising to people —> doesn't progress religion at all - nobility: favoring the Duke of Buckingham, who is genuinely horrible and they all despise him

Skip the Diet of Augsburg and the Confession of Augsburg but you must know the date and significance of the Peace of Augsburg. (3)

- Peace of Augsburg (1555) - gave Lutherans the right to freely practice their religion but didn't give any freedoms or recognitions to Calvinists - continued German centralization because it gave princes the ability to choose the religion in their own territory i.e. either Catholicism or Lutheranism

Linear Perspective (2)

- Pireo della Francesca and Mantegna pioneered perspective - enhanced realism - balance and self awareness—> AD FONTES

Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg (16)

- Planck = German theoretical physicist - Einstein = theory of relativity, physicist - Heisenberg = key pioneer of quantum mechanics, Uncertainty Principle

What "political and economic opportunities" did German princes see in converting to Lutheranism in the 1520s and 1530s? (3)

- Princes who converted their lands to Lutheranism could seize Catholic lands and expand their control. Allowed the princes to cut ties with Rome and ignore the papacy's commands.

What region of Germany led German national unification? (14)

- Prussia - Otto von Bismarck became a Prussian spokesperson, an ambassador to Russia, and later became an ambassador to France

CRUCIAL TO LOCATE CORRECTLY IN TIMELINE: What decades saw the predominance of urban society in Western and Central Europe? Put another way, when did Europe REALLY urbanize? (15)

- latter half of the 19th century - 1850-1910

What was the Thermidorian Reaction? What was the White (color of monarchy) Terror of 1794? (10)

- Robespierre's execution was a turning point - end of the RoT, Thermidorian Reaction = the tempering of the revolution - associated with the events of 9 Thermidor, such as destroying the machinery of terror and embellishing a new constitutional regime -influence of wealthy middle-class and professional people replacing that of sans-culottes - Convention allows Girondists to return to their seats - reconstructed the Committee of Public Safety, abolished Law of 22 - the White Terror = people getting attacked who were involved in the RoT, Jacobins killed off, kids in the streets beating Jacobins and being called "bands of Jesus" dragging suspected terrorists from prisons and killed them to the extent that alleged royalists had been killed in September 1792

How are Rococo and Neo-classical artistic styles different? Know Watteau, Fragonard and especially Jacques-Louis David & the Oath of the Horatii. (9)

- Rococo = lavish, often lighthearted decoration with an emphasis on pastel colors and light play - Neoclassicism = return to figurative and architectural models drawn during Renaissance and ancient world - Rococo is associated with aristocracies of Old Regime while neoclassicism is embraced by Napoleon and the French Rev. - Watteau; "Pilgrimage to Isle of Cithera", young lovers embarked to pay tribute to Venus - Fragonard; produced works filled with female nudes and sexually suggestive positions - Jacques-Louis David and the Oath of the Horatii; foremost French Neoclassical painter, used ancient republican themes in the 1780s to emphasize the corruption of French monarchial govt —> image creates a scene, derived from ancient Roman historian Livy, of soldiers taking an oath to die for the Roman Republic; painting portrays separate spheres for men and women; men take oath, women too emotional to enter the "masculine civic life" of the Republic

How did the work of Enlightenment philosophes JJ Rousseau and Immanuel Kant presage Romanticism? (11)

- Rousseau's conviction that society and material prosperity had corrupted human nature profoundly influenced Romantic writers - set forth his view on how the individual could develop to lead a good life via his novel Émile (1762) - children should learn via trial and error, parents and teachers should not interfere with children apart from providing necessities and warning against harmful things - this approach to life vindicated the rights of nature over those of artificial society to Romantic writers - Romantics value uniqueness and exploration of childhood; saw humankind, nature and society as interrelated - Kant sought to accept the rationalism of the Enlightenment and to still preserve a belief in human freedom, immortality and the existence of God - human perceptions are as much the product of the mind's own activity as sensory experience - all human beings possess an innate sense of moral duty or an awareness of what he called a categorical imperative; term refers to an inner command to act in every situation as one would have all other people always act in the same situation - to many Romantic writers, Kant's philosophy refuted the narrow rationality of the Enlightenment; believed that the human mind had the power to penetrate beyond the limits of largely passive human understanding

To what extent did women play a role in the Enlightenment? Go ahead and enjoy Rousseau's argument on p. 335 as well as Mary Wollstonecraft's reply on p. 337. (9)

- Rousseau: women are subordinate, requires care during pregnancy and serves as a link between father and child, woman is wrong to complain about man-made inequality for inequality was not man-made, women should not have the same education - Wollstonecraft: opposed to French Revolution policies unfavorable to women that Rousseau inspired, accused him of attempting to narrow women's vision and limit their experience - women were victims of male tyranny, obedience was blind, could never achieve their own moral or intellectual identity so long as they were relegated to a "separate sphere" and were therefore the "sensual slaves of men" - humanity could never progress so long as women were not educated fairly

Note the dates and sides of the Crimean War and that the war was the first conflict to be covered by photo-journalists. (14)

- Russia vs. Ottoman Empire (supported actively by Britain and France, inactively by Austria) - 1853-1856

Post-Impressionists all (16)

- Seurat, Cezanne, Van Gogh, Gauguin - rejecting the idea as painting as a window into real life, depicting artist's emotion, color, shape, more feeling, movement towards the abstract

In 1469, Isabella and Ferdinand married, thus creating one of Europe's first 'power couples.' But note the actual degree of integration between their ancestral lands of Castile and Aragon. (2)

- Spanish Inquisition; killing everyone who wasn't Catholic - Castile (I) is more rich than Aragon (F), when they got married (I) didn't want to completely integrate Castile, so their ways of life and constitutions were different - had their daughter marry Henry XIII (Anglican) so that she could go to England and try to make it Catholic but it didn't work

Who was Baron de Montesquieu and how is he a political scientist? Know the date and title of his most famous text. What assembly did Montesquieu favor within the French government? (9)

- Spirit of the Laws (1748) —> exhibits the internal tensions of the Enlightenment - political scientist; connects his beliefs about gender equality to science by saying that women's status in society was a result of climate, political regime, culture and women's physiognomy - favored a monarchial government tempered and limited by various intermediary institutions - proponent of the parlements because he's a noble who is also interested in the En.

What were the consequences of the trend towards later average marriage ages from 1500 - 1800? (3)

- They were often shorter marriages, because few people made it into their later years. Also women who bore children for the first time in advanced ages had high rates of mortality. So that lead to men remarriage.

What was the goal of the Third International (the Comintern) and how did it change the political landscape of interwar Europe? (19)

- Third International of the European Socialist Party movement, founded by Soviet communists in 1919 - worked to make a Bolshevik model of socialism the model for all socialist parties outside of the USSR - in 1920, it imposed the 21 Conditions on any party wishing to join the union

Who was on the throne after 1861? (14)

- William I, after his brother Frederick William IV was judged to be insane in 1858

When was the British Labour (learn to spell, Brits!) Party founded? (15)

- launched in 1906 by the Trades Union Congress

What was the Maginot Line? (You may need to google this one.) (20)

- a line of French defense along their border, ran from Switzerland to Belgian border - complete failure in the war - they basically hid behind it and hoped that the Germans wouldn't break through, which they did and ended up capturing Paris and the northern half of France

What happened on St. Bart's Day in Paris, 1572? How did it change the French reformation? (4)

- a massacre of 20,000 French Huguenots (i.e. Calvinists) - wave of Catholic mob violence directly following a royal marriage to a Calvinist, mobs were afraid of growing Calvinist power - increased the hostility between groups, many surviving Calvinists either fled or converted back to Catholicism

Who was Rasputin? (15)

- a monk - healed the heir to the throne's hemophilia with "magic" - had a sort of cult following, gained power due to his ~magical~ abilities

When and to what extent did British interfere in Egypt? (17)

- after the failed Napoleonic invasion in 1798, the Khedives borrowed from Euro. creditors - Egypt becomes completely dependent on their creditors - UK crushed Egyptian rebellion in 1881, used their "experience" from ruling India to "guide" the Egyptian leaders from behind the scenes - the collapse of Khedive authority in 1881 lead to the collapse of Egyptian influence over Sudan - Britain became determined to secure the upper Nile

What motivated some French to collaborate with the Nazi occupation? (20)

- believed Nazis were going to win and wanted to be on the winning side of history - some actually did sympathize with Nazi ideology - hated what they saw as the corruption of 3rd Republic

How did Otto von Bismarck use political realist policies to try and stop the growing popularity of the SPD? (15)

- believed socialism undermined German politics and society - used an assassination attempt on Emperor William I, in which no socialists were involved, to steer anti socialist laws through the Reichstag - suppressed their organization, meetings, newspapers, and other public activities - didn't work; socialist power continued to grow, still had seats in the Reichstag, etc.

PLEASE DO read the commentary on the specific art pieces highlighted in the excerpt. What did the choice of subject (the biblical David) mean to the citizens of Florence? How is this statue an expression of civic humanism? (2)

- biblical story of David and Goliath - David = poor boy, Goliath = giant terrorizing city - symbolizes republic of Florence standing up to larger, more powerful enemies - captures ideals of human perfection and became iconic symbol of renaissance artistic brilliance

What was the Great Fear of August 1789? How did that influence the course of the political revolution back at Versailles? (10)

- burning of chateaux, destruction of legal records and documents, refusal to pay feudal dues —> peasants targeting aristocratic and ecclesiastical landlords - fear due to rumors that royal troops would be sent into rural districts - August 4 1789, National Assembly aristocrats tried to halt the disorder in the countryside by renouncing some of their rights, including hunting/fishing rights, judicial authority and legal exemptions

In order to understand Stalinism, note these important sentences at the end of the section on War Communism concerning the failure of a general communist revolution in Europe. (19)

- by late 1920 it had become clear that revolution was not going to sweep across the rest of Europe - for the time being the USSR would constitute a vast island of revolutionary socialist in the larger sea of capitalism

The Austrians rebelled again against Napoleonic control in 1809. What did they lose this time? (2 things) (10)

- deprived Austria of substantial territory and 3.5 million subjects - also, Napoleon divorced his first wife in order to marry Austrian archduchess Marie Louise, daughter of Emperor Francis I

What was the Allied goal behind strategic bombing? (20)

- designed to ruin an opposing country's ability to wage war - destroying factories - demoralizing civilians and causing general panic and terror

How did the Christian intellectual elite react to the arrival of Aristotle's writings in Europe in the 1100s? Why did they face a dilemma? (2)

- dilemma was because Aristotle discovered many concepts and ideas without any mention of the Christian God - lead to some lack of confidence in Christianity - lead to the creation of scholasticism so that people could try to connect Aristotle's teachings and their religion - elite weren't didn't want to destroy it because of how sensational the findings were - chose not to reject Greek science but to create a synthesis between Greek and Christian knowledge

What was the structure of the North German Confederation's government? (14)

- each state retained its own government, but all military forces were under federal control - the president of the confederation was the Prussian king represented by a chancellor (Bismarck), legislature consisted of two houses: Federal council (Bundesrat) and lower house (Reichstag)

What was the primary battleground between Church and State? (16)

- education!! - previously, education had primarily taken place in church schools - churches feared future generations emerging from new state-funded schools with no religious teaching

Know John Calvin's biography. What did he write? What city did he effectively rule in the 1540s? What did Calvin contribute to the evolution of Protestant ideas about God and about human communities? (3)

- effectively ruled Geneva (modern-day Switzerland)

What was British Fabianism and who were its leaders? (15)

- founded in 1884, Britain's most influential socialist group - took the name of Q. Fabius Maximum, the Roman general whose tactics against Hannibal involved avoiding direct conflict that might lead to defeat - many were civil servants who believed that the problems of industry could be solved and achieved gradually, peacefully and democratically

What is lebensraum? (We discussed the topic briefly in class without using this term; it is on the fascism powerpoint as well. It is important that you have a clear idea of exactly where Hitler planned to create his Greater Germany. The primary source on p. 723 is helpful for this question as well). (20)

- lebensraum is "living space," AKA where Hitler wanted to expand Germany to wanted to unify all German people - Czechoslovakia, Ukraine, Slavic countries, Poland, Latvia, Russia, area around Belarus - land taken from Slavs specifically required conquest of Poland and Ukraine

You do need to know about the Weimar constitution and its proportional representation in the Reichstag and Article 48. (19)

- founded when Kaiser abdicates, under the ToV - left of the republic = communists right of the republic = free corps veterans (disorganized demilitarization, so people not only keep their weapons from the war, but people keep their military mindset and connections to other military officials) - they want a Kaiser back or a general, autocracy, hates ToV - based in Weimar, capital is not Berlin; fights between communists (perhaps armed by USSR) and veterans (still armed) - 1919: gun battles in the streets in Berlin, things are so bad that the government literally has to relocate - Weimar Republic is backed by the free corps veterans, so scared of the power of communism that they opt to work with the army and the paramilitary organizations (one of which being the Nazis) on the right side - republic allows for society to stay militarized - keeps the hope of the autocrat's turn alive - economic crisis + political crisis

Arthur de Gobineau and Essay on the Inequality of the Races (16)

- french aristocrat who helped to legitimize racism by use of scientific theory and "racial demography" -developed the theory of the aryan master race - Essay on the Inequality of the Races (1853); argues that there are differences between the human races and that civilizations decline when mixed

Marcel Proust and In Search of Time Past (16)

- french novelist, critic, essayist - In Search of Time Past (published in seven parts between 1913-1927) - one of the most influential authors of the 20th century

Georges Sorel and Reflections on Violence (16)

- french philosopher and theorist of Sorelianism - notion in the power of the myth inspired anarchists, Marxists, and Fascists - Reflections on Violence (1908); class struggle and revolution, political revolution depends on the proletariat organizing violent uprisings and strikes to institute syndicalism (economic system in which self-organizing groups of only proletarians) represent the needs of the working class

Why did Napoleon lose half a million men in the Russian campaign? (10)

- he abandoned his army after a crushing defeat against Russia - Russia used scorched-earth tactics to destroy food and supplies, rendering the soldiers helpless - Napoleon lost 30,000 alone when he lost a battle to Russia - underestimated that Russia would be okay with burning Moscow to the ground so that they could win over France

Who was Savonarola and how did he view the artistic and philosophical achievements of the humanists in Florence? What was a 'bonfire of the vanities'? What ultimately happened to Savonarola? (2)

- he encouraged people to bring their jewelry and paintings, getting into turning away from a more indulgent and earth-focused life

Who did Charles of Spain have to bribe in order to get elected as Holy Roman Emperor (becoming Charles V) in 1519? Why is this election important to the evolution of Lutheranism? (3)

- he had to bribe the German princes in order to be elected as HRE - this election was huge for the evolution of Lutheranism because Charles V was Catholic and wanted to unite his territory under the guise of religious unity, but Lutherans thwarted his plan

According to historian Paul Grendler, what was Classical Humanism? What sort of subjects and values composed a classical humanist education? (2)

- humanism = humanistic studies and the praise of humanity and being a good person - subjects included Greek and Latin language, reading classical works such as those by Cicero - principles included good morals, responsibility and embraced the maxims and concepts extolled in classic literature and life - importance of living a morally "upright" life and in being eloquent in speech and writing

What were the new challenges leveled at Christianity in the late 1800s? (No need to know all these folks' names and works with the exception of Fred N.) (16)

- idea that human authors had written and revised the books of the Bible over time - questioning the historical validity of the Bible - science; anthropologists and psychologists proposing that religious sentiments are just one more set of natural phenomena, AKA religion is fundamentally fake - morality —> nihilism and Frederick Nietzsche, Christianity is a religion that glorifies weakness and demands a useless and debilitating sacrifice of the flesh and spirit

How did Romanticism influence the subjects of painting and architecture? (11)

- idealizing rural life; opposing urban, industrial life - modern imitations of medieval structures - Neo-Gothic style - portraying nature in all of its majestic power as no previous generation of Euro. artists had ever done - "the sublime" —> subjects that arouse strong emotions like fear, dread and awe - contradictory forces; power, awe and mastery of nature vs the sense of advance of industry

Why ought students to be wary about getting too attracted to Literature (Art of Letters)? (2)

- if you surrender yourself entirely to literature, you are susceptible to becoming self-serving and losing a sense of community

Read the Winston Churchill primary source on the Battle of Omdurman. (17)

- in 1898, an army of approximately 25k British and Egyptian troops led by General Kitchener invaded Sudan to reassert British control against the forces of a Muslim military leader who succeeded the Mahdi - British had more advanced weaponry - "triumph gained by the arms of science over barbarians" - some debate over if Kitchener used greater force than was necessary

What were representative assemblies (composed of nobles) called in Spain? In England? In France? (2)

- in England = Parliament - in France = Estates General - in Spain = Cortes

How did the Scientific Revolution inspire the Enlightenment? (9)

- increase in literate people's believing that aspects of the Scientific Revolution could improve the human condition - going after reason and rationality; Enlightenment thinkers and writers challenging traditional intellectual and ecclesiastical authority

What is the purpose of writing A Defense of American Natives? What outcome did las Casas want? (2)

- initially came to convert NAs to Christianity - wants NAs to be treated well - since the NAs are so pure, the only thing keeping them from heaven is a lack of knowledge - the Europeans need to stop killing the NAs so that they can be converted → they're meek, which makes them perfect subjects for conversion

What was the form of government in Piedmont-Sardinia in the 1860s? (14)

- it was a Kingdom before the 1860s (after 1971 it was a unified nation with a really dysfunctional republic)

What would Hitler have done with Eastern Europe had he won there? (20)

- lebensraum! - establishing a "new order" under the Third Reich - in lands with people racially akin to Germany, like Scandinavia, Netherlands, Switzerland, the German nation would simply absorb the natives; they would be reeducated and purged of dissenting elements, Hitler also had plans to adopt specific people from the "lesser races" into the master race (for example, bringing half a million Ukranian girls to Germany to be servants) - basically wanted to plunder E. Europe and take industry, food, etc. from everywhere he could (like taking land from Russia and Poland and forcing W. European countries to support the German army at no cost to Germany)

What is blitzkrieg? (20)

- lightning war in German - employed fast-moving, massed armored columns supported by airpower - named for their speed and effectiveness

What did Russia 'lose' both territorially and in terms of prestige? Note the new relationship between Russia and Austria-Hungary described at the end of the section. (14)

- lost land near the mouth of the Danube River - ruined their invincible image - awkward tension between Russia and Austria-Hungary because they had previously been allies but Austria-Hungary allied with the Ottoman Empire during the war (but didn't support them militarily or monetarily)

You do need to know Adolf Hitler's biographical information and why these fascists used the word socialist in their official name? (19)

- made his first appearance in the political scene in 1923 - Austrian, son of a minor customs official - absorbed the rabid German nationalism and anti-Semitism that flourished in Vienna - stays in the army after WWI ends, continues to work in the army as a spy (V-Man) - his job was to stay in Munich and infiltrate free corps veteran movements, works for the Weimar Republic, one of the groups he spies on is the National Socialist German Workers Party - connects with their anti-Semitism and flips from spying on them to joining them and becoming their propaganda guy - redefined the word "socialist" to make it appear more nationalistic, gained support from socialist veterans by using it

Who were the major players at the Congress of Vienna? What territorial changes and conservative principles shaped the Congress's outcome? (lecture will help) (10)

- major players included Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia (Quadruple Alliance) - agreed that no single state should be allowed to rule Europe - restored French Bourbon monarchy - strengthened the states around France's borders; established the kingdom of the Netherlands, added the port of Genoa, Prussia got important new territories along the Rhine River, Austria gained full control of northern Italy, most of Napoleon's arrangements for the rest of the German states were left the same - France was later allowed at the Congress and helped with an issue of Austria and Prussia not agreeing with Russia - CoV = beginning of the triumph of conservatism - end of the Napoleonic Era/Wars

Why did department stores succeed in the late 1800s? (15)

- major retaining institution for the last half of the 19th century - one of the reasons of the late-century consumer demand - different departments are convenience, attracting and satisfying customers -free entry into the shops, permanent display, ability to deliver purchased goods to customers' homes - success is only possible thanks to the volume of their business and this volume needs considerable capital and a very large turnover - employing lots of people

CRUCIAL TO LOCATE CORRECTLY IN TIMELINE: What decades saw the advent of mass politics and universal suffrage for all male citizens? WOW. LATER THAN YOU THOUGHT.... (15)

- male suffrage: 1867/1884 in England, 1871 in Germany, - universal male sufferage in other countries: Switzerland in 1879, Spain in 1890, Belgium in 1893, Netherlands in 1896, Norway in 1898, Austria in 1907, Italy in 1912

How is Pico della Mirandola's "Oration on the Dignity of Man" part of the project of the Classical Renaissance? We will look at it in class. (2)

- man is the most powerful being because of the right to choose destiny - man can choose to be moral and become closer to the divine or to be immoral and be closer to beasts - God gives man the ultimate power by giving man the ability to make a choice - related to classical Renaissance because humanism is centered around morality and being a good person, and men (via Pico's idea) have the right to choose to be moral and to be good people so that they can become closer to the angels/the divine

] What is important about the rather bizarre Women's march of October 1789? (10)

- marched demanding more bread - demands that Louis XVI and family return to Paris with them so that they can be watched - caused a relatively calm period until 1792

How did Bismarck use the Franco-Prussian war to unify Germany? (14)

- military coup on Spain in 1861 deposed the corrupt Bourbon queen, Isabella II - replaced by Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Catholic cousin of William I of Prussia - France renounced Leopold's candidacy because he feared that it would cause issues between Prussia and France - Bismarck released an edited telegram that made it appear as though Leopold had insulted a French ambassador, wanting to goad France into declaring war - France lost, Napoleon III was captured, and Paris was besieged until 1871

Consider the summary of 'causes' on p. 675 What do you think was the major factor? Do you agree with our authors? (18)

- most common belief is that William II's desire to feed German ambitions by placing them in a higher international order fed into an interruption of the status quo - Germany wanted to be like GB, wanted that power

German reparations and war debts between the Allies helped to lead Europe down the path of financial dependence on American loans. What did the French do in 1923 when Germany failed to make its complete annual payment? How did this action change the British view of the Versailles Treaty? How did this action affect the German and French economies? (19)

- moved troops into the Ruhr valley, AKA the Saar region, where all of Germany's coal mines were located - if Germany couldn't pay France in money, France was prepared to take their industrial power away as payment - Germany tanked and France flourished, but Germany's economy was balanced out by 1924 due to the US Dawes plan - British denounced the French ambassador because of it, they thought it was overkill

Get a general sense of the Eastern Front battles - who is coming out on top? (18)

- naval blockade on the North Sea, British blocks off Germany - Germany doesn't want to go up against Britain's army, just ignores the blockade as much as they can

Kings took from the nobles the power to tax, go to war and make law. Be ready to discuss examples from Spain, England or France of taxes, military changes, and new courts. (2)

- needs that must be met by the financially-secure royals over the nobles or the clergy - taxes; country-wide wars mean country-wide taxes - war; professional soldiers (mercenaries) > conscripted townspeople - law; new authority for the monarchy to make universal laws within their kingdoms - representative assemblies exist, but in cases such as in France, the King can totally avoid them - Cortes and Parliament, royalty can't avoid them, and this is how nobles resisted the king - Statute of Laborers = early example of how power of nobles was shifting towards monarchs - quinto = ⅕ tax on minerals from the New World by Spain - gabelle = tax on salt by France

Why did Chartism fail as a political movement? (13)

- never tightly organized - Parliament refused to pass their bills - ranks split between those who advocated violence and those who wanted to use peaceful protest tactics - successful locally but not in the grand scheme of England's politics

Friedrich Nietzsche and Beyond Good & Evil, Thus Spake Zarathustra (16)

- nihilist - writer, Christianity and morality - Thus Spake Zarathustra is a comedic philosophical novel, Beyond Good and Evil is a follow-up to that novel - "God is dead" came from TSZ, idea of nihilism - nihilism: rejection of all religious and moral principles, life is meaningless

Do you see respect for/knowledge of NA culture/beliefs in las Casas' writing? (2)

- no knowledge of the bravery of NAs or in their resistance - lack of respect, but more primarily a lack of true understanding - assumed a lack of spiritual beliefs or practices - evidence of culture may have been looked over, etc. - viewing the NAs as malleable

Who was Otto von Bismarck and in what capacity did he serve the Prussian state? (14)

- noble landlord, became prime minister of Prussia in 1862 - united Germany - fundamentally conservative, held goals of monarchism and public strength - willing to go to war to achieve his goals

What year did the northern provinces of the Netherlands formally declare their independence from the Spanish Empire? (4)

- north was autonomous from 1585 onward - revolts began in 1566, independence officially declared in 1581

How was France organized after its surrender in 1940? (20)

- northern France occupied as of 1940, southern France left unoccupied until 1942 - many conservatives regarded the surrender as inevitable given what they saw as a corrupt and useless liberal 3rd Republic - many conservatives and extreme rightists saw the Vichy govt as France's chance to reshape French character and to halt the decadence they saw associated with liberal policy - Roman Catholic clergy began to gain power under Vichy govt

Virginia Woolf (A Room of One's Own) (16)

- one of the most important modernist 20th century authors - pioneer of stream of consciousness as a narrative device - A Room of One's Own (1929), essay where she wrote about the much-quoted phrase, "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction." - influential in inspiring feminism, cited in 1970s feminist wave

What was Ulrich Zwingli's focus for religious reform? Where did he preach? (3)

- opposed indulgence - petitioned to end clerical celibacy - broke Lenten fast in 1522 (equivalent to burning a flag), believed that anything not in the New Testament shouldn't be practiced - preached in Zurich, Switzerland - interpretation of the Eucharist → spiritual

How did Nazi policy towards Jewish Europeans evolve from 1920 - 1942? (The book doesn't specify these dates but it does give a general sense of the evolution.) (20)

- original plan was to deport Jews to Madagascar - envisioned a European "Judenrein" or "free of Jews" - later reached the "final solution" to his Jewish "problem" → extermination - most extensive destruction was in Russia and E. Europe, but Nazis also occupied areas of Italy, France, Netherlands, Belgium; all deported Jews to death in camps

How did the nature of art patronage (who was commissioning the art) change over time? (2)

- originally commissioned by religious leaders for religious art - during renaissance, art = commissioned by wealthy men to express wealth and power - after Lorenzo's death, art = only religious (if not religious, then it was burned)

Raphael and papal frescos (2)

- oversaw workshop of collaborators and apprentices - wrote treatises on philosophy of art on emphasis of imitating nature and developing an orderly sequence of design and proportions

How did the presence of a communist state on the flank of Europe affect the development of European political culture in the 1920s and 1930s? (19)

- overwhelming fear of communism - fascism tenants are anti-communist - also lead to the popularity of European socialism

How were conditions for the recently emancipated serfs? What is a kulak? (15)

- peasants didn't own their land, remained burden with excessive taxes and land payments, falling grain prices - kulak = many free peasants with too little land to support their families had to work on large estates owned by nobles or richer farmers, aka kulaks

How did the economic free-fall of the early 1930s affect the popularity of the Nazis among German voters? (19)

- people flocking to the Nazis as the most appealing form of government - Nazis almost bankrupt in 1928 when the rest of the economy is going well, but when it falls apart Hitler has an opportunity to move forward - money contributions begin from his trial

By 1795, who had benefitted from all of the changes of the French Revolution? Who had not? (10)

- people who had never been allowed direct, formal access to political power had, to different degrees, been granted it -propertied class emerging from revolutionary turmoil = peasantry, now owned their own land - no longer had to pay monetary compensation to former landlords or the state

What were the new stylistic techniques (either new because they were re-discovered from classical times or because they were genuinely new) that came into use in classical Renaissance painting and architecture? (2)

- perspective and measurement (Durer) - sequence of design and proportions (Raphael) - painting without drawing piece first (Titian)

Michelangelo's David and Pieta statues (2)

- symbolic; David's anticipation of facing off against Goliath - representative of Florence's having to stand up on it's own against larger settlements as an emerging power

What professions did many 'philosophes' occupy? Who were the most famous philosophes? Who read the philosophes' work? (9)

- philosophers; but usually literary figures, economists or historians, sometimes university professors, sometimes unemployed - most famous: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, d'Alembert, Rousseau, Hume, Gibbon, Smith, Lessing, Kant - "drew the bulk of their readership from the prosperous commercial and professional urban classes who had enough income to buy and the leisure to read the philosophes' work"

What did the French physiocrats and the Scotsman Adam Smith agree about? (9)

- physiocrats; economic reformers who believed that mercantilist legislature and regulation of labor by governments hampered the expansion of trade, manufacturing and agriculture - Smith agreed that the mercantilistic system should be abolished, hinders expansion and growth of production

What was the goal of the Continental System (Berlin and Milan Decrees) and how did it backfire? What was the general European reaction to Napoleon's plans for Europe? (10)

- planned to cut off all British trade with the European continent and thus to cripple British commercial and financial power - Milan Decree of 1807; attempted to stop neutral nations from trading with Britain - Britain forbade its subjects, allies and neutral countries from trading with France - backfires; British economy survives, and Continental System badly hurt European economies - countries advised Napoleon to turn his empire into a free-trade area but he refused; his rejection made people more likely to reject his system and they became more ready to engage in smuggling - in order to prevent smuggling, Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808 and the resulting peninsular campaign in Spain and Portugal helped to bring on Napoleon's ruin

How would you characterize Catherine de Medici's religious policy in the 1560s and 1570s? What important term sums it up? (4)

- politique - striving for compromise between the two sides, looking to maintain her political power rather than to maintain religious unity

Note that this textbook excerpt starts with an "Essential Question:" How did art reflect the new Renaissance ideals? This question is the bridge between the last two classes (what were the 'ideals' and ideas of the classical Renaissance) and this one (where do we see those ideals and ideas expressed in art itself and in the production of art?) (2)

- powerful people reflected their wealth by commissioning art; connection between culture and wealth - dominant influence of merchants - importance of reputation; Lorenzo de Medici comments upon how the money that he spent on art was 'well-spent' because of how it positively impacted his family's reputation

Note that this textbook excerpt starts with an "Essential Question:" How did art reflect the new Renaissance ideals? This question is the bridge between the last two classes (what were the 'ideals' and ideas of the classical Renaissance) and this one (where do we see those ideas and ideas expressed in art itself and in the production of art?) You might take some bullet point notes at the end of the reading on this 'big-picture' question. (2)

- powerful people reflected their wealth by commissioning art; connection between culture and wealth - dominant influence of merchants - importance of reputation; Lorenzo de Medici comments upon how the money that he spent on art was 'well-spent' because of how it positively impacted his family's reputation

The book focuses in Polish Jews as a case study. National conditions did determine whether European Jews survived or not and the case in Poland is different from the case in France or Italy or Hungary etc. Poland, however, allows us to study the holocaust arguably at its worst because it had a comparatively large Jewish population before the war (10% of total population) and Poland experienced one of the longest Nazi occupations in Europe. You should read this difficult history and get an overall sense of anti-Semitism before the war and the Nazi genocide. Please do read Mass Murder at Belsen, particularly if you have not studied the Holocaust in depth before. (20)

- pre-WWII: after the late 1700s partitions of Poland and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Poland became largely under Russian control; 1800s Russian tsars identified loyalty to the government with membership to the Russian Orthodox Church, so anti-Semitism was common as Jews were viewed as nonconformist - Polish Jews experienced literally none of the emancipation seen by Jews in W. Europe - isolated from most Poles: Yiddish/Hebrew, distinctive clothing, regarded as an urban people in a rural nation due to their flocking to cities - few Jews belonged to trade unions, made them vulnerable in times of economic crisis - Pilsudski (interwar period) favored integration of Jews into Polish life, constitution gave them political rights → after Pilsudski died, citizenship became associated with Polish ethnicity and anti-Semitism was everywhere - ethnic nationalism hugely important, shop names had to be displayed prominently so people could avoid Jewish shops, discrimination against hiring Jews - Jews tried to take advantage of their political rights but were so divided among themselves on how to defend Judaism that they never got anything done and were extremely vulnerable - by 1941, Jews had lost civic standing and property, during the second half of that year Germany decided to start committing mass murder and by 1945 90% of Poland's Jews were dead

Who was Georges Haussman and what did he do and why was Emperor Napoleon III (formerly President Louis Napoleon) glad about Haussman's work? (15)

- prefect of the Seine River from 1853-1870 - oversaw the vast urban redesign program after being appointed by Napoleon III - wide vistas included in the street planning were useful for putting down riots - small streets and alleys eradicated the need for barricades

Printing had been around since the mid-fifteenth century, but what was new about the print culture of the eighteenth century and how did that culture encourage the Enlightenment? (9)

- print culture; a culture in which books, journals, newspapers and pamphlets had achieved a status of their own - in the past, print culture had deeply influenced intellectual and religious movements associated with Renaissance humanism, Reformation and Counter-reformation; 17th century held widespread censorship; 18th century held a huge increase in printed documents and the value of prose as an art form - printing was held up by huge increase in literacy in Europe, and this meant that the printed materials became imperative for communicating information and ideas (i.e. Enlightenment) - encouraged the Enlightenment because writers could spread their ideas more easily and could reach a wider, more educated audience

Titian and mannerism (2)

- produced portraits, religious subjects, and mythological scenes - developed techniques of painting in oil without elaborate drawings first - sped up process and pleased patrons - mannerism = distorted figures, exaggerated musculature, and heightened color to express emotion and drama more intently

What was the Erfurt Program of 1891? What was revisionism? Who were the leaders? (15)

- program insisted on the necessity of socialist ownership of the means of production; intended to pursue goals through legal political participation rather than by revolutionary activity - hoping to use political positions to benefit the people they represented - revisionism = the doctrines of Eduard Bernstein; questioned whether Marx and his later orthodox followers, such as Kautsky, had been correct in their pessimistic appraisal of capitalism and the necessity of revolution - pointed out conditions that didn't meet orthodox Marxists' expectations - parliamentary methods > revolutionary change

French trade unions did not generally enter the political process, although by default they generally voted socialist. Rather, the French unions believed in 'direct action' (strikes). What is this doctrine called? Based on whose book? (15)

- syndicalism - based on the book by Georges Sorel in Reflections on Violence (1908)

What prompted the September massacres of 1792? What was the Paris Commune? Why did the Commune and the Sans-Culottes object to the Constitutional Monarchy and the Legislative Assembly? (10)

- prompted by mistaken assumption that all prisoners (i.e. the 1200 people they killed in city jails) were counterrevolutionaries - hostility emerging towards the revolutionary government because news of the imprisonment of the king and these attacks spread - Paris Commune = government of Paris from 1792-1795, 144 delegates elected by 48 divisions of the city - sans-culottes; i.e. without breeches, derived from what working people wore instead of the knee-breeches worn by aristocrats - food shortages and inflation made their lives difficult, and the new laws under the con. monarchy had left them at the mercy of unregulated economy - wanted relief from food shortage and price control, hated inequality between classes

Sigmund Freud and Interpretation of Dreams, Civilization and its Discontents (16)

- psychologist - developer of psychoanalysis (specifically of how childhood trauma affects people) - radically questioned the manner of childhood innocence - id, ego, superego; three entities in the organization of the human mind, id = amoral and irrational aspects for self-gratification, superego = morality imposed on a person by society, ego = mediates between the two - believes that humans function based off of aggression and lust - Interpretation of Dreams (1899) introduces the theory of the unconscious with dreams - Civilization and its Discontents explores the "important clash" between the desire for individuality and the expectations of conformity from society

How did Bismarck manage to cut Austria out of "German" affairs in the 1860s? (14)

- pursual of a kleindeutsch; small German solution to unification - Schleswig-Holstein problem gave Bismarck an opportunity to antagonize Austria; Bismarck proposed an all-German war to halt Danish Parliament's goal of incorporating the two northern duchies; Prussia allied with Austria and excluded smaller German states, won the war - Bismarck then maneuvered Austria into war with Prussia; Prussia won and held a treaty that excluded Austrian Habsburgs from the unification

What was the Cult of Domesticity and to what class of women did it apply? (15)

- push for women to return to the home and become housewives - influenced the middle class the most

What is romanticism and how is it a reaction to the Enlightenment? (11)

- reaction against much of the thought of the Enlightenment and the social transformation of the Industrial Revolution - "absolute inwardness" - urge for a revival in Christianity and art/literature of Medieval times - interested in folklore and fairytales hallucinations, dreams, sleepwalking and other phenomena beyond that of empirical observation, sensory data and discursive reasoning were fascinating to Romantics

Cubism: Picasso and Braque (16)

- rejected the idea of painting as constituting a window into the real world - art has no purpose past being art - echoing the art of the ancient Egyptians - art no longer needs to imitate reality, abstraction

What two problems did James inherit from Elizabeth I? (5)

- religious divisions and national debt

Why were Europeans newly aware of the Middle East in the early 1800s? What was the Romantic view of Islam and the Middle East? (11)

- renewed sense of traditional conflict between Christianity and Islam - Chateaubriand wrote a travelogue of his journey from Paris to Jerusalem (1811) - medieval Crusades against Islam fired Romantic imagination; casting Ottoman Empire and Islam in an unfavorable political light - Romantics championed the cause of the Greek Revolution ad revived older charges of Ottoman despotism - some other Romantic sensibilities induced Europeans to see the Muslim world in a more positive fashion; readers enjoying stories written by Persian poets, etc. - Herder and Hegel's philosophies both gave Arab peoples and Islam distinct roles in history

How did Jacques Necker's 1781 report (as royal director-general of finances) further weaken the monarchy's position against the nobles? (10)

- report downplayed France's financial issues - revealed that a large portion of the budget went to aristocrat pensions and other royal court favorites - damage done by report made it even harder for the government to claim a need to raise taxes

What was the long-term impact of approximately forty years of civil wars and foreign invasions (1490s - 1530s) on Italian political culture and structure? (2)

- responsible for Italy remaining decentralized - never taking over anyone, not a major political player, BUT when other armies keep invading them they see classical humanism and bring it back with them --> northern renaissance

What reversal of policy did Stalin make in 1934 and why? (19)

- reversed Lenin policy of Comintern - Stalin ordered Cominterm that communist parties could work with non-communist parties in order to go against fascism

If renaissance means 'rebirth,' what subjects did the 12th c. Renaissance revive? (2)

- revived Roman and Greek classics in art, literature, and architecture - revived Latin and Greek as languages, but first century Latin NOT "modern" Latin

How did the Battle of Jena change German nationalism? What specific reforms were implemented in Prussia? (10)

- romanticism lead to the emergence of nationalism in Germany - nationalism prevailed until Napoleon's humiliation of Prussia at Jena - Jena caused Germans to begin to urge resistance to Napoleon in the name of nationalism - French conquest "endangered independence and achievements" of Germans criticism of German princes; they were selfish and inefficient, suck-ups to Napoleon - urge for people to form a unified German state - reforms come to Prussia because Jena taught them that they had to make changes in order to survive - abolishing serfdom but vestiges of the system survived, serfs were free to leave the land if they chose, but those who stayed had to continue to perform manual labor - military reforms hoping to increase the number of soldiers and to improve their quality; Jena showed that an army chosen by merit was better than by birth - abolishing inhumane military punishments, opened officer corps to commoners, gave promotions on basis of merit, organized war colleges

What was Tycho Brahe's contribution to the Sci Rev? (6)

- thought that Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun, but that the sun and other planets revolved around the Earth - essentially "halfway" correct

Look carefully at the progression map on p. 761 and follow the allied advance through N. Africa into southern Europe. (20)

- through Morocco, Algeria into Tunisia and to Italy from there - through Sinai Peninsula, Egypt to Libya to Italy from there

For the 25 years after the Seven Year's War (ended 1763), the French government struggled with the nobility in a vain attempt to reform the tax system (and tax nobles and the church). Why did these reforms fail? You don't have to remember the names Maupeou, Calonne and De Brienne but know why they failed. Why were the noble parlement courts so popular? (10)

- royal government had the inability to tap into the nation's wealth via taxes in order to pay their debt - Maupeou tried and failed to increase taxes on the nobility because of his overly-harsh attempts to abolish the parlements and take away noble power; changes restored postmortem in order to gain public favor - monarchy lost authority and therefore public support; Louis XVI was considered ineffective, Marie Antoinette was suspicious due to Austrian background -noble parlement courts were popular because they shared the goal of administrative reforms that would support economic growth with the professional and commercial classes - Calonne tried to encourage trade, lower taxes, and to get payment for peasants who do public services - Calonne needed public support to make his changes, but the nobility wouldn't support it because they wanted to be the ones to make the change, not to allow the monarchy to make it

Why, in the 1400s, did Italian parents grow frustrated with the scholastic educational curriculum? Why would a classical education be a better option? (2)

- scholastic educational curriculum taught you how to debate topics but it didn't prepare you for the outside world - scholastic education was specific to being a scholar, not a leader - classical education focused primarily on how to be a good citizen and a good leader; it was far more practical than scholasticism - classical education was less isolating than scholastic; scholars lived in communes that isolated them from the world, while classical students were still involved in their communities

What is scholasticism? What new institution was the "site" of the 12th c. Renaissance in Europe? (2)

- scholasticism is "the study of Aristotle's teaching in Greek sciences in order to prove or find divine truth" - trying to prove Christianity/religion by using Aristotle's knowledge of Greek sciences - the new institution was the university - University of Paris specialized in theology - University of Bologna specialized in law

What professions make up the petite bourgeoisie or white-collar working class? (15)

- secretaries, retail clerks, lower-level bureaucrats and government workers

You do need to know the bio of Mussolini as given in one paragraph. (19)

- son of a blacksmith - became active in Italian Socialist politics after being a schoolteacher and a day laborer - editor of the Socialist paper "Avanti" - supported Italian entry into WWI on the Allied side (un-socialist move) - established the "Il Popola d'Italia" paper - served in the army and was wounded - "Fasci" group was just another political organization, happened to gain a lot of steam in a short amount of time

What factors account for the economic slowdown after 1873? Why is it fair to say however that the general standard of living in Europe continued to improve as compared to the beginning of the century? (15)

- speculation and over-expansion, as well as Germany's abandonment of the silver standard, lead to the first of many crises of modern capitalism - bad weather and foreign competition put pressure on European agriculture and caused many European peasants to emigrate to other parts of the world - several large banks failed in 1873 and the rate of capital investment slowed - general standard of living improved, new consumer goods, industrialization helping with technological advancements, etc.

How did the EG meeting go? What and when was the Tennis Court Oath? (10)

- standoff for several weeks, very unproductive - Third Estate creating the National Assembly and the Second Estate voting to join it - Louis XVI tries to call Royal Session of EG; three days before, National Assembly gets locked out of their usual meeting place and moves to an indoor tennis court, creating an oath to sit until they had made a constitution for France - National Assembly grows to encompass a majority of members from all 3 Estates

What was the wartime alliance like, between the Big Three allies in WWII? (20)

- started off strong and deteriorated over time as tensions developed - Tehran, capital of Iran, happens first (1943), tide has not completely turned yet; Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt at their closest → west promises that they will do D-Day, Stalin promises that they will invade Japan - Yalta: as war starts to turn, tension develops between two sides, disagreements over how to handle Poland, both US and Russia think they're going to get what they want out of Poland - Potsdam: LAST of conferences (July 1945), suburb of Berlin; essentially won, Hitler dead; problems obvious, Stalin thinks he is going to get his way because his army is all over Europe, Truman thinks he will get his way because he has the atomic bomb and hasn't used it yet

Who was Ignatius of Loyola? What were his ideas and how did they work to counter Protestant views of salvation and Christian duty? (3)

- started the Jesuits, subgroup of Catholics - Protestants = disobedient, religiously innovative - Ignatius taught one to self-deny and to unquestioningly submit to the church - importance of discipline and self control added to the enthusiasm of traditional spirituality and uncompromising loyalty to the church's cause(s)

What is Deism? How is it similar and different from mainstream Christianity? (9)

- striving to create a religion that is natural and rational rather than supernatural and mysterious - God is a divine watchmaker, set the world in motion and then departed, Tolland (wrote Christianity Not Mysterious in 1696) major points: belief in the existence of God, which nature justified empirically, and second a belief in life after death - "only book of Gospel" is the book of Nature, i.e. Nature = Bible - goal of having their faith end issues within Christianity

Leo 13 and Rerum Novarum (16)

- successor of Pope Pius IX - defended private property, religious education, and religious control of marriage laws - condemned socialism and Marxism -Rerum Novarum (1891); pronouncement on public issues - modern society should be organized in corporate groups that would include people from various classes who would cooperate in accordance with Christian principles

What was an indulgence? (3)

- supposedly beneficial fees paid to the church by parishioners in order to gain redemption/ salvation for themselves, loved ones, or those who have already died - used as a method of increasing revenue for churches during time of cleric corruption, when archbishops could not pay back the Pope for money loaned to help them gain more region authority

Why did the republic government feel so threatened in 1792-93? (10)

- surrounded by countries which disagree with what it's doing - alone in it's ideology

Do read the page on coffeehouses and their role in the Enlightenment. (9)

- taking advantage of public conversation; provided a social arena for discussion of events, politics, literature and ideas (men only) - coffeehouses linked customers to print culture by housing journals and newspapers - some coffeehouses would invite people to lecture on Newtonian physics, mechanical philosophy, ethics, and the relationship between science and religion - used as a place for Enlightenment writers to meet like-minded people - irony: although they provided one of the chief locations for public discussion of Enlightenment ideas (which fostered greater freedom in Europe), the coffeehouses could not have survived without slave labor (ex. sugar plantations)

How did Spanish nationalism develop after 1808? (10)

- taking attacks on the church with attacks on catholicism as a whole - hard to spread liberal ideas and Enlightenment ideas when you propose them with an army and a replacement of their king; Spain wants to be ruled by a Spaniard, wants the French army to leave, wants their king back

What was the Zollverein? (we will review in class)

- tariff union - got rid of import tax within the German Confederation (not including Austria) - made trade easier for those living inside

What was the Anabaptists' focus for religious reform? Why did both Lutheran and Catholic armies fight against them at Munster? (3)

- the Anabaptists were too radical for the Lutherans, and the Lutherans thought that they gave the new church a bad reputation - Catholics hated them for breaking away from the original Church - enemy of my enemy is my friend - Anabaptists focused on the Old Testament, didn't think that referring to the New Testament went far enough - literally wanted to live as Jesus and the Apostles did

The Holy Roman Empire is awesomely foreign to American students. How many autonomous political units did it have in 1400s? (2)

- the Emperor - Seven Electors (Golden Bull) - 300

What form of association was created to replace the Holy Roman Empire and Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine after 1815? (14)

- the German Confederation - loosely established union of the German-speaking nations

What specific changes were involved in the creation of collective farms? What were the results like? (19)

- the bedrock of Stalinist agriculture, which forced Russian peasants to give up their private farms and work as members of collectives, large agricultural units controlled by the state - peasant farmers were trying to circumvent the NEP by hoarding and killing livestock, lead to people starving in the cities - people claiming that a class enemy (i.e. kulaks) were responsible for the hoarding - removed kulaks from villages, confiscated their land, coercing remaining peasants into collectivizing - women sabotaged collectivization efforts often, doing whatever they could

What was war communism? Be able to give specific examples (19)

- the economic policy adopted by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War to seize the banks, heavy industry, railroads, and grain - ???

What part did the economic conditions of the late 1780s play in the success of the 1789 revolution? (10)

- the economy was horrible

According to Vergerio, why should education be supervised and organized by the government rather than the church? (2)

- the education of children concerns the government, and the government views it as such - radical idea for the time; education should be controlled by non-religious people (shift in ideas) - government should supervise Roman Leadership Studies because the studies are for the purpose of training leaders

What factors encouraged royal centralization after 1450? (2)

- the end of the plague left society in shambles, needed a strong leader - issues between nobles and peasants (see Statute of Laborers), nobles losing power to the point where they had to enlist help from the royals - some distrust in the church, questioning why the plague had happened and if God was important

CRUCIAL TO LOCATE CORRECTLY IN TIMELINE: What decades saw the ascendency of the non-noble elite/middle class in European society? (15)

- the sixty years before WWI (1850-1910)

What aspects of British life did Enlightenment thinkers hold up as exemplary? What Frenchman in particular called attention to the British model? (The answer to this second question comes later in this reading.) (9)

- the stability of Britain gave the appearance that Enlightenment ideas benefitted everyone - Britain gave toleration to everyone except Unitarians and Roman Catholics, relative freedom of press and speech, monarchy limited and sovereignty in Parliament, small army, less restriction on citizens - England was significantly more free than other nations and prospered because of it - Enlightenment thinkers regarded the changes in England as wise and progressive

Why were Europeans so eager to fight in 1914? (Freud's quote here is a bit bizarre if you know what 'libido' means). (18)

- there was so much tension in Europe built up from imperialism and inter-political conflict that countries were bound to go to war - eager to test out the weapons that industrialization gave them on other Europeans; countries that could actually fight back

Did the Nazis follow through in their promise to save the German economy? (19)

- they did - supported private property and private capitalism, subordinated all economic private interprises to the state - massive program of public works, eventually achieved full employment for Germany

How does de las Casas describe NAs?

- they live without any hatred or desire for revenge - delicate, tender, meek, docile, feeble → sheep - neither proud nor ambitious → land is poor and underdeveloped

How did Erasmus modify the goals and methods of classical humanism to create Christian (or Northern) humanism? (2)

- they want to recapture apostolic culture (reference to the Apostles/Bible) → modifying ad fontes to sola scriptura - returning to the "golden age of Christianity" (1st Century) - the "renaissance of the church" - use of colloquies (short Latin dialogues composed by Erasmus for his students) and adages (collection of ancient and classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue within Christian ideals of love and piety) - Ad Fontes → Sola Scriptura → 4 Gospels

Who joined the counter-revolution? (10)

- thinkers who opposed themselves to the revolution - nobles, ecclesiastics, some bourgeoisie members

Why did Louis16 and his family try to leave France in summer 1791? What result? (10)

- trying to flee to Varennes - flight provoked charges of treason; he was allegedly going to meet up with royalist counterrevolutionaries so that they could enact a counter-revolution - the treason charges are what got him executed in 1793

Note that Lenin is out of the picture in terms of policy management by 1922. Be able to describe how Trotsky and Stalin disagreed and why Stalin won the power struggle. (19)

- two emerging factions: Trotsky and Stalin - Lenin dies in 1924, stopped having a say in government after 1922 - each faction wanted to control the party and thus the state, but they disagreed over industrialization and the future of the communist movement - Trotsky = rapid industrialization, voluntary collectivization of farms as a means of increasing agricultural production, Russia could only succeed if new revolutions took place elsewhere and Russia needed skills of other nations to build economy - Stalin = slow instrializing, continuation of the NEP, more brutal than Lenin, had never been exiled unlike Trotsky, "socialism in one country" i.e. socialism could be achieved in Russia alone - 1927: Trotsky removed from all offices, ousted from party, expelled to Mexico in 1929 and murdered by Stalin's agents in 1940

How long did the French fight the Germans before surrendering? (20)

- two months total

When did trade unions become legal and popular in Europe? (15)

- unions became fully legal in GB in 1871 and were allowed to picket in 1875 - in France, they became fully legal in 1884 - popular by the end of the century

What were the six articles of The Charter in 1838? (13)

- universal male suffrage, annual election of the House of Commons, secret ballot, equal electoral districts and the abolition of property qualifications for and the payment of salaries to members of the House of Commons

How did this new factory system affect the family structure? (13)

- unmarried women and children overtaking what was previously the father's role in the factory (unskilled workers are easier to hire because they'll accept lower pay) - factory wages for skilled men became higher; supervising women and children who did not belong to their families - wives of skilled operatives were no longer working in factories

What socio-economic class was most hard hit by the 1923 hyperinflation? (19)

- upper middle class - used to being able to afford things, no longer could - rich could still afford things, lower class was used to not being able to buy food and having to struggle for money anyway

How did Cavour use the Crimean War to further Italian nationalism? (14)

- used it to bring the Italian question to the attention of the great powers

How is the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen an Enlightenment document? (10)

- using some of John Locke's ideas; liberty and property - freedoms and rights of people, the government looking after its people - popular sovereignty - civic equality - looking at Rousseau's ideas about men and women's separate spheres but still giving some rights to women

Know the biography of Martin Luther. (3)

- very well educated in the arts and in law - entered a monastery against his parents wishes, was ordained in 1507 - despised the phrase "righteousness of God" because it demanded a perfection that was unattainable by humans - faith without charitable service to one's neighbor = dead - good works were expected, but not because they earned salvation - posted his 95 theses against indulgences in 1517 - Luther challenged the infallibility of the pope and inerrancy of the church councils in a debate - urged princes to reform the church in the 1520 book "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation" - presented his ideas to the Diet of Worms, refused to recant when they ordered him to, was excommunicated

I expect that you know the outbreak narrative: events June - August 1914 and are able to explain why each nation joined the war. (18)

- war originally broke out with the assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand - AH went to war with Serbia - Ottoman Empire is shrinking, everyone wants some of the land in the Balkans - both AH and Russia want Balkan land, pits them against each other - Serbia is allied with Russia (the protector of the Balkan states), so Russia joins the war - AH, Ottoman, Bulgaria, Germany all ally to form Central Powers - Britain and France had been allied against Germany in the past, so they joined forces with AH - US started neutral, joined on Allied side after the sinking of the Lusitania in 1917 (same year that Russia backed out under Lenin) 1) The Assassination → On June 28, 1914, 19 year old Serbian nationalist shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne. When evidence was uncovered that high Serbian officials had plotted the murder, Austria sought German support to crush Serbia. Kaiser Wilhelm issued the infamous "blank check", promising backing for any action Austria might take. Serbia turned to "big brother" Slav, Russia, which in turn got a guarantee of French support against Germany and Austria in a similar blank check. 2) July 23, 1914: Austria presented an ultimatum to Serbia that would make Serbia a virtual protectorate of Austria. 3) July 28, 1914: Austria declared war on Serbia after pronouncing the Serbian response inadequate. Russia mobilized. 4) August 1, 1914: Germany declared war on Russia. 5) August 3, 1914: France declared war on Germany. August 4th, 1914: Britain declared war on Germany after German forced violated Belgium's neutrality in their campaign to invade France.

What is a soviet? (15)

- worker councils which controlled Saint Petersburg after riots broke out in 1905

Who was Voltaire and what was his contribution to the Enlightenment? [Pull from various places in the chapter.] (9)

- writer, lived in France, became wealthy off of his work and provided an example for young colleagues - (1694-1778) - Voltaire was a pen name, actual name was François-Marie Arouet - frequently offended rulers and royals; during the 1720s, he offended first the French monarch and then various nobles by his politically and socially irreverent plays and poetry - arrested twice, briefly imprisoned - went into exile in England in 1726 - returned to France in 1728, published Letters on the English (1733), moved to Cirey and worked/lived with Emilie du Chatêlet on Elements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738) - Candide (1759)

Know the history of the 1517 Jubilee indulgence. How authorized its collection and where was the money going? (3)

- you could buy an indulgence to essentially pay redemption for you or a relative who was dying or dead - since people died in the Crusades, they couldn't get their last rites from a church, so people started buying indulgences to ensure they went to Heaven - the money for the Jubilee Indulgence was going towards the St. Peters' Basilica (Rome) when it was revived by Pope Leo X - Martin Luther posted his 95 reasons against indulgences on the door of a church in Germany

Why is WWII an 'even more total' war than WWI? (20)

- you literally couldn't avoid being pulled into it - necessity hit every single civilian - rationing, war bonds, metal collection, filling factory positions, etc.

Why when you think of Jean-Jacques Rousseau should you think of a man walking his dogs alone in the woods? (Classnotes) Know JJR's texts and ideas. (9)

- Émile (1762); set forth a radical version of the view that men and women occupy separate spheres - women should be educated for a subordinate position to men - women served little purpose other than to be pleasing to men - didn't quite fit in with other philosophes, couldn't really line up his ideas with theirs - quiet, reserved, a bit of a "strange, isolated genius"

2 - italian renaissance 3 - humanism and reformation 4 - religious wars 5 - british and french absolutism 6 - scientifiv rev 9 - enlightenment 10 - french rev 11 - napoleon + romanticism 13 - industrial rev 14 - political realism 15 - second industrial rev 16 - intellectual change, feminism, racism, etc. 17 - imperialism 18 - russian revolutions, world war i 19 - interwar period 20 - world war ii 21 - cold war and rebuilding, quake of 1968

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First, carefully study map on p. 671 and remind yourself of the new nations in the independent Balkans and the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians in the 1870 and growing nationalism of the people in the region. (18)

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It is important to note the paragraph on the improvement of living standards during the war even if historians cannot explain it. It will create a positive experience in the minds of the British concerning government involvement and leadership of society and economy. (20)

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Just note that the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) is created along side the Three Emperor's League (Germany, Austria, Russia) in 1882 which meant that Bismarck had succeeded in his foreign policy goals until...a new German Emperor, William II, came to the throne! (18)

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NOTE WELL: By 1850, the textile industry was the only industry in Europe in which factory-based machine-based labor was the norm. One the one hand, urban artisans (metal-workers, tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, masons) benefited from the growth of cities caused by factory-based industrialization. On the other hand, liberal legislation against workers' associations (laws which forced free competition rather than guild protection of jobs and prices) as well as the slow-creep of specialization and standardization in even non-factory production (shoes) threatened the traditional guild monopolies. All non-farm workers in industrializing regions, whether working in factories or not, knew that the nature of work and compensation was changing. Nervous.

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Note that Hitler is not the first modern dictator of Germany. Notice that Chancellor Bruning ruled by decree from 1930 on. (19)

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Note that after the end of the war (Oct 1945), the French officially ended the 3rd republic (started 1870) and started the 4th republic in order to create a new, non-compromised government. (20)

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Note that both the Russians and the Ottomans reacted to the war with a series of reforms in which they sought to modify their absolute monarchy in very limited ways that they hoped would allow for a freer, more mobile and industrialized society without loss of power for the ruling dynasty. We don't learn the specifics of the Russian reforms here and we are not fundamentally concerned with the Ottoman reforms. You can skim that section on pp. 512 - 514, though I suggest that the Suez Canal information on p. 513 is significant to our coming imperialism unit.

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Note that the USSR, in keeping with the Nazi-Soviet Pact of the previous month, invaded THE OTHER SIDE of Poland on September 17, 1939 and that the USSR kept going into the Baltic states, parts of Romania and Finland. (20)

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Note the north-south split on literacy rates. Historians are still arguing as to the cause of this phenomenon. (16)

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Note the population boom after 1860! (15)

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The Cost of War estimates are conservative. (Probably higher.) (20)

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The important take-away from the Balkans Wars which preceded WWI is just that Austria and Russia really did almost go to war in 1913 over the Balkans. These events, which you have probably not heard about before, go a long way to explain why Austria and Russia go to war so comparatively eagerly in summer 1914. (18)

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The important take-away from the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 is that Russia came out of it angry because Austria had annexed Bosnia/Herzegovina but the Russians had been stopped from taking their promised piece of the pie: access to the Black Sea. Russians felt that British and French had let them down. This meant that in the future Russia would feel that Britain and France 'owed' them support. (18)

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The important take-away from the Second Moroccan Crisis is just that the British and the French, traditional enemies, were driven even closer together by German actions. (18)

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This reading on the experience of the USSR during WWII is probably the most important reading of this assignment in terms of understanding the events and attitudes of the later 1900s. The estimate of Soviet deaths is low; most sources now quote 27 million Soviet deaths in WWII as more accurate. (20)

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How did the rationale for British rule in India change over time? (17)

1. shifting away from forced "civilization" and religious oppression 2. accidentally offended both Muslims and Hindus, eventually lead to uprisings against English authority 3. officials becoming wary of interfering with Indian religions 4. British admin. sought to refrain from interfering with Indian religion, became more distrustful of missionary efforts to turn Indians to Christianity, worked more closely with Indian rulers

We know that early, rural factories were small, employing perhaps two dozen people and often those workers were still hired as a family. From 1825-1835, in GREAT BRITAIN, there was a shift in production organization. Larger, heavier machines fueled by steam engines were more often the center of large factories located in cities. The new machines created a new labor structure with a male elite at the top of the labor pool working the heavy machines or working as supervisors. These men made enough money to support their families without the wife or kids' working. The hundreds of lighter, easier machines in the factory were run by hundreds of unmarried women or adolescents whose work was low-status, low-pay. (13)

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You can skim the info on the Stresemann Years. The important take-away is the German economy bounced back pretty convincingly in the mid-1920s until the Great Depression hit. (19)

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You should know the Popular Front government in France, which was a Leftist (socialists AND communists -Wow) government that came to power in 1936. It only stayed in power for two years but it underlines the popularity of socialism/communism in WESTERN Europe between the wars. You should imagine France between the wars as a nation divided 50/50 between liberals/socialists and conservatives/native fascists. This divide helps to explain why France collapsed so fast against Nazi aggression in 1940.

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Note that the Legislative Assembly was dissolved and a new National Convention was elected in its place in September 1789. The National Convention ended the monarchy and made France a republic on September 22, 1789. (10)

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Why is it fair to say that English church did not change its' theology and rituals significantly until the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI, from 1547-1553? (3)

-moderate reformation

How did northern Renaissance art differ from its Italian parent? How did the center of artistic production shift within Italy over the course of the 1400s and early 1500s? (2)

-northern renaissance art was more religion focused;

Who lived in a 'family' in Western Europe during the Reformation era? (3)

-nuclear family, immediate relatives, never more than two generations in a household

What are some of the products and fuels that characterize the second Industrial Revolution which spread throughout certain parts of Europe from 1860 - 1914 (as opposed to being confined to Britain 1760 - 1830s as the "first" Industrial Revolution was? (15)

-the automobile airplane, bicycle, refrigerated ship, telephone, radio, typewriter, electric light bulb had all been invented by the 1910s

What motivated the New European Imperialism? [This is one of the most important parts of the chapter and it will complicate the understanding of economic, political and cultural causes that some of you learned about in 9th grade.] (17)

1. "civilizing mission" 2. some politicians and diplomats supported imperialism as a tool of social policy; having colonies was a necessary characteristic of a powerful European nation 3. many territorial acquisitions arose from the fall of the Ottoman Empire; tensions between Russia and Austria over former OE territory, the anticipation of the collapse 4. Euro. powers intruding on other areas to protect strategic interest; geopolitical assumptions of statesmen in Europe lead them to deeper involvement in Mediterranean and Africa

Why was Oliver Cromwell unpopular as a leader? Why did the parliament recall Charles' I son (Charles II) to the throne in 1660? (5)

1. Cromwell brutally conquered Scotland and Ireland with his radical Protestant army, carries out atrocities on Irish Catholics 2. when House of Commons tries to disband the expensive army, he disbands Parliament 3. Parliament under Cromwell abolishes Anglican Church, monarchy and the House of Lords 4. no direct heir to the throne (Cromwell dies in 1658)

Why was India Great Britain's most important colony? (17)

1. all of the goods that GB wanted 2. spices, textiles, cotton, opium 3. opium was then sold to the Chinese in exchange for tea 4. India provided military base and economic power; opium produced in empire

What factors encouraged the British Empire to move away from mercantilism in the early 1800s? (17)

1. capitalism and free traders; exchange of goods across borders and oceans with minimal govt regulation = trade would build upon itself and become essentially infinite 2. GB developed a trading empire due to manufacturing capabilities using the materials they gained from countries 3. opium trade to China 4. liberals believed that free trade fostered peace, but it did lead to Opium Wars

What is new about the NEW imperialism? (17)

1. more intentionally imperial; involved more direct political and administrative control over non-Western areas 2. New Imperialism occurred over a relatively brief period and involved an unprecedented number of nations 3. virtually none of the numerous imperial ventures of this era involved significant numbers of immigrants as settlers 4. during these decades, Europeans at home and in colonial settings exhibited a cultural confidence and racial arrogance that marked a departure from previous eras when many persons associated with European empires esteemed indigenous cultures or assumes that these cultures could be raised on the civilization ladder 5. despite its worldwide scope and especially the establishment of French rule in Indochina, the new Imperialism focused to an unprecedented degree on Africa

What was the 1628 Petition of Right and how did Charles I react to it? (5)

1. no forced taxes/loans without Parliament's consent 2. no quartering soldiers in private homes - Charles I agreed but then dissolved Parliament until 1640

**** Why did France attain absolute rule and English kings fail? (5)

1. nobles 2. religious opposition 3. $

In what year did Louis XIV begin his personal rule?

1648 - 1653 important in terms of controlling nobles failed rebellion that occurs when Louis XIV is a little kid; rising up against monarchy in Paris —> ultimately put down by LXIV's mother and Cardinal Mazarin (some people actually broke into the Louvre Palace) briefly afraid of the nobles and their rising up; probably why he is so intent to push them down with either the "carrot" or the "stick"

The only war that I want you to know in terms of date, cause and outcome is the last one: the War of Spanish Succession. This war was fought over the balance of power in Europe. How was that balance of power ultimately maintained?? (5)

1701 - 1714 cause: king of Spain dies childless, Spain in ~1700 is hugely wealthy with American and Spice Islands money —> king leaves his kingdom to Louis XIV's grandson (i.e. Philip V) --> Louis XIV has been fighting wars in the Neth. to "try and make France safe", is incredibly excited about having his Bourbon family in possession of Spain Britain, Neth., some HRE do not want it to happen, they go to war balance of power in outcome: Louis XIV's grandson does get the throne, but is beaten (mostly by the British) because France and Spain have to promise never to unite shows strength of Louis XIV, fighting one more than one European power and still gets almost everything he wanted, but also bankrupts France

Note that the National Assembly dissolves itself in 1791 and a new Legislative Assembly is elected to rule with Louis 16. Still a constitutional monarchy. Who were the two factions in the Legislative Assembly in 1791 and what did each side want? (10)

???

The National Convention, which led the Republic, was filled with Jacobins (republicans) who were themselves divided into two major factions. What factions and what did each faction want? (10)

???

What decades saw the construction of major railways in Britain and western Europe? (13)

???

What was contradictory about employment patterns for women in this period and what caused the contradiction? (15)

???

What was new about Lenin's course of Marxist communism? (15)

???

What were the goals of the Constitutional Democratic Party, founded in 1903? (15)

???

What were the goals of the Social Revolutionary Party, founded in 1901? (15)

???

What were the peculiar conditions facing Russian socialists as opposed to their continental or British comrades? The Russian Social Democratic Party (Marxists/communists) had been founded in 1898 but was, of course, illegal. (15)

???

Why did industrialization begin in Great Britain? (13)

???

Why was Charles I forced to call parliament in spring 1640? What was the result of the spring meeting? (5)

Charles I went against his father, wanted religious uniformity throughout England, Scotland Ireland provoked religious war with Scotland, needed funding called Parliament in 1640 to ask for funding, disbanded them when they refused to fund them (Short Parliament)

What was the Clarendon Code? Treaty of Dover? The Declaration of Indulgences? The Test Act? Whig Party? (5)

Clarendon Code (1661-1665): passed as a series of laws by Parliament to exclude Roman Catholics, Presbyterians and Independents from official religious and political life in England Treaty of Dover (1670): England and France formally against the Dutch because the Dutch are their mutual chief commercial competitor Test Act: series of laws served as religious tests for public offices and imposed various civil limitations on Roman Catholics and non-Christians following anti-Catholic sentiment brought on by the Popish Plot, the Whig party emerges as oppositional members of Parliament

Why was it a big deal when the Calvinist Fred III became the leader of the German territory of the Palatinate (and one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Emperor) in 1559? [Note his Calvinist son Fred IV succeeds him.]

Holy Roman Empire was Catholic but Fred was Calvinist

How were the Northern humanists different from the Classical Humanists of Italy? (2)

ITALIAN REN: - took place in Italy - more secular (non-religious) - anatomy, attention to human detail (humanism) - fresco (paint on wet plaster) - focus on Greece & Rome (domes, pillars, arches), ad fontes to Cicero - indulgence in worldly goods/luxury items - MAIN ARTIST: Albrecht Durer, painted non-elite realistically NORTHERN REN: - outside of Italy - without a direct link to Rome and Greece, it was more religious (ad fontes to Bible) - exaggeration of features and proportions - oil painting on wood - less immediate change from Medieval to Renaissance - focus on the sciences and mathematics - MAIN ARTIST: El Greco

**** What is the significance of the Declaration of Rights signed by the new monarchs in 1689? (5)

James II flees to France and William III and Mary II are declared new monarchs in 1689 recognized a Bill of Rights that limits the powers of the monarchy and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English Privileged classes —> monarchs subject to law and would rule by the consent of Parliament, which would be called every three years

Why did Louis XIV persecute Jansenists, fellow Catholics? (5)

Jansenists were a starting kernel of resistance to Louis XIV Jansenists were mostly from noble families, Revocation puts them down and boosts him up as an absolutist leader

The second or Danish phase of fighting started in 1625 and lasted 4 years. Who were the major players? What sides? Who was winning in 1629? What was the Edict of Restitution? (4)

King Christian(Lutheran), Albrecht(mercenary), Maximilian of Bavaria(Catholic)

You can skip the German Humanism paragraph but I would like you to read the short paragraphs on English, French and Spanish humanists. Be familiar with the names Thomas More and Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros and be able to explain how their work was part of Christian Humanism. (2)

MORE: - wrote the book Utopia (1516) as a means for coining the word 'utopia' to describe a perfect political system where policies are governed by reason - Utopia directly criticized Europe's current political corruption and religious hypocrisy → encouraging a religious reformation but only within the Catholic Church - served as a counselor to King Henry VIII of England, but after he refused to accept the king as a viable leader for the Church of England, he was tried for treason and beheaded (1535) CISNEROS: - a cardinal and a grand inquisitor of Spain, he worked on religious reforms → gained his fame by being Isabella's confessor in Castile - reforms on Spanish clergy included renouncing concubanism, residing in their parishes, and talking about the Gospels every Sunday during their sermons

Read the Nature as Mechanism section carefully. Important idea. (6)

Nature isn't mysterious

Why was Philip II of Spain reluctant to just allow the Netherlands to break off and become independent? (4)

Netherlands was the richest part of W. Europe

Why was Isaac Newton and John Locke's work particularly important to later Enlightenment thinkers? (9)

Newton: - their work became more known via an increase in literacy and publishing (ex. Emilie du Chatêlet publishing the Principia Mathematica in French) - the achievements of the Scientific Revolution (from Copernicus to Newton) persuaded natural philosophers and other writers that "traditions of thought inherited from both the ancient and medieval Christian worlds = incorrect, confused, needed to be challenged" - Newton's formulation of the Law of Universal Gravitation was an example of the newly-perceived power of the human mind - Newton's physics and mathematics gad portrayed a pattern of mechanical rationality in the physical world (if nature was rational, society should be too) - Newton encourages people to approach nature more directly, avoiding metaphysics and supernaturalism - emphasis on concrete experience (i.e. empiricism) became a key feature of Enlightenment thought Locke: - combo of Newton's physics + Locke's psychology provided the theoretical basis for a reformer's approach to society

The age of the religious wars was roughly 1550 to 1650. Why is did the wars start AFTER the Peace of Augsburg? Which Protestant sect led the international military and political defense of Protestantism? (4)

Only Lutherans recognized so other Protestants still fighting for their lives; Calvinists leading defense

How did political decentralization and the Peace of Augsburg in the Holy Roman Empire contribute to the outbreak of the 30YW? (4)

Peace of Augsburg only recognized Lutherans so everyone else still fighting for their lives

What was the "Compromise" of 1564 and who supported it? (4)

Pledge against the council of inquisition; orange supported it

What country did Nazi Germany invade on September 1, 1939 (in what became the first action in WWII because France and Great Britain declared war on Germany two days later)? (20)

Poland

How is the rest of Europe reacting to the creation of a republic and the execution of the king? What went down in Poland? (10)

Poland: - 1772; Polish leaders commence reforms to provide for a stronger state - 1791; group of nobles known as the Polish Patriots issue a new constitution that substituted a hereditary for an elective monarchy, eliminated liberum veto and established a new bicameral diet - adopting equality before the law and religious toleration - invaded by Russia because conservative Polish nobles didn't like the reforms; encouraged Russia to bring back the old order - 1794; Polish officers mutiny against their commanders in order to unite with Russia - Prussia, Russia and Austria all sending troops into Poland - Russian troops killing 10,000+ Poles outside of Warsaw in 1794 - Poles who were pro-Revolution fled Poland and fought with the French Rev.

Organize all of the Spain material (including Dutch Revolt against Spain) into a list of strengths and weaknesses of the Spanish monarchy after 1550. Perhaps a T-chart of strengths and weaknesses would help. (4)

Silver mines from South America, more money=more people, efficient military and bureaucracy , still in debt tho, dependent on Castile for taxes

What specific actions by the Spanish in after 1566 enflamed Dutch resentment and revitalized rebellion? (4)

Tenth penny(10% tax)

What were the main factors in the parliamentary victory? What were the years of the civil war fighting? What year was Charles I beheaded? What were the years of the 'Puritan Republic'? (5)

civil war years: 1642-1645 factors in Parliamentary victory: 1. alliance with Scotland (1643); committed Parliament to a Presbyterian system of church government 2. reorganization of the Parliamentary army under Oliver Cromwell; strong religious sentiment, willing to tolerate established majority church if Protestant dissenters could worship outside of it Charles I beheaded: 1649 Puritan Republic: 1649-1660

Know the causes and outcome and date of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (5)

date: 1685 causes: 1. desire for religious uniformity 2. as a component of divine right outcome: 1. backpedals on existence of non-Catholics in France 2. illegal to be a Calvinist in France, Huguenots either convert or leave 3. proves his authority over everyone, specifically religious authority

Who succeeded Louis XIV? (5)

five-year old great-grandson, Louis XV

When James II came to the throne in 1685, what were his immediate policy decisions? (5)

immediate repeal of Test Act (required all civil and military officials of the crown to swear an oath against the doctrine of transubstantiation) (1685) ((when Parliament hesitated he dissolved it)) issued another Declaration of Indulgence, banning religious tests and allowing religious freedom (1687) imprisoned seven Anglican bishops who had refused to to publicize his suspensions of anti-Catholic laws

What were the parlements? What were the long-term effects of their revival under the regency? (5)

parlements were one of the few regional forums that the nobility had; couldn't make laws

Why was Charles I forced to call for a second parliament (new elections) in the fall of 1640? How long did that parliament last (in theory)? (5)

reconvened Parliament later in 1640 after England lost the war, but this time on their terms in theory, lasted 20 years (1640-1660)

After the 'restoration' of 1660, what kind of political and religious structure did England have? (5)

returned to what they had before Cromwell and Charles I under Charles II monarchy, dual-house Parliament (House of Commons and House of Lords) Anglican Church brought back