AP Psych AP Exam 2020 Quizlet

retrieval*

the process of getting information out of memory storage that has been previously encoded and stored -how we later get memories back out

perception*

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

overextension

the use of a given word in a broader context than is appropriate -common for infants to call any woman "mama" because the infant doesn't know enough words to express something fully

Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson)

0-1 years. Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

oral stage

0-18 months Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing)

Glucocorticoids

Stress hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex in times of stress, increase blood glucose concentration and effect fat and protein metabolism. Ex) cortisol

semi-circular canals

3 tubes of the inner ear that aid sense of directional balance

phallic stage

3-6 years Freud's third stage of personality development; pleasure zone is the genitals; coping w/ incestuous sexual feelings (Oedipus Complex)

Validity*

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure, the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

modeling effect

learning a new behavior from a model

observational learning (social learning, vicarious learning)

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

delay conditioning

CS is present until US begins

Continuous approach

argues development is gradual Ex) social skill building

carcinogens

cancer causing substances

active self

comprises how we behave

body dysmorphia

distorted body image

Paul Ekman

emotion; found that facial expressions are universal

Hypertension

high blood pressure, can be caused by stress

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

speed tests

large number of relatively easy items in limited test period

Cell Body (Soma)*

life support center of the neuron

androgens

male sex hormones

self-determination

need to feel competent and in control

erogenous zones

pleasure sensitive areas of the body

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

discrimination threshold

the ability to distinguish the difference between two stimuli

cognitive development

the emergence of the ability to think and understand

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

storage

the retention of encoded information over time -how we retain info

moral reasoning

the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychoactive drugs*

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods through its interactions w/ neural synapses

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Hyperopia

a condition in which an image of a distant object becomes focused behind the retina, making objects up close appear out of focus.

semantic memory*

a type of long-term memory; the network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

beta wave

a waveform recorded by EEG that indicates alert wakefulness

Association Areas*

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking -link sensory inputs with stored memories -more regions in more intelligent animals -located in all 4 lobes

discontinuous approach

argues development is stage-oriented Ex) growth spurts, leaps of cognition

prosthetics

artificial body part replacements

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons Around 9x number of nerve cells May play role in learning & thinking

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Genes*

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; small segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein Each person has around 30,000 Can either be active (expressed) or inactive - can be "turned on" by environmental events (they are self-regulating & react), when turned on they provide the code for creating protein molecules

Reliability*

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

controlled processing

"explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious

Endorphins*

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. peptide neurotransmitter

anal stage

(18-36 months) Freud's 2nd pyschosexual stage in which pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

psychoanalytic theory of gender typing

(Freud) gender roles are developed by the unconscious process of conflict concerning their feelings towards their parents

Contingency Approach

(Robert Rescorla) the CS and US get paired because the CS comes to predict the US

person-situation controversy

(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)

Rene Descartes (1595-1650)

-Agreed w/ Socrates & Plato (innate ideas, mind distinct from body & lived on after death) -Disected animals & concluded fluid in brain cavities contained "animal spirits" -Spirits flow from brain through nerves to muscles, causing movement (was correct that nerve paths are important & enable reflexes) -Memories formed as experiences opened pores in brain filled by animal spirits

Carol Gilligan

-Asserts that Kohlberg's theory is sex-biased -Suggests that females, more than males, tend to view moral behavior in terms of compassion, caring, and concern for others Preconventional morality: Goal is individual survival Conventional morality: Self sacrifice is goodness Postconventional morality: Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or self

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

-underestimated abilities of children. •Preschoolers less egocentric than Piaget would suggest. • Cognitive skills may develop more continuously than he suggested.

biological psychology

-Emphasis on activity of the NERVOUS SYSTEM, especially of the BRAIN; the action of HORMONES and other CHEMICALS & GENETICS -A branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes -physiological psychologists work in this field Seeks to understand the interactions btwn anatomy & physiology (esp nervous system)

Psychology 1960's

-Humanistic psychology rebelled against Freudian psych & behaviorism -Led by Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow -Cognitive Revolution -Cognitive psychology & cognitive neuroscience; expanded upon ideas of earlier psych, such as importance of how our mind processes, & retains info to explore how we percieve, process, & remember info

Abraham Maslow

-Leader in Humanistic psychology -known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Carl Rogers

-Leader in humanistic psychology -Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

B.F. Skinner*

-Leading BEHAVIORIST -Rejected introspection, studied how CONSEQUENCES shape BEHAVIOR -Leader in psychology in 1920's-1960's -defined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior"

Stage 1 sleep

-Light sleep -The brain emits alpha waves--> consistent with a relaxed state of wakefulness -Time between wakefulness and sleep -May experience fantastic images resembling hallucinations (sensation of floating or falling - hypnagogic sensations)

descriptive methods of research

-Method that can test hypothesis & refine theories -Describe behaviors Ex)case study, naturalistic observation, surveys

correlational method of research

-Method that can test hypothesis & refine theories Associate different factors statistical technique used to measure the strength and nature of the relationship between two variables -assesses the degree of association btwn 2+ variables that occur naturally -Researchers do NOT manipulate variables -surveys (questionnaires or interviews)

experimental method of research

-Method that can test hypothesis & refine theories Manipulate factors to discover their effects

Aristotle

-Prioritized collection of data, intellectual ancestor of science -Derived principles from careful observation -Knowledge is NOT born within us, grows from experiences stored in memories

Ivan Pavlov*

-Russian psychologist who pioneered study of learning -discovered classical conditioning -trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Edward Bradford Titchener

-Studied consciousness using introspection (Structuralism) -Student of Wundt's -Introduced Structuralism to Cornell -Wanted to discover structural elements of the mind -Trained ppl to report their experiences (introspection) w/ diff. stimuli to the 5 senses -We know more abt ourselves than we can learn from external info

nature-nurture issue

-The controversey over the relative contributions of BIOLOGY and EXPERIENCE to the development of psychological traits & behaviors -Today's science supports contributions from both -Endowed w/ ability to learn & adapt -Every psychological event (thoughts, emotions) are simultaneously a biological event

energy senses*

-The senses of vision, hearing, and touch. -These senses gather energy in the form of light, sound waves, and pressure, respectively.

John B. Watson*

-Working w/ Rosalie Rayner, championed pyshcology as the science of BEHAVIOR -demonstrated CONDITIONED responses in a baby who became famous as "Little Albert" -Leader in psychology in 1920's-1960's -dismissed introspection, & defined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior" -DEVELOPED VIEW OF BEHAVIORISM

Freud's view of personality

-arises from a conflict btwn impulse & restraint -Result of our efforts to resolve this basic conflict (to express these impulses in ways that bring satisfaction w/o also bringing guilt or punishment) -id, ego, & superego

Feedback system

-brain -> pituitary -> other glands -> hormones -> body and brain -shows connection between endocrine & nervous system (nervous system directs endocrine secretions, which then affect the nervous system (the brain conducts & coordinates this process))

Benefits of sleep

-increases concentration -boosts mood -moderates hunger & obesity -strengthens immune system -lessens risk of fatal accidents

B.F. Skinner and language development

-lang development can be explained by learning principles such as association, imitation, & reinforcement -verbal behavior is a result of an evolutionary adaptation that allowed vocal musculature to be influenced by operant conditioning

biases in intelligence testing

-measure developed abilities, which reflect education and experiences -Pose questions that those belonging to the middle-class may have more experience with -In scientific sense, not biased b/c predicts future behavior for all groups, not just some

William James*

-philosopher-psychologist -Focus on evolved functions of our thoughts & feelings -Inspired by Darwin, concluded thinking, like smelling developed b/c it was ADAPTIVE -consciousness serves function (allows us to consider past, adjust to present, prepare for future) -developed FUNCTIONALISM unlike structuralists, believed images, sensations, memories & other mental events come together to make up our conscious -Harvard professor, "the 1st psychology class I ever heard was my own" -Taught MARY WHITTON CALKINS -Wrote popular textbook: Principles of Psychology

Patterns of Gestalt

-proximity -continuity -closure -similarity -common fate -synchrony -common region -connectedness

sleep cycles*

-repeats about 90 minutes, early in the night most time in stage 3 and 4, 2 and REM sleep predominate later -Hour after 1st fall asleep, leave NREM & return through stages 3&2 (where you spend abt half the night), enter REM sleep -As night wears on, stage 4 sleep gets progressively briefer, then disappears. REM & stage 2 periods get longer -by morning, 20-25% of night's sleep was REM sleep

List of monocular cues

-texture gradient -horizontal vertical illusion -light-and-shadow effect -relative height -relative size -interposition -linear perspective -motion parallex -atmospheric perspective

consciousness

-the mind somehow arising from matter, our awareness of ourselves and our environment -still mysterious

Psychology

-the scientific study of BEHAVIOR and MENTAL processes -less a set of findings than a way of asking & answering questions

3 main components of scientific attitude

1. Curiosity 2. Skepticism 3. Humility

Roger's 3 Needed Parts For Self-Actualization

1. Genuineness-person must be honest with him/herself and not put up fronts 2. Acceptance- a person must accept others and ourselves for who we are... Must give unconditional positive regard 3. Empathy-person should share another's feelings

Reasons why people do not support physically punishing children

1. Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten 2. Punishment teaches discrimination 3. Punishment can teach fear 4. Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope w/ problems

3 major issues in developmental psychology

1. nature and nurture 2. continuity and stages 3. stability and change

Francis Galton's intelligence testing

1884 reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, body proportions -on these measures, eminent adults & high-achieving students didn't outscore those supposedly not so bright

Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson)

56+ years reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure -will emerge w/ wisdom if view life as satisfying & w/o regret

Industry vs. Inferiority

6-11 years Child learns to be productive. If parents, coaches, and teachers respond positively then the child emerges with a sense of confidence

latency stage

6-puberty 4th psychosexual stage; dormant sexual feelings

melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Hawthorne effect*

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied.

multiple approach-avoidance conflict

A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both attractive and negative aspects. -Two or more alternatives have both positive and negative features

individualistic culture

A culture in which people believe that their primary responsibility is to themselves.

compensation

A defense mechanism whereby something is done to make up for something that is lacking

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

Masters and Johnson

A husband and wife team Studied the sexual response cycle: 1. Initial excitement 2. Plateau phase 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution period (which includes the refractory period)

language acquisition device (nativist approach)*

A hypothetical module of the human mind posited to account for children's innate predisposition for language acquisition. First proposed by Noam Chomsky, it is the instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce language.

preconscious level

A level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but of which can easily become conscious; can be retrieved when needed -directions to frequently visited places -automatic behaviors (riding a bike)

recall*

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

split-half reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

Correlation*

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Introspection*

A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings -Practiced by Wundt and Titchener -Used in structuralism -provided stimulus, asked to describe the conscious experience, then used to identify commonalities among participants' conscious descriptions

Algorithm*

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier (but also more error-prone) use of heuristics -step-by-step process -can be laborious and exasperating

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations as you imagine moving through

Hippocampus*

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. -if injured, cannot process new memories

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. -new explicit memories of names, images, & events are laid down via the ________ -damage to this area disrupts some types of memory -Is lateralized: 2 of them, one just above each ear -subregions w/ diff roles (associating names w/ faces, spatial mnemonics, spatial memory) -is active during slow-wave sleep, acts as a loading dock where brain registers & temporarily holds the elements of a remembered episode

Hypothalamus*

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature, sex drive), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. -activates sympathetic nervous system

acetylcholine (ACh)*

A neurotransmitter that slow heartbeat & activates digestive system, enables movement, memory, & learning -affects MEMORY function & MUSCLE CONTRACTION (esp in heart) Malfunction: when deteriorates -> Alzheimer's -Is located at every junction between a motor neuron & skeletal muscle -when released to our muscle cell receptors, muscle contracts (if transmission is blocked, the muscles become paralyzed - some kinds of anesthesia)

Experiment*

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors *(independent variable) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors -enable a researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by... 1) manipulating the factors of interest 2) holding constant ("controlling") other factors -seeks to understand cause & effect

Negative skew

A score or small number of scores pulls the mean down. Mean is lower than the rest of the scores. A curve or distribution of scores that has extreme scores below the mean that are atypical of the majority of scores. -most values are on the higher end

Positive skew

A score or small number of scores pulls the mean up. Mean is greater than the rest of the scores. -most values are on the lower end

16PF (Personality Factor) Questionnaire

A self-report inventory that tests for 16 source traits, developed by Raymond Cattell

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions. Psychological science evaluates competing ideas w/ careful observation & rigorous analysis

Big Five Personality Traits

A set of five fundamental traits that are especially relevant to organizations - if a test specifies where you are on the 5 dimensions, it has said much of what there is to say about your personalty (CANOE) Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism (emotional stability vs instability) Openness Extraversion

stage 2 sleep

A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles." -can still be easily awoken -lasts around 20 mins -50% of your night spent in stage 2 Body temperature decreases Breathing levels off

Narcolepsy*

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. -attacks usually last less than 5 mins -genetic causes (absence of hypothalemic neural center that produces orexin (aka hypocretin), a neurotransmitter linked to alertness) -Is a brain disease

arousal

A state of alertness and mental and physical activation

overlearning

A strategy whereby the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been initially brought to mastery. It increases retention

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it -keeps items in short-term memory

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level -When this state is disturbed, a drive is created to restore the balance

standardized test

A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.

Hypothesis*

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory -give direction to research by enabling us to test, reject, or revise a theory -Specify what results would support a theory & what would disconfirm it

incentive theory (pull theory)

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli. -Says early theorists overlooked the effects of pleasure, which can be an incentive even though it doesn't reduce a biological drive. -Harry Harlow (disagrees w/ Clark Hull) Ex) I'm full from dinner, but this stuff looks so good I want to eat it anyway

Arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation. -once biological needs are satisfied, we're driven to experience stimulation and hunger for information

systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

afterimage

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.

creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas; fostered by expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environments

dyssomnias

Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Ex) narcolepsy, insomnia, sleep apnea

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active -the order is somewhat arbitrary (ex: ppl starve themselves to make political statements)

Serotonin*

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal Malfunction: undersupply -> depression

Richard Lazarus

American psychologist who concluded that some emotional responses do not require conscious thought

Empiracle Approach

An approach that answers questions through a systemic collection and analysis of data. The scientific method of inquiry and observation through experiments. -objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer Let the facts speak for themselves

psychodynamic theory

Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces -childhood shapes our personalities

John Bowlby

Attachment theory. Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver.

Baumrind's Parenting Styles

Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, Neglectful

Confederate

Aware of the true nature of the experiment but pretend to be participants

Contexts of development

Bronfenbrenner's term for the interrelated settings in which a child grows up - micro, exo, & macrosystems Fundamental markers, including cohort, socioeconomic status, culture, and gender, that shape how we develop throughout the lifespan

Spatial coding

Coding Attributes of a stimulus in terms of the location of firing neurons relative to their neighbors. (Touch to foot or hand?) Where the sense is - you know if someone is touching your right or left hand. You can follow where someone is based on the sound of their voice

Telomeres

DNA pieces at the tips of chromosomes -prolonged stress -> shortened ________ -> older appearing brain cells (why stressed ppl appear older)

authoritative parenting

Demanding and responsive. Set rules and explain the reasons for them. Encourage discussion of rules.

Olds and Milner

Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using "self-stimulation" studies in rats

Mary Ainsworth

Designed the strange situation experiment in which she studied attachment differences by observing mother-infant pairs at home during their first 6 months -found that infants w/ sensitive & responsive mothers formed secure attachments, while infants with insensitive, unresponsive mothers were insecurely attached

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional). -as we develop intellectually, we pass through 3 basic levels of moral reasoning -do not easily accommodate moral feeling -didn't believe that people could skip stages of moral development.

Selection bias

Differences between groups before the experiment begins -occurs when selected in physical space (if you interviewed first 100 ppl to walk by, not representing ppl who don't have somewhere to be @ that time)

disinhibitory effects

Displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment

Insitutional Review Board (IRB)

Ethics committee most universities screen research proposals through

Descending fibers

Fibers that carry motor-control-info in the form of action potentials from the brain to the fibers of the peripheral nervous system. Also called efferent tracts.

Rudimentary movements

First voluntary movements performed by a child -rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, walking -primarily dictated by genetics

computational approach

Focuses on how computations by the nervous system translate raw sensory stimulation into an experience of reality Ex) a puzzle must be completed, 4 way stop

Franz Gall

German physician who invented phrenology in the 1800s

preconscious mind

Freud's term for what is stored in one's memory that one is not presently aware of but can access -thoughts are stored here temporarily from which we can retrieve them into conscious awareness

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

psychoanalytic theory

Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality -childhood sexuality & unconscious motivations influence personality

nature and nurture

How do genetic inheritance and experience influence our development?

Macrophages

Important agents of the immune system aka "big eater", identify, pursue, & ingest harmful invaders & worn-out cells

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction -the zone between what a child could learn with and without help

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Place Theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated -We hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane. Thus, the brain determines a sound's pitch by recognizing the specific place (on the membrane) that is generating the neural signal -High frequencies produced large vibrations near the beginning of the cochlea's membrane, low frequencies near the end -Can explain how we hear high pitched sounds but not low pitched sounds (low pitched sounds are not localized on the basilar membrane)

pineal gland

In response to signals sent by the SCN, produces melatonin (less in the morning, more at night), which helps maintain circadian rhythm.

negative reinforcement*

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A ________ ________er is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. Is NOT punishment.

Microsystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Individual's immediate environment Ex: Child's school place

School Psychologist

Involved in IQ testing , diagnosing learning disabilities, but also look at early detection of mental health problems and crisis intervention.

dual coding hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either words or images alone.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank slate at birth and experience and education, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

social intuitionist model

Jonathan Haidt's idea that moral judgments reflect people's initial and automatic emotional responses -moral feelings precede moral reasoning -moral reasoning aims to convince ourselves & others of what we intuitively feel

personal unconscious

Jung's term for that portion of the unconscious corresponding roughly to the Freudian id

Receptor sites*

Locations on the dendrites of a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmitter fits like a key into a lock.

Ruffini's corpuscles

Long-term pressure and heat receptors

third-force perspective

Maslow & Rogers perspective that emphasized human potential

appropriate developmental placement

The categorizing of students into their right classes based on skill

Right and left hemisphere emotions

Negative emotions linked w/ right hemisphere, positive w/ left

Behavior

Observable actions of a person or an animal

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when something is placed in the mouth

mental reality

Robert Sternberg, what we create in order to adapt to the world--serves to establish our personal identity -idea of consciousness

evocative effect

Scarr -The person's genotype influences the responses elicited from others Ex) correlation where individual's heritable behavior evokes a response. Association btwn marietal conflict & depression - reflects tensions that arise when engaging w/ a depressed spouse

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Somniloquy

Sleep talking that can occur during any stage of sleep. Usually will not respond to questions

opponent-process theory of motivation

Solomon's theory of the learning of new motives based on changes over time in contrasting feelings views emotions as pairs of opposites. Ex) fear-relief or pleasure-pain. When one is experienced, it triggers an opposing emotion after a period of time.

Thomas Bouchard

Studied identical twins separated at birth, Minnesota twin studies, studied 80 pairs of identical twins, including the 2 Jims (multiple studies showed they had the results of virtually the same person) Began a study that extends to the present

Inhibitory effect

Suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior

SQ3R study method

Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review

chemical senses*

Taste—gustation Smell—olfaction Receptors—classified as chemoreceptors Respond to chemicals Food dissolved in saliva Airborne chemicals that dissolve in fluids of the nasal mucosa

shadowing

Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard -message played in nonshadowed ear mostly ignored, but changes in that message can draw attention

interpersonal intelligence

The ability to understand and interact effectively with others

forward conditioning

The conditioned stimulus (CS) signals that the unconditioned stimulus (US) is coming; the CS is presented before the US -found to be most effective

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands -produces androgens & estrogens

Exosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

The environments that indirectly influence the child. Ex: Extended family, parent's jobs

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

germinal stage

The first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception; zygote undergoes cell division (becomes 64 cells) & implants itself in unterine wall

social comparison theory

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people -Leon Festinger

stroboscopic motion

The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all

expressive aphasia

The inability to produce language/speak ( despite being able to understand language) -damage to Broca's area

alexia

The inability to read or comprehend written language; caused by damage to association areas

Macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

The larger cultural values, economic conditions, and other forms that shape a society. Ex) coronavirus while in another country

Forebrain*

The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum. Thalamus-relay station for all senses but smell. Hypothalamus- regulates biological needs Limbic system - Amygdala- Fear/rage - Hippocampus- memory & navigational ability

brain

The mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system

tegmentum

The midbrain's floor -governs visual & auditory reflexes -a part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment (orienting to sight & sound) -movement & arousal

Frequency

The number of complete waves that pass a given point in a certain amount of time, determines the pitch we experience -wavelengths of light

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. -remains constant & is being measured

ventromedial hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces feelings of fullness as opposed to hunger, and causes one to stop eating. -lesion here -> obesity, death from overeating

p-value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance). -If p=0.05, we have only 5% chance of making a Type I error

Flynn Effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations -unsure of cause

embryonic stage

The second stage of prenatal development in which organs form, lasting from two weeks until the end of second month.

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Gestalt

The whole experience that comes from organizing bits and pieces of information into meaningful objects and patterns

Daniel Goleman

Thought of Emotional Intelligence : able to manage own emotions, is capable of self-motivation and self direction, recognizes emotions in others, and is able to handle various types of relationships.

nomothetic analysis

Traits, like the big five, that are thought to be universal

proprioreceptors

Type of sensory receptor that monitors the body's position in space.

hope and faith vs despair

Very old age added by Erikson's wife Revised view of wisdom. If you emerge successfully, you will emerge with a new sense of wisdom and transcendence of time.

strange situation

a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style; a parent/guardian leaves a child w/ a stranger & then returns

olfactory bulb

a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes, receives neural signals from olfactory epithelium

perceptual set*

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another -given to us by our experiences, assumptions, & expectations -influences (top-down) what we perceive -determined by our schemas that organize & interpret unfamiliar info

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Reticular formation*

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal (wakefulness & alertness) -Extends from spinal cord to thalamus -Filters incoming stimuli into other areas of the brain

action potential (neural impulse)*

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon -fired when neurons are stimulated by signals from our senses or by chemical signals from neighboring neurons

glutamate

a neurotransmitter tht enhances synaptic communication (LTP) may boost memory but have nasty side effects & clutter the mind

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of rice sized 20,000 cell clusters in the hypothalamus that sends signals that cause the pineal gland to regulate its melatonin production. Helps maintain circadian rhythym

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening -dilates/constricts in response to light intensity & inner emotions

Representative Sample*

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole group of participants whose characteristics fairly reflect the characteristics of the population from which they were selected

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

Oxytocin

a stress-moderating hormone associated with pair bonding in animals and released by cuddling, massage, and breast feeding in humans -associated w the common female stress response "tend and befriend"

equivalent form reliability

ability of two very similar forms to produce closely correlated results

productive language

ability to produce words, matures after receptive language

phobia

abnormal fear of or aversion to specific things

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

diurnal

active during the day, asleep during the night

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm -HIV, heroin addiction, alcohol deoendency

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

permissive parenting

an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control

Hebrew Scholars

anticipated today's psychology by linking mind and emotion to the body (ppl think with their heart, feel w/ their bowels)

Adoption Studies*

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

Forensic Psychology

assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants' mental competence to stand trial, and deal with other issues involving psychology and the law.

anxious-ambivalent attachment

attachment style in which infants become extremely upset when their caregiver leaves but reject the caregiver when he or she returns

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes; "Thinking about thinking"

How brain interprets loudness

based on the number of activated hair cells

Generativity

being productive and supporting future generations

set point theory

belief that brain mechanisms regulate body weight around a genetically predetermined 'set point'

Aristotle

believed the mind was in the heart

Ascending fibers

carry sensory information up to the brain from sensory neurons through the spinal cord

Plato

correctly located the mind in the spherical head

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display, learned

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. -gives us a way to ask infants what they see and remember

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. -represents the test-taker's performance relative to the average performance of others the same age

Monocular Cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. We depend on this to tell if something is 10 or 100 meters away (in this case, retinal disparity is slight)

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

need for affiliation

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships

Mary Rothbart

developmental psychologist--temperament is generally assessed on three scales: 1) surgency (amount of positive affect and activity level) 2) negative affect (amount of frustration and sadness) 3) effortful control (ability of a child to self-regulate moods and behavior)

Aserinsky and Kleitman

discovered that the eyes move rapidly during the REM stage.

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

light wavelength

distance from 1 peak to the next determines hue (the color we perceive)

psychosocial development

domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships -Erik Erikson

cognitive development theory

dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding -Critical Considerations: Does not address the neuroscience of dreams

lucid dreams

dreams in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming & can control them

otoliths

each of three small oval calcareous bodies in the inner ear of vertebrates, involved in sensing gravity and movement.

telegraphic speech

early speech stage (2 years) in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. -follows rules of syntax

ions

electrically charged atom -the exchange of ____ enables neurons to generate electricity from chemistry -fluid interior of a resting axon has excess negatively charged _____ -fluid outside the axon membrane has more positively chared _____

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

behavioral genetics perspective

field of psychology that emphasizes that particular behaviors are attributed to specific, genetically based psychological characteristics -takes into acc biological predispositions & the extent of influence that the environment had on the manifestation of that trait Ex) what extent risk-taking behavior in adolescents is attributable to genetics

humanistic approach

focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment -presumed that newborns could not see apart from a blur of meaningless light and dark shades

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness Occasionally caused by disease, but more often heredity, age, prolonged exposure to loud sounds

Carl Rogers

humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person -conditions of worth (other people's evaluations of our worth) distort our self-concept -incongruence

autokinetic effect

illusion, caused by very slight movements of the eye, that a stationary point of light in a dark room is moving

Hyposmia

impaired sense of smell, loss of smell

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

fixed-ratio schedule*

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses -once conditioned, animal will pause only briefly after a reinforcer & then will continue w/ a HIGH RATE OF RESPONDING Ex) coffee shops reward w/ free drink after every 10 purchases

Reinforcement*

in operant conditioning, any event/stimulus that strengthens the behavior it follows (strengthens = increases the frequency of)

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

anterograde amnesia*

inability to form new memories

apraxia

inability to organize movement; caused by damage to association areas

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

cognitive interview technique

increases accurate recall -people are first asked to visualize the scene and then tell in detail every point they can remember, and then the interviewer asks more evocative follow-up questions

autonomic nervous system reactivity

influences diffs in shyness & inhibition given a reactive autonomic nervous system, we respond to stress with greater anxiety and inhibition

primary drives

innate drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire, that arise from basic biological needs

relearning effect*

it will take less time to relearn material we previously encoded, even if we have "forgotten" what we learned previously

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning*

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

implicit learning

learning that takes place largely independent of awareness

Sport Psychology

look at motivation, emotion and performance

amnesia

loss of memory

retrograde amnesia*

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

behavior feedback

manipulating behaviors, such as posture, can also affect our emotions

afferent (sensory) neurons*

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord for processing -few mil in #

efferent (motor) neurons*

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands -few mil in #

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep Dreams are less frequent & memorable

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Nociceptors

pain receptors

Biased Sample

participants selected from a population whose members did not have an equal chance of selection. •Bias could be a result of sampling error, nonresponse error or convenience sample.

Proximity

pattern of gestalt When items are close together, you perceive them to be one

dichromats

people who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. -begin forming at preschool age -first coined by David Premack and /guy Woodruff

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

eidetic imagery

photographic memory -occurs in children, but most lose it b4 reaching adulthood

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

parietal lobes*

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position Parts dedicated to mathematical & spatial reasoning Includes somatasensory cortex & angular gyrus

internalization

process by which a norm becomes a part of an individual's personality, thereby conditioning the individual to conform to society's expectations -the absorption of knowledge into the self from environmental & social contexts

tactile receptors

provide sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration

genital stage

puberty on last (5th) psychosexual stage; maturation of sexual interests

flashback

recall of memory of the experience triggered by similar experience to a traumatic event

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period -found that until late in life, intelligence remained stable & on some tests even increased -Fault: Those who survive till end may be bright, healthy ppl whose intelligence is least likely to decline

taste buds

sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste

bias

sin of distortion; belief colored recollections (current feelings toward a friend may color our recalled initial feelings)

Zajonc; LeDoux Theory

some emotional responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal -especially simple likes, dislikes, fears, involve no conscious thinking (such responses are difficult to alter by changing our thinking)

depth cues*

sources of information that signal the distance from the observer to the distal stimulus

criterion

standard used in judging, the pertinent behavior

distributed study time

studying that produces better long term recall than massed practice -the longer the space btwn practice sessions, the better retention years later

Scaffolding (Vygotsky)

support of learning allows students to complete tasks they are not able to complete independently -changing level of support so both a challenge & not too hard

taste (gustation)*

taste buds located on papillae (bumps) The more densely packed, the stronger the taste. sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (MSG) -chemical sense -info from taste buds -> medulla oblongata -> pons -> thalamus -> gustatory areas of cerebral cortex & hypothalamus & limbic system

transient

temporary, fleeting stressors

instinctive drift*

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

pleasure principle

tendency of the id to strive for immediate gratification

Priming*

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response Subliminal messages can _______ your response to a later question

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Ex) hearing the word "rabbit", more likely to hear "hare" w/o remembering having seen "rabbit"

pupil*

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters after passing through the cornea

positive punishment*

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring Ex) fine, adding chores

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle -body temp rises in the morning, peaks during day, dips for a time in the early afternoon, begins to drop again b4 we go to sleep -light in the morning tweaks the ________ ________ clock by activating light-sensitive retinal proteins -proteins control ______ ______ by triggering signals in brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which causes the pineal gland to regulate its melatonin production

1879

the birth date of modern psychology, Wilhelm Wundt est. the first formal psych lab

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

drive-reduction theory (push theory)

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (reduce the need) -aim is to achieve homeostasis -Clark Hull

Activation (motivation characteristic)

the initiation of motivated behavior

Synapse*

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

social intelligence

the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully -proposed by Edward Thorndike

corpus callosum*

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. was severed in attempts to stop seizures and was successful

excitement phase

the phase of the sexual response cycle marked by changes in the pelvic region, general physical arousal, and increases in heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure, and rate of breathing

state-dependent memory*

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

memory trace

the physical record in the nervous system that preserves a memory LTP may be the closest thing to a _____ _____ discovered so far

saturation

the physical trait of the light wave's complexity

vanishing point

the point at which receding parallel lines viewed in perspective appear to converge. -objects present near this point are assumed to be farther

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. -How we get info into our brain -includes automatic & effortful processing -visual, acoustic, or semantic (we process info by __________ its meaning, image, or mentally organizing it)

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision & memory. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Physiological psychology

the study of behavior as influenced by biology

human factors psychology

the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice -we retain info better when our rehearsal is distributed over time

conceptual definition

the theory or issue being studied

glucostatic theory

theory that when our blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates a drive to eat to restore the proper level of glucose -Suggests that the hypothalamus monitors the amount of glucose or ready energy available in the blood. -As blood glucose levels drop LH stimulates you to start eating again. Insulin is also released to convert incoming calories to energy.

unconscious mind

those mental processes that we do not normally have access to but are yet influenced by in some way

cognitive processes

thoughts, perceptions, expectations

chromosomes*

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes 46 total 23 from mother, 23 from father

biopsychosocial

to understand humans, need to study how biological, psychological, & social-cultural systems work & interact

power tests

type of performance test with items of varying difficulty but with adequate time to take the test -usually extremely difficult in which it is unlikely that a person could answer all questions correctly

constraint-induced therapy

used to rewire the brain by restraining the fully functioning limb and forcing the patient to use the "bad" one

chaining*

using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills

physical self

who you are physically; including the concept of your own body, name, etc

Buddha

wondered how sensations and perceptions combined to form ideas

Nitric oxide

Neurotransmitter gas sends signals that affect chemical reactions inside neurons rather than binding to receptor sites. Formation of memories

hit

the signal was present, and the participant reported sensing it

left hippocampus damage

trouble remembering verbal information (can still recall visual designs & locations)

right hippocampus damage

trouble remembering visual designs and locations (can still recall verbal info)

aversive conditioning*

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

divergent thinking

a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems Used if many correct answers are possible Ex) brainstorming

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a subject learns to associate a behavioral response with an environmental outcome

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions

low road emotions

(especially simple likes, dislikes, and fears) travel on neural shortcut that bypasses cortex; fear-provoking stimulus would travel from the eye or ear (via the thalamus) directly to the amygdala (automatic) -enables speedy emotional responses b4 our intellect intervenes

intellectual disability

(formerly referred to as mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.

Charles Darwin

-Naturalist who argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies (reason behind emotional expressions such as lust and rage) -(1859) wrote On the Origin of Species in which he proposed the evolutionary process of natural selection

When is an observed difference reliable (when it is safe to generalize from a sample)?

1. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES are better than biased samples 2. LESS-VARIABLE observations are more reliable than those that are more variable 3. MORE CASES are better than fewer

identity vs identity/role confusion (Erikson)

12-18 years Teen seeks to determine who he/she is, what is important, etc. If the child emerges it will be with a sense of self and fidelity to this identity

Hermann Ebbinghaus

1850-1909 German philosopher; pioneering researcher of verbal memory -discovered the forgetting curve & that the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning -studied own learning & forgetting of novel verbal materials (memorized lists of random syllables,, found that the more times he repeated the list on day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to relearn the list on day 2)

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Erikson)

19-35 years Young adults blend identity with another human being (emotional intimacy, not necessarily sexual) If developed then the adult will emerge with love

Little Albert Experiment

1920 - Watson - classical conditioning on a 9 month old baby - white rat was paired with a loud clanking noise resulting in crying and fear of rat/other similar objects/animals US: Loud noise UR: Startled fear response CS: The rat CR: Fear

Exhaustian Stage

3rd stage of GAS (reserves depleted) -More vulnerable to illness or collapse/death

Scatter plot*

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation) -illustrates range of possible correlations from perfect positive to perfect negative -Form of correlational research method

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory Malfunction: oversupply -> Damage after stroke, migrains, seizures

Prototypes*

A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category. The more closely something matches our ___________ of a concept, the more readily we recognize it as an example of the concept Ex) robin & penguin both satisfy definition of "bird" but ppl more quickly recognize robins to be one

authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.

Midbrain*

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward. Area of the brain responsible for controlling motor movements Substantia Nigra- helps with smooth movements Reticular Formation- arousal Together the __________ and parts of the hindbrain other than the cerebellum are called the brainstem

EEG*

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. -allows psychologists to get an electrical picture of brain activity during various cognitive states/tasks -Invented by Hans Berger Advantages: Detects very rapid change in electrical activity. Disadvantages: Provides poor spatial resolution of the source of the electrical activity

conduction deafness*

An inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear, problems w/ the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. Causes a lessening ability of the ear to conduct vibrations

sensory adaptation*

An unconscious, temporary change in response to environmental stimulation -not controllable Ex)at first difficult to see in darkness, but visual system adapts

preconventional morality

Before age 9, most children's morality focuses on self-interest: They obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards. Stage 1: punishment & obedience orientation (morality judged in terms of consequences) Stage 2: Naive hedonistic orientation (judged in terms of what satisfies own needs/needs of others)

linguistic determinism

Benjamin Lee Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think -diff langs impose diff conceptions of reality

self-selection bias

Bias that occurs when people being studied have some control over whether or not to participate. -elicit responses from highly opinionated ppl

conventional morality

By early adolescence, morality focuses on caring for others and on upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules -Stage 3: If I do this what will people think of me? -Stage 4: I won't do this because the law says I shouldn't, and its right to obey the law. - Most prevalent among adults in society.

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history -discounted today but current thought that our shared evolutionary history shaped some universal dispositions

humanistic psychologists

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Description: People develop their personality by trying to reach their full potential Strengths: model was built in a therapy setting Weaknesses: concepts are vague and subjective, individualistic and western based and naive because it fails to appreciate the reality of our capacity for evil

Pheromones

Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.

Collective monologue (Piaget)

Children appear to be talking to each other in a dialogue, but they are really talking about 2 completely different subjects.

Artificialism (preoperational - Piaget)

Children believe natural phenomena are created by people, for instance that mountains were created by someone piling up a bunch of dirt.

animism

Children believe nature is alive and controllable by them or their parents. They often believe natural things, such as trees or the sun have feelings.

Alcohol

Depressant enhances the effect of endorphins. It also interacts with dopamine and prolonged use can lead to problems in ability to regulate dopamine levels -lowers our inhibitions, slows neural processing, disrupts memory formation, & reduces self-awareness

stability and change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?

the law of effect*

Edward L. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely -Elaborated on by B.F. Skinner's work

Sandra Scarr

Emphasizes the role of heredity, and describes how heredity influences the types of environments that children experience Genotype is the driving force behind development, determining how responsive people are to various opportunities in the environment. Genetic differences cause people to experience different environments, and thus to develop different levels and profiles of intelligence.

secure self-esteem

Esteem that is less fragile because it is not as dependent on outside factors, but more on internal factors like being secure with yourself for who you are.

Identical v. Fraternal Twins*

Identical- one single egg splits to create identical cells, genetically identical children (although have same genes, may not always have the same # of copies of those genes, most share placentas while some do not). They are much more similar behaviorally than fraternal twins. Fraternal twins- two separate eggs fertilized at once. Genetically different children.

distal stimulus

In perception, it is the actual object or event out there in the world, as opposed to its perceived image.

proximal stimulus

In perception, it is the information our sensory receptors receive about the object.

Moro reflex (startle reflex)

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations -brain labels a particular stimulus or experience, the expectation based on experience influences the perception of the stimuli Perceptions are influenced top-down by our expectations & emotions, as well as by the context Ex) Looking at a painting - using top-down processing we consider the painting's title, notice the apprehensive expressions, and then direct our attention to aspects of the painting that will give those observations meaning

Agonist

Molecule binds to a neurotransmitter's receptor and mimics its effects -some opiate drugs are _____ & produce temporary "high" by amplifying normal sensations of arousal & pleasure

Motion parallax (relative motion)

Monocular cue As we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move Things beyond a fixation point appear to move. Behind the fixation point, appear to go with you. Those in front seem to go backwards -distant objects appear to move more slowly while nearer objects appear quicker

Horizontal-vertical illusion:

Monocular cue Our perceiving vertical dimensions as longer than identical horizontal dimensions

Alfred Adler

Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" , children develop this b/c size & level of competence,and stressed the importance of birth order (develops personality) -childhood is the crucial formative period -ppl spend rest of lives trying to overcome inferiority (contribute to society) - if failure to overcome develop inferiority complex

Spinal cord*

Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain the information highway connecting the PNS to the brain -Ascending fibers & descending fibers -info travels to the brain by way of the _____ _____ (if the top of the ____ ____ is severed, would feel no pain/pleasure from paralyzed body but would exhibit knee-jerk w/o feeling the tap (to produce bodily pain or pleasure, the sensory info must reach the brain))

Common Region

Pattern of gestalt Elements located within some boundary tend to be grouped together

Common fate

Pattern of gestalt Objects moving together at same speed & direction appear as one

amygdala and fear

Plays key role in associating various emotions with certain situations -if damaged, will consciously remember conditioning but will show no emotional effect of it

visible light*

Portion of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy visible to humans Different for different species Dependent on wavelength & intensity Between 400-700 nm

Reflexive movements

Primitive, involuntary movements of infants that serve to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for more complex movements later in life.

Alpha

Probability that the result of an experiment can be attributed to chance rather than manipulation of independent variable. B/c always possibility, alpha usually se at 0.05 (statistically sig. if results <5% happened by chance)

Edward Sapir

Proposed the linguistic relativity hypothesis w/ Benjamin Lee Whorf

Bronfrenbrenner's Ecological Theory

Proposes that we think of the environment in which a child grows up as a system of interactive, layered contexts of development --- micro, exo, macrosystems

activation-synthesis theory*

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories -Dreams are the product of our awareness of neural activity due to sensory input while we're sleeping -Critical Considerations: This individual's brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer

REM sleep*

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. -lasts about 10 mins -occurs for 1st time an hour after falling asleep -rapid, saw toothed waves -heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid & irregular -genitals aroused -active motor cortex -cannot be easily awoken -dreams more richly hallucinatory, emotional, & story-like than stage 1 images

syllogisms

Reasoning beginning with a major premise, then moving to a minor premise, before establishing a specific claim. Ex) All politicians are trustworthy. Janet is a politician. Therefore, Janet is trustworthy

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

stereotyped ingestive responses

Responses by babies that involve sucking and smacking their lips if someone places a drop of sugar water in their mouths, and gaping and sticking out the tongue (and probably crying) if lemon juice is used -evolutionary response

Passive effects

Scarr genetically related parents provide an environment that is correlated with the genotype of themselves & the child -decline as we go through life Ex) an intelligent parent is likely to create a home environment rich in education but intelligence is moderately inheritable it's probably that the kid already inherited their intelligence but there is an intermingling of nature & nurture

active effect

Scarr the child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial -the genotype influences the person's selection of experiences Ex) if shy, you're going to select activities that reflect being shy (read by yourself in a park) an extroverted person may select to go to a football game instead b/c it better matches their personality

Obestatin

Secreted by stomach; sends out "I'm full" signals to the brain, suppressing hunger

child attachment patterns

Secure, insecure, avoidant, disorganized

MRI Scan*

Shows brain anatomy. uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue A diagnostic scanning technique that produces high-resolution images of the structures of the brain by exposing the brain to a magnetic field and measures radio frequency waves. -uses extremely powerful electromagnets & radio waves to get 3-D structural info from the brain Advantages: no radioactivity, high res Disadvantages: claustrophobia, remain still

ways to improve memory

Sleep more Activate retrieval cues Make material meaningful Use mnemonic devices Rehearse Always study Interference minimized

brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization*

Specialization of function in each brain hemisphere Right hemisphere may be more active during spatial and creative tasks Left hemisphere may be more active during spoken language, logic, and sequential tasks

receptor cells

Specialized cells in every sensory system of the body that can turn other kinds of energy into action potentials (neural impulses) that the brain can process -designed to detect specific types of energy

amacrine cells

Specialized retinal cells that contact both the bipolar cells and the ganglion cells, and are especially significant in inhibitory interactions within the retina.

Frederick Bartlett

Stated that memory is a highly personal reconstruction based on one's own beliefs, ideas, and point of view -research shows that ppl distort facts & circumstances of experiences -what we already have in our memory affects how we remember new info -we put info into schemas using assimilation & accommodation

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Stimulant a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. -triggers dopamine release -releases stored serotonin & blocks its reabsorption (can damage serotonin producing neurons-> permanently depressed mood) -dehydrates -> death -suppresses immune system -impairs memory & other cognitive functions -disrupts sleep

doctrine of specific nerve energies

Stimulation of a particular sensory nerve provides codes for that one sense, no matter how the stimulation takes place. A sensory organ has a certain neural connection associated with it E.g. If you apply gentle pressure to your eyeball, you will produce activity in the optic nerve & sense little spots of light.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Studied human cognition, how people think and understand. He wondered not just what children knew but how they made sense of the world. Identified 4 stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage

Martin E.P. Seligman

Studied learned helplessness be electrocuting dogs during specific situation by which the dogs would give up and not fight the shocks Emphasized positive psychology

George Sperling

Tested recall time by flashing rows of letters and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers

Incongruence

The degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual thoughts & behaviors

right hemisphere

The hemisphere that controls the left side of the body and that, in most people, is specialized for visual-spatial perception and interpreting nonverbal behavior Creative, understands simple requests, easily perceives objects, more engaged when quick & intuitive responses are needed, better @ copying drawings & recognizing faces, perceiving emotions & at portraying emotions through more expressive left side of the face, helps modulate speech to make it clearer, helps w/ sense of self -Damage greatly impacts social conduct & emotion processing

alternative hypothesis

The hypothesis that states there is a difference between two or more sets of data. the treatment did have an effect

tectum

The midbrain's roof -governs visual & auditory reflexes -a part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment (orienting to sight & sound)

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The ____________ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

resistance stage

The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome (cope w/ stressor), when there are intense physiological efforts to either resist or adapt to the stressor. -temp, blood pressure, respiration remain high -Sudden outpouring of hormones

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Experimental psychology

The study of BEHAVIOR and THINKING using the EXPERIMENTAL method

Socio-cultural Perspective*

The study of how situations & cultures affect our behavior and thinking -the environment a person lives in has a great deal to do w/ how the person behaves & how others perceive that behavior

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

The theory that the retina contains 3 different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color Ex) no receptors especially sensitive to yellow, but when both red-sensitive and green-sensitive cones are stimulated, we see yellow -Most ppl who are "color-blind" are actually color deficient (they lack functioning red- or green-sensitive cones, or sometimes both)

gate-control theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers that conduct most other sensory signals or by information coming from the brain.

Lymphocytes

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances -The brain regulates the secretion of stress hormones, which suppress the disease-fighting ________ -> stress weakens the immune system

Behaviorism*

The view that psychology... (1) should be an OBJECTIVE SCIENCE that (2) studies behavior WITHOUT reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). -Led by John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner -observation of the relationship between ENVIRONMENTAL stimuli & BEHAVIORAL response to do research. -Explanation of BEHAVIOR through LEARNING principles (conditioning)

Erikson's Theory

Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.

retinal disparity (binocular disparity)

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior (specialists in this field aka behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, phsyiological psychologists, or biopsychologists)

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research

flashbulb memories*

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event -explained by the emotion-triggered hormonal changes that occur -although noteworthy for their vividness & the confidence w/ which they're recalled, misinformation can seep into them

surgency

a cluster of behaviors including approach behavior, high activity, and impulsivity -1 of 3 scales to assess temperament according to Mary Rothbart

cochlea*

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses -located in the inner ear -when its membrane vibrates, the motion causes ripples in the basilar membrane that bends hair cells -according to place theory, we hear different pitches depending on the location the _________'s basilar membrane vibrates

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned Ex) salmon'd returning to their birthplace

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score The higher the ___________ ___________ the less similar the scores. Better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed b/c it uses info from each score -commonly used measure of variability

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information -acquired in the preoperational stage Ex) cats, dogs, love

Myopia

a condition in which, opposite of hyperopia, an image of a distant object becomes focused in front of the retina, making distant objects appear out of focus.

Down Syndrome

a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Desensitization

a decreased responsiveness to an aversive stimulus after repeated exposure

Pearson correlation coefficient

a descriptive statistic that describes the linear relationship between two attributes -can be positive, negative, zero -typically measured on a scale ranging from 1 to -1

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake -can be undermined by excessive rewards (If I have to be bribed into doing this, it must not be worth doing for its own sake)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishments

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

stagnation

a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past

autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind -underlying source of symptoms is poor communication among brain regions that normally work together to let us take another's viewpoint (impaired theory of mind)

Confounding variables*

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment -random assignment used to control _______ ______ Ex) age, weight, personality -unknown factor

illusion

a false idea; something that one seems to see or to be aware that really does not exist

general intelligence (g)

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test -a general mental capacity expressed by a single intelligence score

insulin

a hormone produced by the pancreas to regulate glucose

lipostatic hypothesis

a hypothesis proposing that body fat is maintained homeostatically at a specific level; states fat is the measured & controlled substance in the body that regulates hunger

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals -by the time each species is mobile, has the perceptual abilities it needs

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes). -err about 1/3 of the time

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

recognition*

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred -visualizing something & actually perceiving it activate the same brain areas

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people -without these, we'd need a diff name for every object & idea ex) "chair" includes many items: baby's high chair, reclining chair, dentist's chair

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

parallel distributed processing

a model of memory in which new experiences change one's overall knowledge base -memories change perceptions of things, you can learn something wasn't what you thought it was

multiple memory systems

a model of memory that suggests that the brain contains several memory systems, each of which resides in a different area and each of which serves somewhat different purposes

Antagonist

a molecule that binds to neurotransmitter's receptors and inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action Ex) Botulin (poison in improperly canned food) causes paralysis by blocking ACh release

iconic memory (short-term visual memory)

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second -for a few 10ths of a sec, our eyes register an exact representation of a scene & we can recall any part of it in amazing detail -our visual screens are cleared quickly as new images are imposed over old ones -part of the initial recording of sensory info in the memory system

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

negative affect

a mood dimension that consists of emotions such as nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end and relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end -1 of 3 scales to assess temperament according to Mary Rothbart

stimulus motivation

a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity -Motives that cause humans and other animals to increase stimulation and that appear to be unlearned

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior -The process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior to satisfy physiological or psychological needs or wants -Broken down into 3 sub-processes: activation, persistence, intensity

nucleus accumbens

a neural pathway that increases dopamine levels that run from the frontal lobes to a nearby cluster of neurons. This region lights up when people experience natural or drug-induced pleases. In case studies, electrical stimulation in this region of depressed patients has triggered smiles, laughter, & giddy euphoria

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

working memory*

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory -we process the incoming stimuli along w/ info we retrieve from long-term memory in temporary ___________ __________ -associates new & old info & solves problems -capacity differs from person to person (those who can remember the most despite interruptions tend to exhibit high intelligence & focus in everyday life)

Adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine aka adrenaline & noradrenaline) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired, during which the neuron pumps the positively charged sodium ions back outside, then it can fire again

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

explanatory style

a person's habitual way of explaining events/ reacting in diff situations, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific -can be either positive or negative

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

cocktail party phenomenon*

a phenomenon in which people tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby

Experimenter Bias*

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained unintentional effect that experimenters may exert on their results.

Assignment*

a piece of work or job that you are given to do

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior -what works as an __________ depends on our learning -An external stimulus that motivates behavior

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) -blocks serotonin -user's current mood & expectations color the emotional experience of the trip -has great hallucinatory effects but they are unpredictable from person to person. Adverse effects include severe short-term memory loss, violent outbursts, paranoia, panic attacks, "_____ flashbacks"

higher-order/second-order conditioning*

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. Ex) A big dog associated w/ a previous dog bite -> fear. If the sound of a dog barking brings to mind that big dog, the bark alone may make us feel a little afraid

TAT

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes -designed by Henry Murray

selective permeability

a property of the cell membranes that allows some substances to pass by while others can't The axon's surface is ___________ly __________ (a resting axon has gates that block sodium ions (changes when a neuron fires & sodium is allowed in - the gates open))

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

developmental psychologist

a psychologist who studies the emotional, cognitive, biological, personal, and social changes that occur as an individual matures

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Mutation*

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably Ex) ppl accept more responsibility for good deed than for bad, & for successes than for failures, most ppl see themselves as above average

variable-interval schedule*

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals -tend to produce SLOW, STEADY RESPONDING (b/c there is no knowing when the waiting will be over)

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

Learning*

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience 3 types: -classical conditioning -operant conditioning -modeling (social learning)

standardization sample

a representative group of people who take the test and establish the norms.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

emotions

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) consciously experienced thoughts and feelings

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. Occurs during the resting phase. -can last a few minutes to more than a day

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype -leads to lower performance

dreams*

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. They are noable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, & incongruities, & for the person's delusional acceptance of the content & later difficulties remembering it -8 in 10 ______ are marked by at least 1 negative emotion/event

CAT (CT) Scan*

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body -generate cross-sectional images of the brain using a series of X-ray pics taken from diff angles

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Heuristic*

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms -intuitive rules of thumb that may or may not be useful in a given situation Ex) instead of generating and examining thousands of options to find another word using the letters SPLOYOCHYG, could just exclude rare letter combinations

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response -simple spinal _____ pathway composed of a single sensory neuron & a single motor neuron (knee-jerk response) -pain ________ (touching finger to flame), b/c simple pain reflex runs through the spinal cord & right back out, your hand jerks away BEFORE your brain receives & responds to the info that causes you to feel pain -controlled by direct transmission from afferent to efferent cells at the level of the spinal cord -goes from sensory neurons to motor neurons

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered -targets mostly children (walk around, sit up, talk incoherently, doubled heart & breathing rates, appear terrified)

Sleep apnea*

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings -decreased blood oxygen -> wake up enough to snort -deprives sufferers of slow-wave sleep -> depressed mood, drowsiness -sufferers often unaware of their disorder -associated w/ obesity

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

a sleeping baby stops breathing & suffocates

Operational Definitions*

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables -used by scientists to check on their biases -Such carefully worded statements allow others to replicate (repeat) the original observations Ex) human intelligence may be defined as the score on an intellegence test

null hypothesis

a statement or idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong the treatment had no effect in an experiment

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1), reveals the extent to which 2 things relate -help us figure out how well 2 things predict each other Ex) how closely related test scores correlate w/ school success shows how well the scores predict school success +/- direction of correlation, 0 to +/-1 strength of relationship

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. -in personality, identifies clusters of correlated test items that tap basic components of intelligence -Hans & Sybil Eyesenck believe variations can be reduced to 2/3 dimensions (extraversion-introversion, emotional stability-instability)

statisitical significance*

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance -The goal is to get a significance level of .05 which means that there is only a 5% chance that your results were due to something other than your independent variable. -Does not say anything about the importance of the result Ex) If you graphed the data from two groups and the graphs did not overlap or over-lapped a little, then the difference would be significant. If the graphs overlapped a lot then the difference would not be significant.

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

insight learning*

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension -mirror the result of a person's own efforts thereby allowing the person to learn techniques for controlling a particular physiological response -works best on tension headaches

single-cell recording

a technique by which the firing rate and pattern of a single receptor cell can be measured in response to varying sensory input

Survey Method*

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group -form of descriptive method of research Flaw: answers can vary depending on the ways questions are worded & respondents are chosen

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

confirmation bias*

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence -a major obstacle to problem solving as we seek evidence verifying our ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refute them

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

a test according to Carl Jung's personality types in an attempt to figure out one's personality -taken mostly for counseling, leadership training, & work-development

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned Ex) AP Exams

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn Ex) college entrance exam

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

a test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death -thinking abt one's mortality provokes various terror-management defenses (ex: increased prejudice)

signal detection theory*

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. -recognizes 4 possible outcomes: hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection

olfactory epithelium

a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell

eardrum

a thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear; sound waves cause it to vibrate

elevation

a tingly, warm, glowing feeling in the chest experienced upon seeing people display generosity, compassion, or courage

Pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency Long waves have low frequency & low ______, short waves have high frequency & high _______

convergent thinking

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one Used if problem can only be solved by one answer

procedural memory*

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits Ex) bike riding, playing an instrument

shadow

according to Jung, the deep, passionate, inner person (including the dark and morally objectionable) part of ourselves

animus

according to Jung, the male part of the personality

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved Accepting yourself and your nature, while knowing your limits and strengths

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person, which is a critical factor in attaining self-actualization

respondent behavior

actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus (such as salivating in response to a meat powder & later in response to a tone) -part of classical conditioning

short term memory*

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten -primarily acoustically coded -typically holds abt 7 +/-2 pieces of info (w/o rehearsal, retain abt 4 info chunks) -_______-______ recall for as many words as can speak in 2 secs -recall slightly better for random digits than random letters & for what we hear than what we see

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

guilty knowledge test

alternative to the polygraph test that relies on the premise that criminals harbor concealed knowledge about the crime that innocent people don't -more effective, assesses a suspect's physiological responses to crime-scene details known only to the police & the guilty person

motor cortex*

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements certain sections control specific parts of the body on the opposite side

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve -abt half of those with ___________ display a binge-purge-depression cycle

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning -feeds our gut fears & prejudices

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

McGurk Effect

an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

punishment*

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows -can be v effective if done swiftly & surely

Double Blind Procedure*

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

partial report

an experimental technique in which participants recall just a specified subset of the study material, which showed that iconic memory has more capacity than was revealed by the full report technique

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

reflex

an immediate, unconscious reaction to an environmental event

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories; caused by damage to hippocampus

Case Study*

an observation technique in which one person or small group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Form of descriptive method of research -much of early info abt the brain came from studies of individuals w/ particular brain damage -may be misleading if individual case is atypical but often suggests directions for further study & show us what can happen Ex) Jean Piaget taught us abt children's thinking after carefully observing only a few kids

token economy*

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

Shaping (Differential Reinforcement of Successive Approximations)*

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior -used by Skinner -can be used to help us understand what nonverbal organisms percieve Ex) can tell if a dog can distinguish red & green by __________ them to respond to one stimulus & not to another, then we know they can perceive the difference

critical period

an optimal period when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development -a time during which a skill/ability must develop or may not develop as well

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it Ex) if sea slug gets continually squirted, its response of protectively withdrawing its gills diminishes. But if sea slug repeatedly receives an electric shock just after being squirted - its withdrawal response diminishes

Sternberg's Triarchic Intelligence Theory

analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence (everyday tasks)

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

oval window

beginning of the inner ear, membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

theta waves

brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep

subliminal messages*

brief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold

tyranny of choice

brings information overload and a greater likelihood that we will feel regret over some of the unchosen options

protein molecules

building blocks of physical development; genes provide the code for their creation

papillae

bumps on tongue

Neurotransmitters*

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between. specific ______________ may have particular effects on behavior & emotions as a particular pathway in the brain may use only 1 or 2 _____________ -Release is triggered when the action potential reaches the terminals @ the axon's end -When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse & bind to receptor sites on the recieving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse -they unlock tiny channels @ the recieving site & electrically charged atoms flow in, exciting or inhibiting the recieiving neuron's readiness to fire

excitatory neurotransmitters*

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing (like pushing a neuron's accelerator)

Neuromodulators

chemicals released in the nervous system that influence the sensitivity of the receiving neuron to neurotransmitters -strengthen the synapses btwn sensory neurons & motor neurons

Vygotsy's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

child as apprentice to expert adults; scaffolding Maintained that human infants come equipped with basic skills such as perception, the ability to pay attention, and certain capacities of memory not unlike those of many other animal species -Saw a strong connection among social experience, speech, and cognitive development

contiguity theory

classical conditioning is based on the association in time of the CS prior to the UCS

Kurt Lewin

classified conflicts into four types: approach-approach avoidance-avoidance approach-avoidance multiple approach--avoidance

Belief bias/belief perseverance*

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited -often fuels social conflict -considering the opposite decreases this -why it takes more compelling evidence to change a belief than to create one

Temporal Coding

coding attributes of a stimulus in terms of changes in the timing of the neural firing. (neurons firing faster for bright lights than dim lights) How quickly the neurons are firing - stronger sensations cause quicker firing while smaller sensations cause slower firing

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time - most difficult when attending to 2+ stimuli that activate the same sense

social self

concept of self as reflected in social interactions with others

superodinate concept

concepts that are v broad & encompasses a lrg group of items Ex) food

Basic Concepts

concepts that have a moderate number of instances and that are easier to acquire than those having few or many instances Ex) bread

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects -A single event has both attractive & unattractive features

levels of consciousness*

conscious, preconscious, unconscious, nonconscious -terms used to describe alterations of consciousness caused by injury, disease, or substances such as medication, drugs, or alcohol -different forms can occur spontaneously (daydreaming), or can be physiologically (hallucinations) or psychologically (hypnosis) induced

Wernicke's area*

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe Damage to this area disrupts understanding, will say meaningless words

transduction*

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. Ex) eyes receive light energy & ________ into neural messages that the brain processes into what we consciously see

Charles Spearman

creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept & helped develop factor analysis - intelligence as single factor -those who score high in one area, such as verbal intelligence, usually score higher than avg in other areas -A common skill set underlies all of our intelligent behavior

Standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

smell (olfaction)*

depends on chemicals emitted by substance (chemical sense) -doesn't stop at or is relayed by the thalamus -> more direct path to the cerebral cortex

retinal convergence

depth cue that results from the fact that your eyes must turn inward slightly to focus on near objects

Quantitative Psychology

develop and use statistical tools to analyze research data

PYY

digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain, suppresses appetite

information processing theory*

dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories -Critical Considerations: But why do we sometimes dream about things we have not experienced?

depressants*

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

K complexes

during sleep, periods of greater wave amplitude (can be response to sound); during Stage 2 sleep

Neural firing*

electrochemical process where electricity travels within the cell and neurotransmitters travel between cells and the synapse.

catharsis

emotional release; the ___________ hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

maturationists

emphasize the role of genetics on growth and development on the body, and particularly on the nervous system -greater preprogrammed physiological development of the brain -> more complex conceptualization & reasoning

life-span approach

emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood, development is not a process w/ a clear ending

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort -often produces durable & accessible memories Ex) the concepts in this unit

emotional appraisal

evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or situation -emotions arise when we evaluate an event as beneficial or harmful to our well-being, whether we truly know it is or not

culture

everything shared by a group & transmitted across generations

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. -the more expensive the placebo, the more "real" it seems

percentile

express the standing of one score relative to all other scores in a set of data -common descriptive statistic -frequently used when reporting scores on standardized tests

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

stream of thought

flow of thoughts in the conscious mind. The full range of thoughts that one can be aware of can form the content of this stream, not just verbal thoughts. -how William James identified consciousness

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

placenta

formed the zygote's outer cells attached to the uterine wall, transfers nutrients & oxygen from mother to fetus -screens out many potentially harmful substances (but not teratogens)

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

long-term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation -physiological change correlates w/ a relatively stable change in behavior as a result of experience

2 pt threshold

how far apart 2 points need to be before they are perceived as 2 points rather than one

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the stage (0-2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities -develop object permanence and stranger anxiety -develop goal-oriented behavior (may roll over to reach a toy)

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Manifests in 3 ways: animism, collective monologues, artificialism

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 -6 /7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic -Beginnings of symbolic representation (representational thought) -egocentrism -artificialism -animism •no understanding of conservation • Theory of Mind

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events -conservation -mathematical transformations -grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations -reversibility

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts -Can deal with hypothetical situations

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others -semantics and syntax

Morphemes*

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word Ex) the words "I" and "a" Ex) include prefixes and suffixes (pre, ed)

Neutral Stimulus*

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (A stimulus that originally has no meaning)

unconditioned stimulus (US)*

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. Ex) the food in Pavlov's experiment

conditioned stimulus (CS)*

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. Ex) the tone in Pavlov's experiment -aka neutral stimulus

discrimination*

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus Ex) confronted by a guard dog -> heart racing confronted by a guide dog -> no heart racing

conditioned response (CR)*

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Ex) Salivation in response to the tone was conditional upon the dog's learning of the association btwn the tone & the food

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Phonemes*

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Ex) the sound of the letter "k" -changes in ________ produce changes in meanings -consonant ________ carry more meaning than vowel _______

variable-ratio schedule*

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Ex) slot machines -produces HIGH RATES OF RESPONDING (although lower than fixed-ratio) b/c reinforcers increase as the # of responses increase

fixed-interval schedule*

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed -pigeons peck a key more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near, producing a CHOPPY STOP-START PATTERN rather than steady rate of response

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement) Ex)If experimenter reinforced a pigeon for pecking after seeing a human face but not other images, the pigeon learns to recognize human faces. In this case, a face is a ________ ________

reinforcement schedules*

in operant conditioning, rules that determine how and when certain responses will be reinforced -the frequency with which an organism receives reinforcement for a given type of response

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories -central to Freud's psychology -became a part of psychology's lore (increasing #'s of researchers think it never occurs)

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

successive approximations

in the operant-conditioning procedure of shaping, behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response. -You reward responses that are ever-closer & closer to the final desired behaviors & you ignore all other responses

color blindness*

inability to see some or all colors -passed down by mothers on x chromosome -> more common in males -diff kinds: red-green, blue-yellow, total -lack functioning red- or green-sensitive cones, or sometimes both

receptive aphasia

inability to understand spoken or written words -damage to Wernicke's area

agraphia

inability to write; caused by damage to association areas

positive reinforcement*

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A __________ __________er is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

infancy - trust vs mistrust toddlerhood - autonomy vs shame and doubt preschool - initiative vs guilt elementary school - industry vs inferiority adolescence - identity vs role confusion young adulthood - intimacy vs isolation middle adulthood - generativity vs stagnation late adulthood - integrity vs despair

novelty-preference procedure

infants are more likely to pay attention to new objects/people than those they've seen before

avoidant attachment

infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

dopamine*

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion Malfunction: -lack -> Parkinson's -excess -> Schizophrenia

myelin sheath*

insulates the axons of some neurons and helps speed their impulses; a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next -new ______ laid down until 25 yrs old (growing judgement, efficiency, self-control) -degeneralitve _______ ______ -> multiple sclerosis

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas Ex) having a schema for cow, a toddler may call all 4-legged animals cows

Hypothalamus

interprets three types of information: Level of sugar in blood Amount of food in stomach Body temperature

representativeness heuristic*

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information Ex) hearing someone likes to read poetry, more likely to guess they are a professor of classics than a truck driver b/c better represents our idea of a professor

selection effect

kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests

stimulus generalization

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Ex) Eat a peach and get sick. You never want to eat another peach, but now you also don't want to eat tangerines

state of consciousness

level of awareness of objects and events in the external world, and of our sensations, mental experiences and own existence at any given moment -enables us to evaluate environment & process info through mind while being aware of this complex process

unconscious level

level of consciousness that deal w/ automatic processes (breathing, beating heart) -occurs due to brain's commands but is not happening w/ conscious intervention

psychophysiological illness

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

Pons*

located above the medulla as part of the brainstem and is involved in regulating body movement -a WAY STATION (passes neural info from one brain hemisphere to another) -implicated In REM sleep

normal distribution determining factors

mean - determines location of center of graph standard deviation - determines height & width of graph (when large - short & wide, when small - tall & narrow) bell-shaped curve

mnemonic devices*

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices -some rely on both acoustic & visual aids -can help organize material for our later retrieval

imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding -we more easily remember concrete words, which lend themselves to visual mental images, than we do abstract, low-imagery words

Henry Murray

motivation based on biology; individual differences and environments can cause motivations and needs to be expressed in many different ways

maturation readiness

must be physiologically ready before a child can be taught something

Learned Taste Aversions (Garcia Effect)*

negative reaction to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness, example of classical conditioning -Example of how species' predispositions prepare it to learn associations that advance its survival Ex) rats if sickened several hours after eating something will avoid that flavor (not sights & sounds) (violated notion that the US must follow the CS). However, birds, that hunt by sight sill develop aversions to sight of tainted food (shows conditioning is stronger & speedier when the CS is ecologically relevant)

feature detectors*

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement -pass info to other cortical areas where teams of cells (supercell clusters) respond to more complex patterns Ex) when driving, anticipate the movement of other ppl & cars

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs -where most of our complexity resides -billions & billions of ___________

Substance P

neuropeptide that alerts the spinal cord to the presence of a painful stimulus

neonate

newborn baby; equipped w/ some reflexes (sucking, palmar, babinski, head-turning (rooting), moro, orienting)

descriptive statistics*

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency (a single score that represents a whole set of scores) and measures of variation.

inferential statistics*

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

specialized movement stage

occurs 7-14; children learn to apply fundamental movements to a specific task- e.g. playing basketball -subdivided into transitional substrate & application substage

contralateral shift

occurs at the level of the thalamus; process in which much of the sensory input from one side of the body travels to the opposite side of the brain

fundamental movement

occurs between 2-7. Child learns to manipulate body through actions such as running, jumping, throwing, catching.

serial processing

occurs when the brain computes information step-by-step in a methodical and linear matter

visual sensation

occurs when the eye receives light input from the outside world

Down Syndrome

occurs when there are 3 copies of the 21st chromosome, which generally causes some degree of intellectual disability

Reconstruction

occurs when we fit together pieces of an event that seem likely

clinical research

often takes the form of case studies

orgasm

one of the phases of the sexual response cycle; characterized by observed muscle contractions all over the body and further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates, followed by ejaculation in men and the positioning of the uterus to receive sperm in women -facilitates conception

opiates*

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety, can induce sleep -pupils constrict, breathing slows, lethargy -sometimes considered depressants -include narcotics (Opium, morphine, heroin, codeine)

vestibular sacs

organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body's sense of balance, have receptors sensitive to tilting

Gardner's Multiple (Eight) Intelligences/ Gardner's intelligence theory

our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts -defended by savant syndrome & those who experienced brain damage n have some abilities damaged while not others Aptitudes: - Linguistic - Logical-mathematical - Musical - Spatial - Bodily-kinesthetic - Intrapersonal (self) - Interpersonal (other ppl) - Naturalist

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

consciousness*

our awareness of ourselves and our environment -responsible for monitoring & controlling (plans responses to info gathered by monitoring)

Adaptability

our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changing circumstances

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience -we adjust our "neutral" levels (the points at which sounds seem neither loud nor soft, temps neither hot nor cold, events neither pleasant or unpleasant) based on our experience. We then notice & react to variations up or down from these levels -if our current condition increases, we feel an initial surge of pleasure. We then adapt to this new level of achievement, come to consider it normal, and require something even better to give us another surge of happiness

serial position effect (curve)*

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Further illustrates the benefits of rehearsal -recency effect & primacy effect

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are -developed by about the age of 12

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

lightness constancy (aka brightness constancy)

perceiving the same lightness for objects, even if retinal image changes; perceived lightness depends on relative luminance

Motion detection

perception of motion, either through the perception of its changing position, or through how we move our heads to follow the stimuli

sleep*

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

encoding specificity

phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play -Imitate based on reinforcements & punishments that we (imitators) or others (models) receive or do not receive -will immitate ppl like us, who we see as successful or admirable

optic chiasm

point at which optic nerve fibers cross in the brain

storage decay

poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay (forgetting curve)

occipital lobes*

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields from here, visual info goes to other areas of the brain that specialize in certain tasks (identifying words, detecting emotions, recognizing faces) Includes primary visual cortex

temporal lobes*

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear any sound you hear is processed by auditory cortex here responsible for language and comprehension Includes auditory cortex & Wernicke's area (Left hemisphere)

attentional resource theories

posit that we have only a fixed amount of attention, and that this resource can be divided up as is required in a given situation

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

massed practice (cramming)

practice that can produce speedy, short term learning and high feelings of confidence -does not produce strong long-term recall

gender typing

process by which individuals acquire the traits behaviors, attitudes, preferences, and interests that the culture considers appropriate for their biological sex

Sampling*

process by which participants are selected

psychosexual development

process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life -the development of an awareness of one's own sexuality, including the identification of the self w/ a particular gender

Lewis Terman

professor at Stanford who revised the Binet test for Americans. The test then became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. He is also known for his longitudinal research on gifted kids.

L.L. Thurstone

proposed that intelligence consisted of 7 different primary mental abilities (word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory) -his 7 mental abilities show a tendency to cluster (suggests underlying g factor)

levels of processing model*

proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes -a view of memory stating how well something is remembered depends on the degree to which incoming info is mentally processed

Leptin

protein secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

CREB

protein that can switch genes on/off with memory and connection of memories -boosting ________ production may -> increased production of proteins that help reshape synapses & consolidate a short-term memory into a long-term memory

Hallucinogens (psychedelics)

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Sublimation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Rationalization

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

cognitive psychologists

psychologists who study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information -study the logical & illogical ways in which we create concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgements

Basic Research*

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

stages

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development; patterns of behavior that occur in a fixed sequence

deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

cold fibers

receptor cells that respond to a cooling of the skin

Cannaboid receptors

receptors located in the brain's frontal lobes, limbic system, motor cortex, responsible for naturally regulating mood, memory, appetite, pain, and emotions

Dishabituation

recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation -a change in the stimulus causes us to notice it again -also occurs when stimulus is removed then re-presented

Insomnia*

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep -effects 1 in 10 adults & 1 in 4 older adults -sleeping pills can make it worse

Hypogeusia

reduced ability to taste, loss of taste

Intensity (motivation characteristic)

refers to the focused energy and attention applied in order to achieve a goal or complete a project

Alfred Kinsey

regarded by some as the father of the scientific study of human sexuality. Published a series of reports which described common sexual behaviors in the US attempted to use the scientific method to study sex Showed us that our perceptions about what others are doing are a whole lot different than our reality.

physiological function theory

regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways -Critical Considerations: This may be true, but it does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement Ex) slot machines, occasionally giving in to children's tantrums reinforces the tantrums

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs -learning occurs rapidly, which makes continuous reinforcement preferable until a behavior is mastered -extinction occurs rapidly (when reinforcement stops, behavior soon stops) -Rarely occurs in real life

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future. Stronger when there are cues. E.g. an older person may require to write down to take pills three times a day. -time-based activities more difficult

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances (if other researchers recreate a study w/ diff participants & materials & get similar results, then confidence in the finding's reliability grows)

possible selves

representations of what we could become, what we would like to become, and what we are afraid of becoming -motivates us (having a clear vision -> acheivement)

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps

Thermoreceptors

respond to changes in temperature

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration

Merkel's disks

respond to light pressure

Mechanoreceptors

respond to touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, and itch

Participant (Reponse) Bias*

respondents answer questions in the way they think the questioner wants them to answer rather than according to their true beliefs.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory*

retention independent of conscious recollection Includes: procedural memory, priming, classical conditioning Ex)having read a story once, they will read it faster a second time -learning how to do something without being aware you learned it -ppl w/ amnesia can learn new skills

cones*

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina (around fovea) and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. -able to detect fine detail b/c direct connections to visual cortex

rods*

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond located past the retina's outer layer

immediate reinforcer

rewarded IMMEDIATELY for a behavior (it's all about the short run) -small but immediate consequences are sometimes more alluring than big but delayed consequences Ex) skipping school and enjoying time with friends

extrinsic motivators

rewards received for accomplishments that are outside ourselves very effective for a short amount of time -The desire to perform an act to gain a reward or to avoid an undesirable consequence

intrinsic motivators

rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction The desire to perform an act because it is satisfying or pleasurable in and of itself

correct rejection

rightly stating that no stimulus exists

well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

binge eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

suggesibility

sin of distortion; the lingering effects of misinformation (a leading question later becomes a young child's false memory)

musical intelligence

skills in tasks involving music

hair cells

specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane

stressors

specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being

3 criteria of psychological tests

standardization, reliability, validity

norms

standards of performance against which anyone who takes a given test can be compared

Cocaine

stimulant a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria Very addictive because it acts like amphetamine. The quick & powerful effect on dopamine may account for its addictive nature -enters bloodstream quickly -increased aggression May lead to: -emotional disturbances -suspiciousness -convulsions -cardiac arrest -respiratory failure

Methamphetamine

stimulant a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels -highly addictive -triggers release of dopamine

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory -bits of info that can serve as anchor points you can use to access the target info when you want to retrieve it later -the more there are, the more likely you will find a route to the suspended memory Ex) mood, seating position, tastes, smells, sight when encoded memory mnemonic devices

Confucius

stressed the power of ideas and of an educated mind

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others Ex) humans eat more in the presence of others

Hans Selye

studied animals's reactions to different stressors (electric shock, surgical trauma, immobilizing restraint) and came up with GAS Main point: Although the human body comes designed to cope w temporary stress, prolonged stress can produce physical deterioration

cross-sectional study

studies designed to test a wide array of subjects from different backgrounds to increase generalizability -study diff age groups at one point in time

Environmental psychology

study effects of the physical environment on behavior and mental process

single-blind study

study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

two-factor theory (Schachter)

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal -our physiology & our cognitions - perceptions, memories, & interpretations - together create emotion. -like James & Lange, presumed our experience of emotion grows from our awareness of our body's arousal -like Cannon & Bard, believed emotions are physiologically similar -An emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal

mathematical intelligence

the ability to carry out mathematical operations; measured on IQ tests

receptive language

the ability to comprehend speech -marks the beginning of babies' lang development. Their adeptness at segmenting spoken sounds into individual words predicts their lang abilities at ages 2 & 5

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

creative intelligence

the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions 4 components: -perceive (recognize in faces, music, stories) -understand (predict how they change & blend) -manage (know how to express in varied situations) -use (enable adaptive/creative thinking)

effortful control

the ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination -1 of 3 scales to assess temperament according to Mary Rothbart

vision*

the ability to see Processing visual info: 1) retina's nearly 130 million receptor rods & cones process info 2) Visual info travels to your bipolar cells 3) then to million+ ganglion cells, through their axons making up the optic nerve 4) goes to brain (visual cortex in occipital lobe)

practical intelligence

the ability to solve everyday problems through skilled reasoning that relies on tacit knowledge

intrapersonal intelligence

the ability to understand oneself

environmental intelligence

the acquisition of info gained from analyzing the multiple environments affecting organizations

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude (height)

visual persistence

the apparent persistence of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration Ex) watching someone jump rope quickly, rope seems to be a many points in rotation at once Ex) fan

industrial-orgnizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores -is the most commonly reported measure of central tendency -can be skewed by outlier

insecure attachment

the attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived -develops during the sensorimotor stage

Medulla*

the base of the brainstem; controls involuntary actions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion, swallowing) - basic life functions

archetype

the behaviors & memories in the collective unconscious

Endocrine system*

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream -interconnected w/ the nervous system (both produce molecules that act on receptors elsewhere) -messages from here tend to outlast neural messages (why feelings may linger) -influence many areas of our lives (growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood)

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure -adjusts in order to stabilize weight

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)*

the brain and spinal cord communicates w/ the body's sensory receptors, muscles, and glands via the PNS

cerebellum

the brain region extending out from the rear of the brainstem, plays a key role in forming & storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning -damage in this area prevents the development of conditioned reflexes -is needed for implicit memory formation

brain plasticity*

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Thalamus*

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla -all senses EXCEPT smell -Think of as a hub through which traffic passes

Dendrites*

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other cells and conduct impulses toward the cell body (axons speak, _____________ listen) -short

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point -developed during concrete operational stage

fovea*

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster -large area of visual cortex dedicated to info from this area

Psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries -Risk increased by: hypertension, family history, behavior & physiological factors (smoking, obesity, high-fat diet, physical inactivity, elevated cholesterol level), stress & personality -stress predicts heart attack risk

Genome*

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes The shared genetic profile that makes us humans rather than chimps or tulips

conditions of worth

the conditions a person must meet in order to regard himself or herself positively -other ppl's evaluations of our worth that distort our self-image

association

the connection or relation between ideas, feelings, or sensations Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence -as we repeat behaviors in a given context, the behaviors become _________ed with the contexts

application substage

the conscious decisions to apply fundamental movements to be part of specialized movements, like choosing to play basketball over baseball

rehearsal*

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage -can be used to boost memory of novel info (ex: vocab terms)

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Stage 4 sleep

the deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation (hard to wake up) -brain emits large, slow delta waves -lasts around 30 mins -At the end of this stage is when children may wet the bed or sleep walk

internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth -during 6th month organs have developed enough to allow a prematurely born fetus a chance of survival -responsive to sound

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month -2 weeks through 8 weeks -the zygote's inner cells become the ____ and over the next 6 weeks organs begin to form and function. The heart begins to beat

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution provides only a crude estimate of variation b/c a couple extreme scores will create a deceptively large _____

Lobes*

the different regions into which the cerebral cortex is divided geographic subdivisions separated by prominent fissures or folds frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

Levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from BIOLOGICAL to PSYCHOLOGICAL to SOCIAL-CULTURAL, for analyzing any given phenomenon

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

tolerance*

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

extinction*

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. -the reappearance (spontaneous recovery) of a weakened CR after a pause suggested that extinction was suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it Ex) when Pavlov sounded the tone again & again w/o presenting food, the dog salivated less & less

withdrawal*

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

retroactive interference*

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

proactive interference*

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

sympathetic nervous system*

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations -accelerate heartbeat, raise blood sugar & pressure, slow digestion, cool body w/ persperation -associated with processes that burn energy

parasympathetic nervous system*

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy, helps body recover from a strenuous situation -decrease heartbeat, lower blood sugar -responsible for conserving energy, returns body to homeostasis ~ think para like parachute (helps you come down)

somatic nervous system* (skeletal nervous system)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles Responsible for all voluntary actions Sensory (afferent) neurons take info from glands/muscle to brain Motor (efferent) neurons carry info from the brain to direct motion Neurotransmitter: noradrenaline "Adrenergic system"

facial feedback

the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness

resting membrane potential

the electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active (-70mV) -the interior of the cell is negatively charged w/ respect to the exterior of the cell The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane; the positive outside/negative inside state

semantic encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words as a means of processing verbal information -processing a word deeply, by its meaning, produces better recognition later than does shallow processing, such as attending to its appearance (visual encoding) or sound (acoustic encoding)

visual encoding

the encoding of picture images (the appearance of the letters) as a means of processing verbal info for storage

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words as a means of processing verbal info for storage -enhances the memorability & seeming truth of rhyming aphorisms Ex) If the glove doesn't fit, you must aquit

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Axon*

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands -passes the messages along to other neurons or to muscles & glands (________ speak, dendrites listen) -can be very long (several feet)

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (criterion)

Relability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, or on retesting

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

heritability of intelligence

the extent to which intelligence test score variation can be attributed to genetic variation -We credit ____________ with 50% of the variation in intelligence among people (____________ never pertains to an individual, only to why people differ from one another)

personal control

the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless -studied in 2 ways: correlate ppl's feelings of control w/ their behaviors & experiment by raising/lowering ppl's sense of control & noting the effects

Persistence (motivation characteristic)

the faithful and continued effort put forth in order to achieve a goal or finish a project

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age -at this age, have schemas for familiar faces

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo -conception to 2 weeks -goes through 3 distinct phases of gestation: germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage

Alarm Reaction Stage

the first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (mobilize resources) -Sudden activation of your sympathetic nervous system -Heart rate rises -Blood diverted to skeletal muscles -feel faintness of shock

Selective Attention*

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others Ex) cocktail party phenomenon

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons can take place in the adult brain Promoted by sleep, exercise, nonstressful but stimulating activities

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

palmar reflex

the grasping reflex that a newborn infant exhibits when an object is placed in his or her hand

fight or flight response

the heightened state of physiological arousal - an increase in heart rate & respiration, accompanied by a decrease in digestion & salivation

transfer-appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match -a model of memory tht suggests tht a critical determinant of memory is how well the retrieval process matches the original encoding process Ex) Told to study for a multiple choice test, but receive an essay test. You will not do as well

Sensory memory*

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system -the first stage of forming a memory -gateway between perception & memory -very limited storage

infantile amnesia

the inability as adults to remember anything explicitly from our first 3 years -happens b/c we index so much of our explicit memory by words that nonspeaking children have not learned & b/c the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature

retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues -given retrieval cues, may recall the elusive memory

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

agnosia

the inability to recognize familiar objects & process sensory input -caused by damage to association areas

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set -once we incorrectly represent a problem, its hard to restructure how we feel about it -include mental sets and functional fixedness

reciprical determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment ex) kids' TV-watching habits (past behavior) influence their viewing preferences (internal factor), which influence how TV (environmental factor) affects their current behavior

Biopsychology (Cognitive Neuroscience) Perspective*

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Interaction*

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) Ex) our genetically influenced traits evoke significant responses in others

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (stages 3 & 4)

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. -contains our partly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgements, & memories

threshold*

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse -action potential triggered if excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals exceed a miniumum intensity -increasing the level of stimulation above the _____ will NOT increase the neural impulse's intensity

retina*

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information -multilayered tissue on the eyeball's sensitive inner surface -receives upside down images of the world

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it -is the 50th percentile -better indicator of central tendency in skewed distributions

difference threshold (JND)*

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (just noticeable difference) The detectable diff increases w/ the size of the stimulus Ex) add 1 oz to 10 oz weight more noticeable than 1 oz to 100 oz weight -the minimum amt of distance btwn 2 stimuli that can be detected as distinct

absolute threshold*

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus & cause the neuron to fire 50 percent of the time

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. -empirically derived -some contain a lie scale (increases objectivity) -true/false statements

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests -yields overall intelligence score & separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, processing speed -6 type of questions: information, comprehension, arithmetic, similarities, vocabulary, digit span

Rorshach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

auditory nerve

the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound

optic nerve*

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain (where the thalamus will receive & distribute the info) -can send nearly 1 million messages through its nearly 1 million ganglion fibers) -where it leaves the eye, there is a blind spot

sample size

the number of observations or individuals measured -typically denoted by "N" (total # of subjects in the sample being studied) -"n" (total # of subjects in a subgroup of the sample being studied)

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). -relationship constantly inverses

underextension

the overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering spoken language Ex) child thinks their "mama" is the only "mama"

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations -focus on how we ought to behave -produces pride or guilt -strives for perfection

autonomic nervous system*

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. involuntary activities Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine "Cholinergic system"

social identity

the part of the self-concept including one's view of self as a member of a particular social category the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists -when we believe there is a relationship between 2 things, we are likely to notice & recall instances that confirm our belief -help explain many superstitious beliefs

apparent motion

the perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations Ex) phi phenomenon

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate -achieve more, act more independently, better health, feel less depressed, better @ delaying gratification & coping w/ stressors than "externals"

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Memory*

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

psychoanalytic perspective*

the perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. -influenced by heredity -When a person's body drops below the previous set point, the person's hunger increases & metabolism slows making weight loss more difficult.

blind spot*

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptor cells are located there

Phrenology

the popular but ill-fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits correctly focused attention on the idea that various brain regions have particular functions

Frontal Lobes*

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments, processing of new memories Ppl w/ damage to this area cannot plan ahead & may damage personality Includes motor cortex & Broca's Area (left hemisphere)

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste smell + texture + taste = flavor

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases -performance peaks at higher levels of arousal for difficult tasks -performance peaks at higher levels of arousal for easy or well-learned tasks

Natural Selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Natural selection*

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Weber's law*

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage/proportion (rather than a constant amount) -the greater the magnitude of the stimulus, the larger the differences must be to be noticed

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

equilibration

the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding -Basis of Piaget's theory -a child's attempt to reach a balance btwn what the child encounters in the environment & what cognitive structures

sensation*

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

accomodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

language acquisition*

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language

stereopsis

the process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity, resulting in the perception of depth; the 3D image of the world resulting from binocular vision

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos -provides gender identity

neuroadaptation

the process in which the user's brain adapts its chemistry to offset the drug effect

inductive reasoning

the process of drawing general inferences from specific observations Ex) everybody on the football team seems to be a good student; therefore all ppl who play football are good students -not as airtight as deductive reasoning

observational learning (modeling)*

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

electromagnetic spectrum

the range of wavelengths or frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extends (from gamma rays to visible light)

gender constancy

the realization that gender does not change with age; occurs from ages 2-7

spontaneous recovery*

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response without further CS-US parings Ex) Pavlov found that if he allowed several hours to elapse before sounding the tone again, the salivation to the tone would reappear spontaneously (after extinction) Ex) A song that you haven't heard for years suddenly makes you happy

subliminal perception

the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness - a form of preconscious processing that occurs when presented w/ stimuli so rapidly that we are not consciously aware of them -later presented w/ same stimuli, will recognize quicker than stimuli not subliminally exposed to

long-term memory*

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. -some info skips the 1st two stages of Atkinson & Shiffrin's model & is processed directly & automatically into ______-______ memory w/o our conscious awareness

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

head-turning/rooting reflex

the response elicited by touching the baby's cheek- the baby will root for a nipple

Dishabituation

the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation Occurs when habituated to stimulus & stimulus is removed & then presented again

prosody

the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech

Syntax*

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language (word order) Ex) rule that adjectives usually come b4 nouns

Psychology until 1920's

the science of mental life

Behavioral Perspective*

the scientific study of OBSERVABLE behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive -interest in advancing human fulfillment -Martin E. P. Seligman

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

plateau phase

the second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as bodies prepare for orgasm

mind

the sensations, memories, motives, emotions, thoughts, and other subjective phenomena particular to an individual or animal that are not readily observed

audition

the sense or act of hearing, is highly adaptive

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)*

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. -info from here travels through nerves Consists of smaller branches reaching the rest of the body Made up of 2 parts - somatic & autonomic nervous system

semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Ex) the rule telling us adding "-ed" to "laugh" means it happened in the past

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

miss

the signal was present, but the participant did not sense it

Subordinate concept

the smallest & most specific category of a concept Ex) rye bread

detection thresholds

the smallest amount of sound, pressure, taste, or other stimuli that an individual can detect

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them - deals w/ the effects of physical stimulus on sensory response

evolutionary psychology*

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection Focus mostly on what makes humans so alike

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Neuroanatomy*

the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system.

Molecular genetics*

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes Seeks to identify specific genes influencing behavior & normal human traits as well as to explore the mechanisms that control gene expression

surface structure of language

the superficial way in which words are arranged in a text or in speech, organization of words

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Hindsight bias*

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it Aka the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon Ex) tell one group that research has found that separation weakens romantic attraction & they'll say that is common sense. Tell another group that it strengthens romantic attractiion, they will also say it is common sense

halo effect

the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic -generalization of a high self-evaluation from one domain to another

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance -Moon illusion -Ames illusion -Ponzo illusion

shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors (similar to Freud's "projection")

constancy*

the tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting

symmetry

the tendency to perceive forms that make up mirror images

self-reference effect

the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself -info deemed "relevant to me" is processed more deeply & remains more accessible

mood congruent memory*

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood Ex) when happy, we recall happy events & therefore see the world as a happy place, which helps prolong our good mood

functional fixedness*

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Generalization*

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses Ex) Pavlov noticed that a dog conditioned to the sound of 1 tone also responded somewhat to the sound of a diff tone tht had never been paired w/ food

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

gender schema theory

the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly -Sandra Bem

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli -Feelings FOLLOW the body's response -1st comes our physiological response, then (as we observe that response) comes our experienced emotion

restorative theory of sleep

the theory that the function of sleep is to restore body and mind

linguistic relativity hypothesis*

the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language; speakers of diff langs develop diff cognitive systems as a result of their diff langs

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished -assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

sensitive period

the time period in which mere exposure to people and things fosters fondness

synaptic gap/cleft

the tiny gap at the synapse

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

cornea*

the transparent outer covering of the eye, protects the eye & bends light to provide focus where light enters the eyes

lens*

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina focuses incoming light rays into an image

hearing*

the vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the brain Process: 1) Visible outer ear channels the sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum 2) the middle ear transmits the eardrum's vibrations through a piston made of 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) to the cochlea in the inner ear 3) The incoming vibrations cause the cochlea's membrane to vibrate, jostling the fluid that fills the tube 4) This motion causes ripples in the basilar membrane, bending hair cells lining its surface 5) hair cell mvmt triggers impulses in the adjacent nerve cells, whose axons converge to form the auditory nerve 6) auditory nerve sends neural messages (via the thalamus) to the temporal lobe's auditory cortex 7) From vibrating air to moving piston to fluid waves to electrical impulses to the brain

Stanford-Binet IQ Test

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test. -adapted Binet's original items, added, established new age norms, extended upper end of test's range to "superior adults"

Steps of reading aloud

the words... 1) register in the visual area 2) are relayed to a second brain area, the angular gyrus, which transforms the words into an auditory code that ... 3) is received & understood in the nearby Wernicke's area, and 4) Is sent to Broca's area, which 5) Controls the motor cortex as it creates the pronounced word Depending on which link in this chain is damaged, a diff form of aphasia occurs

connectionism

theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which can work together to process a single memory -specific memories arise from particular activation patterns within interconnected neural networks

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Rorschah Inkblot Test

this test is used to assess personality characteristics and any underlying thought disorders in children and adults

ossicles

three tiny bones in the middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes), vibrated by the vibration of the tympanic membrane (ear drum)

Lesions*

tissue destruction. A brain _______ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue Used by researchers to study certain areas of the brain, while leaving other areas unharmed

A-delta fibers

transmit the initial sharp pain one might feel right away from a sudden injury

fidelity

truthfulness to one's self, resolution of the "Identity vs Role Confusion" Stage

auditory canal

tube extending from the outside of the ear to the eardrum

Amygdala*

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. -influences aggression & fear (plays roles in perception of the emotions & processing of emotional memories) -when lesioned, become mellow

normative development

typical sequence of developmental changes for a group of people

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings -information we process with great ease, freeing your memory to focus on less familiar events

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings when we perform tasks automatically

deep structure of language

underlying meaning of words

C fibers

unmyelinated fibers that transmit dull, aching pain

interference

when items exit short-term memory due to being displaced by new info

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

delayed reinforcer

when you complete a behavior but not awarded immediately (all about long-term) -to function effectively, must learn to delay gratification (sign of maturity) Ex) paycheck @ end of week -if delay more than 30 secs to reinforce rat pressing a bar, rat will most likely not learn -unlike rats, humans do respond to ______ _____

mainstreamed

where children with disabilities are placed in regular classes

transitional substage

where the combination of movements occur; part of specialized movement stage Ex) grasping, jumping, throwing combined to take a shot

Empiricism

-the view that KNOWLEDGE originates in EXPERIENCE and that science should, therefore, rely on OBSERVATION and EXPERIMENTATION -formed in part by BACON and LOCKE -the acquisition of truth through observations & experiences

Angular gyrus

-transforms visual representations into auditory code -involved in reading aloud, receives visual info from the visual area & recodes it into an auditory form which the Wernicke's area uses to derive its meaning Damage to this area -> person able to speak & understand but unable to read aloud

stage 3 sleep

-transitional stage -deep sleep (hard to wake up) -beginning of delta waves -lasts around 30 mins

Why Sleep Evolved

1) protects (darkness is dangerous) 2) helps us recuperate (restore & repair brain tissue) 3) makes memories 4) feeds creativity 5) may play a role in the growth process

Overgeneralization/overregularization*

A grammatical error, usually appearing during early language development, in which rules of the language are applied too widely, resulting in language mistakes. (I holded the rabit)

latent content of dreams

According to Freud, the "disguised" meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects -the dreamer's unconscious wishes

penis envy

According to Freud, the female desire to have a penis - a condition that usually results in their attraction to males.

trace conditioning

CS is removed some time before the US is presented

Noam Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar

Chomsky suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, & thus most of it is inborn (genetically predisposed); hypothesized that we have a specialized area of the brain called Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that allows us to learn language quickly

Martin Seligman

Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness"

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

Freudian dream interpretation*

Dreams provide a "psychic safety valve"—expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content—a hidden meaning. -Critical Considerations: Lacks any scientific support; dreams may be interpreted in many different ways

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people -less likely to suffer heart attacks

nerve deafness*

Hearing loss created by damage to the hair cells or the auditory nerve fibers in the inner ear.

spatial intelligence

Involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas

Linear perspective

Monocular cue Parallel lines appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the greater their perceived difference

NK cells (natural killer cells)

Part of the immune system, pursue diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer)

Connectedness

Pattern of gestalt Elements that are connected tend to be grouped together

monochromats

People who cannot perceive any color & see only in shades of black & white

organization

Piaget's term for the mental process that produces schemes

Kinesthetic Intelligence

The ability to move the body in sports, dance, or other physical activities

spreading activation

The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links.; a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.

behavior modification

The set of techniques by which reinforcement theory is used to modify human behavior.

Alexander Borbely Synthesis

The urges to sleep is partly a function of how long a person has been awake and partly a function of the time of day

postconventional morality

With the abstract reasoning of formal operational thought, people may reach a third moral level. Actions are judged "right" because they flow from people's rights or from self-defined, basic ethical principles. -more controversial (appears mostly in the individualistic cultures) - Stage 5 - I would or wouldn't do this because it is best for society and myself. - Stage 6 - Do unto others as you would have them do unto you • Hard to study because very few people always adhere to this standard

community psychology

Work to obtain psychological services for people in need of help(often times these people won't seek services for themselves) and to prevent psychological disorders by working for changes in social systems. (homeless, impoverished areas etc.)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

typicality

a measure of how well a category member represents that category; the degree to which an object fits the average

conscious mind

a mental state of awareness that we have ready access to

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful/organizing it in some way

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds -part of the initial recording of sensory info in the memory system

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

fight or flight

a reaction caused by adrenaline that prepares one to either fight the stressor or take flight and escape. -sympathetic nervous system

measures of central tendency

a single score that represents a whole set of scores Ex) mean, median, mode -characterize the typical value in a set of data -descriptive statistics

heritability coefficient

a statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genes -ranges from 0-1 -sometimes computed by comparing the IQs of identical twins raised separately

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcer)*

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer - provided by learned reinforcers Ex) money, good grades, a pleasant tone of voice - each of which has been linked w/ more basic rewards

masking stimulus

a stimulus that interrupts the brain's processing before conscious perception Used after being exposed to subliminal messages

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another -found older adults give fewer correct answers -reveals the average age at which certain skills or abilities appear -Fault: compared ppl of diff ages, but also diff eras (diff levels of education, diff family backgrounds, wealth), tells us little abt development of individuals

anima

according to Jung, the female part of the personality

Population*

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn -except for national studies this does NOT refer to a country's whole _______

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

long-term potentiation (LTP)*

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. -rapidly stimulating certain memory-circuit connections has increased their sensitivity for hours or even weeks to come (the sending neuron now needs less prompting to release its neurotransmitter & the receiving neuron's receptor sites may increase) -after this has occurred, passing an electric current through the brain won't disrupt old mems but will wipe out v recent mems

Sensitization

an increase in behavioral response due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus -opposite of habituation -may cause you to respond more quickly & vigorously to similar stimuli -usually temporary

primary reinforcers (natural reinforcement)*

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need Ex) getting food when hungry, having a painful headache go away

biopsychosocial perspective

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

an intelligence test for children between the ages of 6 and 16 inclusive that can be completed without reading or writing. The WISC generates an IQ score 6 type of questions: information, comprehension, arithmetic, similarities, vocabulary, digit span

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues -when they act on the brain, influence our interest in sex, food, & aggression -some are chemically identical to neurotransmitters

Telomeres

chromosome tips that wear down with age, causing aging cells to die without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas

sensory coding

codes used by the sense organs to transmit information to the brain

chronic

continuing for a long time; these stressors can have a negative impact on one's health

Electra complex

counterpart to the Oedipus complex for females

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information -repeated quizzing of previously studied material helps with retention

availability heuristic*

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common -causes us to fear extremely rare events

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells -some low-level information processing occurs here

basis anxiety

feeling of being alone in an unfamiliar or hostile world; according to Horney's theory, is a central theme in childhood

attention

focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

basilar membrane

found in the cochlea & contains sensory receptors for hearing; is moved by sound waves vibrating the inner ear

Social learning theory gender typing

gender roles are developed by environmental influences (parental modeling, stereotypes in media, etc) Children are reinforced for imitating "appropriate behaviors.

Satoshi Kanazawa

general intelligence evolved as a form of intelligence that helps people solve novel problems -general intelligence scores don't correlate w/ individuals' skills in evolutionarily familiar situations (ex: marrying & parenting)

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness (activate & prepare you for action) and arousal, important in appearance of wakefulness and sleep, learning & regulation of mood Malfunction: undersupply -> depression

problem-solving theory of dreaming

holds that dreams provide a chance for the mind to work out issues that occupy its attention during waking hours

unit used to measure brain activity

milliseconds (thousandths of a second)

cutaneous receptors

nerve receptors in the skin that respond to pressure, temperature, or pain

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Sleep Disorders*

serious and consistent sleep disturbances that interfere with daytime functioning and cause subjective distress

analytical intelligence

the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving

external validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other contexts in the "real world"

Effect size

the magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables

Conditioning

the process of learning associations

false alarm

the subject perceived a signal when none was present

hammer, anvil, stirrup

the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

spillover effect

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up

APA Ethical Guidelines (Humans and Animals)*

(1) obtained informed consent of potential participants (2) protect them from harm and discomfort (3) treat info about individual participants confidentially (4) fully debrief people For animals: ensure the "comfort, health and humane treatment" of animals & minimize "infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects"

B.F. Skinner*

(1904-1990) Pioneer in operant conditioning • Believed that the causes of behavior are in the environment and do not result from inner mental events, such as thoughts, feelings, or perceptions -modern behaviorism's most influential & controversial figure -elaborated on the Law of Effect -taught pigeons how to walk in figure 8, guide missiles, play ping pong -used shaping in experiments -developed the concept of a reinforcer -contended that reinforcement principles of operant conditioning are universal (school, sports, work, self-improvement)

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Type II error

failing to reject a false null hypothesis -the conclusion that there is no difference when, in fact, there is a difference -false negative

Ivan Pavlov*

(1849-1936) discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell -laid the foundation for John Watson's ideas -believed the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals -demonstrated how a process such as learning can be studied objectively (scientific model for psychologists - by isolating building blocks of complex behaviors & studying them w/ objective laboratory procedures)

Neuron*

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

terminal decline

acceleration in deterioration of cognitive functioning prior to death

Max Wetheimer*

founder of Gestalt psychology

Order of communication between neurons

1. An ACTION POTENTIAL shoots down the AXON away from the cell body 2. A NEUROTRANSMITTER is released down the SYNAPSE, where the DENDRITES of neighboring neurons detect it 3. If there is a receptor for this neurotransmitter on the dendrites, the neurotransmitter and receptor BIND, creating and ELECTROCHEMICAL SIGNAL 4. If that signal is strong enough, it spreads down the dendrites and across the cell body of the next neuron, and BEGINS ANOTHER action potential

g factor

A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

Language Development Stages

-(4 months) babbling -(10 months) babbling resembles household language -(1 year) one-word stage -(2 years) two-word, telegraphic speech -(2 years+) language develops rapidly into complete sentences

Margaret Floy Washburn

-1st female awared Ph.D. from Harvard -Wrote influential book: The Animal Mind -2nd female pres of APA in 1921 -Wrote 1st foreign study published in Wundt's journal

Reading normal curve

-68% of scores within 1 standard deviation above/below mean -95% of all scores are within 2 standard deviations above/below mean

Random Variables

-A confounding variable in which uncontrolled or uncontrollable factors affect the dependent variable, along with or instead of the independent variable. Ex) time of year research takes place, differences in participants.

Functionalism*

-A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. -Founded by William James

Sigmund Freud*

-Austrian physician who developed psychoanalytic theory of personality -explored unconsciousness beginning in late 1800s

John Locke (1632-1704)

-British political philosopher -Wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding -Argued mind @ birth is TABULA RUSA, "blank slate" on which experience writes -Ideas helped form modern EMPIRICISM

Factors influencing classical conditioning

-CS has to be BEFORE US -need MULTIPLE CS-US pairings (unless traumatic event) -can't be too long for TIME between stimulus and response -needs CONSISTENT CS-US pair

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

-English, one of founders of modern science (influence in some of today's psychological science) -Anticipated what we know abt mind PERCIEVING PATTERNS: "the human understanding easily supposes a greater degree of order & equality in things than it really finds" -Foresaw research on our findings that ppl see what will CONFIRM THEIR BELIEFS -Ideas helped form modern empiricism

newborn reflexes

-Eye blink -Rooting - initiated by stimuli to cheeks or corner of mouth. -sucking -grasping -moro reflex (startle) -Babinski (initiated by touching the soles of an infant's feet - babies will fan out their toes) -Withdrawal reflex- initiated by painful stimulation. baby will pull up arms and legs -Plantar reflex- initiated by pressure run along soles of feet. Response: Toes point downward and inward and foot should flex. Should develop by age 2.

Wilhelm Wundt*

-In Germany conducted first psychological experiment (measured time before someone reacted to sound) -Wanted to measure "atoms of the mind" (the fastest & simplest mental processes) -Lauched 1st psychological laboratory -Studied consciousness using introspection (Structuralism) -Taught Edward Bradford Titchener

Socrates (469-399 B.C.) and Plato (428-348 B.C.)

-Mind is separable from body & continues after the body dies -Knowledge is innate, born within us

Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

-Self-transcendence: Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self - Self-actualization: Need to live up to our fullest & unique potential - Esteem Needs: Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, & independence; need for recognition & respect from others - Belongingness and Love: Need to love & be loved, to belong & be accepted; need to avoid loneliness & separation - Safety Needs: Need to feel that the world is organized & predictable; need to feel safe - Physiological Needs: Need to satisfy hunger & thirst

psychoanalytic theory/psychodynamic*

-a branch of psychology that studies how UNCONSCIOUS drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to TREAT people with psychological disorders -Developed by Freud -Goals are to explain personality & behavior and to develop techniques for treating mental disorders. -Case study -the interaction of the forces of the conscious & unconscious mind shapes behavior -Stresses the importance of childhood experiences & a child's relationship w/ their parents to the dvlpmt of personality -focus is on the resolution of unconscious conflicts through uncovering info tht's been repressed

Theory*

-an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events -simplifies by organizing facts (by linking facts & bridging them to deeper principles, they offer a useful summary) Will be useful if it 1) effectively ORGANIZES a range of self-reports & observations 2) Implies clear PREDICTIONS that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications

Limbic System*

-doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres -associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. -Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus

Humanistic Perspective*

-historically significant perspective that emphasized the GROWTH potential of HEALTHY people and the individual's POTENTIAL for personal growth -Led by CARL ROGERS & ABRAHAM MASLOW -Emphasized importance of CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES on our growth potential & importance of having our needs for love & acceptance met, & role of UNIQUE PERSPECTIVES in guiding BEHAVIOR & MENTAL processes. -Emphasize personal values & goals & how they influence behavior, rather than attempting to divide personality into smaller components

neural networks

-interconnected neural cells in the brain. -learning occurs as feedback strengthens neurons' connections with each other -cells in each layer of a ____ _____ connect w/ various cells in the next layer

lack of sleep causes

-obesity (increases hunger-causing hormone ghrelin & decreases hunger-suppressing hormone leptin) -suppress immune system (those who sleep more tend to outlive those who sleep less) -increased aging (hypertension & memory impairment) -irritability -slowed performance -impaired creativity, concentration, & communication -slowed reaction time -errors increase on visual tasks

Mary Whitton Calkins

-pioneering memory researcher -1st female pres of APA -Completed requirements for Ph.D. at Harvard but was refused -Taught by William James

Structuralism

-practiced by WUNDT and TITCHENER; used INTROSPECTION to reveal the STRUCTURE of the human mind -sought to identify the smallest possible elements of the mind, theorizing that understanding all of the parts would lead to the understanding of the greater structure of the mind - which are illuminated through interviews with a subject describing his/her conscious experience

Psychology (1920-1960)

-science of observable behavior, dismissed introspection -led by John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner

Biology of extraversion

-seek stimulation b/c normal brain arousal is relatively low (frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition is less active, dopamine & dopamine-related neural activity higher)

Harry Harlow's attachment research

-studied infant attachment using monkeys -used wire frame and cloth-covered "mothers" to study the impact of nurturing touch, warmth, and food on infant monkey attachment -found that preventing attachment with a real mother had long term effects on monkeys' behavior -babies enjoy the protection & comfort of parents

Gestalt

-study of the ORGANIZATION of mental processes: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."- studied through observation of sensory/perceptual phenomena -Max Wertheimer

Mode

-the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution -measure of central tendency -the simplest measure

Cognitive Perspective*

-the scientific study of all the MENTAL ACTIVITIES associated with THINKING, KNOWING, REMEMBERING, and COMMUNICATING -Emphasis on mechanisms through which people receive, store, retrieve, and otherwise process information -experimental psychologists and engineering psychologists work in this field -An approach rooted in the idea that to understand people's behavior, we must first understand how they think (construe their environment). Combines the structuralist & functionalist approaches

Evolutionary (Darwinism) Perspective*

-the study of the ROOTS of behavior and mental processes using the principles of NATURAL SELECTION -Emphasis on the way in which behavior and mental processes are ADAPTIVE for SURVIVAL -behavior can best be explained in terms of how adaptive that behavior is to our survival

wisdom

a form of insight into life situations & conditions that results in good judgments abt difficult life problems

2 stress hormone systems

1. When alerted, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate & respiration, diverts blood from digestion to skeletal muscles, dulls pain, & releases sugar & fat from the body's stores. Stress hormones epinephrine & norepinephrine are also released from the central core of the adrenal glands 2. Working at a slower pace, another stress hormone system responds to orders from the cerebral cortex, causing the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoid hormones

3 types of stressors

1. catastrophes - unpredictable large-scale events that nearly everyone appraises as threatening 2. significant life changes -life transitions & insecurities often keenly felt during young adulthood 3. daily hassles - everyday annoyances, may be the most significant source of stress, heightens risk of hypertension

3 pillars of positive psychology

1. positive emotions, e.g. happiness 2. positive character, e.g. exploring & enhancing creativity 3. Positive Groups, Culture, communities

prenatal development

1. the embryo grows & develops rapidly. At 40 days, the spine is visible & the arms & legs are beginning to grow 2. By the end of the second month, when the fetal period begins, facial features, hands, & feet have formed 3. As the fetus enters the 4th month, its 3 ounces & can fit in the palm of the hand

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Erikson)

2 - 3 years. Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves. Autonomy is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child.

amygdala

2 emotion-processing clusters in the limbic system that boost activity & available proteins in the brain's memory-forming areas Result: Arousal can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting mems for neutral events around the same time

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) - gender typing

2-3 years children acquire gender identity (I am male/female) -4-5 years children establish gender stability (gender lasts a lifetime) -6-8 years children establish gender constancy (gender does not change with appearance)

7 sins of memory

3 sins of forgetting: 1. absent-mindedness 2. transience 3. blocking 3 sins of distortion: 1. misattribution 2.suggestibility 3.bias One sin of intrusion: 1. persistence

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson)

35-55 years Middle Age share knowledge and know how with the younger generation. If developed then will emerge with care and concern for others

Initiative vs. Guilt (Erikson)

4-5 yrs, Child initiates play. If parents respond with encouragement then the child emerges with a sense of purpose

motor development

the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

the protective liquid that bathes the brain & spinal cord

timbre

the quality of a sound wave that derives from the wave's complexity

episodic memory*

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

DNA*

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes aka deoxyribonucleic acid

brightness

A psychological sensation caused by the amplitude of light waves.

occipital lobe*

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Escape conditioning

A type of negative reinforcement in which a person's behavior causes an unpleasant event to stop

avoidance conditioning

A type of negative reinforcement in which a person's behavior has the effect of preventing an unpleasant situation from occuring

pruning process

A use-it-or-lose-it process that shuts down unused links and strengthens others

Relative height

Monocular cue We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away

Gordon Allport

trait theory of personality; more concerned w/ describing individual traits than w/ describing them

texture gradient

Monocular cue the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases

inferiority complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences -a pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than trying to overcome their source

behavior modeling

An approach that demonstrates desired behavior and gives trainees the chance to practice and role-play those behaviors and receive feedback

Hindbrain*

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord. The oldest part of the brain to develop Medulla oblongata- heartbeat/breathing, involuntary actions (basic life functions) Pons- helps to coordinate movement, a way station (passes neural info btwn brain regions), implicated in REM sleep Cerebellum- coordinates voluntary movement (muscle tone & balance), nonverbal memory & learning (judge time, emotion, discriminate sounds/textures) Reticular activating system (RAS) - controls arousal (wakefulness & alertness). Aka reticular formation

substantia nigra

An area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons helps with smooth movement

Informational Processing Model (3-box) (Modal Model)*

An older model of how we form memories created by Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin, likens our memory to a computer's information processing system 1. We first record to-be-remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory 2. From there, we process info into a short-term memory bin where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Info moves into long-term memory for later retrieval -3 separate storage areas: sensory, short-term, long-term -4 components to each type of mem: storage capacity, duration of code, nature of code, way by which info is lost

Bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors & works up to the brain's integration of sensory information Sensory analysis that starts at the entry level Ex) As our brain deciphers the information in a painting - bottom-up processing enables our sensory systems to detect the lines, angles, & colors that form the horses, rider, and surroundings -achieves recognition of an object by breaking it down into its component parts - relies heavily on sensory receptors -the brain's analysis & acknowledgement of the raw data

Interaction of trichromatic & opponent theories

Color processing occurs in 2 stages: 1) The retina's red, green, blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli (trichromatic theory) 2) Their signals are then processed by the nervous system's opponent-process cells, en route to the visual cortex

hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories -when ppl develop expertise in an area, they process info not only in chunks but also in ___________ -helps us retrieve info efficiently

schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. Determines our perceptual set

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from when a person must pick btwn two undesirable alternatives

Broca's Area*

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Damage to this area disrupts speaking (will struggle to speak words but will still be able to sing songs & comprehend speech)

diminishing marginal utility

Decreasing satisfaction or usefulness as additional units of a product (money) are acquired

GHB

Depressant similar to neurotransmitter GABA. Can cause nausea/vomiting, headaches, dizziness, paralysis, death (date rape drug)

Barbiturates

Depressants drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment -aka tranquilizers -small doses cause relaxation, feelings of well-being, loss of muscle coordination & reduced attention. High doses cause problems with sleep patterns -Withdrawal symptoms are among the most severe for any drug - can include convulsions, hallucinations, death Ex) valium, ativan, nembutal, seconal, amytal

stimulants*

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. -includes amphetamines, ecstasy, methamphetamines -used to stay awake, lose weight, boost mood or athletic performance -causes rise in self-confidence -may cause crash into fatigue, headaches, irritability, & depression

Elicitation effect

Exhibiting a behavior similar to that of a model in an unfamiliar situation

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response -even instantaneously felt emotions require some sort of cognitive appraisal of the situation -Emotions (moods such as depression & complex feelings such as hatred, guilt, happiness, love) are influenced by our memories, expectations, interpretations

Huntington's disease

Fatal genetic disorder that results in muscle impairment & is caused by progressive deterioration of the structure of the brain known as the basal ganglia. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about age 40.

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people More likely to suffer heart attacks: -toxic core is negative emotions (esp anger) -When challenged our sympathetic nervous system redistributes bloodflow to muscles away from internal organs that normally remove cholesterol & fat from blood -stress can alter heart rhythms

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Neo-Freudians

Group of psychologists who agree with Freud's emphasis on the impact of childhood on one's life, the personality structures of id, ego, superego, & the importance of the unconscious, but move away from a sole focus on sex and aggression & placed more emphasis on the conscious mind's role in interpreting experience & coping

Marijuana

Hallucinogen alters blood flow to many brain regions and continuous to affect the consciousness for several hours -major active ingredient is THC -made from hemp plant -the more it's used, higher risk of anxiety, depression, schizophrenia -impairs motor coordination & reaction time

ketamine

Hallucinogenic a dissociative anesthetic used for humans and animals. It causes hallucinogenic effects including dissociative feelings. In high doses a "near-death experience". Like a "bad trip" on acid. Can cause long-lasting amnesia Known as Special K Researchers are into uses for depression treatment

bar graph

Helps researchers organize data in a meaningful way

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony -experimentally implanted false memories of childhood traumas

Pre-screening/advertising bias

How volunteers are screened or where advertising is placed might skew the sample Ex) Advertising for ppl who "want to quit smoking" may provide highly motivated ppl who might've quit w/o treatment - not rly proving the effects of the treatment

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

recency effect*

In a list, ppl briefly recall the LAST items especially quickly & well b/c they are still in working memory

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the independent variable (recieves treatment)

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the independent variable (not receiving treatment). -contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

unconditioned response (UR)*

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Ex) salivation when food is in the mouth in Pavlov's experiment

Frequency theory

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch -The whole basilar membrane vibrates w/ incoming sound wave, triggering neural impulses to the brain at the same rate as the sound wave. If the sound wave has a frequency of 100 waves per second, then 100 pulses per second travel up the auditory nerve -best explains how we perceive low-pitched sounds

auditory input

In the form of sound waves, enters the ear by passing the outer ear, the part of the ear that is on the outside of your head, and into the ear canal.

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a person experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions -motivation is caused by need to avoid this

verbal intelligence

Intelligence measured by answering questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, and other language- or symbol-oriented tasks. -measured on IQ tests

Erik Erikson

Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development, first to champion view that development occurs across an entire lifetime

Light-and-shadow effect:

Monocular cue Given 2 identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away

relative size

Monocular cue Given 2 objects of similar size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image as farther away

interposition (occlusion)

Monocular cue If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

Jean Piaget

One of the most influential observers of children, Swiss biologist

lateral hypothalamus

One of the two hypothalamic centers that influences eating by producing hunger signals -when food deprived and blood-sugar levels decrease, this center releases the hunger-triggering hormone orexin -also known as the go signal -When this is stimulated an animal eats more. -more active in the cold

ventromedial hypothalamus

One of the two hypothalamic centers that influences eating; the lower mid-hypothalamus that depresses hunger -aka the stop signal. -If stimulated, an animal will slow down or stop eating. -If it is removed the animal will eat everything in sight. -more active in the heat.

Similarity

Pattern of gestalt People think of similar objects as belonging together

Continuity

Pattern of gestalt People usually prefer to see smooth, continuous patterns (like lines & waves), not disrupted ones

Synchrony

Pattern of gestalt Stimuli that occur at the same time are likely to be perceived as belonging together Ex) See car stop & hear crash - you perceive 2 as same event

Closure

Pattern of gestalt The tendency to perceive a complete or whole figure even when there are gaps

desensitization therapy

Repeated exposure to stimulus which gradually reduces intense reaction. -engage patients in systematic desensitization

ghrelin

Secreted by an empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain -when ppl undergo bypass surgery that seals off part of the stomach, the remaining stomach produces much less _______, causing a smaller appetite

kinesthetic sense

Sense of position and movement of body parts (sense of body awareness), automatic or subconscious, ability to assess the weight of an object -enabled by sensors in your joints, tendons, bones, ears, and ski -Vision interacts with _________ as you can stand w/ your right heel in front of your left foot much easier with your eyes open

fMRI*

Shows brain function. A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. -rapid sequencing of MRI images A brain-imaging technique that reveals both brain structure and brain activity by showing changes in blood flow (which indicate specific changes in neural activity.)

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

Shows water flow in neural fibers, thus revealing the "wiring diagram" of neural connections in the brain.

Differences/similarities classical & operant conditioning

Similarities: -forms of associative learning -involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination -influenced by both cognitive processes & biological predispositions Procedural Differences: -through classical (Pavlovian) conditioning, an organism associates diff stimuli tht it does not control & responds automatically (respondent behaviors) -through operant conditioning, an organism associates its operant behaviors - those that act on its environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli - w/ their consequences

Misattribution

Sin of distortion; confusing the source of information (putting words in someone else's mouth or remembering a dream as an actual happening)

absent-mindedness

Sin of forgetting; inattention to details leads to encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we lay down the car keys)

transience

Sin of forgetting; storage decay over time (after we part ways with former classmates, unused information fades)

persistence

Sin of intrusion; unwanted memories (being haunted by images of a sexual assault)

sound waves*

Successive pressure variations in the air that vary in amplitude and wavelength.

health psychology

Study relationships between risky behaviors and likelihood of mental/physical illness

uninvolved parenting

Style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount of time parents spend with children

vestibular sense

System aids in body movement and maintaining balance (monitored in the inner ear), collects sensory info via vestibular organs, also helps with spatial awareness -Semicircular canals & vestibular sacs (connect the cannals to the cochlea) contain fluid that move when your head rotates or tilts. This mvmt stimulates hairlike receptors, which send messages to the cerebellum at the back of the brain, thus enabling you to sense your body position & to maintain your balance -monitor's your head's (and thus your body's) position & movement

actual development level

The developed level of ability that a child displays; rarely lives up to the potential

tympanic membrane

The eardrum. A structure that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and vibrates in response to sound waves.

overjustification effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task. The activity becomes less fun

Model

The effectiveness of a _______ is related to his or her status, competence, and power

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. -located @ the core of brain -master gland where own master is the hypothalamus -triggers sex glands to release sex hormones

Heritability*

The extent to which differences among people are attributed to genes. . The ____________ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. As environment becomes more similar, heredity as a source of differences becomes more important. _______ would become much lower if everyone had similar heredities but had differing environments

Left Hemisphere*

The hemisphere that controls the right side of the body, coordinates complex movements, and, in 95% of right-handers and 62% of left-handers, controls most functions of speech and written language. Logical, interpretates, rational, more active when a person needs to deliberate over decisions, more likely to discount disagreeable info Damaged -> speech difficulty

cerebral cortex*

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. -separated into 4 lobes

Random Selection*

The key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion ex) may number the names in the general student listing & then use a random number generator to pick the participants for the survey

Law of Pragnanz

The most general Gestalt principle, which states that we tend to see objects in their simplest forms

lateral hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals -lesion here -> decreased hunger drive

potential developmental level

The potential level of ability of which the child is capable.

all-or-none principle*

The principle that when a neuron fires, it fires with the same potency each time; a neuron either fires or does not—it cannot partially fire, although the frequency of firing can vary. Ex) a slap rather than a tap can trigger more neurons to fire & to fire more often BUT does not impact action potential's strength or speed

Type I error (alpha error)

The probability of rejecting a null hypothesis that is, in fact, true -the conclusion that a difference exists when, in fact, this difference does not exist -false positive

convergence

The process by which sensory info becomes more complex as it travels through the sensory system

Sensory habitation (perceptual adaptation)*

The process by which we become accustomed to a stimulus, and notice it less and less Ex) In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field -can be controlled

Depolarization

The process during the action potential after a neuron fires when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive. -as each section becomes _________, the axon's next channel opens (like dominoes)

socialization

The process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values

Parallel Distributed models (parallel processing)

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers & of conscious problem solving Our brain engages in this type of processing by doing many things at once Ex) the brain divides a visual scene into subdimensions (such as color, movement, form, & depth) and works on each aspect simultaneously We then construct our perceptions by integrating the separate but parallel work of these different visual teams Ex) Facial recognition - brain integrates information that the retina projects to several visual cortex areas, compares it to stored information, and enables you to recognize the image as grandma

reconditioning

The quick relearning of a conditioned response following extinction. E.G. No longer afraid of dogs, but one jumps at you and you become afraid again.

Omission training (negative punishment)*

The removal of a pleasant stimulus/withholding a reward after a response, leading to a decrease in behavior. Ex) taking away a toy

rosy retrospection

The tendency to rate past events more positively than ppl had actually rated them when the event occurred. -for most ppl, the negative emotion recalled from bad events fades more rapidly than the positive emotion recalled from good events

orienting reflex

The tendency to turn toward a change in environment (present in neonates)

volley principle

The theory holding that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses. Enables us to hear pitches over 1000 waves per second -accounts for the reception of sound in the lower ranges

Opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green & inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red & inhibited by green -As visual info leaves the receptor cells, we analyze it in terms of 3 sets of opponent colors. In the retina and in the thalamus (where impulses from the retina are relayed en route to the visual cortex), some neurons are turned "on" by red but turned "off" by green. Others are turned on by green but off by red

fetal stage

The third stage of prenatal development in which sexual differentiation & movement begins, lasting from third month through birth.

targeted training

The training of specific abilities that might build mental muscles

Brain Hemispheres*

The two halves of the brain's cerebrum

instinct theory (evolutionary perspective)

Theory of motivation that states that organisms' behaviors are motivated by genetically predisposed instincts -The notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate tendencies, or instincts, shared by all individuals

defensive self-esteem

This type of self-esteem focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failure and criticism feel threatening -correlates w/ aggressive & antisocial behavior

constructivist approach

View taken by those who argue that the perceptual system uses fragments of sensory information to construct an image of reality Ex) Can recognize a song without the words

contralateral processing

When stimuli is processed on the opposite side where it was detected: e.g. Information from the left half of the visual field is detected by the right half of each retina and is processed by the right hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa for left visual field.

reward deficiency syndrome

a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain systems for pleasure and well-being that leads people to crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings

Classical Conditioning*

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli (a CS & the US it signals) and anticipate events (a neutral stimulus, paired with a previously meaningful stimulus, eventually takes on some meaning itself) -respondent behavior -pavlov & watson -ns,us,ur,cs,cr -acquisition -generalization -discrimination -extinction -spontaneous recovery

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)*

a type of learning in which organisms associate their own actions w/ consequences. Behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher -Skinner -CS, CR, Reinforcement -positive/negative reinforcement -positive/negative punishment -fixed interval, variable interval -fixed ratio, variable ratio -operant behavior -acquisition -generalization -discrimination -extinction -spontaneous recovery

atmospheric perspective (aerial perspective)

a type of monocular cue in which the atmosphere causes distant objects to look hazy or blurry. give something a blueish hue around it so it's blurring into the background

Stratified Sampling*

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

Asperger's Syndrome

a variation on the Autism spectrum, a "high-functioning" form of autism. It is marked by normal intelligence, often accompanied by exceptional skill or talent in a specific area, but deficient social and communication skills (and thus an inability to form normal peer relationships)

PET Scan*

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task Provides visual image corresponding to anatomy. Detailed impression of the activity of the brain -the more glucose being used in a given area of the brain, the more that area is in active use

theory of mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe, our ability to infer another's mental state, enabled by mirror neurons

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

manifest content of dreams

according to Freud, the apparent story line of dreams -the remembered content that is a censored expression of the dreamer's unconscious wishes

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) -incorporates traces of previous days' nonsexual experiences & preoccupations

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content) -consists of unconscious drives & wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly -Freud believed most dreams had underlying sexual wishes

persona

according to Jung, our public self, the mask we wear to represent ourselves to others

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development (ex: language acquisition)

environmental interaction

an organism's environment will alter a phenotype; development of nervous system dependent

idiographic approach

approach to personality that focuses on identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within a person

sensory cortex*

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Random Assignment*

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups -by using this method, reseachers can be fairly certain the 2 groups are otherwise identical & can conclude that any later differences between ppl in the experimental & control groups will usually be the result of the treatment Ex) By ___________ ___________ infants to one feeding group or the other, researchers were able to hold constant all factors except nutrition (eliminated alternative explanations & supported the conclusion that breast milk is best for developing intelligence)

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (aka source amnesia)

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, PRODUCING consequences -part of operant conditioning

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat -stated psych should study how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments -believed the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals -Idea that human emotions & behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses

materialism

belief that the only things that exist are matter and energy (aka no mind/consciousness - results from the machinery of the brain) Thomas Hobbes

working memory

believed by some psychologists to be an additional type of memory that would fall btwn sensory & short-term memory in the modal model & is able to be manipulated unlike iconic or echoic memory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

believed children develop through interactions with members of his/her own culture -children become increasingly capable of thinking in words & using words to work out solutions to problems by internalizing their culture's language and relying on inner speech -talking to themselves helps children control their behavior and emotions and master new skills

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience -sets the basic course of development while experience adjusts it

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs -in the spinal cord, are responsible for conveying info to & from the brain & PNS

sleep spindles

bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity characteristic of stage 2 sleep

Constructed (or Reconstructed) Memory*

can report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred

leak channels

channels that are always open and allow ions to move along their gradient

inhibitory neurotransmitters*

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that influence neurons NOT to fire (like pushing a break)

Meissener's Corpuscles

common in hairless regions of the body/sense *light touch* and texture

psychological self

comprises our feelings and personalities

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences -often physical symptoms such as nausea, & distress following sudden withdrawal

collectivist cultures

cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one's group is prized above individual goals and wishes

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

developed the first intelligence (mental age) test to identify children who needed remedial education -didn't explain why a child performed a certain way -recommended mental orthopedics to raise capacities of low-scoring kids

learning perspective (environmentalists)

development is the direct result of learning (John Locke)

transformational grammar

differentiates between surface structure and deep structure in language

secondary drives

drives that are learned or acquired through experience, such as the drive to achieve monetary wealth

Julian Rotter

locus of control, the extent to which ppl believe that their successes/failures are due to their own efforts plays a major role in personality

ecological approach

maintains that humans are so well adapted to the natural environment that many aspects of the world are perceived without requiring high-level analysis & inferences Ex) not remembering the last 5 mins of your drive home

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)*

major inhibitory neurotransmitter, sleep & movement Malfunction: undersupply -> Anxiety, Huntington's disease, epilepsy, insomnia

modern unconscious mind

many now think of the unconscious not as seething passions and repressive censoring but as cooler information processing that occurs without our awareness. To these researchers, the unconscious also involves -schemas -priming by stimuli to which we have not consciously attended -right-hemisphere activity that enables the split-brain patient's left hand to carry out an instruction the patient cannot verbalize -parallel processing of different aspects of vision and thinking -implicit memories that operate w/o conscious recall -emotions that activate before conscious analysis -self-concept & stereotypes that automatically and unconsciously influence how we process info

explicit (declarative) memory*

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" Includes: semantic & episodic memory -ppl w/ amnesia may not know & be able to declare that they know how to do something

male answer syndrome

men are more likely than women to hazard answers rather than admit they don't know

Images*

mental pictures we create in our minds -imagining a physical activity or experience triggers action in the same brain areas that are triggered when actually performing that activity/experience

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations -an inborn general mental capacity

touch*

mix of four distinct skin senses: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain Is not only a bottom-up property, but also a top-down product of brain & expectations - cold + warm = hot

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and believed that the mind was composed if opposing forces (persona & shadow) -anima & animus (female & male side of self) -"Self" balances opposing forces

Karen Horney

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud's male bias, "basic anxiety" central theme in childhood -children who find security in relationship w/ parents will find security as adults

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions -study thought to be unethical (deception)

Naturalistic Observation*

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation -form of descriptive method of research (does not explain behavior, describes it) -Like surveys, can provide data for correlational research Ex) watching chimpanzee societies

quantitative dimension

one of the two dimensions of stimuli: how much of it there is. coded by the number of cells firing Ex) bright lights & loud noises excite more neurons

qualitative dimension

one of the two dimensions of stimuli; what it is. coded and expressed by which neurons are firing Ex) neurons firing in occipital lobe indicates sensory info is light

holophrases

one-word sentences commonly used by children under 2 years of age -single terms applied by infant to broad categories of things

chunking*

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically -used as a mnemonic technique to recall unfamiliar material ex) in native language, can easily chunk line segments into letters into words into phrases ex) remembering colors of the rainbow in order with ROY G. BIV (acronym)

resolution phase

phase in human sexual response following orgasm, in which the body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the engorged blood vessels release their accumulated blood. Males enter a refractory period

Dimensions of Development

physical, cognitive, social

tutored human enrichment

program began by J. McVicker Hunt; trained caregivers to play language-fostering games and to repeat baby's babbling Had significant success

filter theories

propose that stimuli must pass through some form of screen or filter to enter into attention

Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire

questionnaire by British psychologists that reduced our trait variations to 2 or 3 dimensions (extraversion-introversions, emotional stability -instability); results showed extraversion & emotionality factors emerged as basic personality dimensions-these factors are genetically influenced

Accidents (Phineas Gage)*

railroad worker (1848) who survived a severe brain injury to the frontal lobes that dramatically changed his personality and behavior (once soft spoken, friendly - became irritable, dishonest, profane) moral judgement became disconnected from behavior & emotions; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

measures of variability*

range and standard deviation -shows how similar & diverse the scores are -averages derived from scores w/ low variability are more reliable than averages based on scores w/ high variability -how much the numbers in the set differ from one another

reitification

reasoning error; viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing (like referring to IQ as a fixed & objectively real trait, like height)

warm fibers

receptor cells that fire in response to warm stimuli

Applied Research*

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

blocking

sin of forgetting; inaccessibility of stored info (seeing an actor in a movie, feel a name on the tip of our tongue but experience retrieval failure - we cannot get it out)

Somnambulism

sleepwalking, stage 3 & 4 partial arousal, but you have no recollection of it

Terminal Buttons (Axon terminal, terminal branch, synaptic knobs, end buttons)*

small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters

Amphetamines

stimulant drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes -increase the release & decrease the removal of norepinephrine and dopamine at synapses. Results in alertness, arousal & appetite suppression. Use leads to anxiety, insomnia, heart problems, brain damage, movement disorders, confusion, paranoia, etc.

Caffeine

stimulant most popular drug. It reduces drowsiness and can enhance cognitive performance. At high doses it creates tremors & anxiety. Withdrawal symptoms can occur. -mild doses last 3-4 hours

nicotine

stimulant powerful stimulant of the ANS. It enhances the action of acetylcholine & increase the release of glutamate & activates dopamine leading to pleasure -diminishes appetite -boosts alertness & mental efficiency

stapes

stirrup; last of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear vibrates against oval window

Cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex, a glucocoticoid

reality principle

tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet -seeks to gratify the id's impulses in realistic ways that will bring long-term pleasure

primacy effect*

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

inventory-type tests

tests used in psychology in which participants answer a standard series of questions

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Theories: -current situation may be loaded w/ cues tht unconsciously retrieve an earlier, similar experience -a situation seems familiar when moderately similar to several events -dual processing error, if there's a slight neural hiccup & 1 track's signal is delayed, it may feel like a repeat of the earlier one, creating an illusion tht we are now reexperiencing something

Cerebellum*

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and output COORDINATING MOVEMENT and BALANCE -enables 1 type of nonverbal learning & memory -helps judge time, modulate our emotions, discriminate sounds & textures -coordinates VOLUNTARY movement (w/ assistance from the pons) -if injured, would have trouble with coordination

cerebrum

the 2 large hemispheres that contributes 85% pf the brain's weight

menarche

the first menstrual period

receptive field

the region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron -the area from which our receptor cells receive input

Normal Curve*

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. Ex) the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale calls the average score 100 -in a perfect ____ _____, the mean, median, & mode are identical

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

symbolic thinking

the use of words and numbers to substitute for ideas/objects -occurs during preoperational stage

pinna

the visible part of the ear, outer Part of the ear best able to aid us in the location of sounds

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments; repeated suggestions & misleading questions can create false memories Ex) telling patients 10% of ppl die while undergoing a procedure has a different effect than telling them 90% survive

Circadian/evolutionary theory of sleep

theory of sleep says that sleep evolved to keep humans out of harm's way during the night

generalizable

valid in other contexts beyond the context in which the selection method was developed

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context. -considered cognitive-behavioral approach -focus on how we & our environment interact (how do we interpret & respond to external events? How do our schemas, our memories, & our experiences influence our behavior patterns?) -first proposed by Albert Bandura -observe behavior in realistic situations Critiques: focuses too much on situation that fails to appreciate the person's inner traits (in many cases our personality traits predict behavior)

unit bias

when the portion size is larger, people will eat more

Healthy user bias

when the study population tends to be in better shape than the general population

tip of the tongue phenomenon

when we try to recall something we already know is available but isn't easily available for conscious awareness -demonstrates preconscious info may be available to the conscious mind but difficult to access