AP Psych Exam

Aristotle

Collecting data; careful observation. Knowledge grows from experience.

Francis Bacon

English Modern Science Experiment, Experience

Empiricism

Knowledge originates through experience. Science should rely on observation and experimentation.

Wilhelm Wundt

Leipzig, Germany. 1879. First psych lab. Attempted to measure mental processes.

Rene Descartes

Scientist and Philospher. Dualism (mind and body are separate).

John Locke

Tabula Rasa (blank slate).

Plato & Socrates

The mind is separate from the body and continues after the body dies. Knowledge is innate (there at birth). Derived principles from logic.

G. Stanley Hall

founder of the APA and also founded the first American psych lab in 1883.

Social-Cultural Perspective

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Psychodynamic Perspective

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Behavioral Perspective

how the brain and body enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how genes combine with the environment to influence individual differences

Evolutionary Perspective

how the natural selection of traits has promoted the success of genes

Cognitive Perspective

how we encode, process, store and retrieve information

Psychology is derived from...? Physiology and Biology Structuralism used introspection to determine underlying structures of the brain Introspection the act of looking into one's own thoughts and feelings Functionalism need to analyze the purpose of behavior Psychoanalytic/dynamic unconscious, childhood behavioral learned, reinforced humanistic free will, choice, ideal, actualization cognitive perceptions, thoughts Evolutionary genes biological Brain, NTs sociocultural society Biopsychosocial combo of all approaches Mary Calkins First female president of the APA Charles Darwin natural selection and evolution Dorothea Dix Reformed mental institutions in U.S. G. Stanley Hall 1st APA president; 1st journal William James Father of American Psychology - functionalist Wilhem Wundt Father of Modern Psychology - structuralist Margaret Floy Washburn first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology Christine Ladd-Franklin 1st female in psychology basic research pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base (rats) applied research purpose is to help people psychologist research or counseling - MS or PhD psychiatrist prescribes medicine and diagnose-M.D experiment Adv: researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect Disadv: difficult to generalize independent variable variable that is manipulated dependent variable measured variable experimental group the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested (part of IV) placebo effect show behaviors associated with the exp. group when having received placebo double-blind experiment where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to single-blind only participant blind - used if experimenter can't be blind (gender, age, etc) operational definition clear, precise, typically quantifiable definition of your variables - allows replication random assignment assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random - minimizes bias, increase chance of equal representation random sample method for choosing participants - minimizes bias Validity accurate results reliability same results every time naturalistic observation Adv: real world validity (observe people in their setting) Disadv: no cause and effect Correlation Adv: identify relationship between 2 variables Disadv: no cause or effect positive correlation variables increase and decrease together negative correlation as one variable increases, the other decreases 3rd variable problem different variable is responsible for relationship (breast implants and suicide) illusory correlation belief of correlation that doesn't exist (old man predicts rain from arthritis) case study Adv: study of one individual in great detail Disadv: no cause or effect descriptive stats shape of the data mean average (usually in normal distribution) Median middle number (use in skewed distribution) Mode most frequently occurring number inferential statistics establishes significance (meaningfulness) statistical significance results not due to chance Ethical Guidelines (APA) -confidentiality (info on participants must be private) -informed consent (permission) -debriefing (must be told true purpose of the study: after deception) -deception must be warranted no harm (mental/physical) neuron basic cell of the nervous system dendrites receive incoming signals soma cell body (includes nucleus) axon AP travels down this myelin sheath speeds up signal down axon; protects axon (fatty layer of tissue) terminals release NTs - send signal onto next neuron Vesticles sacs made of membrane inside terminal contain NT's Synapse Gap between neurons action potential movement of sodium and potassium ions across a membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon all or none law stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response (flush the toilet) refactory period neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets) SAME sensory neurons: receive signals afferent neurons: accept signals motor neurons: send signals efferent neurons: signal exits Interneurons cells in spinal cord responsible for reflex loop central nervous system brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system rest of the nervous system somatic nervous system arouses the body for flight/fight (generally activates- sympathetic to you getting eaten by a tiger helps you run away) parasympathetic nervous system established homeostasis after a sympathetic response (generally inhibits) Neurotransmitters (NT) chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons GABA major inhibitory neurotransmitter Glutamate A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory (excited when you see your mates) Dopamine reward and movement Seretonin moods and emotion Acetylcholine (ACh) memory epinephrine and norepinephrine sympathetic NS arousal Endorphins pain control Oxytocin love and bonding Agonist drug that mimics a NT Antagonist drug that blocks a NT Reuptake unused Nt's are taken back up into the sending neuron. SSRI's (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block reuptake- treatment for depression Hindbrain oldest part of the brain Cerebellum movement and balance (picture walking a tightrope balance a bell) Medulla vital organs (HR, BP) Pons sleep and arousal [Ponzzzz] reticular formation alertness forebrain higher thought processes Amygdala emotions, fear [Amy is emotional]; smell Hippocampus memory [remember if you saw a hippo on campus] Hypothalamus reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors- link to endocrine system Thalmus relay center for sensory info in the brain except for smell [Thal must deliver this message unless it's Musty] cerebral cortex outer portion of the brain- higher order thought process occipital lobe vision- back of the head frontal lobe decision making, problem solving, planning, personality temporal lobe hearing and face recognition- located on the sides of head (temples) parietal lobe sensation- top of the head somatosensory cortex map of our sensory receptors- in parietal lobe motor cortex an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements Broca's area speech production Wernicke's area language comprehension corpus callosum the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres (can be severed for split seizures) Lateralization the brain has some specialized features- language processed in L hemisphere split brain experiments done by Sperry & Gazzanaga. Images shown to the right hemisphere will be processed in the left (& vice versa), patient can verbally identify what they saw Plasticity ability to be molded; can 'heal' itself identical twins (study) monozygotic (MZ) fraternal twins dizygotic (DZ) Genetics: Twin Study MZ twins will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease environment: twin study MZ twins raised in different environments show differences endocrine system sends hormones throughout the body pituitary gland controlled by hypothalamus; release growth hormones adrenal glands related to sympathetic NS; releases adrenaline EEG (electroencephalogram) brain activity- not specific XRAY not useful, doesn't show tissues CT/MRI shows structures PET glucose shows brain activity: real time fMRI (functional MRI) glucose shows activity: real time lesion brain damage absolute threshold detection of signal 50% of time (is it there) difference threshold (just noticeable difference) two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion (Can you tell a change?) signal detection theory theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions sensory adaptation diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (can you feel your socks?) perceptual adaptation tendency to see something as part of a group- speeds up signal processing inattentional blindness failure to notice something added b/c you're so focused on another task (gorilla video) change blindness failing to notice changes in the environment or scene (door study) cocktail party effect notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren't previously paying attention visual pathway pathway of vision: light-cornea-pupil/iris-lens-retina-rods/cones-bipolar cells-ganglion cells- optic nerve- optic chiasm- occipital lobe Cornea protects the eye and bends light to provide focus pupil/iris Controls the amount of light entering the eye lens Focuses light onto retina Fovea area of best vision (cones here) Rods black/white, dim light Cones color vision, bright light bipolar cells connect rods/cones and ganglion cells ganglion cells opponent-processing occurs here blind spot occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye feature detectors specialized neurons that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. located in occipital lobe (experiments by Hubel & Weisel) trichromatic theory three types of cones for receiving color (red, green, blue) what does trichromatic theory explain? explains color blindness; missing a cone type opponent-process theory complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells What does the opponent process theory explain? explains why we see an {after image} visual capture Visual system overwhelms all others (nauseous in an IMAX theater - vision trumps vestibular) Constancies recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness) phi phenomenon adjacent lights blink on/off in succession- looks like movement (traffic signs with arrows) Stroboscoptic Movement motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animation) monocular cues how we form a 3D image from a 2D image Interposition overlapping images appear closer relative size 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away relative clarity hazy objects appear further away texture gradient coarser objects are closer relative height higher objects seen as more distant linear perspective parallel lines appear to converge with distance (think railroad tracks) binocular cues how both eyes make up a 3D image retinal disparity image is cast slightly different on each retinal, location of image helps us determine depth convergence eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer top-down processing whole to smaller parts bottom-up processing smaller parts to whole auditory system Pathway of sound: sound > pinna > auditory canal > ear drum (tympanic membrane) > hammer, anvil, stirrup (HAS) > oval window > cochlea > auditory nerve > temporal lobes outer ear pinna (ear), auditory canal middle ear ear drum, HAS (bones vibrate to send signal) inner ear cochlea (like Coachella) sounds 1st processed here theories of hearing both occur in the cochlea place theory of hearing location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches) frequency theory of hearing rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches) touch mechanoreceptors - spinal cord - thalamus - somatosensory cortex pain Gate control theory: we have a "gate" to control how much pain is experienced kinesthetic sense of body position vestibular sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear effect this) Taste (gustation) 5 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) smell (olfaction) Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala Gestalt Psychology the whole is greater than the sum of its parts figure/ground organize information into figure objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (background) closure mentally fill in gaps proximity group things together that appear near each other similarity group things together based off of looks Continuity tendency to mentally form a continuous line higher level consciousness controlled processes - totally aware lower level consciousness automatic processes- daydreaming, phone numbers altered state of consciousness produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis subconscious sleeping and dreaming no awareness of consciousness knocked out Metacogniton thinking about thinking beta waves awake and alert (you betta be awake for the exam) alpha waves high amp., drowsy NREM (non REM) alpha wave stages 1. light sleep 2. burst of sleep spindles 3. Delta waves: deep sleep rapid eye movement (REM) dreaming, cognitive processing how long does the entire sleep cycle take? 90 minutes what occurs between each cycle of sleep REM; it last longer throughout the night circadian rhythm 24 hour biological clock; controls body temp. and sleep controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the brain insomnia inability to fall asleep (due to stress/anxiety) sleep walking/talking (due to fatigue, drugs, alcohol) - NOT during REM night terrors extreme nightmares - NOT in REM sleep - typical in children Narcolepsy fall asleep anywhere at anytime (due to deficiency in orexin) sleep apnea stop breathing suddenly while asleep (due to obesity usually) Freud's Unconscious Wish Fulfillment dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs latent content the underlying meaning of a dream manifest content the remembered story line of a dream activation synthesis brain produces random burst of energy- stimulating lodged memories. Dreams start random then develop meaning hyponosis reduces pain, helps you relax; can not give you superhuman strength, make you regress, make you do things against your will psychoactive drugs Triggers dopamine release in the brain Depressants alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics); decrease sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive Stimulants amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine; increase sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive Hallucinogens LSD, marijuana, causes hallucinations, not very addictive Tolerence needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects dependence becoming addicted to the drug- must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms withdrawal psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant- can kill you unconditioned stimulus brings about response without needing to be learned (food) unconditioned response response that occurs naturally without training (salvation) neutral response stimulus that normally doesn't evoke a response (bell) conditioned stimulus once neutral stimulus that now brings about a response (bell) conditioned response response that, after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) contiguity timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented immediately before the US acquisition process of learning the response pairing extinction (classical) previously conditioned response dies out over time spontaneous recovery (classical) the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period Generalization (classical) CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell Discrimination (classical) CR to only the CS contingency model: Rescorla & Wagner classical conditioning involves cognitive processes conditioned taste aversion (Garcia effect) innate dispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning) counterconditioning: John Watson (Little Albert) conditioned a fear in a baby (only to remove it later on) Who did operant conditioning? B.F. Skinner Law of Effect (Thorndike) behavior followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened; neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in a puzzle box positive reinforcement add something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for doing HW) negative reinforcement take away something bad to increase a behavior (put on seatbelt to take away beeping) positive punishment add something bad to decrease behavior (spanking) negative punishment take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys) primary reinforcer innately satisfying/desirable, may be biologically driven (hunger, thirst, etc). secondary reinforcer everything else (stickers/high fives) token reinforcer tangible secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged (game tokens, money) Generalization (operant) respond to simular stimulus for reward discrimination (operant) stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced (light on means responses are accepted) extinction/spontaneous recovery (operant) same as classical conditioning overjustification effect reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to stop doing them (give a child $5 for reading when they already like to read- they stop reading) shaping use successive approximations to train behavior (reward desired behaviors to teach a response- rat basketball) continuous reinforcement schedule receive reward for every response fixed-ratio schedule reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed gets $$) fixed-interval schedule reward every X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks, get a paycheck) variable-ratio schedule rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine) variable-interval schedule Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (fishing) modeling behavior the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior prosocial behavior helping behaviors antisocial behavior mean behaviors Latent Learning (Tolman) learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved) cognitive maps mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked Insight Learning (Kohler) some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get banana) learned helplessness no matter what you do, you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (dog zapped) encoding the processing of information so that it can be stored automatic encoding requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?) effortful encoding requires attention and conscious effort (school work) Imagery attaching images to information makes it easier to remember (shoe with spaghetti laces) self-referent encoding we better remember what we're interested in (you'd remember someone's phone number who you found extremely attractive) dual encoding combining different types of encoding aids in memory chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units (like a phone number) mnemonics shortcuts to help us remember info easier acronym using letters to remember something (PEMDAS) method for loci using locations to remember a list of items in order context dependent memory where you learn the info you best remember the info state-dependent memory the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (studied drunk, take the test drunk) -lol pls don't do- storage the retention of encoded information over time information processing model sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory sensory memory stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to pay attention iconic memory visual sensory memory; last 0.3 seconds echoic memory auditory sensory memory, last 2-3 seconds short-term memory info passes from sensory memory to STM- lasts 30 secs. and can remember 7(plus minus 2) items rehearsal conscious repetition of information; resets the clock Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 - visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A "central executive" puts it together before passing it to LTM long-term memory the relatively permanent storage of information explicit memory conscious recollection episodic memory A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. semantic memory a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world implicit memory (nondeclarative memory) unconscious recollection priming info that is seen earlier "primes" you to remember something later on (octopus, assassin, climate, bogeyman) procedural memory skills and habits Hierarchies memory is stored according to a hierarchy semantic networks linked memories are stored together Schemas pre-existing mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant) Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for most memory What is the cerebellum for with memory Procedural memories long-term potentiation (LTP) neural basis of memory- connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of networks) Retrieval the process of getting info out of memory storage serial position effect our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list Recall remember what you've been told w/o cues (essays) recognition remember what you've been told w/ cues (MC) flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (9/11 attacks) repressed memories unconsciously buried memories - are unreliable encoding failure forgot info b/c you never encoded it (paired attention to it) in the first place encoding specificity principle the more closely retrieval cues match the way we learned the info, the better we remember the info (like state dependency memory) Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten proactive interference old information interferes with the new retroactive interference new information interferes with old misinformation effect The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation. anterograde amnesia an inability to form new memories retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve information from one's past Alzheimer's disease caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus Phonemes smallest unit of sound (ch in chat) Morpheme smallest unit of meaning (-ed means past tense) grammer rules in a language that enable us to communicate Semantics set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding -ed makes something past tense) syntax rules for combining words into sentences (red house- casa rojo) babbling stage infants babble 1st stage of speech one-word stage the stage in which children speak mainly in single words (duh) two-word stage (telegraphic speech) Before the 2nd year, a child starts to speak in two-word sentences (duh duh) imitation (language) kids repeat what they hear- can't do it perfectly overregularization grammer mistake where kids over use certain morphemes (I go-ed to the park) operant conditioning (language) reinforced for language use Inborn Universal Grammar Chomsky (1959, 1987) says that language is innate and we are predisposed to learn it critical period for language period of time where something must be learned or else it can never happen (Genie the Wild Child) linguistic determinism language influences the way we think (Hopi people do not have words for the past, thus cannot easily think about the past) developed by WHORF concepts mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics prototype all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of) Algorithm a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem (formula) Heuristic short cut strategy (rule of thumb) representativeness heuristic make inferences based on your experience (like a stereotype)- assume someone must be a librarian b/c they're quiet availability heuristic relying on availability to judge the frequency of something (overestimating death due to plane crashes due to recent events) functional fixedness keep using one strategy - cannot think outside of the box belief bias tendency of one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions belief perseverance clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited confirmation bias look for evidence to support what we already believe inductive reasoning data driven decisions-general to specific deductive reasoning driven by logic- specific to general divergent thinking expands the number of possible problem solutions instinct complex behaviors have fixed patterns and are not learned (Explains animal motivation) drive reduction physiological need creates aroused tension (drive) that motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by homeostasis: equilibrium) primary drive unlearned drive based on survival (hunger, thirst) secondly drive learned drive (wealth or success) optimum arousal human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it hierarchy of needs Maslow's theory of the most important motivations people have; ranks priority from low to high intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment glucose (hunger) level is maintained by the pancreas (endocrine system) Insulin (hunger) decreases glucose; too little glucose makes us hungry orexin (hunger) released by the hypothalamus; telling us to eat What tells us we are hungry? stomach contractions, glucose, insulin, orexin, ghrelin, obestatin, and PPY lateral hypothalamus when simulated makes you hungry, when lesioned you will never eat again. (I'm LATE for lunch. I'm hungry. The LATEral hypothalamus makes you hungry) ventromedial hypothalamus when stimulated makes you feel full, when destroyed you constantly eat. Leptin signals the brain to reduce appetite Obesity increase rate of heart attack, hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes; can be genetic- adopted children resemble their biological parents set point there is a control system that dictates how much fat you should carry- every person is different anorexia lack of appetite, loss of 15% body fat, distorted body issues Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia Perfectionism, need for control, disapproving parents who set high achievement standards Bulimia an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise Hypothalamus (Biology of sex) stimulation increases sexual behavior, destruction leads to sexual inhibition pituitary gland (biology of sex) monitors, initiates and restricts hormones males- testosterone females- estrogen sexual response pattern excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution/male refractory period (resolution phase) (cannot "fire" again until guys reset) Alfred Kinsey 1st researcher to conduct studies in sex, suggested that people were very promiscuous. Studies lacked a representative sample, created scale of homosexuality homosexuality biological roots: differences in the brain, identical twins more likely to be gay, later sons more likely to be (hormones from mom) James-Lange Theory stimulus - physiological response - emotion Cannon-Bard Theory Stimulus - emotion & physical condition (independent) Schacter's Two-Factor Theory adds cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) stimulus- arousal- interpret external cues- label emotion behavioral factors of emotion six universal emotions (happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust) seen all across cultures nonverbal cues gestures, Duchenne smile (can tell a real smile from a fake) facial feedback hypothesis being forced to smile will make you happy (facial expressions influence emotions) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion alarm (stress) body/you freak out in response to stress resistance (stress) body/you are dealing with stress exhaustion (stress) body/you cannot take any more, stress is depleting; most vulnerable to being sick Type A personality rigid, stressful person, perfectionist. At risk for heart disease Type B personality laid-back and relaxed industrial-organizational psychology psychological study of people at work- focuses on employee recruitment, placement, training, satisfaction, productivity ergonomics/human factors intersection of engineering and psych - focuses on safety and efficiency of human-machine interactions Hawthorne effect productivity increases when workers are made to feel important (teacher teaches when principle walks in) Theory X management manager controls employees, enforces rules. Good for lower level jobs Theory Y management manager gives employees responsibility, looks for input. Good for high level jobs affective employee commitment emotional attachment (best type) continuance employee commitment stay due to costs of leaving normative employee commitment stay due to obligation (they paid for your school) job (meaning of work) no training, just do it for $$, no happiness career (meaning of work) work for advancement, some happiness calling (meaning of work) work because you love it, lots of happiness Zygote 0-14 days, cells are dividing embryo until about 9 weeks, vital organs being formed fetus 9 weeks to birth, overall development Teratogens Agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions Maturation natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking) reflexes innate responses we're born with (grasping, rooting, swallowing, stepping, sucking) Habituation after continual exposure you pay less attention- used to test babies visual cliff babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a "cliff" Schemas (Piaget) concepts or framework that organize information Assimilation incorporate new info into existing schemas (aSSimilation-same stuff) accommodation adjust existing schemas to incorporate new info (A Coommodation= all change) sensorimotor stage birth to 2 years; focused on exploring the world around them; lack object permanence and development of sense of self object premanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (peek-a-boo) sense of self by 2 years can recognize themselves in the mirror pre operational stage 2-7 years. Children use symbolism (language, images) to represent various aspects of their environment. Lack conservation and reversibility but are egocentric conservation Properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point (4+2 and 2+4) egocentric inability to distinguish one's own perspective from another's- think everyone sees what they see concrete operational stage use operational thinking, classification, and can think logical in concrete text formal operational stage 11-15 years: use abstract and idealist thoughts, hypothetical-deductive reasoning problems with Piaget's theory stages to discrete, dev. differs b/w kids Vygotsky's Theory cognitive development is a social process too, need to interact with others zone of proximal development the gap between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with assistance (need teachers) temperament patterns of arousal and emotional reactions and babies (precursor to personality) Imprinting baby geese believe the first thing they see after hatching is their mother- happens during critical period (from Lorenz) Harry Harlow discovered that contact comfort is more important than feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation couldn't socialize Mary Ainsworth developed the strange situation (children left alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited w/ mom- determines your attachment style) secure attachment (60%) Upset when mom leaves, but happy when returns avoidant attachment (20%) actively avoids mom, doesn't care if mom leaves ambivalent attachment (10%) Very anxious before mother leaves, very upset at departure, seek contact at arrival but also show resistance disorganized attachment (5%) confused, fearful, dazed - result of abuse Baumrind parenting styles Authoritarian rules & obedience; "my way or the highway"- kids lack initiative in college Permissive parents submit to their children's desires. they make few demands and use little punishment Authoritative give and take w/ kids - kids become socially competent and reliable Kolhberg Studied Moral Development; 3 stages preconventional morality Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward. conventional morality adolescents; uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order postconventional morality adults: they do what they believe is right (even if it goes against society) Carol Gilligan said moral reasoning and moral behaviors are two different things (what you say isn't always what you do) Erikson: Socioemotional development 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved, results in competence or weakness Trust vs. Mistrust birth-18 months, if needs are dependably met infants develop basic trust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3) toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6; learn to take initiative task and carry out plans Industry vs. Inferiority (6-puberty) children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior identity vs. role confusion (adolescence- 20's) refine a sense of self by testing roles and forming an identity Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s—40s) form close relationships and gain capacity for love Generativity vs. Stagnation 40s-60s, discover sense of contributing to the world through family and work integrity vs despair (60s and up) reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or failure puberty rapid skeletal and sexual maturation primary sex characteristics the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible (ovaries, testicles, vagina, penis) secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair gender development sex=chromosomes, gender=what you identify yourself as gender roles Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex. social learning theory we learn social behavior by observing and imitating those around us cellular clock theory of aging cells have a maximum # of divisions before they can't divide anymore free radical theory of aging unstable oxygen molecules w/in cells damage DNA cross-sectional study a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another at the same point in time advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional study adv: inexpensive and quick disadv: can be differences due to generational gap longitudinal study research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal study adv: eliminaties group differences, lots of detail disadv: expensive, time consuming, high drop out rates problem-focused coping solving or doing something to alter the course of stress (planning, acceptance) emotion-focused coping reducing the emotional distress (denial, disengagement) conscious immediate awareness of current environment Preconscious available to awareness (phone #'s) unconscious not within thought; not awake Id our hidden true animalistic wants and desires- operates on the pleasure principle, all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil on your shoulder- entirely unconscious) Superego moral conscience (angel on your shoulder, all 3 consciousness) Ego reality principle, has to deal w/ society, stuck mediating between superego and id (it's you! conscious and preconscious) Repression keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious Projection attribute personal shortcomings & faults onto others (man who has an affair accuse his wife of having one) defense mechanisms the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality Denial refuses to acknowledge some aspect of objective reality (refuses that they have cancer) Displacement shift feelings from an unacceptable object to a more acceptable one (can't tell a teacher, go home and yells at the dog) reaction formation switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites (women who fears sexual urges becomes a religious zealot) Regression transforms into an earlier development period in the face of stress (during exam week, you start to suck your thumb) Rationalization replace a less acceptable reasoning with a more acceptable one (don't get into your college- says it is a sucky college anyways) Sublimation replace unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one (man w/ strong sexual urges paints nude; Dexter) oral stage 0-18 months, pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing anal stage (18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control phallic stage (3-6 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings Oedipal complex (Freud) boys wanted to kill fathers to be with their mother; young boys learn to identify with father out of fear of retribution: castration anxiety Electra complex the unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win their father's love; learn to identify with mom because they can't be with dad: penis envy latency stage 6-puberty, dormant sexual feelings- personality is set genital stage (puberty on) maturation of sexual interests; oedipal and electra feelings are repressed fixation can become "stuck" in an earlier stage- influences personality What's wrong with Freud's psychosexual stages? unverifiable, descriptive not predictable Psychoanalysis analysis of mental and emotional state for treatment; analyzes unconscious motives free association a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing Transference looks for feelings to transfer to psychoanalyst dream interpretation analyze the manifest (seen message) and latent (hidden messages) content projective test ambiguous stimuli shown to look at your unconscious motives (bad because they are subjective) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes (when someone has a TATtoo you ask what it means) Carl Jung neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" (shared inherited reservoir of memory- explains common myths across civilizations and time) Karen Horney Neo-Freudian; offered feminist critique of Freud's theory; said personality develops in context of social relationships, NOT sexual urges (womb envy) traits enduring personal qualities or attributes that influence behavior across situations factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies similar components Big 5 Personality Traits openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism Openness Imaginative, preference for variety, and independent Conscientiousness organized, careful, disciplined Extraversion sociable, fun-loving, affectionate agreeableness soft-hearted, trusting, helpful neuroticism emotional stability, calm, secure what's wrong with trait theory? ignores the role of the situation in behavior What's good with trait theory? identifying traits gives us perspectives about careers, relationships, health MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) helpful for mental health and job placement Myers-Briggs gave you 4 letter combo What's wrong with MMPI and Myer's-Briggs test? They're long, socially desirability can be an influence, too broad Humanistic Perspective the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices Carl Rogers talked about our self concept (idea of who we are). Self concept is the center of your personality Actual (social) self what others see Ideal (true) self who you want to be What's wrong with humanistic perspective? too optimistic about human nature, abstract concepts too difficult to test What's good about humanistic perspective? emphasizes conscious experiences and change individualistic culture A culture in which people believe that their primary responsibility is to themselves. (American society) Collectivistic cultures give priority to the goals of the group, your identity is part of that group (China) social-cognitive perspective views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context. behavior (social cognitive) complex interaction of inner process and environmental influences- influences personality Albert Bandura reciprocal determinism and self efficacy; Bobo doll experiment reciprocal determinism interaction of behavior, cognitions and environment self-efficacy belief in one's personal ability to do a task internal locus of control the perception that you control your own fate external locus of control chance/outside forces control your fate what's wrong with social-cognitive? Too specific, cannot generalize what's good with social-cognitive? highlights situations and cognitive explanations of personality how to test social-cognitive? observations and interviews (time consuming) Galton 1st to suggest intelligence was inherited. Intelligence based on muscle strength, size of head, reaction time, etc. Cattell 2 clusters of mental abilities: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence Crystalized intelligence our reasoning and verbal skills; what you learn in school; tends to increase with age fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Spearman's G factor said a general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ of today) Gardner multiple intelligences (8): linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (social), naturalist Sternberg's Triarchic Theory analytical, creative, practical analytical intelligence the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving (books smart) creative intelligence the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems practical intelligence the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful (streets smart) Binet developed first intelligence test, combined with Terman- developed the Stanford-Binet IQ test IQ mental age/chronological age x 100 Wechsler developed the WAIS and WISC - most commonly used today Flynn effect IQs have increased steadily from one generation to the next- due to education standards and better IQ test Extremes of Intelligence high IQ = above 135; mentally retarded = below 70 Causes of mild retardation * PKU - liver fails to produce an enzyme needed to breakdown chemicals - leads to brain damage *Down syndrome - extra copy of 21st chromosome *Fragile X - higher chance in boys due to ONE X chromosome influences on IQ - genetics - home environment - social class - generation genetics involving IQ MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents environment involving IQ early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ aptitude test a test designed to predict a person's future performance (ASVAB-military) achievement test a test that assesses what one has learned (AP) Standardization administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison Reliability (testing) same results every time Valid (testing) test is accurate- measures what it is intended to split-half reliability A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared. test-retest reliability using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency content validity test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ) predictive validity test is able to accurately predict a trait (high math scores predict good engineer) standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean what do standardization test establish? normal distribution abnormal behavior behavior that causes people to experience distress and prevents them from functioning in their daily lives historical causes of abnormal behavior biology, psychological issues, supernatural issues (demons) Medical model of abnormal behavior Emphasizes treatment of disorders, as though they have a biological origin Came through the reformation of institutions in the US (Dorthea Dix) Has caused an increase in stigmatization biopsychosocial model currently used model - stress biological, psychological, and social causes DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) manual listing all currently accepted psychological disorders. Classifies them based on criteria- provides no explanation of causes or treatments generalized anxiety disorder an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal panic disorder An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. agoraphobia fear of open spaces Phobias irrational fears of specific objects or situations Psychodynamic (cause of anxiety) repressed thoughts and feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals Behavioralist (causes of anxiety) fear conditioning leads to anxiety which is then reinforced biological (causes of anxiety) natural selection favored those with certain phobias (heights). Twins often share disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts and/or actions (obsessions-persistent unwanted thoughts and compulsions-rituals such as handwashing) PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) A prolonged and severe stress reaction to a scary event (chronic stress) ex: war somatoform disorders psychological disorders with no apparent physical cause conversion disorder loss of feeling or usage of a limb or body part (sight); no psychological cause illness anxiety disorder a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease- must disrupt their life dissociative identity disorders disorder occurring when a person seems to have two or more distinct personalities within one body (Not schizophrenia) What is dissociative identity disorder caused by? usually caused by traumatic childhood events Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue following a traumatic event a person leaves, taking on a whole new life & personality w/ no memory of the previous one major depressive disorder a mood disorder in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months, apathy towards life Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder a childhood disorder marked by severe recurrent temper outbursts along with a persistent irritable or angry mood seasonal affective disorder Form of depression caused by deprivation of sunlight bipolar disorder bouts of severe depression and manic episodes mania heightened mood, characterized by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of ideas biological causes of depressive and bipolar disorders lower levels of serotonin & norepinephrine linked to depression, higher levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. Runs in family suggesting Genes. cognitive causes of depressive and bipolar disorders negative thought patterns leads to depression Schizophrenia not multiple personalities; have one personality positive symptoms of schizophrenia (something added) hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, disorganized speech Hallucinations false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus Delusions false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders (I am God) negative symptoms of schizophrenia (taken away) flat affect, impaired decision making, inability to pay attention, catatonia flat affect a lack of emotional responsiveness catatonia being frozen over periods of time Causes of Schizophrenia biological abnormalities, genetics, dopamine hypothesis, diathesis-stress brain abnormalities involved with schizophrenia enlarged ventricles (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex genetics involved with schizophrenia runs in family, MZ twins at higher risk dopamine hypothesis involved with schizophrenia too much dopamine in the brain diathesis-stress involved with schizophrenia individual has a genetic predisposition, disease must be "turned on" by environmental stimuli personality disorders marked by extreme, inflexible personality traits that cause subjective distress or impaired social and occupational functioning antisocial personality disorder not "avoidant of socialization"- more like "anti-society"- disregard for others, manipulative, breaks laws borderline personality disorder condition marked by extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control histrionic personality disorder excessive emotionality and attention seeking narcissistic personality disorder need for admiration and lack of empathy psychodynamic approach how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts humanistic approach: client-centered therapy carl rogers: techniques include active listening, accepting environment, focuses on patient growth cognitive approach: rational-emotive therapy Ellis: techniques include analyzing self-defeating behaviors to change through patterns- and then change behaviors associated w/ said patterns cognitive therapy illogical thoughts- psychological problems and challenges those thoughts

how we learn observable responses

Humanistic Perspective

how we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment