AP Psychology - ULTIMATE AP REVIEW

Gestalt principles

"unified whole"- how people organize visual elements; whole is different from its parts

acquantaince

- person you know

PTSD symptoms

-Flashbacks in which the individual relives the event -Avoidance of emotional experiences and of talking about emotions with others -Reduced ability to feel emotions -Excessive arousal/ having trouble falling asleep -Difficulties with memory and concentration -Feelings of apprehension, including nervous tremors -Impulsive outbursts of behavior

common themes in effective psychotherapy

-Jerome Frank concluded that effective psychotherapies have the common elements of expectations, mastery, and emotional arousal -therapist increases the client's sense of mastery and competence -two key roles in successful therapy: therapeutic alliance and the client's willingness to participate

DD symptoms

-Poor appetite or overeating -Sleep Problems -Low energy or Fatigue -Low self-esteem -Poor concentration or difficulty making decisions -Feelings of hopelessness

cerebellum

-involved in motor coordination -damage creates issues with blanace and muscle coordination

psychodynamic therapies

-stress the importance of the unconscious mind, extensive interpretation by the therapist, and the role of early childhood experiences in the development of an individual's problems -goal: to help individuals recognize the maladaptive ways in which they have been coping with problems and the source of their unconscious conflicts

olfactory bulb

-structure responsible for smell, processes information about odors after receiving sensory input from the nose -the bulblike end of the olfactory lobe where the olfactory nerves begin

crystal meth

-type of amphetamine -smoked, swallowed, or injected -synthetic stimulant that causes powerful feeling of euphoria

windigo

...

socioemotional development in childhood (Erkison)

1. Trust Vs Mistrust 2. Autonomy Vs Shame and doubt 3. Initiative Vs Guilt 4. Industry Vs Inferiority

Erikson's stages of adolescence

5. Identity Vs Identity confusion - application: characterized by being unsure of what one should do with life and where they fit it

Type A behavior pattern

A cluster of characteristics - such as being excessively competitive, hard driven, impatient, and hostile - related to the incidence of heart disease

compensation

Adler; a person's effort to overcome imagined or real personal weakness: inferiority complex or superiority complex

inferiority complex

Adler; fixation on feelings of personal inferiority that result in emotional and social paralysis

need for power

An enduring concern for having impact on the social world - application (presidents):

hypnagogic reverie

An overwhelming feeling of wellness right before you fall asleep.

personal distress

An unpleasant state of arousal in which people are preoccupied with their own emotions of anxiety, fear, or helplessness upon viewing a victim's plight.

panic disorder

Anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences recurrent, sudden onsets of intense apprehension or terror, often without warning and with no specific cause.

Carol Gilligan

Argues that Kohlbergs approach does not give adequate attention to relationships. In Gilligans view "Many girls seem to fear, most of all, being alone-without friends, family and relationships"

Role of attention in behavior

Attention is the process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment, and behavior is anything that can be observed. So, usually when something grabs our attention we have a noticeable action.

wakefulness stages

Beta and Alpha waves are shown

factor analysis

Cattell (1965); statistical technique; find that 200 traits tend to cluster in groups (traits are from Allport's/Odbert's lists)

16 personality factor questionnaire

Cattell; personality boils down to 16 basic dimensions of personality; questionnaire used in universities and businesses for personnel selection and research

adolescent brain changes

Changes focus on amygdala (Emotion) and prefrontal cortex (Reasoning and decision making) -Explain why adolescents often display strong emotions but cannot yet control their passions -B/c of the relatively slow development of the prefrontal cortex adolescents may lack the cognitive skill to control their pleasure seeking effectively.

industry versus inferiority

Children can achieve industry by mastering knowledge and intellectual skils... - application: struggling to or doing well in school

autonomy versus shame and doubt

Children either develop a positive sense of independence and autonomy or negative feelings of shame and doubt

initiative versus guilt

Childrens social worlds are widening

superparenting

Controlling your childs life and making sure they are successful. Trying too hard??

deviant

Defining from the norm of from the accepted standards of society.

identity status

Describe a persons position in the development of identity?

naturalist

Designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations) - nature smart

sociocultural approach (on psychological disorders)

Emphasizes the social contexts in which a person lives, including the individual's gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, family relationships, and culture.

identity versus identity confusion

Eriksons 5th psychological stage in which the adolescents face the challenges of finding out who they are, what they are all about and where they are going in life

divided consciousness view of hypnosis

Ernest Hilgard's view that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components, one of which follows the hypnotist's commands and the other wich acts as a "hidden oberserver"

identity confusion

Expresses in one of 2 ways -Individual withdraws/isolates themselves -Individual looses himself in the crowd

reticular activation system (RAS)

Extraverts and introverts differ with respect to the baseline level of arousal -extraverts wake up under aroused and spend the day looking for more stimulation -introverts wake up over aroused and do not seek more arousal throughout the day

optimism

Factor linked to positive functioning and adjustment - expectancy that good things are more likely to occur in the future

Gordon Allport

Father of american psychology did not believe in psychodynamic approaches. Trait personality- lexical approach

libido

Freudian idea that energy is from sexual instinct; Jungian idea that energy is everything

reinforcement sensitivity theory

Gray posited that two neurological systems -BAS and BIS- could be viewed as underlying personality.

self-focus

Have little social obligations and no duties or commitments to others

synaptic density

Higher density = more synaptic connections?

neurotic trends

Horney; neuroses = anxiety; 3 strategies for coping with neuroses created by unmet needs: a) moving towards people-submission-given in, having a dominant partner; be) moving against people-aggression-anger, violence, altercation; see) moving away from people-detachment-withdrawal, isolation

Ernest Hilgard

Hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into separate components, one that follows the hypnotist's actions and another that is a "hidden observer" (Divided conscious view of hypnosis)

biculturalism

Identifying in some ways with their ethnic minority group and in other ways with the majority culture

integraion

Integrated across multiple levels to connect everything in the body

Erikson in adulthood

Intimacy Vs Isolation Generativity Vs stagnation Integrity Vs Despair

Jeffrey Arnett

Introduces the concept of emerging adulthood

Anima

Jung; female archetype as expressed in a man; masculine side of a woman; originates in the collective unconscious; comes from women's experiences with men which create the concept of men, appears in dreams, visions, fantasies

rational individuals

Jung; further division of people who regulate actions by thinking and feeling; aspect used in MBTI

justice perspective

Kohlbergs theory is called this because it focuses on the rights of the individual as the key to sound moral reasoning

neglectful parenting

Lack pf parental involvement in childs life -poor socially and indipendent and poor self control

estrogens

Main class of female sex hormones

optimal life experiences

Make the most of your life?

maladaptive

Maladaptive behavior interferes with a person's ability to function effectively in the world.

a feeling of being "in between"

Many emerging adults consider themselves as neither adolescents nor full-fledged adults

strange situation

Mary Ainsworth - Moms leave kids in a room with a stranger Secure attachment = kid cries insecure attachment = kid dosent cry NOTE: opposite of adjective

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (2), revised in 1980s; objective tests; most widely used object of personality test; originally developed as an aid in diagnosing psychiatric disorders; two versions-adult and adolescent

CAPS theory

Mischels theoretical model for describing that our thoughts and emotions about ourselves and the world affect our behavior and become linked in ways that matter to behavior

bipolar disorder

Mood disorder characterized by extreme mood swings that include one or more episodes of mania, an overexcited, unrealistically optimistic state.

dysthymic disorder (DD)

Mood disorder that is generally more chronic and has fewer symptoms than MDD; the individual is in a depressed mood for most of the days for at least two years as an adult and at least one year as a child or adolescent

depressive disorders

Mood disorders in which the individual suffers from depression- an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life.

opiates

Opium and its derivatives; narcotic drugs that depress activity in the central nervous system and eliminate pain

puberty

Period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence

antipsychotic drugs

Powerful drugs that diminish agitated behavior, reduce tension, decrease hallucinations, improve social behavior, and produce better sleep patterns in individuals with a severe psychological disorder, esp. schizophrenia

major depressive disorder (MDD)

Psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks.

stage 5

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep; dreaming; relaxed wakefulness; 10 min in the first cycle and up to 1 hour in the last cycle

serotonin (on personality)

Related to neuroticism - individuals who have less circulating serotonin are prone to negative moods, it is also implicated in aggressive behavior

reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly

instability

Residential changes peak during emerging adulthood, a time during which there also is instability in love, work and education

existentialist

Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here. -reflective smart

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that intelligence comes in three forms - three forms: anaylitical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

Victor Frankl

Survived a concentration camp and wrote a mans search for meaning which emphasized each persons uniqueness and finite nature of life. people should actively ask questions such as why they exist and what they want from life etc.

patients

The afflicted individuals

adaptability

The brain and nervous system are our agent for adapting to the world

perceptual skills

The child's ability to process, analyse and interpret the information that they get through different sensory channels.

context

The context if behavior may help determine whether the behavior is abnormal.

elaboration

The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding .....creating a huge spider web of links between some new information and everything you already know - technique: create a self-reference

coercion

The intimidation or convincing of a victim to compel the individual to do some act against his or her will by the use of psychological pressure, physical force, or threats.

lithium

The lightest of the solid elements in the periodic table of elements, widely used to treat biopolar disorder

Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

The theory that states memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short -term memory, and long-term memory (SSL)

psychotherapy

Therapeutic interaction of treatment between professional and client, psychological problems addressed

concrete

Thinking logically?

law of effect

Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by postive outcome are strengthened and the behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

emerging adulthood

Transitional period between adolescence and adulthood- in part an extended adolescence and in part a "trying on" of adult roles

trust versus mistrust

Trust is built when a babys basic needs (comfort, food and warmth) are met

mindfulness meditation

Used to relax the mind and body and to become more aware of what is happening in this moment. used to help with stress, depression, anxiety, etc.

validity

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.

closure

When we see disconnected or incomplete figures, we fill in the spaces and see them as complete. - gestalt principle

synaptic connections

When you learn and experience new things you gain more synaptic connections

Karen Horney

While Horney followed much of Sigmund Freud's theory, she disagreed with his views on female psychology. She rejected his concept of penis envy, declaring it to be both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Horney instead proposed the concept of womb envy in which men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.

Man's Search for Meaning

Written by frankl - emphasized each persons uniqueness and finite nature of life. people should actively ask questions such as why they exist and what they want from life etc.

pancreas

a dual-purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions

thinking

a mental process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively

normal curve

a model of distribution

intelligent

a person who has intelligence is this

gestalt psychology

a school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

white

a surface reflecting all light waves

mathematical

ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations - number/reasoning smart

scaffolding

allows child's cognitive abilities to be built by interacting with child just above sophistication level mastered

preterm infant

an infant born earlier than 37 weeks after conception, also at risk for development difficulties

demand characteristics

any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave

variable

anything that can change in research

scaling

ask the client to rate her emotions or thoughts on scales to help gain perspective

introvert

aspect used in MBTI; Jung; one of two general attitude types; caught up in personal world, unsociable, lack confidence in dealing with people; energy is gained from within self, long exposure to people is draining; one is dominant (extro-, introvert)

alpha waves

associated with relaxing and drowsiness

castration complete

because girls dont have a penis they experience this

synchronized

becoming together, on a schedule

prenatal

before birth

sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

body system that is responsible for arousal; fight/flight response; increases hear rate, breathing, blood flow and blood pressure

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

body system that takes messages to/from organs, and monitors breathing, heart rate, and digestion

The Nurture Assumption

book written by Judith Harris

synchronous

brain waves occurring together, regular

peak experiences

breath taking moments of spiritual insight

altered states of consciousness

can be produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue, hypnosis and sensory deprivation

subconscious awareness

can occur when people are awake as well as when asleep and dreaming

socioemotional processes

changes in relationships with others, emotions, and personality; smiling, assertiveness, joy, aggressiveness, affection

cognitive processes

changes in thought, intelligence, language; observing, speaking, imagining, memorizing

emoticons

characters made through typing that show emotion over computer communication

hormones

chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body

stressors

circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities and that cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle the assault of stress

fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)

clusters of abnormalities/problems form mothers who drink heavily

antianxiety drugs

commonly known as tranquilizers, drugs that reduce anxiety by making the individual calmer and less excitable

anonymity

concealing the identities of participants in all documents resulting from the research

long-term potentiation

concept states that if two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between the, and the memory, may be strengthened

confidentiality

concerned with who has the right of access to the data provided by the participants

A.L. Washburn

conducted experiment in 1912 with Cannon associating hunger and stomach contractions

personal control

control our own behavior

barbituates

depressant drugs, such a Nembutal and Seconal, the decrease central nervous system activity

tranquilizers

depressant drugs, such as Valium and Xanax, that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation

photoreception

detection of light, perceived as sight

retinal disparity

difference between the images in each eye- image is in a slightly different place

cohort effects

differences b/w individuals not from age but from the historical and social time period in which they were born

personality traits

dimensions or characteristics that account for personality differences; examples-dependency, anxiety, sociability; Allport created a list of thousands

pain receptors

dispersed through body, send signals about mechanical heat and other pain

criterion validity

does the test measure what it is suppose to measure?

intimacy motive

enduring concern for warm interpersonal encounters for their own sake

group-matching

ensures that experimental/control groups are equivalent (sex, race, age, etc.) to avoid flawed results due to confounds

external stimuli

everything we see, hear, and respond to

examine advantages and disadvantages

examine advantages and disadvantages of an issue, to instill a broader perspective

abstract

existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence.

fantasize consequences

explore fantasies of a feared situation: if unrealistic, the client may recognize this; if realistic, work on effective coping strategies

motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

secondary appraisal

form of appraisal: evaluate situations how to use resources to solve problems

nightmare

frightening dream that awakens a dreamer from REM sleep

reattribution

help the client distribute responsibility for events appropriately

decatastrophize

help the client evaluate whether he is overestimating the nature of the situation

pain control

hypnosis can be used during a surgery, Shelly Thomas under went surgery without anesthesia and only under hypnotic trace. She felt no pain

social facilitation

improvement in an individuals performance because of the presence of others

placebo

in a drug study, a harmless substance that has no physiological effect, given to particpatns in a control group so that they are treated indentically to the experimental group except for the active agent

chromosomes

in the human cell, threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair originating from each parent, and that contain the remarkable substance DNA

HEXACO model

incorporates a sixth dimension, honesty/humility, to capture the moral dimensions of personality

cognitive appraisal

individual's interpretation of events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events

no-treatment control condition

individuals did not participate in the program

Stanford-Binet IQ

initiated the modern field of intelligence testing and was one of the first examples of an adaptive test. IQ scale is normal distribution

organismic

innate/unlearned qualities that exist in every person

life themes

involve activities, social relationships, and life goals

self-efficacy

involved in competence; the belief that you can accomplish goals

mastery

involved in competence; the sense that you can gain skills and overcome obstacles

noise

irrelevant and competing stimuli--not only sounds but also any distracting stimuli ffor our senses

self-determination

is a macro theory of human motivation and personality, concerning people's inherent growth tendencies and their innate psychological needs.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

law stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than low or high arousal

actively construct

learn new things constantly?

classical conditioning

learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar resonse

amnesia

loss of memory

electroencephalograph (EEG)

machine used to monitor the brains electrical activity, shows brain waves during sleep and wake

coping

managing taxing circumstances, expanding effort to solve life's problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress

inferential statistics

mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether results for a sample are likely to generalize to a population

oval window

membrane, transmits sound waves to the cochlea

recognition

memory task in which the individual only has to identify learned items ie. multiple choice tests - application: remembering somone's face (not necessarily remembering their name)

ob mice

mice that lack leptin and as a result are extremely obese

volley principle

modifications of frequency theory stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impusles in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses

Wire and cloth surrogat mothers experiment

monkey babies preferred cloth mother; contact comfort, not feeding is crucial for an infant's attachment to its caregiver

extraversion

more likely than others to engage in social activities and to experience gratitude and a strong sense of meaning in life

David Hubel

neuroscientist, noted for studies of the structure and function of the visual cortex; 1981 Nobel Prize; studied feature detectors with Torsten Wiesel

stage 3

non-REM sleep; deep sleep; delta waves less than 50% of time

stage 4

non-REM sleep; deep sleep; delta waves more than 50% of time

phenotype

observable characteristics; considers both nature and nurture

placebo effect

occurs when particpants' expectation, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an outcome

research participant bias

occurs when the behavior of research participants during the experiment is influenced by how they think they are suppsed to behave or their expectations about what is happening to them

experimenter bias

occurs when the experimenter's expectations influence the outcome of the research

practical skills

one of adoptive behavior deficits; means that one can carry out everyday life tasts

parental influence in identity formation

parent should help direct child where to go balance involvement and allowing them to explore

relatedness

part of self-determination theory; the need to engage in warm relations with others

ventral tegmental area (VTA)

part of the reward pathway in the brain stem; located in midbrain just above pons

nucleus accumbens (NAc)

part of the reward pathway in the brain; located in forebrain just beneath prefrontal cortex

positive affect

part of valence; pleasant emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest

continuity

people have a tendency to group stimuli into continuous lines and patterns - gestalt principle

life-span developmentalists

people who study how people develop over their lifetime? research methods include cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies

overlearning

performing tasks so well and often that it becomes automatic

biological rhythms

periodic physiological fluctuations in the body, such as the rise and fall of hormones and accelerated and decelerated cycles of brain activity, that can influence behavior

Ernst Weber

physician who founded experimental psychology; just noticeable difference

PET

positron-emission tomography measures the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain

figure-ground relationship

principle by which we organize our perceptual field into stimuli that stand out(figure) and those that are left over(ground)

transduction

process of transforming the image on the retina into electrical signals

mood

prolonged emotion that colors the individual's entire emotional state.

labeling of distortions

provide labels for specific types of distorted thinking to help the client gain more distance and perspective

thought stopping

provide the client with ways of stopping a cascade of negative thoughts

depressants

psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity

Eleanor Gibson

psychologist, conducted "visual cliff" experiment in order to study perception in infants and toddlers

response rate

ratio of number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample

willingness to face risk

reason for creative thinking: criticized a lot and ability to cope with that, because more ideas and attempts will mean more failures (but also more successes!)

objective evaluation of work

reason for creative thinking: desire to improve one's work, always criticizing one's own work

compulsions

recurrent behaviors

obsessions

recurrent thoughts

castration anxiety

refers to the boy's intense fear of being mutilated by his father

hypothalamus

regulates important body functions needed for survival, such as hunger

agreeableness

related to generosity and altruism, to reports of religious faith and to more satisfying romantic relationships

manifest content

remembered aspects of the dream, obvious components

prospective memory

remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions

basic research

research carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles; the results, many times, have no direct or immediate commercial benefits

descriptive research

research that determines the basic dimension of a phenomenon, defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on

discrimination (in operant conditioning)

responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced

testes

sex-related endocrine glands in the scrotum that produce hormones related to men's sexual development and reproduction

deductive reasoning

similar to top-down processing; reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance

somiloquy

sleep talking

somnambulism

sleep wallking

display rules

sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed; varies by culture

anal retentive

someone who is obsessively neat and organized

set point

someone's weight when they are not attempting to lose (or gain) any weight

sensory receptors

specialized cells that detect stimulus informaiton and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain

ganglion cells

specialized cells that make up the optic nerve, receive signals from bipolar cells

parietal lobes

structures at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control

temporal lobes

structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing and memory

longitudinal studies

study that assesses same participants many times over a period of time; these can determine age group differences and if the same people change a particular characteristic with age

sudden infant death syndrom (SIDS

sudden sleep-related death on an infant less than 1-years of age

5 different types of taste buds

sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami/savory

question the evidence

systematically examine the evidence for the client's beliefs or assertions

instinctive drift

tendency of animals to revert back to natural tendencies, even after conditioning

social desirability

tendency of respondents to reply in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

stream of consciousness

term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensation, images, thoughts, and feelings

texture gradient

texture becomes denser and finer the farther away it is from the viewer

stillbirth

the birth of an infant that has died in the womb (strictly, after having survived through at least the first 28 weeks of pregnancy, earlier instances being regarded as abortion or miscarriage).

endocrine system

the body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream

autonomic nervous system

the body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate and digestion

nervous system

the body's electrochemical communication circuitry

musical

the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone - musical smart

bodily-kinesthetic

the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical skills. - body smart

intrapersonal

the capacity to understand oneself and one's thoughts and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and directing one's life. - self smart

third variable problem or confounds

the circumstance where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationshp between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds.

infant attachment

the close emotional bond between infant and caregiver

difference threshold

the degree of difference that must exist betyween two stimuli before the difference is detected

subliminal perception

the detection of information belwo the level of conscious awareness

standardization

the development of uniform procedures fro administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms (performance standards) for that test

rationalization

the ego replaces a less acceptable motive with a more acceptable one

hypnotizability

the extent to which a person's responses are changed by being hypnotized

validity

the extent to which a test measure what it is intended to measure

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

Hippocrates

the father of medicine, described human beings as having one of four basic personalities based on levels of particular bodily fluids

satiety

the feeling of being full

encoding

the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage

context effects

the influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus (similar to perceptual set)

acquisition

the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired

penis envy

the intense desire to obtain a penis by eventually marrying and bearing a son

purpose

the intention to accomplish a goal that is meaningful to oneself and to contribute to the world

semantics

the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language

Flashbulb memory

the memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events

retrieval

the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

decision making

the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them; used to maximize outcome

external ear

the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal

outer ear

the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal

apparent movement

the perception that a stationalry object is moving

stratified sampling

the population is divided into subpopultions (strata) and random samples are taken from each stratum

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence and the control of voluntary muscles

figure-ground relationship

the principal by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (ground)

suggestability

the quality of being inclined to accept and act on the suggestions of others

constancy

the recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing

renewal

the recovery of the conditioned resopnse when the organism is placed in a novel context

association cortex / association areas

the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving

negative punishment

the removal of a positive stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior - decreases behavior - something is taken away (something good is taken away) - example: grounding

perceptual constancy

the reocognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing

memory

the retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage and retrieval

Barnum effect

the tendency to accept certain information as true, such as character assessments or horoscopes, even when the information is so vague as to be worthless.

negative affinity

the tendency to be frustrated or sad

base rate fallacy

the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information

confirmation bias

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.

hindsight bias

the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome

interference theory

the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember

genes

the units of hereditary information, consisting of short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA

applied behavior analysis

the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

medical model

the view that psychological disorders are medical diseases with biological origin

cognition

the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing

psychodynamic theories

theories that behavior results from the psychological forces that interact within the individual, often outside conscious awareness; linked by Freud

frequency theory

theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that the perception of a sound's frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires - think (frequency) and (how often)

tympanic membrane/eardrum

thin, semitransparent, oval-shaped membrane that separates the middle ear from the external ear. vibrates in response to sound waves

critical thinking

thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence

multiple intelligences approach

thinking that intelligence can be broken up into categories; Sternberg's theory had 3, Gardner's had 9

internally generated stimuli

thoughts, fantasies, and memories

selective attention

thre process of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others (p. 105)

personological and life story (on personality)

to understand personality we must understand the whole person. we all have unique life experiences and the stories we tell about those experiences make up our identities

staples/stirrup

transmits vibrations from the incus to the inner ear - along with anvil and hammer, trnasmits sound waves to the fluid-filled inner ear

cochlea

tubular, fluid-filled structure that's coiled up like a snail

nonconscious

unconscious but without terms of Freud

latent content

unconscious, hidden aspects that are symbolized by the manifest content

12-18 months

understands 50+ words on average by this age

15-20 years

understands adult literary works

stem cells

unique primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells

altruism

unselfish concern for others

free radicals

unstable oxygen molecules

dopamine (on personality)

"Feel Good" neurotransmitter vital to learning that certain behaviors are rewarding and sending the message to "Do it again" related to extraversion

Oxytocin

- Acts as both neurotransmitter and hormone - plays important role in love and social bonding - hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (trade name Pitocin)

formal operational stage

- Piaget's fourth and final stage in understanding the world; - 11 to 15 years through adulthood; - abstract, logical reasoning (hypothetical thoughts, predictions, hypotheses) - application: capable of designing and implementing a scientific experiment

conservation

- a belief in permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes - task of water between liquid in different shaped but equal size drinking glasses

theory

- a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations - ambiguity: do NOT confuse with hypothesis, which is a smaller and testable component of a theory (proving a hypothesis helps prove a theory)

conformity

- a change in a persons behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard - associated with Asch's experiment (lines)

polygraph

- a machine commonly called a lie detector that monitors changes in the body (physiological responses) to determine when a person is lying - most effective factor: belief it is accurate in detecting deceptions - criticisms: - correct slightly more than 50% of the time - anxiety can lead to false positives - different emotions can cause the same physiological reactions - people can be taught be beat polygraph tests

conditioned stimulus (CS)

- a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus - application: described as associated with unconditioned stimulus / something that naturally causes a response

What is the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?

- a psychiatrist spends 4 years at medical school and they have the ability to prescribe medication (they are an M.D.) - psychologists do not go to medical school

authoritarian parenting

- a restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parents directions and to value hard work and effort - kids sometimes lack social skills, show poor initiative and compare themselves with others - application: parent gives strict rules to their children with little discussion of the reasons for the rules

statistical significance

- a result that is not likely to occur randomly, but rather is likely to be attributable to a specific cause - .05 correlation is the minimum level of probability that scientists will accept for concluding that observed difference are real and not due to chance

hypothalamus

- a small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities--eating, drinking and sex--as well as emotion, stress, and reward - one of the major pleasure centers of the brain - think "hypo"--meaning underneath or below, and the (hypo)thalamus is below the thalamus

autobiographical memory

- a special from of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences - forms the core af an individual's personal identity

equilibrium

- a stable state

foot-in-the-door

- a strategy that involves making a smaller request at the beginning, saving the biggest demand for last.

door-in-the-face

- a strategy that involves making the biggest pitch at the beginning, that the consumer will probably reject, and then making a smaller, "concessionary" demand

social cognition

- a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in our social interactions

night terror

- a sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear that awakens the sleeper from stage 4 sleep (which is a non-REM sleep stage)

reticular formation

- a system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise - the structure that plays an important role in these stereotyped patterns of behavior by manipulation of various neurotransmitters

fovea centralis (fovea)

- a tiny area in the center of the retina at which vision is at its best - contains only cones (cone = color) - vital to many visual tasks

affectionate love

- aka compassionate love; love that occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep caring affection for the person

bulimia nervosa

- an eating disorder with which an individual (usually female) follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern; hard to detect because normally a normal weight - binging may involve consuming enormous amounts of calories at once (example: 5,000) - purging may be through vomiting, laxatives or exercise - high risk: high standards combined with low self-esteem

Alfred Adler

- birth order was important to personality development and individual psychology - people are primarily motivated to overcome perceived shortcomings

glucose

- blood sugar; the brain depends on this for energy - when gets too low, body gets hungry

functional fixedness

- failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions - worse (stronger) in adulthood - failing to see that items can be used for wide variety of things

frustration

- frustration may lead to aggression or passiveness

recall

- memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information - application: remembering somone's name

semantic memory

- person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school; and everyday knowledge - all of your random facts (the main characters of the Vampire Diaries, the names of presidents, etc.)

proximity

- physical closeness

linear perspective

- relative size, shape and position of objects are determined by drawn/imaginary lines converging at the horizon - application: causes parallel lines to converge as they are farther away

leptin

- released by fat cells; decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure and metabolism; ob mice lack this - associated with the feeling a satiety

"beautiful is good" stereotype

- research has shown that attractive people may indeed posses a number of positive characteristics

correlational research

- research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together (NOT causal) - application: can show links, relationships between, etc. - application: can state ice cream sales linked to increased violence

random assignment

- researchers' assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups - ensures groups had equal and balanced composition (not biased) - exteremly important aspect of experimental design

episodic memory

- retention of information about where, when, and what of life's happenings- that is, how individuals remember life's episodes - questions about your life (memories about you)

shaping

- rewarding approximations of a desired behavior; little steps to reach a goal behavior - application: used when desired behavior is complicated / not likely to occur on its own (not necessary for naturally occurring /one-step behaviors)

papillae

- rounded bumps above the tongue's surface that contain taste buds that are bunched together

neuroscience

- scientific study of the nervous system, emphasis on understanding behavior, thought, and emotion - interested in the the role of the brain in psychological processes

different types of phobias

- see figure 15.1, p. 495 - acrophobia - - aerophobia -

vestibular sense

- sense that provides infromation about balance and movement - boys that where (vest)s, like JT and Usher, have awesome (balance) and (movement)

kinesthetic senses

- senses that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation - muscle fibers and joints are most responsible for this sense

heuristics

- shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer - does NOT guarantee success/solution - convenient (quick) - allows for automatic reactions

inductive reasoning

- similar to bottom-up processing; reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations - specific >> general - application: forming general rules and concepts based on specific experiences and examples

proactive interference

- situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later - application: trying to get to new informaiton, failing because of old information

Abien

- sleep medication sometimes perscribed for insomnia - known to have strange side effect of sleep eating

aggression

- social behavior whose objective is to harm someone either physically or verbally - aggression must include intent - associated with low levels of serotonin

Albert Bandura

- studied observational learning - studied child behavior with inflated Bobo doll - children watched adults model aggressive or non aggressive behavior with the doll - children who watched aggressive behavior tended to act aggressively with the doll when given the chance - described attention, motor reproduction, retention, and reinforcement

Edward Tolman

- studied purposiveness of behavior; behavior is goal directed - when classical and operant conditioning occur, organism acquires expectations - stressed information value of the CS; important signal that UCS will follow - information CS provides is the key to understanding classical conditioning

John Garcia

- studied taste aversion - also studied preparedness; some animals learn readily but have difficulty learning in slightly different circumstances

personology

- study of the whole person - coined by Henry Murray - used to make the first criminal profile on Hitler during WWII

incubation

- subconscious processing that leads to a solution to a problem after a break of conscious thought, ex: editing a paper or writers block - trying to solve a problem (failing) --> doing something else (not consciously thinking out it) --> having an answer (result of incubation, the subconscious thinking without you knowing about it)

the medium

- technology used to get the message across

serial position effect

- tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle (consists of primacy effect and recency effect) - to aid memory, pay special attention to the middle of a list, etc. (b/c it is the easiest to forget/not encode) - primacy effect (beginning) - recency effect (end)

attraction

- the action or power of evoking interest, pleasure, or liking for someone or something

priming

- the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster - associated w/ enhanced retrieval of memories - application of expectations (told do well --> do well; told do poorly --> do poorly)

somatic nervous system

- the body system consisting of the sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain and temperature, and the motor nerves, whose function is to tell the muscles what to do - sensory nerves + motor nerves - voluntary nervous system (input from sense organs; output to skeletal muscles)... if you "instruct," "tell," "decide" for your muscles to do something, it is because of the somatic nervous system - carries information to your muscles

plasticity

- the brain's special capacity for change - the baility for nerve cells in the brain to change their purpose

rehearsal

- the conscious repetition of information - can keep content in short-term memory indefinitely (normally w/o rehearsal 30 seconds or less) - application: can be internal (repeating to self in mind) or external (repeating aloud to somone)

external validity

- the degree to which an experimental design actually relfects the real-world issues it is supposed to address - application: the experiment is only valid in a lab setting

internal validity

- the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable - application: there is something wrong with the design of the scientific experiment (something should have been considered that wasn't, etc.)

just-noticeable difference

- the difference between two stimuli that (under properly controlled experimental conditions) is detected as often as it is undetected (50% of the time) - application: changing volume on a tv (notice a change in volume); camouflage (don't want to be seen)

wavelength

- the distance between successive crests of a wave - (in light) - determines COLOR or hue

rape myth

- the false belief that women desire coercive sex

motivation

- the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do - research on why people do what they do

thalamus

- the forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain's central core and serves as the important relay station - it passes information that enters the brain on to the appropriate places

group identity

- the group

in-group

- the group that the individual belongs to - Tajfel's research demonstrates favoritism, even when arbitrarily assigned

amplitude

- the height of a wave (e.g. sound waves) -longer wavelengths=low energy -shorter wavelengths=high energy - amplitude of light = brightness of color - amplitude of sound = volume/loudness = measured in decibels - louder sounds (greater amplitude) cause air to press with more force on your years - quieter sounds (smaller amplitude) cause air to press with less force on your ears

groupthink

- the impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony - application: wants everyone to "get on board"; punitive to people who disagree

group influence

- the influence a group has on a person

informational social influence

- the influence other people have on us because we want to be right

normative social influence

- the influence others have on us because we want them to be like us - application (positive): performing at a high level in classes because taking AP courses and surrounded by AP students - application (negative): acting less intelligent/like you don't know the answer to seem like your friends

encoding failure

- the information was never entered into short-term or long-term memory

corpus callosum

- the large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides - cutting the corpus callosum results in a split brain

conditioned response (CR)

- the learned response to the conditioned stiumuls that occurs after conditioned stimulous-unconditioned stimulus pairing - caused by a conditioned stimulus

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

- the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body - composed of all the sensory and motor nerves - it is a part of the human nervous system - two main components: 1. the somatic nervous system (voluntary) 2. the autonomic nervous system (involuntary--consisting of the sympathetic motor system and the parasympathetic nervous system)

naturalistic observation

- the observation of behavior in a real-world setting - examples: observing students in classes, observing teachers in classes, observing kids at the mall, etc.

bottom-up processing

- the operation in sensation and perception in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation - application: any time you are learning something NEW, doing something for the FIRST time

top-down processing

- the operation in sensation and perception, launched by cognitive processing at the brain's higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening to apply that framework to information from the world - application: about things which you are familiar, routine, etc., you apply top-down processing (expectations) to your perception

neocortex

- the outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain

positive punishment

- the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior - decreases behavior - something is added (something negative is added) - example: spanking

all-or-nothing principle

- the principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity - if the were depolarized at a different speed or amount, the intensity of the action potential would not be affected because they either ALL fire or it does not

Weber's law

- the principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different - application: changing prices - change in prices seems more dramatic if higher percentage change--not dollar amount

self-regulation

- the process by which an organism effortfully controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives - goals that are short-term, specific and challenging lead to greater achievement - delayed gratification succes --> focusing on other activities - involves setting goals, planning for implementation of goals and monitoring progress

sensation

- the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy - application: describing a bunch of things that you "sense"--as in feel, taste, see, etc. from the environment - ambiguity: do NOT confuse with perception (organizing and interpreting)

critical thinking

- the process of reflcecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence

social comparison

- the processes by which individuals evaluate their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people - application: comparing individuals behavior against others while not taking into consideration the circumstances - application: gaining self-knowledge by evaluating self against others

cones

- the receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception (p. 111) - think (c) for (c)olor perception

rods

- the receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light but not very useful for color vision (p. 111) - peripheral vision (peripheral vision in low-light conditions can be superior) - used in low-light conditions

deindividualization

- the reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsability when one is part of a group - acting out of character when in a group: concert; Mardi Gras, lynching, etc.

stress

- the responses of individuals to environmental stressors - can result in high levles of adrenaline and noradrenaline in the body - cna cause persistent arousal of her autonomic (involuntary) nervous system - can weak the immune system

psychology

- the scientific study of behavior and mental processes - finds its origins in philosophy

open-mindedness

- the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things

correlation coefficient

- the strength of the relationship between two variables - strongest relationship = greatest distance form zero (either postivie or negative - weaskest relationshiip = closest to 0 - no relationship (do not occur at the same time) = 0 - negative = inverserse relationship (as one variable increases, the other decreases) - positive = direct relationship (as one variable increases, the other also increases) - 1.00 correlation coefficient = predict with perfect accuracy

optic nerve

- the structure at the back of the eye, made up of axons of the ganglion cells, that carries visual infrmatoin to the brain for further processing (p. 113) - area where optic nerve leaves eye = blind spot

hippocampus

- the structure of the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories - it is one of the two principal structures of the limbic system (along with the amygdala) -damage to this results in issues with memory formation

social psychology

- the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people - application: may pose questions about how people will respond in different settings (different social environments)/when the situation is altered slightly

risky shift

- the tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members

bystander effect

- the tendency of an individual who observes an emergency to help less when other people are present that when the observer is alone

ethnocentrism

- the tendency to favor ones own ethnic group over other groups

representativeness heuristic

- the tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information - application: judging someone/something based on appearance

confirmation bias

- the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them - involves ignoring/failing to acknowledge other evidence

self-objectifications

- the tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others - application: school uniforms are seen as a way to reduce this (not purchasing super-expensive and name-brand clothing)

self-serving bias

- the tendency to take credit for our successes and to deny responsibility for our failures - application: doing well on test --> studied and knew content; not doing well on test --> busy this week, test was hard, etc.

mental processes

- the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly - behaviorists, such as Watson and Skinner, DO NOT care about metal processes

social exchange theory

- the view of social relationships as involving and exchange of goods the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits - the success of a relationship is a function of how you feel about the equity in the relationship

attribution theory

- the view that people are motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior.

average

- the view that we are average in our traits and our number of valued characteristics.

social identity

- the way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership

two-factor theory of emotion

- theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling - cognitive approach - high arousal can lead to inaccurate labeling of emotions

James-Lange Theory

- theory that emotion results form physiological states triggered by stimuli in environment (afraid because running away); also each emotion has particular set of physiological changes - application: make conclusions about emotions based on body's physiological state - supported by the facial feedback hypothesis

drive reduction theory

- theory that states as a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it - flow: need --> drive --> motivation - criticism: dieting (when hungry, not engaging in behavior to reduce drive)

decay theory

- theory that states when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trance forms, but over time its trace disintegrates - suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting - "use it or lose it"

place theory

- theroy on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane - think (place), referencing location, here to the (spot) in the basilar membrane

hierarchy of needs

- this must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization - application: must meet physiological needs before feeling save; must feel safe before love; etc. - created by Abraham Maslow

altruism

- unselfish interest in helping another person - associated with prosocial behavior

Kandel and Schwartz

- used sea slugs in memory research because they have relatively few neurons

Iconic memory

- visual sensory memory, retained for only 1/4 of a second - is superior to echoic memory for retention

prefrontal lobotomies

-American physician and neurologist Walter Freeman became the "champion" of this -preformed first prefrontal lobotomy in 1936 -once he got a technique down he traveled the country in a van "lobotomobile" to preform these surgeries -many individuals who received this surgery were left suffering from permanent and profound brain damage -not used anymore

behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

-Sensitive to: environmental punishment -Behavior: avoid negative punishments/punishments -Emotion: Negative -Personality trait: Neuroticism

psychosurgery

-a biological therapy, with irreversible effects, that involves removal or destruction of brain tissue to improve the individual's adjustment -developed in 1930 by Antonio Egas Moniz -won nobel prize in 1949 for his work --> thought it should only be used as a last resort

integrative therapy

-a combination of techniques from different therapies based on the therapist's judgement of which particular methods will provide the greatest benefit for the client -openness to various ways of applying diverse therapies

systematic desensitation

-a method of behavior therapy that treats anxiety by teaching the client to associate deep relaxation with increasingly intense anxiety-producing situations -step one: order aspects of the feared situation from least frightening to most frightening -step two: recognize presence of muscular contraction or tension in various parts of the body and then contract and relax different muscles -step three: once relaxed, therapist asks him or her to imagine least feared and moves up the hierarchy as the person remains relaxed -eventually you are no longer as afraid of the stimulus as before

psychotherapy

-a nonmedical process that helps individuals with psychological disorders recognize and overcome their problems -number of clients in therapy have fallen by more than 12% in the time period of 1996-2005

careers in psychology

-human resources, business consulting, casework, therapists/counselors, researchers, teachers -academic(34%) -clinical(24%) -private practice(22%) -industrial(12%) -schools(4%) -other(4%)

Carl Rogers

-humanistic -"The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change."

Wernicke's area

-involved in understanding speech

group performance

-social loafing -social facilitation

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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anorexia nervosa

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attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

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biological factors (in mood disorders)

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biological factors (of suicide)

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catatonia

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cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia

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delusions

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diathesis-stress model

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psychological factors of schizophrenia

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referential thinking

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schizophrenia

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social phobia

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sociocultural factors (in mood disorders)

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sociocultural factors (of suicide)

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sociocultural factors of schizophrenia

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thought disorder

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Sigmund Freud

...Psychodynamic approach- obsessed with sex

4 steps of hypnosis

1. Minimize distractions and make comfortable 2. Concentrate on something specific 3. Inform person what to expect 4. Suggest certain feelings or events

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

1. Preconventional level, 2. Conventional level, 3. Postconventional level

Marcia's theory of identiy status

2 dimensions- exploration ( a persons investigating various options for a career and personal values ) and commitment ( making a decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity ) - Identity achievement, identity moratorium, Identity foreclosure, Identity diffusion

Type B behavior pattern

A cluster of characteristics - such as being relaxed and easygoing - related to good health

natural selection

Darwin's principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring

natural selection

Darwinian explanation of evolution, survival of the fittest leads to gradual genetic change (adaptation)

psychological approach (on psychological disorders)

Emphasizes the contributions of experiences, thoughts, emotions, and personality characteristics in explaining psychological disorders. -Childhood experiences - personality trait development

no awareness

Freud's belief that some unconscious thoughts are too laden with anxiety, and other negative emotions for consciousness to admit them

mental illness

From the perspective of the medical model, abnormalities are called mental illness.

peer pressure/influence in identity formation

Peers are very influential at this time

Effect of culture on perception

Perception is influenced by attention, beliefs, and expectations, and culture also has an effect on our attention, beliefs, and expectations, so therefore culture has an effect on perception.

permissive parenting

Placement of few limits on childs behavior - Poor social competence, fail to learn respect for others and expect to get their way, poor self control

integrity versus despair

Process of life review and reminiscence, The older adult comes to a sense of meaning or despair

James Marcia

Proposed the concept of identity status to describe a persons position in the development of identity

DSM-V

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; the major classification of psychological disorders in the United States.

Connection between sense of smell and limbic system

The olfactory bulb is in the limbic system. The limbic system is associated with emotion and memory. This could be why we tend to associate a certain smell with a certain memory/emotion and vice versa.

Role of top-down processing in producing vulnerability to illusion

Top-down processing starts with cognitive processing by the brain so if we only see part of the illusion our brain tells us that's what it is until the other part is pointed out to us.

convergence

a binocular cue to depth and distance in which the muscle movemnets in our two eyes provide information about how deep and/or far away something is

experiment

a carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable

sensory adaption

a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation (p. 107)

cognitive restructuring

a general concept for changing a pattern of thought that is presumed to be causing maladaptive behavior or emotion

scatter plot

a graph in which the values of two variables are plotted along two axes, the pattern of the resulting points revealing any correlation present.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

a group of peers in a clinical setting that examines a research proposal to insure patient safety and addresses the ethics of the proposed study

conscientiousness

a key factor in a variety of life domains. positively related to grades and better friendships forgiving attitude and higher levels of religious faith. dress neatly etc. - application: most important in terms of health and longevity

syntax

a language's rule for combining words to form acceptable grammar phrases and sentences

morphology

a language's rules for word formation

phonology

a language's sound system

limbic system

a loosely connected network of structures under the cerebral cortex, important in both memory and emotion. Its two principal structures are the amygdala and the hippocampus

estradiol

a major estrogen produced in the ovaries.

independent variable

a manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are

psychobiography

a means of inquiry in which the personality psychologist attempts to apply a personality theory to a single persons life

mean

a measure of central tendency that is the average for a sample

median

a measure of central tendency that is the middle score in a sample

mode

a measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a sample

range

a measure of dispersion that is the difference between the highest and lowest scores

exploration

a persons investigating various options for a career and personal values

availability heuristic

a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

perceptual set

a predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way (p. 107)

interpretation

a psychoanalyst's search for symbolic, hidden meanings in what the client says and does during therapy

dream analysis

a psychoanalytic technique for interpreting ones dreams -dreams are our outlet to express our unconscious wishes

somatosensory cortex

a region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensation, located at the front of the parietal lobes

motor cortex

a region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement, located just behind the frontal lobes

secondary reinforcer

a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experiences; this is a learned or conditioned reinforcer

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

ability to develop hypotheses about solutions to a problem and to deduce/conclude best solution

latent content

according to Freud, a dream's hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning - the meaning that you find by analyzing the manifest content (what is "actually" happening in your dream)

unconscious thought

according to Freud, a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings and thoughts that are beyond consciousness awarenss; Freud's interpretation viewd the unconscious as a storehouse for vile thoughts - mental processes that occur without a person being aware of them

explicit memory

aka declarative memory, the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated........information is transmitted from the hippocampus to the frontal lobes

connectionism

aka parallel distributed processing, the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory

6-12 months

babbling expands to include sounds of spoken language gestures used to communicate about objects first words usually occur at this age

chronic sleep deprivation

bad impact on body and mind, trouble paying attention and solving problems, decreases brain activity in thalamus and prefrontal cortex

reciprocal determinism

banduras term to describe the way behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality.

external locus of control

behavioral control coming from outside the person

temperament

behavioral style and characteristic way of responding

Albert Bandura

behavioralist - social cognitive theory (Behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are all linked) - associated with observational learning

mindless behaviors

behaviors that do not require thought or reflection

selective attention

being able to focus on some things while ignoring others

shadowing

changes in perception due to position of light and position of the viewer

cornea

clear membrane in front of the eye. Works with lens to bend light to focus it on the back of the eye; does most of the bending.

visual impairments

color blind, blind

hue

color: refers to the aspect of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

Walter Cannon

conducted experiment in 1912 with Washburn associating hunger and stomach contractions

inhibition

conscious or unconscious constraint or curtailment of a process or behaviour, especially of impulses or desires. Inhibition serves necessary social functions, abating or preventing certain impulses from being acted on (e.g., the desire to hit someone in the heat of anger) and enabling the delay of gratification from pleasurable activities.

Howard Gardner

created a theory with 9 levels of intelligence; his theory is criticized because of no testing to support it

Robert J. Sternberg

created the triarchic theory of intelligence

Stanly Schachter

created two-factor theory of emotion

culture of honor on aggression

crime rates higher if gap between rich and poor is big. some cultures honor = aggression, honor killings, suicide... etc.

4 things you need in psychology

critical thinking, skepticism, objecticity, curiousity

collectivistic

cultures that focus on the group, interdependence, and collaborative efforts

cerebellum

damage >>> difficulty with balance and motor skills

hearing impairments

deaf

habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

humanistic approach

emphasis on positive qualities of people, positive growth, and free will. founded by Maslow and Rogers

memory processes

encoding, storage, retrieval

wisdom

expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life

challenge idiosyncratic meanings

explore personal meaning attached to the client's words and ask the client to consider alternatives

turn adversity into advantage

explore ways that difficult situations can be transformed to opportunities

flooding

exposing individual to feared stimuli to an excessive degree while not allowing the person to avoid stimuli

biological factors of schizphrenia

heredity - structual brain abnormalities - problems in neurotransmitter regulation -

cognitive development

how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature

observational learning

learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates anothers behavior

social learning

learning that takes place at a wider scale than individual or group learning, through social interaction between peers

empirical method

learning through observation, data, and logic

safety

level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs that involves feeling secure, having a secure house and neighborhood, police station nearby, etc

arousal

level of alertness of the body; the Autonomic Nervous System regulates this

language milestones

levels of linguistic ability as a baby develops into an adult

phi phenomenon

lights next to each other blinking on and off in succession appear to be moving

cognitive therapy techniques

list (p. 537) develop strategies to help change the way people think

hindbrain

located at the skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum and pons

midbrain

located between the hindbrain and the forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, this part of the brain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears

nodes

locations of neural activity

descriptive statistics

mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way which includes measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion - includes: mean, median, mode and standard deviation

organic intellectual disability

may be caused by inherited physiology, injury, or disease affecting brain tissues, chemical or hormonal abnormalities, exposure to toxic materials, neurological impairment, or abnormal changes associated with aging.

media violence on aggression

media is violent = more people violent

birth order (according to Adler)

middle child is most successful. first born is more likley to be the problem child amd the youngest is spoiled

situationism

mischels view- the idea that personality and behavior often vary considerably from one context to another

pessimism

negative feelings

neural networks

networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output

feature detectors

neurons in the brain's visual system that respond t oparticular features of a stimulus (p. 113)

stage 2

non-REM sleep; muscle activity decreases; no longer conscious of environment; theta waves and sleep SPINDLES; lasting up to 20 min

frequency

number of full wavelengths that pass through a point in a given time interval

analytical intelligence

one of Sternberg's three forms of intelligence in his theory; means one can solve problems and think critically

practical intelligence

one of Sternberg's three forms of intelligence in his theory; means that one can complete everyday tasks

creative intelligence

one of Sternberg's three forms of intelligence in his theory; means that one can think outside of the box

Anxiety

powerful motivating force; individuals reaction to real/imagine dangers; Freud says anxiety emerges from sexual conflicts; Horney says that comes because children depend on adults for survival, one defenses are threatened anxiety occurs

schema

preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Schemas form prior encounters with the environment influence the way we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

projective personality test; developed at Harvard by Murray and Associates; 20 cards with figures in ambiguous situations; person is asked to interpret the card (tell what is happening, leading up to and following the image); examined for content, language, consistency, organization, and originality - applicaiton: not a self-report test

unconscious

prominent in Freudian theory; ideas, thoughts, feelings of which we are not aware normally; basis of psychoanalysis

taste buds

receptors for taste. tongue has about 10, 000 of these, which are replaced every 2 weeks

size constancy

recognition that object stays same size even though retinal image of the object changes (ex. we see a car that is far away and know it isn't small)

cognitive reappraisal

regulating one's feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or form a different angle

neuroticism

related to feeling negative emotion more often than positive emotion and more lingering and negative states - application: someone high on this might be anxious and insecure

openess

related to liberal values, open-mindedness, tolerance and creativity. associated with superior cognitive functioning and IQ across the life span.

operations

related to properties of objects, such as volume

Self-reference

relation material to your own experience

long-term memory

relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amount of information for a long time

applied research

research thtat is applied, accessing and using some part of the research community's accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a client driven purpose

malleus/hammer

sends the sound waves that enter the ear to the incus to be deciphered. - along with anvil and stirrup, trnasmits sound waves to the fluid-filled inner ear

afterimages

sensations that remain after a stimulus is removed

interal locus of control

sense of behavioral control as coming from inside the person

Piaget's four stages

sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage; each stage involves a qualitatively different way of making sense of the world

thermoreceptors

sensory nerve ending under the skin that repsond to chanes in temperature at or near the skin and provide input to keep the body's temperature at 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit - application: when both cold and warm thermoreceptors are activitated, you will feel warmth only

area of low nerve concentration

slow pathway (think "S(LOW)"

redemptive stories

stories about going from bad to better

contamination stories

stories about going from good to worse

strong vs weak tendency

strong trait vs. weak traits?

black

the absence of light; no hue

reasoning

the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way

forebrain

the brain's largest division and its most forward part

feelings of elevations

the feelings we have when we see someone else do a good deed - increases the chances that we will in turn do something kind ourselves

memory span

the number of digitalis an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them

inner ear

the part of the ear that includes the oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane and whose function is to convert sound waves into neural impulses and send them to the brain

axon

the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells - think (a) for away

cell body (soma)

the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance

experimental group

the participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other treatment under the study--that is, those who are exposed to the change the independent variable represents

control group

the particpants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimetnal group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable

science

the use of systematic methods to observe the natural world, including human behavior and mental processes

pragmatics

the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said; the purposefulness of language

extinction (in classical conditioning)

the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent

psychodynamic perspectives

theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) - natural human reactions, etc. --> pertains to biology

humanistic perspectives

theoretical views stressing a persons capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities.

cognitive theory of dreaming

theory proposing that we can understand draming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind; rests on teh idea that dreams are essentially subconscious cognitive processing involving information and memory

optimum arousal theory

theory stating that arousal generally refers to a person being alert or engaged; motivation influences arousal levels excited = high arousal (anxious) bored = low arousal (lethargic) best = moderate arousal

opponent-process theory

theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue - explains and explained by afterimages

trichromatic theory

theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particualry sensitive to different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebra; cortex synthesises neural signals generated from activity in th lower part of the brain and that dreas result from teh brain's attempts to find logic in reandom brain activity that occurs during sleep

Cannon-Bard theory

theory that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously; also that different emotions cannot be classified by a particular set of physiological changes

social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis

theory that hypnosis is normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should behave.

idealistic

thinking which involves comparing how things are and how they might be

concrete operational stage

third stage in understanding the world; 7 to 11 years; uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning

Working memory

three part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we preform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems

primary appraisal

three types of this form of appraisal: already a problem something is threatening to happen there is a challenge (best way to think)

desynchronized

thrown off a regular schedule

6-8 years

vocabulary continues to increase rapidly more skilled use of syntactical rules conversational skills improve

embryonic period

weeks 3 through 8 in prenatal development; rate of cell differentiation intensifies, cell support systems develop, organs appear, third week the neural tube begins for form, closes after 28 days

individualistic

wester cultures that focus on the individual, independence, and self accomplishments

conception

when a single sperm cell merges with ovum to produce zygote

interposition cue

when one object overlaps another, the object that is partially obscured is perceived as being farther away

placebo effect

when receiving a substance that has no effects, the belief in the substance causes the result of the believed effect

autokinetic effect

when the eye looks at a stationary, bright light in the dark for a long time, it starts to look like it's moving because there is no reference point

dilate

when the pupil enlarges to allow more light to enter the eye

dendrite spreading

when you learn and experience things you gain more dendrites?

9-11 years

word definitions include synonyms conversational strategies continue to improve

Judith Harris

wrote The Nurture Assumption, believes what parents do makes no difference in children's behavior; genes and peers are more influential

sex (according to Freud)

Anything pleasurable

functional magnetic brain imaging (fMRI)

may be more accurate than a polygraph; records changes in the prefrontal cortex; correct around 71% of the time

contiguity

means that the CS and UCS are presented very close together in time

contingency

means that the CS must not only precede the UCS closely in time, it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the UCS is on its way

Torsten Wiesel

neuropsychologist, made discoveries concerning feature detectors; Nobel Prize

doctors

The people who treat the afflicted individuals

Gestalt

a school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns

artificial intelligence (AI)

a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

representative sample

a subset of the population that accurately reflects the members of the entire population

normal distribution

a symmetrical, bell shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range

learning

a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

laboratory experiment

a test or trial conducted in the lab

field experiment

a test or trial conducted in the real world

behaviorism

a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing and hoping

cultural bias in test

a type of bias that hinders certain groups of people and gives others an advantage

(Rapid Eye Movement) REM sleep

an active stage of sleep during which dreaing occurs

biological clock

annual/seasonal cycles or a 4 hour cycle like cycling between sleep and awake

serotonin

antagonists for this have been used to treat obesity

life story approach

centers on the idea that each of us has a unique life story, full of ups and downs. our life story represents our memories of what makes us who we are. our life story is our identity

physical processes

changes in biological nature; genes, hormonal changes of puberty and menopause; changes in brain, height, weight, and motor skills

fixation

using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective

stroboscopic effect

when continuous motion is represented by a series of short samples; (think strobe lights)

social desirablity

when motivated individuals will say what they think the researcher wants to hear or what they think will make them look better

erogenous zones

parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular stages of development.

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it has meaning

audiology

the sicence concerned with hearing

implicit racism

- attitudes that exist on a deeper hidden level

Lev Vygotsky

- kind of a big deal russian psychologist, believes cognitive development is an interpersonal process that varies with culture

standard deviation

- a measure of dispersion that tells us how much scores in a sample differ from the mean of the sample - more sophisticated version of descriptive statistics - takes squared deviation from the mean - application: frequently results in a normal bell curve

anterograde amnesia

- a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events - failing with new information

meta-analysis

- a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a simlar topic in order to establish the strength of an effect

investment model

- a model of long term relationships that examines the ways that commitment investment and the availability of attractive partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships

Endorphines

- a neurochemical occurring naturally in the brain and having analgesic properties - neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of CNS - but excites the heart muscle, intestinal, and urogenital tract

pituitary gland

- a pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands - sometimes called the master gland

discriminative

- a person looks at each situation and responds accordingly

Stanley Milgram

- learner and teacher.. teacher shocks learner if they are wrong... people did it - associated with obedience

reinforcing statements

-constructive statements which the client can repeat in order to take positive steps to cope with stress or meet a goal

disorders of movement

...

dissociation

...

dissociative amnesia

...

physiological needs

- level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs that involves the basic needs of food, drink, shelter, sex, sleep; the strongest of human needs - bottom of the pyramid

dissociative disorders

...

dissociative fugue

...

dual-code hypothesis

...

empiricism

...

etiology

...

flat affect

...

hallucinations

...

hypervigilance

...

negative skew

...

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

...

neologisms

...

personality disorders

...

retrospective memory

- remembering information form the past - almost all memory is retrospective memory - ambiguity: do not confuse with prospective memory (future; to-do's)

ESP (estrasenory perception)

- research does not support this - same as chance / guessing

psychopaths

...

attribution

- the process by which we come to understand the causes of others' behavior to form an impression of them as individuals.

regency effect

...

living "down" to expectations

- a person who experiences stereotype threat is well aware of stereotypical expectations for him or her as a member of the group. In stereotype-relevant situations, the individual experiences living down to expectations in order to meet group stereotype.

social worker

-2-5 years -degree: MS W/DSW or PhD -graduate work in a school of social work including specialized clinical training in mental health facilities

suicide

...

Latency period

Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 6-12; sexual drive lies dormant, focuses on social nature and development of friendships, seen as period of repression (as sexual drives), all libido energy is poured into school and sports

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life - formerly called mental retardation

hedonic treadmill

belief that any aspect of one's life that enhances one's positive feelings is likely to do so only for a short time because eventually the body adjusts and returns to one's happiness set point

innate sense

belief that people have a feeling of whether something is morally right or wrong?

Carl Rogers

believed we have the raw ingredients to succeed in life we just need the right environment

Sandra Scarr

believes superparenting is unnecessary; genotype is so strong that more environmental experiences are unimportant; only parenting that has negative effects is severely abnormal parenting

Gustav Fechner

founder of psychophysics, demonstrated the non-linear relationship between sensation and physical intensity

synapse

gaps between neurons

norms

normal distribution; the average intelligence level has increased from 100 in 1932, to 120 in 1997

biopsychosocial model (on psychological disorders)

Abnormal influence by biological factors, psychological factors, and sociocultural factors working together.

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

(formerly called multiple personality disorder) -

binocular disparity

(same as retinal disparity) the difference btwn visual images that each eye perceives because the difference angles in which each eye views the world

adolescence

developmental period of transition from childhood to adulthood, begining around 10-12 and ending around 18-21 years of age

CPAP (continous postive airway pressure)

device for people with sleep apnea that sends pressurized air through a mask that prevents airway from closing

olfactory receptor

responsible for the detection of odor molecules

myelin sheath

- a layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons - helps make the charge pass faster and smoother down the axon

survey research

a research method involving the use of questionaires and/or statistical surveys to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviors

infinite generativity

the ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences

depth perception

the ability to perceive objects three-dimentionally

creative thinking

the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems

creativity

the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems

spatial

the ability to think in three dimensions. -picture smart

verbal

the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. - word smart

resilience

the ability to thrive during difficult times

interpersonal

the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. - people smart

sampling

the act or process of selecting a sample for testing, analyzing, etc.

neural impulse

the electrical discharge that travels along a nerve fiber

population

the entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions

reliability

the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproductable measure of perfromance

reliability

the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproductive measure of performance

storage

the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory

neurology

the scientific study of the nervous systsm

psychopathology

the scietific study of psychological disorders and the development of diagnostic categories and treatments for those disorder

pain

the sensation that warns us of damage to our bodies

lateralization

the specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other

mindfulness

the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things

concept

- a mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics; allows us to generalize and associate; aids memorization - a form of cognitive efficiency and economy

complexity

- carrying out multiple functions at once - application: multitasking = metaphor for it

central executive

- integrates information not only from the phonological loop and visuospatial working memory but also from long-term memory - assisted by phologocial loop and visuospatial

culture-fair test

- intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased; impossible to be this completely - puzzle questions (content not seen prior in any culture)

positive illusions

- positive views of the self that are not actually rooted in reality - application: having a very high opinion of self most likely indicates positive illusions

prosocial behavior

- potentially altruistic behavior

Noam Chomsky

- prewired to learn language (children all over the world acquire language at the same time)

endorphins

- produced by body from exersize - "runners' high"

occupational therapist

-0-5 years -degree: BS, MA, PhD -emphasis on occupational training --> stresses individuals get back into the mainstream of work

psychiatric nurse

-0-5 years -degree: RN, MA, PhD -graduate work in nursing with emphasis on care of mentally disturbed individuals

pastoral counselor

-0-5 years -degree: none to PhD or DD - requires ministerial background and training in psychology

counselor

-2 years -degree: MA or MEd -graduate work in the department of psychology or education

counseling psychologist

-3-7 years -degree: MA, PhD, PsyD, EdD -similar to clinical psychologist

school psychologist

-3-7 years -degree: MA, PhD, PsyD, EdD -training in graduate programs of education or psychology --> emphasis on counseling practices involving students' school related problems

clinical psychologist

-5-7 years of schooling -degree: PhD or PsyD -requires training in both clinical and research --> includes one year internship at a hospital or mental health facility

psychiatrist

-7-9 years -degree: MD -four years of medical school plus internship and residency in psychiatry

self-efficacy

-Albert Bandura's concept that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes -key to successful therapy

client-centered therapy

-Also called Rogerian therapy or nondirective therapy, a form of humanistic therapy, developed by Rogers, in which the therapist provides a warm, supportive atmosphere to improve the client's self-concept and to encourage the client to gain insight into problems -places a lot of emphasis on the client's self-reflection -goal: to help the client identify and understand his or her own genuine feelings

LCS (lysergic acid diethylamide)

-drug that produces perceptual changes -acts on serotonin -strong hallucinations, distorted time perceptions -anxiety, paranoia, suicidal or homicidal impulses

antidepressant drugs

-drugs that regulate mood -four main classes: tricyclics, tetracyclic, MAO inhibitors, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

linguistic relativity hypothesis

"language determines thought"

stigma

-

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)

- - criteria:

borderline personality disorder (BPD)

- - five or more of the following symptoms:

circumplex model of mood

- (a.k.a. wheel model of emotions) uses both valence and arousal level to identify emotions - ecstasy and excitement- high arousal positive emotions - contentment and tranquility- low arousal positive emotions - rage, fury, and panic- high arousal negative emotions - irritation and boredom- low arousal negative emotions

first impressions

- 100 milliseconds - can have lasting effects

Sherif's Robbers Cave Study

- 2 groups of 11-year-old boys against each other at summer camp (Eagles vs. Rattlers) - after competitions / be relations emerged, task-oriented cooperation was used to improve relations

persuasion

- 2 questions: What makes an individual give up on an original attitude and adopt a new one? -What makes a person decide to act on an attitude that he or she has not acted on before?

Asch's experiment

- 3 lines. which line is bigger... 35% of people conformed - associated with conformity

self-perception theory

- Bem's theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating the individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior. - application - How do I feel... Well what do I do? I guess that's how I feel.

"The Expression of the the Emotions in Man and Animals"

- Charles Darwin's study, concluded that facial expression are innate/unlearned - facial expression of emotions does not vary significantly across cultures

internal attributions

- EX."I'm smart" or "I knew that stuff" -You taking credit

broaden-and-build model

- Fredrickson's model of positive emotion stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual's attention and ability to build resources - shows adaptiveness of positive emotions

functionalism

- Jame's appoach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaption to the environment - it expanded upon structuralism

primacy debate: cognition or emotion

- Lazarus believes that thinking comes first; probably right with cluster of evens and with long-term emotional reactions such as depression (believed in the primacy of thinking, meaning thoughts are a precondition of emotions) - Zajonc believes that emotion comes first- "preferences need no inferences"; probably right with single events/preferences, and instantaneous reactions (shrieking)

stereotype

- a generalization about a group's characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another - can be positive or negative - not limited to racial/ethnic/sociocultural implications, can be appearance (jock, geek, beautiful people, etc.)

GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)

- Neurotransmitter in as many as one third of the brain's synapses

preoperational stage

- Piaget's second stage in understanding the world - 2 to 7 years - more symbolic with words, images, and pictures - characterized by egocentric thought - fails the pennies task (row size indicates number)

object permanence

- Piaget's term for crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they are not directly sensed - application: if you had something from a child in the sensorimotor stage (0-2) who hasn't mastered this concept, child will act like it doesn't exist

proximity

- When we see objects that are near each other, we see them as a unit. - application: AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA = 4 groups of 4 As - application: look for key works like "near" "grouped" "next to each other" etc. - gestalt principle

structuralism

- Wundt's approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes; so called because of its focus on identifying - structuralism came before functionalism, which added "purpose" - introspection: documenting descriptions of an experience

positive psychology

- a branch of psychology that focuses on human strengths - if it talks about free will / choice and/or positive growth, it will be the HUMANISTIC APPROACH

cortisol

- a chemical released in the body just before waking in the morning that is linked to your circadian rhythm - THINK: You have to wake for court... or SOL like sun in Spanish - application: during jet lag, etc. this chemical may be released at the wrong time and make your morning / day rough

smell

- a chemical sense that uses the olfactory epithelium - can elicite more vivid memories athan the other senses beacuse it takes a different neural pathway than other senses

the slow-to-warm-up child

- a child characterized by low activity, is somewhat negative, inflexible, and has low mood intensity

the difficult child

- a child who is negative, behaves irregularly, and is inflexible - application: a baby who cries a lot and who has difficulty in new situations

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

- a computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a black or white person with good things or bad things

operational definition

- a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to mbe measured and observed in a particular study - a specific description of what will be studied

need

- a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate/reduce the deprivation (ie for water, for food, for nourishment) - need = physiological state

amphetatamine

- a druge that decreases feels of fatigue, creats and elevated mood and decreases appetite THINK: AMPed - stimulant

empathy

- a feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another person - application: most likely when when sharing a similar experience

aversive conditioning

- a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus - example: antabuse (causes nausea when alcohol is used)

script

- a schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences - examples: class/school, church, restaurants, movie theatres (you know what to expect, what to DO, etc.)

signal detection theory

- a theory of perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty (p. 104) - detection of stimuli vary based on physcial intensity of stimulus, fatigue of the boservers, expectancy - information acquisition (all the information that you have to make a decision) and criterion (how you will be using that information to make an assessment) - STUDY this

resilience

- ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times, even during adversity

manifest content

- according to Freud, the surface content of a dream, containing dream symbols that disguise the dream's true meaning - what is "actually" happening in your dream

accomodation

- adjusting schemas to new information to make sense of new experiences - application: baby adjusts highchair food association to accept all objects in highchair aren't food (such as a cardboard box)

the target (audience)

- age and attitude strength are two characteristics of the audience that determine whether the message will be effective. Younger people are more likely to change their attitudes than older ones. It is easier to change weak attitudes than strong ones.

neurobiological factors of aggression

- aggressive behavior often results when areas such as the limbic system are stimulated by electric currents - frontal lobe problems = aggression - low levels of serotonin = aggression - testosterone = related with aggression

romantic love

- aka passionate love; love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation often dominant in the early part of a relationship

self-determination theory

- all humans have three basic, innate organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy - study tip: you can determine your own life with CAR - C - competence - A - autonomy - R - relatedness - valued by both Western and Eastern cultures - Eastern culture values affiliation, cooperation and interdependence more than Western/individualistic cultures

Aronson's jigsaw classroom

- all the students have to pull together the "Big picture" - brings kids together

intelligence

- all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience (U.S. definition) - definition varies between cultures

latent learning

- also called implicit learning; unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior - getting the "lay of the land" and being able to use the knowledge later

-tetracyclic antidepressants

- also called noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NaSSAs) -have effects on both norepinephrine and serotonin enhancing brain levels of these neurotransmitters -Remeron (mertazapine) is more effective in reducing depression than any other antidepressant drug

amygdala

- an almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals - it is one of the two principal structures of the limbic system (along with the hippocampus) -damage to this can cause incredibly incorrect decision-making, includng inappropriate behavior with inanimate objects

hypnosis

- an altered state of consciousnees or a psychological state of alterned attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions 2 views: 1) divided consciousness, 2) social cognitve behavior

evolutionary approach

- an approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors - explains attractiveness of tall and healthy significant others, etc.

sociocultural approach

- an approach to psychology that examines how social and cultural environments influence behavior - application: look for words that reference a specific location, group of people, etc. and how that influences behavior

drive

- an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need (ie being thirsty) - drive = psychological state - application: acting on a drive = getting something to satisfy a need (maybe unsuccessfully... a drive can be reduced with a need being satisfied)

anorexia nervosa

- an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation - even when thin, desire to lose weight remains (intense fear of gaining weight - has the highest death rate of any psychological disorder - associated with amenorrhea (loss of periods) - associated with distorted body image

hypothesis

- an educated guess that derives logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested - ambiguity: do NOT confuse with theory, which is too broad to test

positive reinforcement

- an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to the subsequent presentation of something that is good - increases behavior - something is added (something good is added) - example: grades, paycheck, gold star

negative reinforcement

- an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to the subsequent removal of something that is bad - increases behavior - something is taken away (something negative is taken away) - example: not having to do chores

consciousness

- an individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences

phenotype

- an individual's observable characteristics - can be deliberately changed (cororing hair, plastic surgery, etc.)

stereotype threat

- an individuals fast acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about his or her group - problematic to ask ethnicity questions before a test

cognitive dissonance theory

- an individuals psychological comfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts - individuals try to make attitudes conform to behavior - application: rationalization - I may engage in ______ negative/unhealthy behavior, but I'll die having a good time.

instinct

- an innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species - examples: birds flying south, etc.

avoidance learning

- an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response - never want negative response again - examples: studying to never fail a test, driving speed limit to never get another ticket - be careful to not confuse with associative learning

learned helplessness

- an organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes - uncontrolled negative events can lower immune system functioning

prejudice

- an unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individuals membership in a particular group

discimination

- an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group

unconditioned response (UCR)

- an unlearned reaction that is automaticaly elicited by the unconditioned response - application: biological response to things naturally occurring

teratogen

- any agent that causes a birth defect

out-group

- any group with which an individual does not identify - a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition

conditions of worth

- application: joining the football team to please father

cognitive psychology

- approaches that sought to explain observational behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that we cannot directly observe - radical departure from behaviorism

heritablity of personality

- approximately 50 percent for the 5 factors

Broca's area

- area in the brain used in speech production - located in left hemisphere

motor cortex

- area of the cerebral cortex which control voluntary muscle movement

Charles Darwin

- argued that natural selection determines the physical traits of survival

self-monitoring

- as part of self-regulation theory: daily moods give feedback --> cannot always be positive (thus, not always happy with feedback)

goals

- as part of self-regulation theory: personal projects, best possible selves, personal strivings

meditation

- attaining a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied of worry - application: prayer or peaceful walk can be a form of meditation

echoic memory

- auditory sensory memory, retained for several seconds - can take a second to process

system 1

- automatic reasoning; rapid, heuristic, intuitive - frequently more accurate - research: people who make complex decisions after being distracted are more likely to make better decisions

attractive faces

- average, symmetry, youthfulness

Erikson's eight stages of human development

- based on the assumption that each person faces a set of predictable life-changing challenges at various stages of life 1. Trust Vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy Vs Shame and doubt 3. Initiative Vs Guilt 4. Industry Vs Inferiority 5. Identity Vs Identity Confusion 6. Intimacy Vs Isolation 7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation 8. Integrity Vs Despair

preconventional level

- based primarily on punishments and rewards from the external world - the first of three stages of moral development according to Kohlberg

obedience

- behavior that complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority - associated with Stanley Milgram

B. F. Skinner

- behaviorist

John B. Watson

- behaviorist

fixed mindset

- belief that people have fixed skills - hinders individuals - more likely to develop learned helplessness

growth mindset

- belief that skills can develop and improve over time - greatly benefits individuals - less likely to develop learned helplessness

parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

- body system that calms the body; heart rate and blood pressure drop, breathing slows, stomach activity and digestion increase - criticism: different emotions can cause the range of physiological changes

phonological loop

- briefly store speech-based information about the sounds of language - assists (along with visuospatial working memory) the central executive

Paivio

- came up with dual-code hypothesis (viusalizing image is better than just the word)

fear

- can be experiences through two pathways (direct pathway, indirect pathway)

infant reflex

- can be temporary or can last a lifetime, genetically-wired, essential for survival (at least at some point in evolution)

melatonin

- chemical linked to circadian rhythym and going to sleep - may be used to help people sleep at appropriate times during travel - released at 9:30 p.m. got early adolescents and 10:30 p.m. for later adolescents

placebo effect

- classical conditioning - associated medication with feeling better

Divided attention

- concentration on more than one activity at the same time - studies show individuals do not do well on memory tests of information that was acquired while performing other tasks

self-esteem

- confidence in one's own worth or abilities.

system 2

- controlled reasoning; slower, effortful, analytical

Ivan Pavlov

- created classical conditioning - bell associated with food to make dogs salivate 1) UCS (meat) => UCR (salivation) 2) NS (bell) => no response 3) CS (bell) + UCS (meat) => UCR (salivation) 4) CS (bell) => CR (salivation)

circadian rhythms

- daily behavioral or physiological cycles. Daily circadian rhythsms involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure and blood sugar level - application: look for "daily" "24-hour" etc.

obesity

- dangerously overweight; correlated with health problems, diabetes, and depression

color blindness

- defective color vision, occurs when cones in the eye are inoperative

repression

- defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that he or she forgets it and then forgets the act of forgetting - a.k.a. motivated forgetting - associated with Freud

binocular cues

- depth cues that depend on the combination of the images in the left and right eyes and on the way the two eyes work together - think (bi), meaning two for two eyes - includes convergence, linear perspective

magnetic resonance imaging

- detecting and interpreting magnetic activity from hydrogen levels in the blood

prenatal development

- development before birth, three periods from the zygote to the fetus

social loafing

- each persons tendency to exert less effort in a group because of rediced accountability for individual effort - explains why group projects are sometimes worse than individual projects

physical changes in adulthood

- early adulthood: Peak in physical development in 20's but many physical skills tend to decline - middle and late adulthood: Skin sags and wrinkles. Hair thins and turns grey. loss of height and become fat. Vision and hearing loss etc. menopause, hot flashes etc.

cognitive development in adulthood

- early adulthood: cognitive abilities peak. - middle adulthood: reason, number, space and verbal memory is thought to be at its highest - late adulthood: vocabulary increases but speed memory etc. starts to decline. wisdom increases

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

- electroencephalograph records the brain's activity - electrodes are placed on peoples heads in order to study brain activity

authoritative parenting

- encourages the child to be indipendent but still places limits and controls on behavior - children tend to do well socially, be self reliant and responsible - application: parent is loving an nurturing, sets clear boundaries, and engages in a lot of verbal give and take

telomeres

- ends of chromosomes that are lost with replication - helps to explain cellular clock theory

Edward Thorndike

- established power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior - studied operant conditioning - cats in puzzle box, must open latch to escape - cat made fewer and fewer random movements each time until it immediately opened the latch - Law of Effect

behavior

- everything we do that can be directly observed (actually seen) - thinking about doing a behavior is not a behavior

Glutamate

- excites neurons to fire - involved in learning and memory - too much can cause migraine headache

B.F. Skinner

- expanded Thorndike's work - studied operant conditioning - nurture; can turn a baby into anything - Skinner box studies shaping in rats - believed operant conditioning useful for behavioral control

consensual validation

- explains why people are attracted to others who are similar to them

biological approach

- focus on body, brain, and the nervous system - interested in hormones and other biological things that influence behavior

Edward Deci

- found extrinsic motivation can interfere with intrinsic motivation (critical controversy, opposing Judy Cameron)

Judy Cameron

- found extrinsic motivation has no overall impact on intrinsic motivation (critical controversy, opposing Edward Deci)

psychodynamic/analytic approach

- founded by Freud, focus on unconscious thought, the conflict between basic drives and societal norms, and childhood trauma - issues unknown to individuals influence behavior - a posteriori

behavioral approach

- founded by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, focus on observable behavior responses and their environmental causes - care about behavior; NOT NOT CARE about mental processes (cares about what you do, does not care about what you feel or think) - behavior = observable - mental processess = private (DO NOT CARE ABOUT) - noted behaviorists: John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner

emontional memories

- frequently linked to smell - influenced by amygdala (damage to the amygdala >>> difficulty with emotional memories)

fMRI

- functional magnetic resonance imaging - allows scientists to literally see what is happening while the brain is working.

stereotyping

- generalization about a population that deny variations within the group

selective breeding

- genetic method where organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a particular trait they display - used to demonstrate how genes influence behavior

inoculation

- giving people a weak version of a persuasive message and allowing them time to argue against it can help individuals avoid persuasion - resistant to a persuasion (particular form of persuasion)

egoism

- giving to another person to ensure recriprocity; to gain self esteem; to present oneself as powerful competent or cairing or to avoid censure from oneself and others for failing to live up to societys expectations -

homeostasis

- goal of drive reduction theory; maintaining an equilibrium (analogy: the thermostat of a home acts to maintain the homeostasis of the house temperature) - examples (oxygenation, sleep/rest, blood sugar levels, etc.): - cold --> shivering - temperature rises --> sweating

reciprocity

- helping another person because we want to increase the chances that the person will return the favor one day - the "Golden Rule" - "do until others as you would have them do onto you"

Flynn effect

- higher IQ scores worldwide because of higher education levels and less bias - shift to the right of the normal bell curve of IQ scores

epinephrine / adrenaline

- hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla and a central nervous system neurotransmitter released by some neurons -used when a person has an allergic reaction - hormone and a neurotransmitter -regulates heart rate, blood vessel and air passage diameters, and metabolic shifts - a crucial component of the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system

cholecytoskininn (CCK)

- hormone that starts digestion of food, travels to brain in the bloodstream, and signals us to stop eating - associated with the feeling a satiety

Abraham Maslow

- human theorist, created the hierarchy of needs - motivation is primarily the result of satisfying basic needs before moving on to higher needs

facial feedback hypothesis

- hypothesis that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them - supports the James-Lange theory --> theory that emotion results form physiological states triggered by stimuli in environment (afraid because running away) - facial expressions have strong biological ties - application: smiling -> increases happiness; frowning -> decreases happiness

social contagion

- imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions and ideas - application: spreading of eating disorders, spread a unhealthy behavior, fads, etc.

self-fulfilling prophecy

- in a self-fulfilling prophecy, expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make the expectations come true

resting potential / resting state

- in an inactive neuron, the voltage between the inside and outside of the axon wall - a negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane and a postive charge on the outside

valence

- in reference to emotions, categorizes them as either positive (positive affect) or negative (negative affect) - does not reference the intensity of emotion

binding

- in the sense of vision, the brining together and integration of what is processed by different nerual pathaways or cells - application: brining together a bunch of visual elements into one

insomnia

- inability to sleep, can involve problems falling asleep, waking up at night, or waking up too early. - can be triggered by stress in life

assimilation

- incorporation of new information into existing knowledge - application: an animal is something fuzzy and is alive, meet a rabbit, it is an animal too (animal = existing knowledge, rabbit = new information) - application: baby is highchair and eats, baby tries to eat something that isn't food like a cardboard box (highchair and food association = existing knowledge, cardboard box = new information)... accommodation may occur AFTER this

conventional level

- individual abides by standards such as those learned from parents or society's laws - the second of three stages of moral development according to Kohlberg

postconventional level

- individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options and then develops an increasingly personal moral code - the last of three stages of moral development according to Kohlberg - application: people willing to risk their lives and freedom for a belief

intimacy versus isolation

- individuals either form intimate relationships with others or become socially isolated - Erikson described early adulthood as a period during which the person is building a network of social relationships and making close contact with potential mates

sleep apnea

- individuals stop breathing because windpipe fails to open - snoring followed by periods of silence (which is them NOT breathing)

minority influence

- informational influence NOT normative

subgoals

- intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution - example: breaking down studying into sections/topics/etc., and working on them in an organized sequence

internal/external causes

- internal attributions include all the causes inside and specific to the person, such as his or her traits or abilities. External attributions include all causes outside the person, such as social pressure, aspects of social situation, money, and or luck.

mirror neurons

- involved in imitation and are activated when we both perform an action and watch someone else perform the same activity - if you have a teacher / trainer / coach who models a behavior or activity while you do it too, it would be an examples of these in action

peripheral route

- involves non-message factors such as a source's credibility and attractiveness or emotional appeals - application: best if person you want to persuade is distracted by a task, lack of interest, etc.

adolescent egocentrism

- involves the individuals belief that others are as preoccupied with themselves as the adolescent is about himself and that the individual is both unique and invincible - application: may believe that everyone notices a bad hair day/pimple/etc. and will gossip about it

stable/unstable causes

- is the cause relatively enduring and permanent, or is it temporary? - application: if a behavior is consistent, attribute behavior to a stable cause; if a behavior in inconsistent (occurring once and out-of-character), attribute behavior to an unstable cause

Bobo doll study

- kids watch adults hit bobo doll = kids hit bobo doll

Erik Erikson

- kind of a big deal

Harry and Margaret Marlow

- kind of a big deal - created comfy mom monkey experiment - concluded that contact comfort, not feeding is crucial for an infant's attachment to its caregiver

Lawrence Kohlberg

- kind of a big deal - psychologist who developed Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which includes changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding principles that guide what people should do

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

- kind of a big deal swill developmental psychologist, whose theory traces cognitive development through childhood to adulthood

basal ganglia

- large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements - important for learning a repteitive movement

associative learning

- learning that occurs when we make a connections or an association, between two events - includes both classical conditioning and operant conditioning - application: look for words that imply an associating has been made (examples: anticipate, expect, predict, etc.)

love and belonging

- level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs that involves positive relations with others, such as friendships, family, and romantic relationships - middle of the pyramid

daydreaming

- lies between active consciousness and dreaming while asleep, spontaneous - application: awake (alpha waves) - not overly aware of surroundings / not paying attention

short-term memory

- limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer - attention = importat compent to move information into short-term memory from sensory memory - rehearsal = common strategy

sensory neurons

- located in the body's sense organs (examples: eye, ear, nose) - send messages from these organs to brain - 1 of 3 types of neurons

social psychology on health and wellness

- loneliness = bad for health

androgens

- main class of male sex hormones - includes testosterone

majority influence

- majority usually wins - normative or informational influence

generativity

- making a contribution to the next generation - kids - failure in this area results in stagnation--so be nice

sociocultural factors in altruism

- market economies (U.S.) - encourage the principle of recriprocy to strangers. also our economy requires trust. prosocial behaviors are more common in communities characterized by market economies and by investment in established religion

media's influence on altruism

- media that promotes prosocial behavior = increase in prosocial behavior - media that involves aggression = more aggression etc...

connectivist network

- memories form connections over numerous neural pathways - memories are not in "nodes" - helps explain why cramming does not work

Hermann Ebbinghaus

- memory (loss) research: most forgetting occurs soon after we orignally learned something

neurons

- memory application: neuron have specific functions/specialization (specific neurons to recognize faces)

procedural memory

- memory for skills - examples: tying shoes, typing, writing, dancing, etc.

retrograde amnesia

- memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events - failing with old information

sensory memory

- memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, nor much longer that the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses - stops too much information from entering your memory at a time

Capilano River bridge experiment

- men found the experimenter on the high bridge more sexually attractive than the one on the low bridge - showed that high arousal can lead to inaccurate labeling of emotions (application of the two-factor theory of emotion)

physical punishment

- most common reason: parent was spanked as a child and their child also needs strong discipline - legal

extrinsic motivation

- motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments - impact depends on if behavior is rewarded, the quality of the reward and the availability of additional rewards - focusing on these (such as money, prestige, physical appearance, etc.) leads to lowered self-actualization, more physical illness, lowered well-being

self-actualization

- motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being - the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs - top of the pyramid - according to Maslow, only possible after all other needs are met

cross-sectional studies

- multiple age groups assessed and differences are noted at the same time - Note: age differences not the same as developmental change

afferent nerves / sensory nerves

- nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory receptors - do NOT confuse with efferent nerves

efferent nerves / motor nerves

- nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body - think "e" for exit (out) of the brain and spinal cord - do NOT confuse with afferent nerves

motor neurons

- neurons that convey information from the nervous system to the body's organs, glands, and msucles

humanistic personality theory

- normally associated with Maslow and Rogers - any personality theory that emphasizes that people are positively motivated and progress towards higher levels of functioning (more to human existence than dealing with hidden conflicts) - stresses people to potential for growth and change as people experience life - people have the innate ability to cope with stress on to control their lives - asks question: can changing your feelings about yourself increase happiness

eyewitness testimony

- not always accurate, memories can be distorted accidentally - witnesses talk >> similar (but less accurate) accounts

sleep deprivation

- not getting enough sleep - increases likelihood of sleep walking - decreases ability to sustain attention - impairs storage and maintenance of memories - increases difficulty in making moral decisions

fundamental attribution error

- observers overestimation of the importance of internal traits and the underestimation of the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor's behavior.

false consensus effect

- observers' overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do - application: in a group, group members assume that the attitudes over everyone in the group align with the group if not contradicted - application: believing that people agree with you more than they actually do (overestimating similarity)

depolarizing

- occurs during the action potential - first involves the flow of sodium ions into the membrane

neurons

- one of two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the nerve cells that handle to information-processing function - neurons = basic unit of the nervous system - nervous system contains appox. 11 billion neurons - parts of neuron: dentdrites, cell body (soma), axon, myelin sheath, axon terminals, terninal buttons, nucleus - 3 types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons - resting state: a negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane and a positive charge on the outside

effort justification

- one type of dissonance reduction, means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something.

attitudes

- our feelings, opinions, and beliefs about people, objects and attitudes

narcolepsy

- overpowering urge to sleep, so uncontrollable that person may fall asleep standing up or talking or other daily activities, triggered by intense emotional reactions

ventromedial hypothalamus

- part of hypothalamus that reduces hunger and restricts eating - if damaged: gain weight

lateral hypothalamus

- part of hypothalamus that stimulates eating - if damaged: interest in food decreases / lose weight

competence

- part of self determination theory; the feeling that we are able to bring about desired outcomes - reflected in the desire to explore and grow as a person

autonomy

- part of self-determination theory; the sense that we are in control of our own lives - promoted more in Western/individualistic societies

introspection

- part of structuralism - documenting descriptions of an experience (mental processes)

cerebral cortex

- part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning - plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness

generalization (in operant conditioning)

- performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation - applying learned response items similar to learned stimuli - example: Little Albert being afraid of other animals, not just white rats

social cognitive (on personality)

- personality is the pattern of coherence that characterizes a persons interactions with the situations he or she encounters in life. The individuals beliefs and expectations rather than global traits, are the central variables of interest. - application: explains why people behave differently in different situations

explicit racism

- persons conscious and openly shared attitude which might be measured using a questionare

stimulants

- psychoactive drugs that increase the cntral nervous system's activity. The most widely used stimulants are caffeine, nicotine, ampehtamines and cocaine - use/abue of stimulants - withdrawal symptoms (even for legal stimulants)

primacy effect

- recalling items at the beginning of list - application: remembering the first person who presented in class - ambiguity: do not confuse with recency effect (end of list)

recency effect

- refers to better recall for items at the end of a list - application: remembering the last contestant on a show - ambiguity: do not confuse with primacy effect (beginning of list)

person perception

- refers to the process by which we use social stimuli to form impressions of others.

preparedness

- some animals learn readily but have difficulty learning in slightly different circumstances - species biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

the message

- some messages involve strong logical arguments, and others focus on exciting emotions such as fear and anger in the audience.

similarity

- something in common

timbre

- sound quality - application: allows you to distinguish between people's voices (even if they have the same pitch and loudness (amplitude)

sensation and perception

- specialty in psychology - sensation (sensing) - perception (processing) - interested in optical illusions to determine how they "trick" the brain

automatic processes

- states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities - application: activities you can not remember doing/completing b/c they've become so routine (driving to school; putting on makeup; typing)

Thorndike's law of effect

- states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened - Skinner used this idea to develope the notion of operant conditioning

frustration-aggression hypothesis

- states that frustration always leads to aggression -not true

visuospatial working memory

- stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery - assists (along with the phonological loop) central executive

algorithms

- strategies-including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions-that guarantee a solution to a problem - examples: math formulas, recipes, driving directions, running/checking every possible solution (this one can be time-consuming) - guarantees success/solution

Wilhelm Wundt

- structuralist - identified structures of the mind - introspection - conducted the first psychological experiment in 1879 - he first person to introduce the idea of measuring mental processes

occipital lobes

- structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli

John B. Watson

- studied behaviorism - classical conditioning in development of fears - experiment with baby Albert; associates white animals with scary noises, becomes afraid of the animals - his experiment violates ethical guidelines - went on to advertising after psychology

Robert Rescorla

- studied expectancy learning and information - contingency - contemporary view of classical conditioning; organisms are information seekers, they use logical and perceptual relations among events, and preconceptions to form representations of the world

olfactory epithelium

- the lining the roof of the nasal cavity, containing a sheet of receptor cells for smell (located near amygdala, making smell associated with emotional memories)

problem solving

- the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available - Step 1: find and frame the problem - Step 2: develop good problem solving strategies - Step 3: evaluate solution-- what is the criteria for success? - Step 4: rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

absolute threshold

- the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect 50% of the time - application: if you are NOT SURE if you sensed something

dopamine

- the most common neurotransmitter activated by psychoactive drugs and thought to be related to addiction

retina

- the multilayered light-sensitive surface in the eye that contains receptor cells that record electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses processing in the brain (p. 111) - contains receptor cells - most complex part of they eye - rods - nigh vision, black and white vision, peripheral vision - cones - color vision, crisp and focused vision (fovea), day time vision

tolerance

- the need to take increasining amounts of a drug to get the same effect

dependent variable

- the outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable - essentially what you are measuring (b/c it DEPENDS on other variables)

sympathetic nervous system

- the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body - "fight of flight" resonses (survival responses) - neurotransmitter: noradrenaline

parasympathetic nervous system

- the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body - relaxing responses - neurotransmitter: acetocholine - think (para) b/c paramedics need to calm down patients

middle ear

- the part of the ear that channels sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear - hammer, anvil and stirrup (major function = transmit sound waves to the fluid-filled inner ear)

mere exposure effect

- the phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before

glial cells / glia

- the second of two types of cells in the nervous system; these types of cells provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly - assists in transporting nutrients from blood vessels to neurons

parallel processing

- the simultaneous distribution of information across different neural pathways - purpose: allow sensory information to travel rapidly though the brain

group polarization effect

- the solidification and further strengthening of an individuals position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction - application: a conservative group will make a conservative decisions; a liberal group will make liberal decisions

Gordon Allport (1954)

- theorized that particular aspects of the contact between groups could help reduce prejudice - reducing prejudice: encourage belief of equal status of all members, organize activities the promote cooperation, belief the friendships can emerge

elaboration likelihood model

- theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

semicircular canals

- three fluid-filled circular tubes in the inner ear containing the sensory receptors that detect head motion caused when we tilt or move our head and/or body - think our heads can move in (semi)ciruclar movements because whe are not possessed by the devil

learned associations of food

- time and place effect hunger because of this (eat at noon, eat in front of tv) - advertising: associating restaurants with eating/drinking specific things (driving by initiates craving)

synapses / synaptic gap

- tiny spaces between neurons - neurtransmitter (chemical) substances travel across them between neurons

selective attention

- to orient attention toward, or process information from only one part of the environment with the exclusion of other parts - application: being incredibly focused on a task that others may have trouble getting you attention (reading a good book, playing a video game, drawing, etc.)

interneurons (association neurons)

- transmit information from one neuron to another within the nervous system

dendrites

- treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body - branched appendages that carry informaiton to the cell body - primary function: receive information

reflex

- unconditioned stimulus-unconditioned response (UCS-UCR) - in classical conditioning, an automatic stimulus-response (S-R) connection

controllable/uncontrollable causes

- we perceive that people have power over some causes but not all - picnic example: can control food, what you bring, etc., can't control the weather

attitudes predicting behavior

- when a person's attitudes are strong - when a person shows strong awareness of his or her attitudes and when the person rehearses and practices them - when the person has a vested interest

context -dependent memory

- when people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it - appliciation: taking witness to scene of crime, taking test in similar testing environment, knowing somone's name only in a specific setting, rememering event where event took place

similarity

- when we see objects that are similar to each other, we see them as a unit - application: looks for words for phrases like "resemble one another" "similar" "same" etc. - gestalt principle

optic chiasm

- where the optic nerve fibers divide. about half of the nerve fibers cross over the mid-line of the brain. - right VISUAL field --> left hemisphere - left VISUAL field --> right hemisphere

successful persuasion

- whether or not you can persuade someone to do something

the communicator

- whether your audience believes you will depend in large on part on your credibility- how much other students trust what you say. Trustworthiness, expertise, power, attractiveness, likability and similarity are all credibility characteristics that change people's attitudes or convince them to act.

altruism and gender

- women help more when the context involves nurturing men help more in situations in which perceived danger is present and in which they feel competent to help

task-oriented cooperation

- working together on a shared goal

central route

- works by engaging someone thoughtfully with a sound logical argument

George Miller

- wrote the classic paper on the 7+/- 2 phenomenom about short-term memory

gate-control theory

-(Melzuck and Wall) -states that spinal cord contains a type of neurological "gate" which opens and closes to allow or block pain signals to travel to the brain

strategies for rearing a moral child

-Being warm and supportive -use reasoning a child can understand when disciplining -Help child learn about others perspectives and feelings -involve children in family decision making and in thinking about moral decisions -Model moral behaviors and thinking

MDD symptoms

-Depressed mood for most of the day -Reduced interest or pleasure in all or most activities -Significant weight lost or gain or significant increase or decrease in appetite -Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much -Psychological and physical agitation, or, in contrast, lethargy -Fatigue or loss of energy -Feeling worthless or guilty in an excessive or inappropriate manner -Problems thinking, concentrating, or making decisions -Recurrent thoughts of death and suicide -No history of manic episodes

external attributions

-EX. "The test was too hard" - You blaming you failures on external factors out for your control

Arnett's 5 main features of emerging adulthood

-Identity exploration especially in love and work -instability -self-focus -A feeling of in between -access to various life possibilities and an opportunity to transform ones life

blind spot

-a place on the retina that contains neither rods nor cones -where optic nerve leaves eye on its way to the brain (exists b/c of optic nerve)

free association

-a psychoanalytic technique that involves encouraging individuals to say aloud whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing -this would allow deepest thoughts and feelings to emerge

well-being therapy (WBT)

-a short-term, problem-focused, directive therapy that encourages clients to accentuate the positive -first step: recognize the positive in one's life when it happens -WBT is about learning to notice and savor positive experiences and coming up with ways to promote and celebrate life's good moments -effective in enhancing well-being

group therapy

-a sociocultural appraoch to the treatment of psychological disorders that brings together individuals who share a particuluar psychological disorder in sessions that are typically led by mental health professionals -allows interpersonal relationships to develop

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

-a therapy based on Ellis's assertion that individuals develop a psychological disorder because of irrational and self-defeating beliefs and whose goal is to get clients to eliminate these beliefs by rationally examining them -goal: to get individuals to eliminate self-defeating beliefs by rationally examining them

cognitive behavior therapy

-a therapy that combines cognitive therapy and behavior therapy with the goal of developing self-efficacy

Dodo bird hypothesis

-all "win" and all must have "prizes" -all psychotherapy perspectives are just has helpful as the next -one should choose the psychotherapy that fits best with their personality and problem

intelligence quotient (IQ)

-an individuals mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by one hundred - IQ = (MA/CA) X 100 - if mental age is older than chronological age = above average IQ - if mental age is lower than chronological age = below average IQ - IQ of 100 means mental age = chronological age

cognitive determinants

-aspects of the environment may prime us to behave aggressively -if person perceives something as unfair = can lead to aggression

dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

-assumes that early childhood experiences are important to the development of borderline personality disorder -includes a variety of techniques, including homework assignments, cognitive interventions, intensive individual therapy, and group sessions with others with the disorder

trycyclic

-called so because of their three-ringed molecular structure -believed to work by increasing the level of certain neurotransmitters esp. norepinephrine and serotonin -reduce symptoms of depression in approx 60 to 70 percent of cases -these drugs usually take two to four weeks to improve mood -symptoms: restlessness, faintness, trembling, sleepiness, and memory difficulties

cocaine

-coca plant -snorted or injected in form of crystals or powder -floods bloodstream producing rush of euphoric feelings lasting about 15-30min; depressed mood follows

self-instructional methods

-cognitive-behavior techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behavior -promotes clients to change what they say to themselves

Dopamine

-controls voluntary movement, sleep, mood, attention, learning, and reaction - a monoamine neurotransmitter found in the brain and essential for the normal functioning of the central nervous system - low levels linked to Parkinson's disease

Albert Ellis

-created the rational-emotive behavior therapy believed that individuals construct three basic demands "musterbating": 1.) I absolutely must perform well and win the approval of others 2.) other people must treat me kindly and fairly 3.) my life conditions must not be frustrating can create dysfunctional, exaggerated beliefs from these statements

Aaron Beck

-developed a form of cognitive therapy to treat psychological problems esp. depression -similar to REBT -initial phase: individuals learn to make connections between their patterns of thinking and their emotional responses -feels emotions are a product of cognitions -goal: bring automatic thoughts into awareness so that they can be changed

fusiform face area

-dime sized spot behind the right ear -involves face recognition - research experiments where people learned to identify "greebles" demonstrated it is involved with more than face recognition

Sigmund Freud

-dreams are the key to the subconscious mind -symbolize unconscious wishes and desires and the analysis of these dreams could reveal the hidden desires -manifest content and latent content

marijuana

-drug that doesn't affect neurotransmitters -disrupts membranes of neurons and affects functioning of some hormones and neurotransmitters -dried leaves and flowers of hemp plants -increased pulse rate, blood pressure, red eyes, coughing, dry mouth -euphoria, relaxation, hallucination, attention and memory

insight therapies

-encourage self-awareness as the key to psychological health -ex.) psychodynamic and humanistic approaches

level 3 of autobiographical memory

-event-specific knowledge -individual episodes measured in seconds, minutes, or hours

steps in problem solving

-find and frame a problem -develop good problem-solving strategies (subgoals, algorithms, heuristics) -evaluate solutions - rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)

-founded in 1935; one of the best-known self-help groups -many recommend this for those who struggle with alcoholism

Sigmund Freud

-founding father of psychodynamic approach -bitter and creepy -placed high emphasis on sex and traumatic childhood experience -therapist; started the couch thing

psychoanalysis

-freud's therapeutic technique for analyzing an individual's unconscious thoughts -only through extensive questioning, probing, and analyzing was freud able to put together pieces of the client's personality and help them become aware of how these early experiences were affecting present behavior -bring unconsious conflicts into conscious awareness

William James

-functionalist -not what the mind IS, but what it is FOR -Why is human thought adaptive? - put the AMERICAN stamp on psychology

level 2 of autobiographical memory

-general events -extended composite episodes measured in days, weeks, or months

medulla

-governs breathing and reflexes -part of the hindbrain (which also includes the pons and cerebellum) -lower half of the brain stem -contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and deals with autonomic, (involuntary) functions, such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.

goals and happiness (relationship)

-happiness comes from having meaningful/personal goals that reflect intrinsic needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy -goals should be moderately challenging and connected to one another -goals change by life experience, so less susceptible to hedonic treadmill = more happy -goals can make us feel happy or unhappy if not accomplished, which keeps life interesting and their effect on happiness does not wear off! - engaging in altruistic behavior increases happiness

Abraham Maslow

-humanistic -coined hierarchy of needs: self actualization, esteem, love, safety, and physiological

collectivist culture

-individuals play a role in the larger group -interdependence -self critical; more likely to challenge self in order to contribute to society

individualist culture

-individuals seen as separate and unique -independence -focus on self success; leads to low motivation and desire to do easiest tasks possible

paraprofessionals

-individuals who have been taught by a professional to provide some mental health services but who do not have formal mental health training -some may have the disorder of the group the are the leader of

atypical antipsychotic medications

-introduced in the 90s -much lower risk of side effects -appear to influence dopamine and serotonin - ex.) Clozaril (clozapine) and Risperdal (risperidone) these both show promises for reducing schizophrenia's symptoms without the side effects of neuroleptics

global brain

-involves a variety of brain areas working in parallel -These areas include the front-most part of the brain—the prefrontal cortex—as well as the anterior cingulate (an area associated with acts of will) and the association areas -an assembly of neurons that are thought to work in cooperation to produce the subjective sense of consciousness

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

-involves creating a magnetic field around a person's body and using radio waves to construct images of the person's tissues and biochemical activities

deinstitutionalization

-large numbers of individuals with psychological disorders were transferred from mental insitiutions to community-based facilities -has been implicated in rising rates of homelessness

level 1 of autobiographical memory

-life time periods -long segments of time measured in years and even decades

nicotine

-main psychoactive ingredient in all forms of tobacco -raises dopamine levels -improves attention and alertness and reduces anger and anxiety -highly addictive

neuropleptics

-most extensively used class of antipsychotic drugs -in sufficient doses these reduce a variety of schizophrenic symptoms -very good ability to block dopamine's action in the brain -reduce length of hospital stays for schizophrenic patients -many patients feel as though they can stop taking these medications after symptoms go away because they feel as though the symptom is gone forever and the drug gives a side effect that produces a lack of pleasure

John Watson

-noted behaviorist -believed that how you were raised shapes who you are -anyone can become anything

B.F Skinner

-noted behaviorist -didn't believe in free will- only reactions -you become the people you surround yourself with

four principles in a successful marriage

-nurturing fondness and admiration - Turning toward each other as friends -Giving up some power -Solving conflicts together

relative size cue

-objects that are farther away take up less space on the retina -things that appear smaller are perceived to be farther away

cybertherapy (e-therapy)

-online source of help -controversial: does not always include basic information about the therapists' qualifications, at a distance excluding those contemplating suicide, confidentiality issues -positives: individuals may be able to reach out for help that is not face-to-face

encond (study tips)

-pay attention -process information at an appropriate level -elaborate on the points to be remembered -use imagery -understand that encoding is not simply something that you should do before a test

collectivist cultures

-place more emphasis on group -family therapy is more effective in places where the culture places a high value on the family -ex.) latino and asian cultures

crack

-potent form of cocaine -consists of chips of pure cocaine that is smoked -could be one of the most addictive substances known

Serotonin

-regulates sleep, mood, attention, and learning - a neurotransmitter involved in e.g. sleep and depression and memory - linked to depression depression

oranizing (study tips)

-review course notes routinely and catch potential errors and ambiguities early -organize the material in a way that will allow you to commit it to memory effectively -experiment with different organizational techniques

rehearse (study tips)

-rewrite, type, or retype your notes -talk to people about what you have learned and how it's important to real life to reinforce memory -test yourself -while reading and studying, ask yourself questions -treat your brain kindly

behavioral activation system (BAS)

-sensitive to: environmental reward -Behavior: seek positive rewards/consequences -Emotion: positive Personality trait: extraversion

tardive dyskinesia

-side effect of neuroleptic drugs -neuroleptic disorder characterized by involuntary random movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and mouth as well as twitching of the neck, arms, and legs

Norepinephrine

-slows neuron firing in the central nervous system - a catecholamine precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and also released at synapses - also known as noradrenaline

MDMA (ecstacy)

-stimulant and hallucinogenic properties -drug that influences bonds with others -releases serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine -impairs memory and cognitive processing

caffeine

-stimulant and natural component of the plants that are the sources of coffee, tea, and cola drinks -boosts energy and alertness

Acetylcholine

-stimulates neurons to fire, muscular action, learning, and memory - a neurotransmitter that is a derivative of choline - low levels linked to Alzheimer's disease

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

-targets serotonin, and work mainly by interfering only with the reabsorption of serotonin in the brain -figure 16.1 in the textbook shows how it works -side effects: insomnia, anxiety, headache, and diarrhea. It can also impair sexual functioning and produce severe withdrawal symptoms if the individual abruptly stops taking them - examples: Prozac (fluoxetine), Paxil (paroxetine), and Zoloft (sertraline)

therapeutic alliance

-the relationship between the therapist and client -- an important element of successful psychotherapy -it is important that the therapist is supportive and always monitors the relationship

MAO inhibitors

-they work because they block the enzyme monoamine oxidase which breaks down serotonin and norepinephrine -by blocking the action of MAO inhibitors the neurotransmitters can stick around in the brain's synapses and help regulate mood -not as widely used because they are potentially harmful to the body -especially risky because of their potential interactions with certain fermented foods (cheese) and drugs, leading to high blood pressure and risk of stroke

metacognition

-thinking about thinking -When you think about your thoughts—for example, when you reflect on why you are so nervous before an exam—you are using your conscious awareness to examine your own thought processes

cognitive therapies

-treatments that point to cognitions (thoughts) as the main source of psychological problems and that attempt to change the individual's feelings and behaviors by changing cognitions -focuses on overt symptoms and provides a more structured framwork and more analysis -based on basic assumptions: humans beings have control over their feelings, and how individuals feel about something depends on how they think about it

behavior therapies

-treatments, based on the behavioral and social cognitive theories of learning, that use principles of learning to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behavior -changing behavior is key -ex.) to alleviate depression, they focus on eliminating the problematic symptoms or behaviors rather than on helping individuals gain an understanding of why they are depressed

humanistic therapies

-treatments, unique in their emphasis on people's self-healing capacities, that encourage clients to understand themselves and to grow personally -emphasis conscious rather than unconscious thoughts, the present rather than the past, and self-fulfillment rather than illness

operant conditioning

-unlearning maladaptive behaviors -ex.) if someone has OCD and they have to touch a door handle 3 times, the therapist would show them that nothing bad happens to them if they don't touch it three times

retrieve (study tips)

-use retrieval cues -sit comfortably, take a deep breath, and stay calm

classical conditionling

-used to treat phobias -can be used through systematic desensitation, flooding, and adversive conditioning

Community Mental Health Act of 1963

-when individuals with psychological disorders were taken out of mental hospitals and brought into the real world with help from community mental health places

Amok

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Bipolar I disorder

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Bipolar II disorder

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Edward Bradford Titchener

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Mary Calkins

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positive symptoms of schizophrenia

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psychological factors (in mood disorders)

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psychological factors (of suicide)

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Neuroticism Extraversion Openess Personality Inventory--Revised (NEO-PI-R)

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Carl Jung

...Carl Jung's work left a notable impact on psychology. His concepts of introversion and extraversion have contributed to personality psychology and also influenced psychotherapy.

scientific method

1. observing some phenomenon 2. formulating hypothesis and prediction 3. testing through empirical research 4. drawing conclusions 5. evaluating the theory IMPORTANT: you must be open-minded (OK with results that disprove your hypothesis) and remove emotions and personal bias from experiment design and implementation

zygote

1/2 of zygotes survive. single cell with 23 chromosomes from mom and 23 from dad

motor skills

A motor skill is a learned sequence of movements that combine to produce a smooth, efficient action in order to master a particular task. The development of motor skill occurs in the motor cortex, the region of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary muscle groups.

subjective well-being

A persons assessment of his or her own level of positive affect relative to negative affect, and the individuals evaluation of his or her life in general

hormonal stress theory

Aging in the bodys hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease. as individuals age the hormones stimulated by stress stay in the bloodstream longer than when they were younger. these prolonged elevated levels of stress hormones are linked to increased risk of disease, cancer and diabetes

phobic disorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by an irrational, overwhelming persistent fear of a particular object or situation

obsessive-compulsive disorder

Anxiety disorder in which the individual has anxiety provoking thoughts that will not go away and/or urges preform repetitive, ritualistic behavior to prevent or produce some future situation

post-traumatic stress disorder

Anxiety disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event that has overwhelmed the person's abilities to cope.

Piaget's conservation task

As Piaget noted, children in the early preoperational period fail on all of these tasks, typically giving answers that conform to the most salient dimension (e.g., in the number conservation task, 3- and 4-year-olds typically state that the longer transformed line has 'more'). Children in the late preoperational period often succeed at some of these tasks, but fail to provide adequate justifications for their judgments. It is not until the concrete operational period that children can reliably supply logical justifications, such as reversibility, for conservation. Which cup has more water? dimes spread out etc.

biological approach (on psychological disorders)

Attributes psychological disorders to organic, internal causes,. This approach primarily focuses on the brain, genetic factors, and neurotransmitter functioning as the source of abnormality.

self-efficacy

Bandura; cognitive social learning theory; expectancy that one's efforts will be successful

expectancies

Bandura; personal references; how people write their behavior in a variety of situations to help guide behavior in the future

Health and Wellness: Human Development

Be happy.. Life theme: persons efforts to cultivate meaningful optimal experiences <--Victor frankl

care perspective

Carol Gilligans approach: views people in terms of their contentedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships and concern for others. (This is why women generally score lower on Kohlbergs moral development)

visual cliff experiment

Experiment designed to determine if an infant has depth perception. The visual cliff was created by covering a drop from one surface to another with see-through glass. In the original study (by E.J. Gibson and R.D. Walk), the majority of infants who had begun to crawl refused to venture onto the seemingly unsupported surface, even when their mothers beckoned encouragingly from the other side.

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality and form of therapy; based on bringing the conscious unconscious; uses techniques such as free association, dream interpretation, and transference

Oedipus/Electra complex

Freud, conflict of psychosexual stages; phallic stage, ages 3-6; consists of a transition in the phallic stage; child competes the same-sex parent were opposite gender parent's attention; can manifest in later personality-male: castration anxiety, dominant, tries to prove self, marries "mom"; female: penis envy, submissive, dates older men (like dad)

oral stage

Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 0-18 months; focus: oral cavity; task: transition from bottle/breast to solid food; conflict: id derives pleasure from sucking/excepting into mouth; if child fails to complete tasks, (s)he becomes fixated; fixations-underindulged oral-suspicious, sarcastic, pessimistic, trust issues; overindulged oral-clingy, optimistic, gullible, needy

genital stage

Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 12+; focus: genitals; task: intimate and sexual relationships; conflict: if fixated in previous stages, it may reappear

anal stage

Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 18 months-3 years; focus: anus-retention/expulsion of species; task: to successfully learned toilet training; conflict: id derives pleasure from retention/expulsion, whereas ego and superego represents society the practical/societal pressures to control bodily functions; if child fails to complete the task,(s)he becomes fixated; fixations-anal expulsion-messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, defiant; anal-retentive-neat, precise, orderly, stingy, obstinate, meticulous, passive-aggressive

phallic stage

Freud, psychosexual stage of development; age: 3-6 years; focus: genitals; task: Explorer genital region, develop a relationship with parents, especially same gender parent; conflict: Oedipus/Electra complex-child competes with same-sex parents were opposite sex parent's attention; fixations-male-Castration Anxiety-because father possesses mother and therefore has power, dad &quot;castrates&quot; sign (removes power), must prove self, dominant, marries mother figure; female-penis envy-according to Freud penis equals power, submissive, dates older men

super ego

Freud; "moral watchdog"; governs behavior by reality and morality, often taught by parents, church and/or community; standards develop through interaction; conscience; ego ideal - application: makes you feel guilty

reality principle

Freud; ego process; means by which the ego satisfies the id without compromising the value/morals are the superego

pleasure principle

Freud; id process by which the id seeks immediate gratification by any means necessary to receive pleasure and avoid pain; done in two ways-which fulfillment (day dream/dreams), ego processes

ego ideal

Freud; ideal of perfection; part of the superego that consists of the standards of what you would like to be

ego

Freud; part of the personality that mediates between the selfishness of the id and the conscientiousness of the superego; uses the reality principle to satisfy id without harming superego's ideals; "self" - referee - application: considers the problems with/trouble you could get into by doing what the id wants

fixation

Freudian; partial or complete halt at one of the psychosexual stages of development; when individual fails to complete the psychosexual task successfully; can be expressed as personality traits

id

Freudian; unconscious urges and desires; selfish needs; operates on pleasure principle-any means to satisfy need; which fulfillment-mental object/situation to relieve the feeling

irrational individuals

Jung; further division of people who base actions on perceptions, includes senses/sensation or unconscious/intuition; aspect used in MBTI

Animus

Jung; male archetype as expressed in a woman; feminine side of man; originates in the collective unconscious; comes from men's experiences with women which combine into the concept of women; shows as an image of feelings/mood

collective unconscious

Jung; memories/behavior patterns inherited from past generations; shared by all humans; deep roots in the ancestral past an entire species; manifest as archetypes, myths, and legends

personal unconscious

Jung; one of two levels; contains individuals repressed thoughts, forgotten experiences, and undeveloped ideas; can be triggered; similar to Freud's unconscious and preconscious

persona

Jung; our public self; the mask we wear to project that part of our personality outward towards others

archetypes

Jung; thought forms or collective memories passed down from generation to generation and stored in the collective unconscious; ancient/archaic images derived from the collective unconscious; examples-mother Earth, father Time, hero, wise old man, trickster, the Joker

socioemotional selectivity thoery

Laura carstensen- Addresses narrowing of social contacts and the increase of positive emotion that occur with age. states that because they recognize their limited time on earth older adults tend to be selective in social interactions striving to maximize positive meaningful experiences

cellular-clock theory

Leonard Hayflick's viewv- cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times and that as we age our cells become less capable of dividing. The total number of cell divisions are roughly related to a persons age and based the way the cells divide the human life spans upper limit is about 120 years. - associated with telomeres

child development

Prenatal development--> Germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period etc. Physical development--> Reflexes, motor and perceptual skills wrc. Cognitive decelopment--> Piaget= assimilation and accomidation- sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage Temperament and attatchmentin infancy and eriksons stages etc.

gernalized anxiety disorder

Psychological disorder marked by persistent anxiety for at least six months an in which the individual is unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety.

anxiety disorders

Psychological disorders involving fears that are uncontrollable, disproportionate to the actual danger the person might be in, and disruptive to ordinary life.

mood disorders

Psychological disorders- the main types of which are depressive and bipolar disorder- in which there is a primarily disturbance of mood: prolonged emotion that colors the individual's entire emotional state.

self-actualizing tendency

Rogers; drive of an individual to achieve his/her self-concept or self image; living up to the image of yourself that you create

actualizing tendency

Rogers; drive of individual to reach the biological potential or blueprint; capability of what someone can the calm

unconditional positive regard

Rogers; experience of being treated with warmth, respect, acceptance, and mob regardless of their feelings, attitudes and behaviors; example: I may not agree with what you do, but I love you can matter what - application: according to the humanistic perspective, a child who receives unconditional positive regard from her parents is likely to avoid the problems associated with conditions of worth

conditional positive regard

Rogers; experience that love, acceptance, respect, and warmth, with the condition (or price tag); example: mommy doesn't love girls who do..., if you love me then..., that's nice but wouldn't you rather...

locus of control

Rotter; cognitive strategies; used to evaluate situations, reinforcement comes in two ways: internal-you control your fate, external-chance & fate, behavior of others determine destiny

Gestalt rules

Rules based on how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns - inlcudes closure, proximity, continuity and similarity

sampling error

The error that arises as a result of taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole population.

transference

a client's relating to the psychoanalyst in ways that reproduce or relive important relationships in the individual's life -models the way that individuals relate to important people in their lives

resistance

a client's unconscious defense strategies that interfere with the psychoanalyst's understanding of the individual's problems

schema

a cognitive system that helps us organize and make sense of information

the easy child

a child who is positive, follows, routines, and is adaptable

counterconditioning

a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a complex molecule in the cell's chromosomes that carries genetic information

false negative

a conclusion that is incorrect because it failed to recognize an existing condition or finding

false positive

a conclusion that some effect occurred when it in fact did not

punishment

a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur

levels of processing

a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing = better memory - shallow - intermediate - deep

cultural-familial intellectual disability

a disability we cannot account for. Cannot identify any genetic condition such as brain damage, etc.

alcoholism

a disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled, compuslive, and excessive use of alcoholic beverages and that impairs the drinker's health and social relationships

language

a form of communication- whether spoken, written, or signed- that is based on a system of symbols

insight learning

a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding a problem's solution

variance

a measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out

schemas

a mental concept or framework that organizes information and provides structure for interpreting it

prototype model

a model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item in that category and look for a family resemblance with that items properties

sleep

a natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness

personality

a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

language universals

a pattern that occurs systematically across natural languages, potentially true for all of them

confederate

a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated

primary reinforcer

a reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable

preferential looking

a research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what to look at

skin conductance level (SCL)

a rise in skin's electrical concuctivity because of sweat glands

random sample

a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected

incus/anvil

a small bone in the middle ear, transmits vibrations between the malleus and stapes. - along with hammer and stirrup, trnasmits sound waves to the fluid-filled inner ear

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the mechanism by which the body monitors the change from day to night

taste aversion

a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea unique; only one pairing is required not always accurate reason for nausea

longitudinal design

a special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time

organ of Corti

a specialized construct which resides upon the basilar membrane within the cochlea inside the inner ear. It consists of the hair cells, their nerve endings, and reinforcing cells

z score

a standard score indicates who many standard deviations an observation or datum is above or below the mean

testosterone

a steroid hormone that stimulates development of male secondary sexual characteristics, produced mainly in the testes, but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that produces a response without prior learing

line of best fit / regression line

a straight line drawn through the center of a group of data points plotted on a scatter plot, shows how variables are correlated

reflective speech

a technique in which the therapist mirrors the client's own feelings back to client ex.) if client has hint of angry in voice say, "you sound angry"

tip-of- the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

a type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident that we know something but can not quite pull it out of memory

Implicit memory

aka non-declarative memory, memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

sustained attention

aka vigilance, the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time - a.k.a. selective attention - helps encode/put information into memory (remembering what your read, etc.)

lexical approach

allport pulled out all the words that could be used to describe the person. started with 18000 words and pulled it down to 4500

biological therapies

also called biomedical therapies, treatments that reduce or eliminate the symptoms of psychological disorders by altering aspects of body functioning

ergonomics

also called human factors, a field that combines engineering and psychology and that focuses on understanding and enhancing the safety and efficiency of the human-machine interaction

operant conditioning

also called instrumental conditioning, a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the proability of the behavior's occurence

hallucinaogens

also called pyschedelics, psychoactive drugs that modify a person's perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real

tranquilizers

also known as antianxiety drugs, they reduce anxiety by making the individual calmer and less excitable

accommodation

altering one's existing ideas as a result of new information or experiences (Piaget)

anterior cingulate

an area associated with acts of will

binge eating disorder (BED)

an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food during which the person feels a lack of control over eating; no purging afterwards; most are overweight or obese

need for achievement

an enduring concern for attaining excellence and overcoming obstacles - application (presidents):

need for affiliation

an enduring concern for establishing and maintaining interpersonal connections - application (presidents):

double-blind experiment

an experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated

outlier

an extreme piece of data that skews the results

case study or case history

an in-depth look at a single individual

nature

an individual's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes

genotype

an individual's genetic heritage; his or her actual genetic material

mental age (MA)

an individuals's level of mental development relative to that of others

avoidance learning

an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response

fetus

an unborn offspring of a mammal, in particular an unborn human baby more than eight weeks after conception.

depression

an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life

nurture

and individual's environment; environmental and social experiences

Extrovert

aspect used in MBTI; Jung; one of two general attitude types; taken at the interest in the world and events around them, turn attention toward external world; energy is gained from outside or external sources; everyone contains both, one is dominant (extro-, introvert)

two systems of reasoning and decision making

automatic and controlled reasoning

lower-level consciousness

automatic processing that requires little attention

cognitive-social learning theory

behavior is a product of the interaction of cognitive (thinking), learning, and past experiences; unique to each person

abnormal behavior

behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a relatively long period of time

prosocial behavior

behavior that is intended to benefit other people

maturation

biological growth processes

psychological perspectives (7)

biological, behavioral, cognitive, evolutionary, humanistic, psychodynamic, sociocultural

iris

colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and therefore the amount of light that enters the eye

neurotransmitters

chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron

higher-level consciousness

controlled processing in which individuals actively focus their efforts on attaining a goal, most alert state of consciousness

effortful control

controlling arousal and not being easily agitated

insulin

controls/regulates glucose; through complex carbohydrates and simple sugars

0-6 months

cooing discrimination of vowels babbling present by this age

extinction (in operant conditioning)

decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced

benefit finding

decreases negative feelings decreases amygdala use increases prefrontal cortex use thinking positively

William James

described the human mind as stream of consciousness

dissociation

describes a wide array of experiences from mild detachment from immediate surrounding to more severe detachment from physical and emotional experiences

chemoreception

detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as smell and taste

mechanoreception

detection of pressure, vibration, and movement, perceived as touch, hearing, and equilibrium

Hans Eysenck

developed an approach to extraversion/introversion based on reticular activation system (RAS)

Dan McAdams

developed the life story approach to identity

multitasking

doing multiple things at once; having divided attention

psychoactive drugs

drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change mood

disordered eating

eating that is characterized by extreme disturbances in eating behavior- eating very little or a great deal

reminiscence bump

effect that adults remember more events from the second and third decades of life than form other decades

addiction

either a physical or psychological dependence, or both, on a drug

identity exploration, especially in love and work

emerging adulthood is the time of significant changes in identity for many individuals

area of high nerve concentration

fast pathway

adipose cells

fat cells; when filled, hunger is reduced; when a person gains weight = fat cells increase = must eat more to feel full (average person 10-20 billion fat cells, obese person up to 100 billion)

identity

finding out who they are, what they are all about and where they are going in life

Henry Murray

first criminal profile thing? - made TV show Criminal Minds possible--thanks!

sensorimotor stage

first stage in understanding the world; birth to 2 years; child understands by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions

classical conditioning

form of learning discussed in chapter 6, involves the automatic learning associations between stimuli

genotype

genetic heritage; may be expressed many ways, depending on environment and characteristics of genotype itself

adrenal glands

glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level and the ability to cope with stress

response criteria/receiver operating characteristics

graphical plot that illustrates the performance of the binary classification system

withdrawal

group of symptoms that occur because of the discontinuation of decrease of medication/drug

family therapy

group therapy with family members

couples therapy

group therapy with married or unmarried couples whose major problem lies within their relationship

chunking

grouping information into groups that make them easier to remember

desynchronous

having different periods and phases; in EEG, represents high levels of brain activity

nerve/sensorineural deafness

hearing loss due to failure of the auditory nerve

conduction deafness

hearing loss due to problems with the bones of the middle ear, bones not reached by sound waves

Abraham Maslow

heiarchy of needs and self actualization

distraction

help the client find benign or positive distractions to take the attention away from negative thoughts or emotions temporarily

examine options and alternatives

help the client generate alternative actions to maladaptive ones

guided association

help the client see connections between different thoughts or ideas

Jerome Singer

helped create the two-factor theory of emotion

amygdala

in the limbic system, houses circuits that activate when experiencing negative emotions

personal growth

includes activities that improve awareness and identity, develop talents and potential, build human capital and facilitate employability, enhance quality of life and contribute to the realization of dreams and aspirations.

Personality

individual's unique patterns of thought, feelings, and behavior that persist over time; unique, stable, enduring

self-efficacy condition

individuals were told they had been chosen for the study because they had great potential to quit smoking - more likely to have quit smoking than the other conditions

sexually transmitted infection (STI)

infections such as gonorrhea that can be transferred to baby during delivery

6 features of group therapy

information - individuals receive information about their problems from either the group leader or other group members universality - many individuals develop the sense that no one else has frightening and unacceptable impulses altruism - group members support one another with advice and sympathy and learn that they have something to offer others experiencing a postivie family group - a therapy group often resembles a family, with the leaders representing parents and the other members of the group representing siblings develpment of social skills - corrective feedback from peers may correct flaws in the individual's interpersonal relationships interpersonal learning - the group can serve as a training ground for practicing new behaviors and relationships

visual executive

integrates information from phonological loop and visuospatial working memory, also the long-term memory

thresholds

magnitude or intensity of a stimulus that's necessary for a certain perception

commitment

making a decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity

third force

maslow referred to humanistic psychology as this psychology because it stressed neither freudian drives nor the stimulus-response principles of behavioralism

superstitious behavior

may be evolutionary memory/fear of certain things

3-4 years

mean length of utterances increases 3-4 morphemes in a sentence use of yes and no questions, and all questions use of negatives and imperatives increased awareness of pragmatics

fetal period

months 2 through 9 in prenatal development 2 months size of kidney bean and moves around 4 months five inches long and weighs 5 oz 6 months 1.5 lbs last three months organ functioning and baby fat increases

esteem

most stop after achieving this level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs; a feeling of accomplishment, such as through a good career

intrinsic motivation

motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun; psychologists believe this is the key to achievement

states of sleep cycle

non-REM sleep: stages 1-4 - less emotionally charged dreams compared to REM sleep Stage 1 - non-REM sleep Stage 2 - non-REM sleep Stage 3 - non-REM sleep - delta waves less than 50% of time Stage 4 - non-REM sleep - delta waves more than 50% of time REM sleep: stage 5 Stage 5 - REM sleep - more emotionally charged dreams

stage 1

non-REM sleep; drowsy sleep lasting up to 10 min; myoclonic jerks; theta waves

social skills

one of adoptive behavior deficits; means one can interact acceptably with others

conceptual skills

one of adoptive behavior deficits; means that one can think critically and solve problems

chronological age (CA)

one's actual age

happiness set point

one's basic level of happiness when one is not intentionally trying to increase happiness

pupil

opening in the center of the iris that lets light into the eye

access to various life possibilities and an opportunity to transform one's life

optimistic about their future and for emerging adults who have experienced difficult childhoods they have a opportunity to guide their lives in a positive direction

desensitation hierarchy

order of your fears of the same stimulus from least to greatest ex.) in the same room as a spider, approaching a spider, touching a spider, etc.

glands

organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many of our bodily functions

self-concept

our conscious representation of who we are and who we wish to become, during childhood

positive skew

outliers cause distribution of data

negative affect

part of valence; unpleasant emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness

treatment-alone condition

participated in the program but were told they were randomly chosen for the study

external auditory canal

passageway that leads from the outside of the head to the tympanic membrane, or eardrum membrane, of each ear

direct pathway

path used in life-or-death situations; thalamus => amygdala; not great detail, but fast

informed consent

permission granted in the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits.

cross-situational consistency

person should behave consistently in different situations (Mischel)

biological (on personality)

personality characteristics reflect underlying biological processes such as those carried out by the brain, neurotransmitters, and genes. differences in behaviors, thoughts, and feelings depend on these processes.

humanistic appraoch (on personality)

personality evolves out of the persons innate, organismic motives to grow and actualize the self. these healthy tendencies can be undetermined by social pressure.

trait perspective (on personality)

personality is characterized by five general traits that are represented in the natural language that people use to describe themselves and others - most likely to use a self-report test

psychodynamic approach (on personality)

personality is characterized by unconscious processes. childhood experiences are of great importance to adult personality

objective tests

personality test that is administered and scored in a standard way; personality inventory; yes/no are typical answers; most widely used; drawbacks-self-report, familiarity with other tests may affect individuals answers; examples-16 PF, and MBTI, MMPI(2), and NEO-PI-r

projective tests

personality tests that consists of a simple ambiguous stimuli to elicit a number of responses; advantages-flexible, can take in a relaxed atmosphere, but this event may not know the purpose of the test (less likely to be of eight); examples-Rorschach, Rotter sentence completion test, TAT

gifted

possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area

monocular cues

powerful depth cues available from the image in one eye, either the right or left eye - think (mono) meaning one for one eye

alcohol

powerful drug that acts on the body as a depressant and slows down the brain's activity - reduces inhibitions and impulse control

Rorschach test

projective personality test; Hermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist; inkblot test; person specifies what they see in each blot; and MMPI 2 is more valid - not relaible, not valid - application: tell a story that you think is happening in the picture

Jeffrey Gray

proposed a neuropsychology of personality, called reinforcement sensitivity - interested in amygdala and how damage to one's amygdala can effect personality

flexiblity and playful thinking

reason for creative thinking: thinking outside of the box, relaxed and enjoyable thinking attitudes

inner motivation

reason for creative thinking: wanting to come up with solutions for yourself, not for others or outside benefits

shape constancy

recognition that an object is the same shape, even when perception changes. (ex. objects can be seen at different angles, but are still the same shape)

brightness constancy

recognition that an object maintains the same color, even when different amounts of light fall on it

emotional learning

recognizing emotions and learning how to manage feelings

synaptic transmission

refers to the process by which neurotransmitters are fire across the synaptic gaps to the next neuron and so forth

beta waves

reflect concentration and alertness, highest in frequency and lowest in amplitude

retroactive interference

situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier - application: trying to get to older information, failing because of new information

Walter Mischel

social cognitive theory- situationism, cross-situationalism etc...... situationalism - personality varies considerably from one context to another (impacted by family influence, genetics, current environment, etc.)

sign stimulus

something in the environment that turns on a fixed pattern of behavior

backmasking

sound or message is recorded backward onto a track that is meant to be played forward OR one visual stimulus immediately after another brief target visual stimulus leads to a failure to consciously perceive the first one

schedules of reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. - continuous reinforcement - reinforced every time (fastest extinction Four types of partial reinforcement (know all of these): 1) fixed-ratio (regular/predictable #) 2) variable-ratio (irregular/unpredictable #) 3) fixed-interval (regular/predictable time) 4) variable-interval (irregular/unpredictable time)

automoatic processes

states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities

encoding specificity principal

states that information present as the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue

free-radical theory

states that people age because unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produces inside their cells. These molecules damage DNA and other cellular structures. The damage done by free radicals may lead to a range of disorders, including cancer and arthritis.

gastric signals

stomach tells the brian how full it is and how much nutrients; when it needs more, stomach contracts with these

cognitive approach

studies the mental processes involved in knowing (i.e. how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems). sees the mind as an active and aware problem solving system

ethology

study of animal behavior, which is also an evolutionary perspective

action potential

the brief wave of positive and electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

light intensity

the brightness that is associated with light energy

arousal level

the degree to which the emotion is reflected in an individual's being active, engaged, or excited v. passive, disengaged, or calm

projection

the ego attributes personal shortcomings, problems and faults to others - application: you cheated or wanted to cheat --> accusing significant other of cheating

denial

the ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety-producing realities - application: working on a bomb squad/as a fireman/etc. --> not worrying about safety

sublimation

the ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one - application: feelings of violence --> playing video games

regression

the ego seeks the security of an earlier developmental period in the face of stress - application: acting like a child - application: finding comfort in childhood places

displacement

the ego shifts feelings toward an unacceptable object to a more acceptable object.

reaction formation

the ego transforms an unacceptable motive into its opposite.

emotion

the feeling or affect that can involve physiological arousal (fast heartbeat), conscious experience (thinking about being in love), and behavioral expression (smiling or grimacing) - F - feeling - T - thinking - B - behaving

scientific management

the managerial philosophy that emphasizes the worker as a well-oilded machine and the determination of the most efficient methods for performing any work-related task

repression

the master defense mechanism; the ego pushes unacceptable impulses out of awareness, back into the unconscious mind. - application: not remembering a traumatic event

reasoning

the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

controlled processes

the most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforst toward a goal

auditory nerve

the nerve structure that receives information about sound from the hair cells of the inner ear and carries these neural impulses to the brain's auditory areas

development

the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline

physical dependence

the physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such as physical pain and a craving for the drug when it is discontinued

arousal

the physiological state of being engaged with the environment. a physiological state determined by the reticular activating system, a network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus. the ways that awareness is regulated

dominant-recessive genes principle

the principle that, if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive

p value

the probabilitry of obtaining a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed

reinforcement

the process by which a rewarding stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again

spontaneous recovery

the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recure after a time delay, without further conditioning

attention

the process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment (p. 105)

discrimination (in classical conditioning)

the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others

heritability

the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members; 75% intelligence is this, increases with age

brain stem

the stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (it does not include the cerebellum) and the midbrain; it connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation of the midbrain

psychological dependence

the strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasns such as feeling of well-being and reductions of stress

ophthalmology

the study of the eye's structure, function, and diseases

awareness

the subjective state of being conscious of what is going on, as occurring in a global brain workspace

sample

the subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study

central nervous system (CNS)

the system made up of the brain and spinal cord

generalization (in classical conditioning)

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a reponse that is similar to the conditioned response

Hawthorne effect

the tendency of individuals to perform better simply because of being singled out and made to feel important

divergent thinking

thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

convergent thinking

thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

lens

transparent, flexible, disc-shaped structure filled with a gelatinous material. Works with cornea to bend light to focus it on the back of the eye; does most of the fine-tune focusing.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

two recessive genes, results in inability to metabolize amino acid phenylalanine; may lead to irreversible brain damage, developmental disabilities, and seizures; can be avoided with diet

big five

type of trait theory; five basic traits: extroversion (where you draw energy from), conscientiousness (dependability), agree ability (how you get along with others), emotional stability (self-explanatory), openness (culture, new experiences)

indirect pathway

used in less intense situations; sensory organs => thalamus => sensory cortex => amygdala; slower, more details

debriefing

used to refer to the process whereby "justified" deception has been used by the researchers, and, following ethical research practices, respondents are then spoken to after the study ends to explain the deception to them and try to undo any harm that may have been caused by the deception.

Maier String Problem

using a wrench or tool to make a string into a pendulum, so that you can reach both strings to tie together

family therapy techniques

validation - the therapist expresses an understanding and acceptance of each family member's feelings and beliefs and thus validates the person reframing - the therapist helps families reframe problems as family problems, not as an individual's problems structural change - the family therapist tries to restructure the coalitions in a family detriangulation - in some families, one member is the scapegoat for two other members who are in conflict but pretend not to be

18-24 months

vocabulary increases to and average of 200 words two-words combinations by this age

11-14 years

vocabulary increases with addition of more abstract words understanding of complex grammar forms increased understanding of function a word plays in a sentence understands metaphor and satire

2 years

vocabulary rapidly increases correct use of plurals use of past tense use of some prepositions by this age

5-6 years

vocabulary reaches an average of about 10,000 words coordination of simple sentences

secure attachement

ways that infants use caregivers, usually mothers, as secure base from which to explore the environment

germinal period

weeks 1 and 2 in prenatal development; mass of cells attached to uterine wall