AP Psychology

self-actualization

(Theories of Personality-Humanism) According to Maslow, we are inherently driven toward ___-_________ According to Maslow, the self-actualized person possessed certain personality traits

Jonah Complex

(Theories of Personality-Humanism) According to Maslow, what factors may inhibit a person's growth toward self-actualization? *Societal constraints (poverty) or societal attitudes (an emphasis on personal achievement) *The _____ _______; the fear that self-actualization will result in increased responsibilities or life-style changes.

self concept

(Theories of Personality-Humanism) Rogers theorized that development of a ____ _________ was essential for becoming a fully functioning person. It is the way a person perceives themselves. It consists of the real self and ideal self.

Albert Bandura

(Theories of Personality:Socio-Cognitive Theories) In addition to the social learning theory (unit 6), _____ ______ studied personality psychology and developed two important personality development theories: • Reciprocal determinism • Self-efficacy

opponent-process theory

(Theories of color vision) A theory that emphasize the role of the nerve fibers, connecting the retina to the visual cortex. Bipolar cells, of an individual nerve fiber, allow a nerve fiber to detect complementary pairs of colors. (Red and green, blue and yellow, black and white (rods)). As the nerve fiber is detecting one color, the other half is inhibited and it's complementary color cannot be detected.

trichromatic theory

(Theories of color vision) Theory in which identifies three types of cones: S cones, M cones, L cones. These cones fire in different combinations, and at different rates, to allow a range of colors to be detected.

Self-Help Groups

(Therapy) • Examples: Alcoholics Anonymous; Narcotics Anonymous • Aka- "mutual aid" networks ◦ No therapist facilitating meetings ◦ Group members both provide and receive help • Influenced by the "client centered approach to therapy"; the group members provide each other with: ◦ Support, advice, inspiration, understanding that others share similar problems

Contingency management

(Therapy) • Uses positive reinforcement to change behaviors (a behavioral approach) • Often used in psychiatric hospitals; drug treatment facilities and special education schools

eye

(Therapy) Explain how the token economy would be used in schools for autistic children • After making ___ contact 3 times during conversation, child earns a sticker, 5 earned stickers are exchanged for extra time with iPad

Goal, smaller

(Therapy) What are the benefits of the token economy? • Learners have an identifiable ____, sense of progression and motivation • Reinforcing ALL positive behaviors is not always practical • Shaping-reinforces _______ steps toward a larger/more complex behavior

token economy

(Therapy) • An example of contingency management • Used in institutional settings (psychiatric hospitals, rehab centers, special education schools) • The performance of multiple positive behaviors earns a token, which is then exchanged for positive reinforcement

couples/family therapy

(Therapy) • Couples/family members jointly patriciate in therapy sessions together • Therapist can directly observe: ◦ Communication styles ◦ Interactions between different personalities ◦ Sources of conflict

Long Term Memory (LTM)

(Three-box model of memory) A more permanent preservation of information. No known capacity. Information is organized when it is assigned meaning. Unlimited capacity. Storage thought by some to be permanent. Information organized and indexed. Elaborative rehearsal.

Short Term Memory (STM)

(Three-box model of memory) Limited capacity. Brief storage of items (up to 30 seconds if no rehearsal). Involved in conscious processing of information. Aka working memory. It can consist of older memories, you are currently aware of, and are then transferred back to long term memory (LTM).

Raymond Catell

(Trait theories) (1905-1998) British psychologist Pioneered the use of factor analysis to develop the 16 Personality Factors Theory (16PF)

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

(Trauma and Stress Related Disorders) • Includes the following symptoms: ◦ *Exposure to* threatened death, serious injury or sexual violence (can be directly experienced, witnessed or through repeated exposure to the aversive details of a traumatic event-a police officer repeatedly taking child abuse reports; a first responder collecting human remains after auto accidents) ◦ *Intrusive and distressing* memories, dreams or flashbacks about the event ◦ *Maladaptive avoidance* of locations of and/or stimuli associated with the event ◦ *Negative changes* to thoughts and/or mood. Example: Excessively blaming oneself for the event; hyper-vigilance

L cones

(Trichromatic theory) Long wavelength are responsive to red light.

dichromatic color blindness

(Trichromatic theory) People who are colorblind can see colors; but have difficulty distinguishing between colors. Most people with color blindness have ___________ _____ _____________, difficulty distinguishing between reds and greens. Color tests are use to diagnose the condition. One of the three types of cones (usually the red or green) do not function properly. This reduces the color detection to two (rather than the normal three) dimensions.

M cones

(Trichromatic theory) medium wavelength are responsive to green light.

S cones

(Trichromatic theory) short wavelength that are responsive to blue light

episodic memories

(Two types of declarative memories) memories of events and personal experiences

Semantic memories

(Two types of declarative memories) memories of word and concept meanings

A, B, A

(Type A and B) During the 1960-1970's a longitudinal study followed 3,500 men for an eight year period • Men identified as Type (A/B) were 3 times more likely, than Type (A/B), to develop heart disease • Similar research found Type (A/B) women were 4 times more likely to develop heart disease

Illusory, tobacco

(Type A and B) These studies, and studies like them, have been questioned because of people's tendency to misinterpret the results: • These studies cannot establish a cause and effect relationship between personality type and heart disease (the ______ correlation) • Some researchers suggest _______ use, by Type A people, may be the cause of heart disease

Pre-conscious

(Types of Consciousness) Contains information, that is not currently in consciousness, but can be easily shifted into conscious awareness

Non-conscious process

(Types of Consciousness) Mainly biological functions (heart beat, respiration, etc) that can occur without/limited conscious awareness. `

conscious awareness

(Types of Consciousness) Occurs when you are aware of your current environment and yourself. It is a sense that the environment & others can be impacted by your behavior.

depth perception, language comprehension

(Types of Consciousness) What are two examples of the unconscious-the contemporary view?

The contemporary view

(Types of Consciousness) What view on the unconscious has cognitive processes that occur, or are initiated, without awareness?

declarative memory

(Types of Memory) Memories of factual information; often recalled in verbal format. Referred to as declarative because we "declare" we know information. "I know that/what/who..." memories. Aka explicit memories. Often formed intentionally & with conscious awareness. Example: studying info for a test.

Non-declarative memories

(Types of Memory) memories of skills and procedures. "I know how to..." memories. Aka implicit memories. Especially for well-practiced skills, they are recalled with little conscious awareness. Example-driving a car, playing a musical instrument, riding a bike.

Brightness Constancy

(Types of Perceptual Constancy) Ability to understand objects maintain a constant color, despite lighting changes.

Shape Constancy

(Types of Perceptual Constancy) Ability to understand that objects maintain a constant shape, despite changing angle of view.

Size Constancy

(Types of Perceptual Constancy) The ability to understand objects maintain a constant size, despite the distance of the object.

Procedural memories

(Types of non-declarative memories) memories recalled to execute a skill; performed in a sequential order.

Mother

(Vision) Although the field of vision is limited, what is an neonate capable of seeing? Vision is developed enough, at birth, so an infant can see their _______'s face

Face

(Vision) In an experiment, researchers placed the image, on the left, to the left side of a neonate's head and the image, on the right, to the right. The infant spent more time looking at left image. Why? The image resembles a ____ Neonates have rudimentary facial recognition abilities

Trust

(Visual Capture) We "______" vision to provide the most accurate information about our environment.

visual & auditory

(Visual Capture) When ______ & ______ info conflicts; what is seen can alter what is heard.

Optic chiasma

(Visual Pathway) 1. The optic nerve carries impulses from the retina to the _____ ____. It is an "x-shaped" structure where optic nerves cross over to the left or right hemispheres. Thought to play a role in aiding hand-eye coordination.

lateral geniculate nucleus, cerebral cortex

(Visual Pathway) 2. Impulses then travel on to the _______ _______ ________ of the thalamus. The thalamus is the "relay station" for all of the body's sense organs, which sends to the right side of the brain. Impulses are sent there first before going onto the _______ ____.

visual cortex, feature detectors

(Visual Pathway) 3. Impulses then are sent to the ______ _____ of the occipital love. It contains groups of specialized neurons called ______ ________. These neurons allow us to make distinctions between important visual stimuli and other "background" information. For example, they enable us to make a distinction between the borders of an object and the surrounding imagery in the visual field.

Formal Operations

(What Stage?) Marked by the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically

Concrete Operations

(What Stage?) Marked by the development of mental operations (child has the ability to manipulate their mental imagery, to help them solve problems)

The Sensorimotor Stage

(What Stage?) These sense and motor abilities become less reflexive and more coordinated & voluntary. Sense & motor movements are used to interact with and explore the environment. Symbolic thought develops.

Preoperational Stage

(What Stage?) symbolic thinking begins to influence the development of language. Words are used to represent elements of reality and thoughts. Thinking is egocentric (the child is only capable of seeing the world from their own point of view).

Harlow's 1958 Study

(What study?) • rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers and raised with two "surrogate mothers" • The "nursing wire mother" (left) was constructed of bare-wire and wood; it was equipped with a bottle and could "feed" the infant monkey • The "cloth mother" (right) was NOT equipped with a bottle; but was constructed with a soft cloth covering • Both "mothers" were present in the infant monkey's cage.

Lorenz's Imprinting Study

(What study?) Lorenz took a batch of goose eggs and split them into control group and experimental group. Experimental group were removed from the mother and first saw Lorenz after they hatched. Control group saw their natural mother as soon as they hatched. Experimental group imprinted upon Lorenz and began to follow him. Even when mixed in with control group geese; the experimental geese continued to follow Lorenz over the female goose.

Auditory Sense

(What type of sense?) In an experiment, researchers found that neonates showed greater signs of pleasure (cooing) when listening to audio recordings of their mother's voice, than when listening to recordings of a female stranger. Even at this young age neonates demonstrated an ability to recognize, and have a preference for, the sound of their mother's voice.

Olfactory Sense (Smell)

(What type of sense?) In an experiment, researchers placed gauze pads with the scent of a neonate's mother, on one side of their head. A gauze pad, with the scent of a female stranger, was placed on the other side. The neonates spent more time facing the pad with their mother's scent. Even at this young age neonates demonstrated an ability to recognize, and have a preference for, the scent of their mothers.

Konrad Lorenz

(Who did Research on Attachment) 1903-1989 Austrian zoologist Conducted experiments to demonstrate the process of imprinting. Newly hatched geese will innately attach to (imprint upon) their mother. If mother is not present; newly hatched geese will wait ~15 hours and imprint upon another stimulus.

Elizabeth Loftus

(Who?) Born 1944. Researched at University of Washington & California. Expert in the field of false memories. Research has been extensively applied to legal proceedings to refute the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. She has served as an expert witness, in over 250 cases, to refute the testimony given by an eyewitness

neural, regions

(Withdrawal) Discontinued drug use can alter the function of a particular _____ pathway AND the varied brain regions it branches into. Causing symptoms associated with those affected brain regions.

Yes

(Yes/No) Loftus claims that a therapist can also ask questions that influences the patient memories.

depressants

(categories of psychoactive drugs) Alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), Rohypnol. Slows mental and physical functioning by inhibting the funtion of the central nervous system.

stimulants

(categories of psychoactive drugs) Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine, methamphetamine. Elevates mental and physical functioning by enhancing the function of the sympathetic nervous system and/or brain. Varying degrees of euphoric effects.

Hallucinogens

(categories of psychoactive drugs) Marijuana, LSD, ecstasy. Alters perceptions of reality by causing the brain to misinterpret sensory information. Can induce sensory hallucinations and/or delusional thoughts.

Opiates

(categories of psychoactive drugs) Morphine, heroin. Decreases sensitivity to pain by enhancing effectives of endorphin. Strong euphoric effects.

social desirability bias

(factors that can weaken the reliability of survey results) Tendency to respond to surveys in ways that are perceived to be more widely acceptable; despite contrary beliefs

situation-relevant variables

(factors that can weaken the reliability of survey results) Unless controlled, subjects take surveys in different environments causing various distractions, etc

frequently

(frequently/infrequently) In a strong correlation: as one variable incr/dcr; the other ____________ incr/dcr as well.

infrequently

(frequently/infrequently) In a weak correlation: as one variable incr/dcr; the other _____________ incr/dcr as well.

congruency

(self concept) A healthy self concept develops when there is what? It is when the real self is accurate and the ideal self is obtainable.

real self

(self concept) a person's understanding of their own characteristics, traits and abilities

ideal self

(self concept) what a person wants to be like

object permanence

(sensorimotor stage milestones) An understanding that objects continue to exist; even when they can no longer be seen

Conceptual driven processing

(top down processing) The process is influenced by existing knowledge & learned concepts

Whole unit, recognition

(top down processing) Use the top down processing concept to explain how most people are able to read the passage to the right: each word was perceived as a _______ _____ and Knowledge of, and experience with, what each word should say, enables proper __________

Gordon Allport

1897-1967 American Psychologist Recognized as the first prominent psychologist to focus exclusively on personality Rejected both psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches to personality development Developed an early trait theory- the psycho-lexical hypothesis of personality

The Ganzfeld Procedure

1970s-1980s experiments were performed to demonstrate that research participants, under the influence of the Ganzfeld procedure, could send and receive mental messages. Later researchers refuted the ESP phenomenon & concluded these experiments had many design and statistical flaws.

corpus callosum

200 million nerve fibers that connects the two halves of the cerebral cortex (the left and right hemispheres). It allows for impulse transfer between the hemispheres.

stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, opiates

4 categories of psychoactive drugs

Neuromodulator

A NT that regulates the actions of large groups of neurons

Learned Taste Aversion (Garcia Effect)

A biological predisposition to quickly develop a conditioned illness response to the taste of novel foods.

Pragmatics

A branch of psycholinguistics that studies the non-spoken aspects of language. Example: How words can be interpreted differently depending on the situation. "You have a green light" The meaning is different when spoken by someone giving permission & someone being driven in a car. Example: How pauses indicate when to speak/listen during a conversation

Schemas

A categorized collection of information, stored in memory; used to identify people, events, objects, social settings and understand concepts. Piaget theorized that these are constantly changing during lifelong experiences by assimilation and accommodation.

Personality

A collection of unique attitudes, preferences, behaviors & a general emotional disposition that characterizes an individual. These traits remain relatively stable across varying times and situations.

negatively skewed distribution

A distribution in which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.

positively skewed distribution

A distribution in which scores pile up at the low end of the scale

learned helplessness

A failure to respond to, or change, a negative situation because prior behaviors (aimed at ending the situation) were ineffective.

Flashbulb Memories

A highly detailed and vivid memory of highly emotional experience and it's context. Occurs when the encoding, coordinated by the hippocampus... becomes "enhanced" by increasing amygdala function and/or fight-or-flight responses. Both are associated with emotional responses.

Weber's Law

A law that governs the detection of difference thresholds. The greater the magnitude or intensity of a stimulus. The more that stimulus must change before a person can notice its different.

Standard deviation

A measure of variability that shows the difference between each score (that is part of a larger set) and the mean score

Endorphins

A morphine that is produced in the body (endogenous morphine) Mainly inhibitory; it is involved in pain relief When released, it can produce a mild euphoric effect

Stress

A negative emotional and physiological response. Experienced when we attempt to adjust to disruptions in our routines (stressors).

conditioned response (CR)

A new response the subject has learned to have, through classical conditioning.

sleep cycle

A pattern of biological and cognitive changes, experienced during an 8 hour period of sleep.

Personality change due to another medical condition

A persistent personality disturbance that is judged to be due to the direct physiological effects of a medical condition (e.g., frontal lobe lesion)

Psychological Dependence

A person's belief that meaningful social interactions, successful performace of daily routines and/or emotional well-being can only occur with drug use.

Signal detection theory

A person's emotional state, expectations and decision making processes affect if they detect a stimulus or not.

Imprinting

A primitive & innate form of attachment often observed in geese and ducks.

Trephining process, burrs, spirits

A primitive brain surgery; used to treat neurological and mental disturbances Openings (called _____) made in the skull Believed to allow "_______", that caused irrational behavior, an exit from the skull Demonstrates an early understanding that mental and neurological illness was localized to head/skull

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A psychological concept which relates physiological arousal to how well we can perform a task. A person can a perform a task best when they experience a moderate level of mental/physical arousal (alertness, focus, peak physical functioning). Low levels of arousal result in limited focus & attention; causing less than optimal performance. High levels lead to anxiety & less than optimal performance.

Motivation

A psychological force that initiates the behaviors necessary to complete goals or fulfill needs. "Your drive, reason or inspiration for doing something"

"The naming explosion"

A rapid increase in a child's vocabulary; particularly name's of objects (begins ~24 months)

Behavior, thoughts

A smoker knows that smoking is unhealthy, yet continues to smoke; they feel conflicted about this (an experience of cognitive dissonance) what can they do to end the cognitive dissonance? • Change the ________ (stop smoking) • Change their _________; in an illogical way ◦ Convince themselves they might be part of the small percentage of people that don't become ill from smoking

Classical conditioning

A specific type of associative learning, during which, a person (or animal) has their involuntary responses shaped by the association of two stimuli. First experimentally identified by Ivan Pavlov.

Associative learning

A specific type of behavioral learning, during which, a person (or animal) learns that two events or stimuli are linked & will happen together. Ex: behaviors become associated with their consequences; "little Albert" learned a new fear response through the association of a white rat and a loud noise

Gestalt Principles

A specific type of perceptual organization and grouping. The cognitive tendencies which influence the ways people organize images into patterns or wholes. Many of these principles are governed by the Law of Pragnanz- the organized whole is perceived first; the individual elements are perceived second.

Central tendency

A statistic that establish a central point for large sets of data. Example: Mean, Median, Mode

correlation coefficients

A statistic that indicates whether two variables are positively or negatively correlated and indicates the strength of a correlation

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that a subject is, eventually, taught to respond to

Developmental psychology

A study of the physical, cognitive and behavioral changes (and/or consistencies) experienced throughout life What research methods are developmental psychologists likely to use? Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies

Teratogen

A substance, or factor, which can cause a birth defect. Usually present in the environment and passed onto fetus during pregnancy. They can be infections, toxins or psychoactive drugs

Corpus callostomy

A surgical procedure in which corpus callosum is severed to prevent the spread of epileptic.

The Perceptual Set

A temporary readiness to perceive a stimulus, as a person EXPECTS to perceive it. The tendency for people to see/hear what they expect to see/hear. Expectation cause the perceiver to focus on certain elements of a stimulus and ignore others.

fully functioning person

A term used to describe an individual that was continually working toward self-actualization

Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder

A type of psychotic disorder. Mental disorder characterized by disconnection from reality.

Inverted U function

A variation of the Yerkes-Dodson Law. A person's familiarity with a task affects the levels of arousal needed for optimal performance. Unfamiliar & complex tasks are performed best when arousal levels are lower than normal and leads to the optimal concentration needed to do a difficult task. Familiar, well practiced tasks are performed best when arousal levels are higher than normal. This increases the physical/mental functioning needed to do something that has become routine.

The Three Box Model

A visual representation of the stages, memorized information passes through, as it is stored & retrieved. Aka: Information Processing Model; Atkinson & Shiffrin Model (1968); Multi-Store Model.

Father of Humanistic Psychology

Abraham Maslow was referred to what?

cognitive development

According to Piaget, it is an innate and genetically determined process. A child would only be able to solve a certain type of problem, or think in certain way, when they had naturally developed a particular cognitive ability. Piaget was criticized for downplaying the role experience and social interactions played in this.

emotional intelligence

Accurate awareness of and ability to manage one's own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain specific goals and ability to understand what others feel. Introduced by Peter Salovey and John Mayer. Popularized by Dan Goleman. Mayer concluded that general intelligence and this intelligence may be related.

Primary prevention

Actions taken to prevent or avoid a developmental disorder BEFORE its onset

Klinefelter's syndrome

Affect males. Caused by an extra "X" chromosome in what should be the 23rd pair. Physical symptoms involve the development of female sexual characteristics. Language and reading disabilities are common.

Turner's Syndrome

Affects females. Caused by a missing "X" chromosome in what should be the 23rd pair. Key symptoms are associated with female reproduction (little to no breast development, no menstruation, infertility)

Detected

After sensory stimuli are ___________, transduction occurs

parasympathetic nervous system, digest

After threat is dealt with; what nervous system calms the body. "Rest and ______" functions

tympanic membrane

After traveling down the auditory canal, soundwaves reach the ___________ ___________. Also known as the eardrum. It vibrates when struck by soundwaves and amplifies them so they can pass through the fluid found in some of the other organs of the ear.

Method of Loci

Aka Memory Palace. The pairing of new information with familiar locations.

Pre-frontal cortex

Alcohol lowers inhibitions over emotional responses & impairs judgements; what part of brain is alcohol effecting?

GABA

Alcohol produces a calming effect and sluggish motor behavior; what NT does alcohol enhance the effects of?

psychic determinism

All mental process are determined by pre-existing unconscious impulses and drives. The influence of these drives begins in infancy.

operant conditioning

Along with classical conditioning, a type of associative learning. In classical conditioning- associations are made between two stimuli (the UCS & N/CS); this association shapes RESPONSES (ex: fear of Little Albert, salivation of Pavlov's Dogs, nausea responses of learned taste aversion) Associates are made between a behavior and its consequences, resulting in a change to BEHAVIORS.

DSM V

Also known as Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel 5th edition. It establishes the number of symptoms & time period symptoms should persist to warrant a diagnosis. Differentiates a disorder's degrees of severity. DOES NOT identify causes or recommend treatments.

Coritsol

Alters glucose and fat cell use to increase energy stores needed to cope with the stressor.

neonatal sensory abilities

Although not fully developed, _________ ______ ______ are functional, to a certain degree

Abraham Maslow, self actualization

American Psychologist; 1908-1970. Father of Humanistic Psychology (The "Third Force" during the history of Psychology). The Hierarchy of Needs. An approach to psychology that emphasized human's inherent drive towards ________________.

Inferential

An __________ stat that represents the probability and experimental result occurred by chance

Reflex arc

An adaptive and automatic neurological response; often triggered by the unexpected detection of a painful stimulus. LOOK AT PROCESS IN NOTES UNIT 3 PART 2

Blind spot

An area of the visual field where visual stimuli cannot be detected.

fight or flight response

An automatic & adaptive physiological response to a perceived threat. It involves functions of both nervous and endocrine systems.

Motivation for Eating Behaviors

An example of a familiar behavior that is influenced by varied motivators

disease of adaptation

An illness due to persistent stressors. It can be a common cold

language acquisition device (LAD)

An innate biological predisposition to rapidly learn, use and comprehend language.

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

An instance of knowing that information has been encoded (knowing that you did know a person's name). But the information is not accessible because retrieval cues are not present.

Interactions, changes

An observer should limit __________ with subject; limit _______ made to the subject's environments because can lead to the Observer (Hawthorne) Effect when conducting naturalistic observations.

Retrieval cues

Any sight, sound, emotional state or environmental location that aids in, or effects, the retrieval of a memory

Stressor

Any stimulus that triggers a stress reaction

vision

Anything that affects what can affect behavior?

descriptive statistics

Are statistics which summarize or describe trends or large amount of data Example: correlation coefficient

light

Assume a dog has been classically conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell ringing; Could this same dog be classically conditioned to salivate at the sight of a flashing light, without using food ? The bell would replace the UCS (food) and be repeatedly paired with the ____ until it produces a CS.

Conscious awareness

At the source of pain, what allows it to be recognized & remembered so it can be avoided in the future. This is the reason why it can be adaptive

unconscious, mind

Based on your understanding of Freudian theory, what does Freud mean when he refers to dreams as "a fullfillment of wishes"? Dreams are meaningful because they allow the dreamer to act upon their _________ impulses. Dreams provide insight into the unconscious ____- "Dreams are the royal road to the unconscious..."

observational learning

Behavioral learning through the observations & imitation of others. This learning can occur in a social context without direct reinforcement.

Purposive Behaviorism (Tolman)

Behaviors cannot be studied objectively (simply as stimulus-response or behavior-consequence); the purpose of the behavior also influences the learning process. For example: A useful behavior will be learned more rapidly, than a behavior that does help the learner

Adaptive behaviors

Behaviors required for daily living. Ex: hygienic behaviors

The law of effect

Behaviors will change as a result of their consequences. Behaviors associated with pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated. Unpleasant consequences will discourage a behavior. Cognitive association behavior & consequence results from trial & error.

Set Point Theory

Body weight is (partially) genetically determined and the LH works to maintain that "set point weight". Dieting, and increases in bodily activity (such as exercise) increases LH activity and eating drives become stronger to maintain the set point.

Noam Chomsky

Born 1928. Lectures & Studies at MIT. Highly influential linguist. His theories support the idea that language structure, its use and comprehension is rooted in human neurology and is genetically transmitted. His theories were developed in direct opposition to BF Skinner's view on language; that language was "verbal behavior" and is learned entirely through experience.

Psychophysics

Branch of psychology that studies how sensory stimuli change thoughts/behaviors. The first branch of psychology to be studied experimental.

Long term potentiation

Called the cellular basis of memory. The concept neuroplasticity applied to the recall of memories. Neural pathways, repeated used when a memory is recalled: will send impulses faster, resulting in less cognitive effort needed during the recall.

Serotonin

Can be excitatory or inhibitory (depending upon where in the nervous system is used) Plays a role in regulating metabolic functions that can fluctuate throughout the day (appetite, sleep, body temperature) Linked to changes in mood

Acetylcholine

Can be excitatory or inhibitory (depending upon where in the nervous system is used). Classified as a neuromodulator Released in motor neurons that initiate muscle contractions Found in neurons located in the hippocampus

Dopamine

Can be excitatory or inhibitory (depending upon where in the nervous system is used). Found in motor neurons that control when muscle movements are made Released in specific neural pathways, found in the brain, called the dopamine reward pathways Abnormalities in the levels of specific NT's have been linked to mental illness; high levels is linked to schizophrenia

Down's Syndrome

Caused by Trisomy 21. Three chromosomes present in what should be the 21st pair. Wide ranging physical characteristics. Delayed physical development (below average height and higher obesity rate). Intellectual disabilities (Average adult IQ score of 50 (mental ability of an 8 year old) and delays in language use)

Instinct Theory

Certain behaviors are innate (unborn and unlearned) and are driven by the need to survive. Ex: Infant crying responses. Infants do not learn to cry; the ability is present at birth. The crying serves to communicate the need for food.

Genetic developmental disorders

Certain disorder, which affect cognitive and behavioral development, have been linked to genetic abnormalities

random assignment

Chance (coin flips; random number generators) is used to determine which group (experiment groups, control group) a subject will be a part of. This helps these uncontrollable confounding variables to be evenly dispersed across all exp/con groups.

Gleason's Wug Test (1958)

Children are asked to apply prefixes/suffixes to unfamiliar nonsense words. Used to assess children's prefix/suffix morpheme use and comprehension. Demonstrate that language acquisition is NOT compiling lists of vocabulary. Its application of grammar rules.

contingency

Cognitive-behaviorists argued that classical conditioning works due to the _____________ model. Neutral stimuli that are salient (easily noticed) will be rapidly associated with a UCS & produce long lasting CR's. Salient stimuli are interpreted as a signal that a UCS will follow. The bell, in Pavlov's study, was a salient stimulus and interpreted as a signal that food would follow.

not

Could Freudian psychoanalytic concepts be or not be observed/tested?

Bulimia Nervosa

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria Self-esteem is overly influenced by body shape & weight. Restrictions on food intake lead to binge eating. Followed by compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain like Self induced vomiting; laxative use; excessive exercise

Anorexia Nervosa

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria: Significantly low body weight; due to restrictions on food intake. Intense fear of gaining weight. Distorted perception of body weight (belief one is overweight, when clinically underweight).

The Stroop Effect

Demonstrates the difficulty of naming and remembering a color word (when written with a different color). Memory difficulty is due to divided attention.

Loftus's Theory of False (reconstructed) Memories

Details from the questions, asked by investigators, are incorporated into an eyewitness's recall of an event causing the memory to be inaccurate

Schachter-Singer Theory

Developed as a response to the James-Lange Theory & Canon-Bard. Aka: the Two-Factor Theory. Physiological change occurs first. Followed by cognitive appraisal (aka-reasoning or cognitive labeling).

Canon-Bard Theory

Developed as a response to the James-Lange Theory. The physiological response & cognitive sensation, of an emotion, occur simultaneously.

The Critical Period Hypothesis

Developed by neurologist and psycholinguist Eric Lenneberg in 1964. Experience with language must occur within a specific time period (the critical period) in order for proper acquisition & development to occur. Birth to puberty. The peak of neuroplasticity. After critical period, language acquisition requires more cognitive effort.

Continuity View of Development

Development is a constant and gradual process. Development changes may be difficult to notice.

Discontinuity View (aka Stage Theory)

Developmental changes occur during sequential; age-specific stages. Changes may be more noticeable.

Brain Imaging Techniques

Devices that provide psychologists and medical professionals with information on the brain's structure and/or function

nonverbal, overall

Difference between Stanford-Binet Test and Wechsler Test -SB only has verbal, meanwhile Wechsler has verbal and _________ -Wechsler provides an _______ score of intelligence

positive punishment

Discourages a behavior, or reduces the number of times its performed, When the behavior leads to the application of an unpleasant consequence

negative punishment

Discourages a behavior, or reduces the number of times its performed, when the behavior leads to the removal of something the subject wants or needs

Sleep-Wake Disorders

Disorders that effect the quality, timing and amounts of sleep. Sleep impairment then effects physical health and/or daily routines. The following disorder summaries are based on their descriptions in the DSM-5.

HM Case Study

Documented the connection between the hippocampus and the formation of memories. HM's hippocampal damage resulted in anterograde amnesia.

Incentive Motivation Theory

Drive-reduction; Arousal and Instinct motivation theories emphasize the role intrinsic forces play in motivation: Biological needs; need for arousal and innate behaviors come from within. Incentive motivation emphasizes the role extrinsic motivators play in driving behaviors. The offer of external reinforcement "pulls" our behaviors towards it.

positive reinforcement

Encourages a behavior, or increases the number of times its performed. When the behavior leads to the addition of a pleasurable consequence

negative reinforcement

Encourages a behavior, or increases the number of times its performed. When the behavior leads to the removal of an unpleasant consequence.

the perceptual set

Experienced based learning and environmental context can influence this EX: This can be seen in Colin Turnbull's The Forest People; the story of an anthropologist living amongst an African society indigenous to the rain forest.

jacket-detail

Explain how an investigator's question like: "what color jacket was the robber holding the bag wearing?" lead an eyewitness to have a false memory? Eyewitness will incorporate the "____________" from the question into their memory of the event making the memories inaccurate.

cognitively suppress, attention

Extinction is learning to ________ ______ a CR. A lack of _________, may interrupt that suppression; leading the CR to reappear.

Impression formation

Factors that influence how we assess the personality traits of others • Halo effect • Attribution theory

Physiology of stress

First researched by Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907-1982). Investigated the physiological components of the stress response. Identified rhe General Adaptation Syndrome.

Before Classical Conditioning

Food is placed in front of a hungry dog. Pavlov referred to the food as unconditioned stimulus (US/UCS). Pavlov noted the dog salivated at the sight/smell of the food. Pavlov referred to the dog's salvation, at the sight/smell of the food, as the unconditional response (UCR). Pavlov wanted to condition the dog to salivate at the sound of a bell ringing which is a stimulus a dog would have no natural or automatic response to. Pavlov referred to the bell as the neutral stimulus.

Novel foods

Foods you don't eat a lot of

Variable Ratio

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: Buying a lottery ticket and winning.

Fixed Interval

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: A child receives an allowance, for doing chores, every Saturday.

Fixed Ratio

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: A hotel housekeeper is given a break after having cleaned seven rooms.

Variable Interval

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: A person's boss stops into their office, at random times throughout the day, to make sure they are doing their work.

Fixed Ratio

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: A student's final grade improves one level for every three book reports they submit.

Fixed ratio

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: An assembly line worker receives $5 after assembling ten units.

Variable Interval

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: To encourage her students to study a teacher gives pop quizzes, at random times, throughout the marking period.

Fixed Interval

For each of the following scenarios; identify the partial reinforcement schedule being used: To make sure a paroled inmate is following their probation conditions, a parole officer checks in with them every two weeks.

Encourages/Positive Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. A homeless person breaks the law to go to jail so they can get gain access to mental healthcare, shelter and food.

Discourages/Positive Punishment

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. A person is texting while walking on the subway platform and bumps into someone who threatens them physically because of it.

Discourages/Positive Punishment

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. A person wants to stop biting their nails, so she polishes her nails with a bad tasting nail polish.

Encourages/Negative Punishment

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. An employee comes to work late regularly and gets demoted.

Discourages/Negative Punishment

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Being grounded after coming home passed curfew.

Encourages/Negative Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Putting on deodorant to stop body odor.

Encourages/Negative Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Putting on sunscreen to prevent sunburn.

Encourages/Positive Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Telling a joke that gets friends all laugh.

Encourages/Negative Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Walking the dog to avoid having the go in the house.

Encourages/Negative Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Wearing a bike helmet to avoid a head injury.

Encourages /Positive Reinforcement

For each of the scenarios; identify the key behavior and whether its consequence would encourage or discourage it. Use this information to determine if this is a positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment or negative punishment situation. Putting quarters into a vending machine to get a snack.

Cue-dependent forgetting

Forgetfulness due to a lack of helpful retrieval cues. Occurs when retrieval and encoding circumstances do not match. Example: Meeting someone you know and forgetting their name; because you are not in the place you first learned their name. This can lead to the tip of the tongue phenomenon.

Absent mindedness

Forgetfulness that is due to a lack of attention at the time the memory was encoded. Example: Forgetting where you put your keys or phone because you were not paying attention when you placed them down in your house

Four Humors

Four bodily fluids: blood, phlegm, black bile (feces) & yellow bile (urine) Levels and balance of these bodily fluids are related to physical health

Partial Reinforcement schedules

Four different ways to deliver partial reinforcement, as tested by BF Skinner, with rats in an operant conditioning chamber. Each type had a different effect on the rat's response rate (high response rate-the rat pressed the lever many times over a short time interval; low response rates-few lever presses in the same time interval).

Fixations

Freud theorized that personality traits often reflected the stage where a fixation occurs

Freud's Influence

Freudian perspectives on personality development (Id, Superego, Oedipal complexes, etc.) are no longer accepted theories by contemporary psychologists because they lack scientific evidence.

Forgetting

Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909); German Psychologist. Reached the variables which influence how information is forgotten. Serving as his own research subject; he memorized lists of non-sense syllables. tested his recall, at various intervals, over next four week. He noticed a trend in the rate at which he forgot information.

verbally

How did Wundt's subjects describe their internal perceptions of these stimuli?

illness, CS, novel

How does learned taste aversion differ from most cases of classical conditioning? Can occur after a single pairing of ______ and food. Can occur after long delay between UCS and __ pairing. The illness CR is resistant to extinction (it lasts for months/years). Learning Taste Aversion is strongest for ____ foods

2, 3

How many morphemes in the word: -Mom's -Reoriented

Positive reinforcement

How would a rat, in a Skinner box, be taught to press the lever through positive reinforcement? Negative reinforcement? By giving the rat food when the lever was pressed

negative reinforcement

How would a rat, in a Skinner box, be taught to press the lever through positive reinforcement? Negative reinforcement? The floor would deliver a mild shock; the shock would end when the lever was pressed.

Bobo Doll Study

Hypothesis: children's aggressive behaviors could be shaped through modeling. Experimental group: children shown a film of an adult aggressively playing with a "bobo doll" toy and using "novel aggressive language". Control group: no film shown. Both groups of children were then observed playing alone, in a playroom that contained the same bobo doll from the film and other toys.

Theory of Natural Selection

Idea, first proposed by Charles Darwin, that species survive due to favorable characteristics This leads to Sociobiological Theory

yes, stimulus generalization

If Pavlov's, classically conditioned dog, was presented with a higher pitched bell, would it salivate? (Yes/No) Why? Because of _________ ___________

high heritability

If many sets of twins display a trait, that trait may be influenced more by genetics and has what? Stats are closer to 1

low heritability

If many sets of twins display differences in that trait; it may be influenced by more by environment and learning and has what? Stats are closer to 0

research participants

In an effort to learn about thought and behavior psychologists must sometimes decieve the _________ _______________ in their studies and/or cause them emotional or physical distress.

Confounding variables

In order for experimental results to be considered valid, changes in DV should ONLY result from changes made to the IV. If any other factor may have caused a change in the DV, ___________ ________ (an uncotrolled variable that alters experimental results) is said to exist and the validity of the experiment may be questioned

agonist, antagonists

In terms of the impact drugs have on the function of thenervous system, psychoactive drugs are classified as either ______ or ________

Ainsworth's 1965 Strange Situation Study

In this procedure the child is observed playing for twenty minutes while caregivers and strangers enter and leave the room, recreating the flow of the familiar and unfamiliar persons in the lives of most children. The arranged sequence of events is as follows: 1. Caregiver and infant are introduced to the experimental room. 2. Caregiver and infant are left alone. Caregiver does not participate while infant plays and explores. 3. Stranger enters, converses with parent, then approaches infant. Caregiver leaves inconspicuously. 4. First separation episode: Stranger's adjusts his behavior to that of the infant. 5. First reunion episode: Caregiver greets and comforts the infant, then leaves again. 6. Second separation episode: Infant is left alone. 7. Continuation of second separation episode: Stranger enters and again adjusts his behavior to that of the infant. 8. Second reunion episode: Parent enters, greets infant, and picks up infant; stranger leaves inconspicuously.

experiment

In this, a variable (an item being studied) is changed, or altered in some way, to determine its effect on another variable. This can determine if a cause and effect relationship exists between two variables.

Nose, reinforced

In training a service dog to use a light switch, the following successive approximations might be reinforced: simply moving toward the switch will be reinforced then only moving within a specified distance of the switch will be reinforced then only touching the switch, with any part of the dog's body such as his head, will be reinforced then only touching the switch with the ____ will be reinforced then only depressing the lever partially with the nose will be reinforced then only depressing the switch completely with the nose will be ________

anterograde amnesia

Inability to form memories of new events, after brain damage has occurred.

illusionary correlation

Incorrect assumption that correlated variables CAUSE changes in each other • Example: correlation between amount of ice cream sold & number of drownings in the US is +.84 ◦ They are connected because of the season

Abnormal

Indicators of Clinically Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts *the criteria used to determine if a thought or behavior would qualify as being "_______" by a mental health care professional -distress, maladaptive, irrational, persistent, statistically rare

contact comfort

Infant's physical contact with the mother provides sense of security and basic attention

Neonatal reflexes

Infants are born with a set of involuntary responses; each are triggered by specific stimuli

Jean Berko Gleason

Influential psycholinguist; Born 1931; Researched at Boston University. Developed the Wug Test in 1958 to gauge children's acquisition of language rules. Studied routinized language. Trying to study that language is a innate.

display rules

Informal cultural and/or social rules on when, where & to what degree emotions are to be displayed.

approach-approach conflict

Internal conflict that occurs when a person must decide between two appealing or desirable options

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Internal conflict that occurs when a person must decide between two equally unappealing or undesirable options

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Internal conflict that occurs when a person must decide to pursue or avoid option that has both advantages and disadvantages. In this there is only one option. The conflict is whether you make the choice or you don't.

food, knowledge

Interpretation of Tolman's Results: During the first 10 days, Group 3 rats were forming cognitive maps of the maze. Their cognitive maps were quickly used when the ____ reinforcement became available. Tolman believed the rats had experienced latent learning. Group 3 rats learned the layout of the maze, but didn't use the _________ until it helped them to reach the food at the end.

temporal lobe

It contains the Wernicke's Area, Auditroy Cortex. (Cerebral cortex)

Parietal Lobe

It contains the somatosensory cortex. Tactile sensations detected by right side of body, processed by the left portion, vice versa.(Cerebral cortex)

Occipital lobe

It contains the visual cortex. (Cerebral cortex)

Midbrain

It coordinates muscle movements to allow eyes and ears to better focus on particular sights and sounds. For example, it coordinates "saccadic eye movements" the quick and simultaneous movements the eyes, often occurring while reading.

Olfactory bulb

It interprets impulses from receptor cells and sensory neurons in the nasal cavity. (forebrain)

Hippocampus

It is active during the formation of memories; which are then stored in other parts of the brain (forebrain)

Thalamus

It is called the brain's "relay station" it directs information from the sensory organs onto more complex brain regions where they are interpreted and recognized. (forebrain)

Cones, rods

It is difficult to detect and distinguish between colors in peripheral visual field; why? The number of rods and _____ vary over the surface of the retina. ____ are concentrated in the periphery of the retina

Amygdala

It is involved in fear responses. Active during a specific type of memory formation called "emotional learning", which is the formation of vivid memories of emotional events. (forebrain)

Vision

It is not very developed at birth, neonates are only able ​to see ~8-12 inches in front of them

independent variable

It is the key variable that the researcher changes (increases, decreases, adds, removes, etc) in some way, to observe the effects it will have on the other variable. An experiment can have multiple, they are called "the levels of the IV"

Confirmation Bias

It is the tendency to seek out information that support one's beliefs while ignoring information that refutes it. In research: the tendency of a researcher to focus upon results that support a hypothesis and ignore data that refuses it

double blind placebo studies

It is used in placebo studies designed to test a drug's efficacy. Both subjects and researchers collecting data are unaware of (blind to) who receives the real & placebo treatments. Subjects cannot be aware if they are receiving a placebo. It helps to control experimenter bias

placebo

It is used to test drug's efficacy; its power to produce a medical effect

Observer (Hawthorne) Effect

It is when a research subject's behavior may change, if they are aware of observation or their environment is altered by the researcher

Visual acuity

It refers to the accuracy and clarity of vision. (20/20)

Hypothalamus

It regulates metabolic functions (body temperature, thirst, feelings of hunger and fullness, transitioning between sleep and wakefulness). It functions as the body's thermostat" which detecta biological needs (ex: need for food) and triggers bodily functions to meet those needs (ex: triggers a feeling of hunger). It is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. It stimulates the pituitary gland which triggers the function of all the other glands in the body. A "reward center" it triggers the sensations associated with sexual activity (forebrain)

Reality principle

It's the ability to grasp reality and forgo instant gratification.

Kohlberg's 1958 study

Kohlberg asked male research participants (of varying ages) a hypothetical moral dilemma. Kohlberg focused on the thought processes & reasoning his subjects used to decide whether or not Heinz should steal the drug. Kohlberg noted that the moral reasoning process changed as the person got older. He used this data to develop his Stages of Moral Development.

medulla

Large enough quantities of alcohol can cause death; what part of the brain is alcohol effecting?

hippocampus

Large enough quantities of alcohol can impair memory; what part of the brain is alcohol effecting?

cerebellum

Large enough quantities of alcohol disrupt balance and motor coordination; what part of the brain is alcohol effecting?

Pons

Latin for "bridge"; it transmits impulses between the cerebellum and the more complex motor regions of the brain. Influences (along with other parts of the brain) deep sleep and dreaming states. (Hindbrain (brainstem))

Cerebellum

Latin for "little brain" due to its appearance. It controls involuntary muscle movements necessary to maintain balance. It coordinates voluntary movements that are performed in rapid succession or require precise control. An example would be walking, playing a musical instrument, writing, etc. (Hindbrain (brainstem))

The Garcia Effect

Learned Taste Aversions is sometimes referred to as what as a credit to John Garcia's research?

Wording, question

Loftus theorized the suggestive _______ of a question can also lead to a false memory of an event. In one of her studies, subjects were shown a film of a car accident. Subjects were divided into five groups, each group was asked a different _________ about the filmed accident.

fragile X syndrome

Male has defect on X chromosome of 23rd pair, causing protein deficiency

self-actualization

Maslow believed we are all inherently driven toward? It is the inherent need to live a life that utilizes ones unique talents

accurately

Meaningful information is more easily encoded and __________ recalled

Interference theory

Memories may have been encoded, but may be difficult to retrieve, because they interfere with one another. Proactive interference and retroactive interference.

elaborative rehearsal

Memorizing information by thinking of examples and/or visual imagery related to the info. Contrasts to maintenance rehearsal (memorizing through repetition)

Mnemonics

Memory strategies to improve encoding and recall. Involves pairing familiar/meaningful pieces of information with unfamiliar material to be memorized. Method of Loci

Structuralism

Mental processes should be broken down into smaller units for more effective study and sought to find "the atoms of the mind"

The Four Basic eating Mechanisms

Most complex organisms (humans included) have four mechanism that guide the process of eating: 1. A biological feature is present to detect the need for food 2. A biological feature is present to initiate eating behaviors 3. A biological feature is present to monitor food quality while eating 4. A biological feature is present to detect satiety (fullness) and stop eating behaviors For humans, these mechanisms are found in the digestive, nervous and endocrine systems

Short term memory

Most info in sensory memory will be forgotten unless transferred (encoded) into what?

Reticular formation

Network of neurons embedded within the brainstem. It activates sensory regions of the brain needed to maintain alertness and attention. For example, if a person needs to listen closely to someone speaking, it will redirect blood flow to the auditory regions of the brain allowing them to maintain attention. (Hindbrain (brainstem))

Neuroplasticity

Neural pathways can transfer impulses more efficiently and rapidly with prolonged/frequent use. Structural changes, in the pathway's neurons, allow for this rapid impulse transfer.

dendrites

Neurotransmitters move across the synapse, bind with receptors, on _________ of the post-synaptic neuron

Behavioral learning

Occurs when a behavior or response changes as a result of experience

overregularization

Occurs when a grammar rule is applied too widely. Example: "I catched the ball"

over-justification effect

Offering excessive external reinforcement for a behavior, will replace/reduce the intrinsic motivation to perform that behavior.

The Cold Reading Technique

Often used to explain psychic abilities. Psychic makes multiple high probability guesses about a person's background, lifestyle, fears, etc. Guesses are based on visible clues. Correct guesses are discussed further; missed guesses are quickly disregarded.

James-Lange Theory

Oldest theory. Emotions begin with physiological changes that are caused by an environmental stimulus. An emotion is our interpretation of that physiological change. William James: "We are sad, because we cry. Angry, because we strike. Afraid, because we tremble". Theory does not explain differences between emotions with similar physiological changes.

negative punishment

Once the rat learned to press the lever, how would he be taught to stop by using positive punishment? Negative punishment? The food dispenser was rigged to automatically dispense food; food would stop when lever was pressed

positive punishment

Once the rat learned to press the lever, how would he be taught to stop by using positive punishment? Negative punishment? The rat would be shocked when the lever as pressed

Figure-ground

One of Gestalt's Principles. If you look at this figure for about ten seconds, you are initially likely to see a white vase standing out against a black background. One of the most basic principles of perceptual organization. There is some evidence that your ability to separate figure from ground is an innate response. For example, individuals who were blind from early on and had their sight restored as adults, often by removal of cataracts, were able to distinguish between figure and ground with little or no training. As you continue to stare at this image, you will suddenly see the figure and ground reverse. The black background becomes the figure, and you see two silhouetted profiles facing each other against a white background. With continued staring, you can often make the figure reverse at will because the images are essentially equal in importance. In the real world, we usually encounter nonreversible images, or detailed images, clearly standing out against a background.

Closure

One of Gestalt's Principles. This states that we have a tendency to fill in any missing parts of a figure and see the figure as complete.

Similarity

One of Gestalt's Principles. This states that we tend to group elements together that appear similar; in this case, we group the black circles.

Proximity

One of Gestalt's Principles. This states that we tend to group objects that are physically close together.

Simplicity

One of Gestalt's Principles. This states that we tend to organize stimuli in the simplest way possible.

Continuity

One of Gestalt's Principles. This states that we tend to perceive a series of points or lines along a smooth or continuous path.

Cerebral cortex

One of the four major regions of the brain (along with hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain). The human's is the most developed of all the vertebrates. It is divided into four lobes (frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital) each of which is further divided into cortices

lateral hypothalamus

One of the two regions of the hypothalamus that coordinates eating. It is the brain's "hunger center" and initiates the sensation of hunger.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

One of the two regions of the hypothalamus that coordinates eating. It is the brain's "satiety center" and initiates the sensation of fullness

the normal distribution

Otherwise known as the bell curve. A common scoring trend, that appears when a valid test is given to a large number of people.

borderline personality disorder

Pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, and marked impulsivity.

after classical conditioning

Pavlov rang the bell alone and the dog salivated (without any food present to see or smell). Pavlov now referred to the bell as the conditional stimulus. The bell is no longer neutral, because it is having an effect. Pavlov referred to the dog's salivation, in response to the sound of the bell, as the conditioned response.

During classical conditioning

Pavlov repeatedly paired the bell (N) & the food (UCS) by ringing the bell just before giving the dog the food.

contiguity

Pavlovian/Classical conditioning followed the ________ model. The repetitive pairing of a UCS & N/CS forms the association between them and a strong CR. Dogs learned to salivate because the bell and food were paired multiple times.

Hierarchy of Needs

People are motivated to fulfill certain needs, but some needs take precedence over others. All people are inherently driven toward self-actualization. First, people are motivated to fulfill basic and psychological needs before growing toward self actualization.

Arousal Theory of Motivation

People have a unique level of physiological arousal, which needs to be reached, to in order to feel satisfied with an activity. Individuals requiring higher levels of arousal may be motivated to engage in thrill-seeking activities.

weak

People with a (strong/weak) sense of self-efficacy • Avoid challenging tasks due to belief they are beyond their capabilities • Focus on negative outcomes

strong

People with a (strong/weak) sense of self-efficacy • Challenging problems are tasks to be mastered • Remain committed to activity/task • Recovers quickly from setbacks

Theories of Personality

Personality psychologists have developed multiples theories to explain HOW an individual's personality develops. For example: apply the nature/nurture issue to personality development

Withdrawal

Physical symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. Symptoms vary: shakes, sweats, nausea, hallucinations, migraines.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Piaget's stage theory consists of four distinct stages. Each stage is marked by the appearance of unique cognitive milestones; new thought processes the child did not posses at earlier stages of development

Glutamate

Primarily an excitatory neurotransmitter Active during memory formation Role in the development of the nervous system

Gama-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter Inhibits the function of interneurons within the brain

transduction

Process in which stimuli (in this case sound waves) are converted into neural impulses

Transduction

Process in which stimuli are converted into neural impulse. The process in which light is converted into neural impulse to be interpreted by the visual cortex of the brain. It occurs in the retina.

Chomsky's Theories on the Innateness

Proposed the existence of the language acquisition device (LAD). Proposed the theory of universal grammar because language is (at least) partially innate, all human languages share an underlying structure. He used surface structure and deep structure

Types of conflict

Psychologists recognize three types of conflicts that can occur when making decisions or choosing options to pursue. The three types are: Approach-Approach Conflicts, Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts, Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

functionalism view

Psychology should focus on the purpose of mental processes and how they helped in adaption to the environment & survival

surveys

Questionnaires or standardized interviews that asks subjects about opinions, views, attitudes or beliefs. It is used to gather data for correlations, experiments, etc. Some use Likert Scale formats.

Stage 3

Read the sample responses Kohlberg's subjects gave when asked about the Heinz dilemma. What stage (1 through 6) of moral development is that person operating from? "Heinz should not steal the drug because if he does he will be thought of as a criminal by his family, friends and employer"

Stage 4

Read the sample responses Kohlberg's subjects gave when asked about the Heinz dilemma. What stage (1 through 6) of moral development is that person operating from? "Heinz should not steal the drug because its against the law to steal; if everyone just took what they wanted-even its important-there would be chaos"

Stage 6

Read the sample responses Kohlberg's subjects gave when asked about the Heinz dilemma. What stage (1 through 6) of moral development is that person operating from? "Heinz should not steal the drug he may be taking the drug away from others that need it too; and their lives are just as important as his wife's"

Stage 2

Read the sample responses Kohlberg's subjects gave when asked about the Heinz dilemma. What stage (1 through 6) of moral development is that person operating from? "Heinz should steal the drug because then he will feel happy and proud of himself for doing so"

Effect of REM stage

Recent research suggests declarative memories are transferred into a LTM format during the REM stage

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcement given every time target behavior is performed Like a vending machine

Variable Interval Schedules

Reinforcement is given after a random interval of time has passed (assuming the target behavior has been performed once). Example: rat would be reinforced after 2 minutes; then after another 45 seconds; then after another 1 minute. LOWEST response rate. RESISTANT to extinction; but not as much as ratio schedules

Variable Ratio Schedules

Reinforcement is given after a random number of ​behaviors are performed. Example: rat would be reinforced after the 3rd lever push, then after the 10th, then after 6 more presses. HIGHEST response rate (see graph) of the four highly resistant to extinction.

Fixed interval schedules

Reinforcement is given after a set interval of time has passed (assuming the target behavior has been performed once). Example: rat would be reinforced every 2 minutes. LOW response rate; but increases as the end of time interval approaches. RESISTANT to extinction; but not as much as Ratio schedules

Fixed Ratio schedules

Reinforcement is given after a set number of ​behaviors are performed. Example: rat would be reinforced after every 5th lever press (lever presses 1-4 were not). HIGH response rate; but slows after reinforcement given. Is resistant to extinction

placebo effect

Research has shown that effects of alcohol can be influenced by the user's expectations; identify psychological concept that influences alcohol use.

Gustatory Sense (Taste)

Research has shown that neonates will show signs of pleasure (cooing) when substances like sweetened water are placed on the tongue. They show signs of displeasure (wincing; grimacing) when bitter tastes are placed on the tongue.

Temperament

Research of Jerome Kagan (b. 1929) American Developmental Psychologist 1977-identified two broad infant temperaments (evident as early as 4 months) ◦ Highly reactive (signs of distress when presented with unfamiliar stimuli) ◦ Low reactive (relaxed when presented with the unfamiliar)

Brain lateralization

Research suggests each hemisphere coordinates its own unique set of cognitive functions.

Longitudinal studies

Research which follows one group of subjects over a length of time

Cross-sectional studies

Research which studies groups of subjects, each representing key age groups, simultaneously

Capacity of Short Term Memory

Researched by American cognitive psychologist George Miller and published in his 1956 paper, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two". 5-9 pieces of info can be held in STM. More current research indicates 4-5.

Operational Definiton

Researchers must sometimes study variables that seem vague or very general, this is the precise way the key variables will be defined and measured during the course of an experiment.

Depth Perception

Retinal images are 2D. The cognitive ability to perceive the 3D characteristics of an object and/or judge the distance of an object. The brain requires several key pieces of visual information in order to perceive depth.

Neuroplasticity

Role in the development of the nervous system

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist. His research on the digestive system of dogs led to accidental discovery of the principles of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is also referred to as Pavlovian Conditioning, as a credit to his research.

Cross Sectional studies

Several groups fo subjects, each representing the different age groups the researcher is studying, are assembled and studied simultaneously. This is less time consuming. Although, differences in each age group may be influenced by generation-specific cultural factors and not human development.

adaptive behavior

Skills that allow a person to live independently

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Social development begins in infancy and continues until death. Each stage is marked by a unique conflict (or crisis) that the person must receive. Successful resolution of the conflict results in the acquisition of social skills used throughout life. Unsuccessful resolution may result in life-long social difficulties.

impulses, satisfy

Socially unacceptable _____ and urges (that people are mostly unaware of) exist within the mind. These (same word as first blank) exist and are active starting at birth. Behaviors, thoughts, and personality are shaped by efforts to restrain and/or _______ these urges. (Psychoanalytic Approach)

Hindbrain (brainstem)

Sometimes referred to as "the reptilian brain" as it is the most primitive part of the human brain.

neural pathway

Specialized nerve fibers (often found in the brain or connecting the brain to other parts of the body) that: coordinate a specific behavior of cognitive function and can change in response to experiences.

George Sperling's 1960 Sensory Memory Test

Sperling displayed the matrix of letters, on the left, for 1/20 of a second on a screen. Subjects were capable of accurately recalling about 50% of what they saw. Sperling believed subjects were actually remembering more, of what they saw, but their memories were fading by the time they gave their response. When they were later shown a matrix (with 9 different letters) and asked to recall one row of letters, the accuracy improved to 99%.

Freud's psychosexual stages of development

Stage theory used to describe the forces that influenced personality development. Freud theorized that personality traits result from psychic determinism.

CT scan

Stands for computerized axial tomography Combines a series of X-ray images, taken from different angles around the body, to create a more detailed image than a typical X-ray. Another name would be CAT scan. (Brain Imaging Techniques)

EEG

Stands for electroencephalogram Electrodes used to measure and record fluctuations in the brain's electrical (neural) activity. Fluctuations in the brain's neural activity is displayed as brain wave pattern. (Brain Imaging Techniques)

FMRI

Stands for functional MRI. Takes MRI images; also measures changes in blood flow, to certain brain regions, which indicates levels of brain activity.

MRI

Stands for magnetic resonance imaging. Magnetic fields are used to create highly detailed images of the brain. (Brain Imaging Techniques)

PET scan

Stands for positron emission tomography. Dye, containing radioactive tracers, is injected into the body. Tracers then highlight degrees of brain activity. (Brain Imaging Techniques)

variability

Statistics which tell about how different scores are, when compared to the mean

inferential statistics, significant

Stats that represent the confidence a researcher, can have, when generalizing their study results to larger populations. Researchers look for "statistically __________" results in their studies: results that show that the conditions of an experiment caused its results and not chance

Strengths of the Case Study

Strengths of the Case Study or Limitations of the Case Study: • Focus on one subject allows for in depth observation and documentation • Case studies inspire future studies and investigations

Limitations of the Case Study

Strengths of the Case Study or Limitations of the Case Study: • Findings cannot be used to make generalizations about people in larger populations

Correlation Studies

Studies that seek to identify the relationship between two quantifiable variables to determine if amounts of these two variables increase or decrease together

Placebo Studies

Studies that use a drug/treatment, that appears to be real, but contains no active ingredients

The Gibson & Walk Study

Study, first, done by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk in 1960 (Psychologists, at Cornell University, that specialized in perceptual learning) Study was performed to determine if depth perception (especially a drop-off along the horizontal plane) is innate or develops with experience. Gibson & Walk's hypothesis-depth perception was an inborn ability (this would be adaptive). Research participants were infants (6-14 months). According to Gibson and Walk, infants are innately able to perceive depth.

Twin/Adoption Studies

Subjects are monozygotic (identical) or dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised in different homes. Study focuses on a trait, ability or condition's heritability and whether the trait, ability, or condition is influenced more by genetic factors or environmental factors.

longitudinal studies

Subjects are observed/tested and then re-observed or retested at a later point in time; changes in observations and results are noted and compared. This could be time consuming and subject mortality can occur

Psychoactive drugs

Substances which cause changes in body chemistry. Produce changes in perception, conscious awareness and/or mood.

Jean Piaget

Swiss Psychologist; Specialized in the cognitive development of children. Early in his career, he helped develop IQ tests. He noticed that children consistently answered certain questions incorrectly. This lead him to theorize that: Children think differently than adults and Children must reach certain developmental milestones, during their cognitive development, that enabled them with new ways of thinking. His research lead to Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development. #2 on the 100 Most Influential Psychologists survey (Skinner-#1; Sigmund Freud-#3)

Evolutionary approach to eating

Taste preferences for high calorie/fat content foods was once adaptive at an earlier stage of human evolution. Human activity was more physically demanding & food supply was more unpredictable. Taste preferences still remain, despite changes in lifestyle.

Serial-Position effect

Tendency to accurately encode, and recall, the first (primary effect) and last (recency effect) pieces of information on a list

Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

Term used to describe the tasks a child can perform, with guidance, but cannot perform independently. Cognitive development occurs when children have experiences in ZPD. Learning that is guided by an adult or a more competent peer.

Personality Assessments

Tests designed to identify the possession personality traits; gauge their influence or identify personality types

Forehead

The "Third Eye" test: Piaget would ask children "Where would you place a third eye, if you had one?" How would a child at the concrete operation stage answer? Why? __________ because a face is structure

Back of head

The "Third Eye" test: Piaget would ask children "Where would you place a third eye, if you had one?" How would a child at the formal operation stage answer? Why? ______ __ ____ because can see people from behind

learning perspective

The Little Albert Experiment's approach is also known as the?

Decay Theory

The NT glutamate is active during STM memory formation. The amounts of glutamate (called the memory trace) diminish with the fading of a STM memory

Skinner Box

The _________ ____ was designed to isolate a specific behavior & control the consequences that behavior brought about. Skinner used rats, as subjects, and focused on the simple behavior of pressing a lever. Skinner identified four specific types of consequences that influenced that lever pressing behavior

dark adaptation

The ability to begin to see outlines and shapes of objects after transitioning from a well lit to dark environment.

Pitch Perception

The ability to distinguish between low & high pitched sounds is explained by two theories; each relating to the hair cells of the cochlea

Selective Attention

The ability to focus upon one stimulus, from among all surrounding environmental stimuli. Variables that influence this are: goal-directed attention, change blindness, stimulus driven capture.

intelligence

The ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. These characteristics that individuals need in order to survive in their culture.

symbolic thought

The ability to make mental representations of tangible entities

Nerve fiber, red

The afterimage effect has been used to support the opponent-process theory; how? Overstimulating a ____ _____ (with green light causes it to fatigue). While processing green; ___ detection is inhibited. When the green processing half can "rest" by viewing a white background, the red half compensated and functions without any real visual stimulus.

interpersonal attraction

The attraction, between two people, that can lead to friendships or intimate relationships. Many factors leading to interpersonal attraction have been studied, such as: The Similarity-Attraction Effect and The Propinquity (Proximity) Effect.

neuron

The basic building block of the nervous system. It plays an important role in generating impulses and transferring them throughout the body.

Dualism

The body and mind are separate entities, that can influence each other. The body gives rise to thought; thoughts can then influence the body.

Physiological addiction

The body's dependency on the chemical properties of a drug.

Motion Perception

The brain requires several key pieces of visual information in order to perceive motion. Feature dectectors. Example: Object moving toward the viewer; cast an expanding image upon the retina.

basilar, impulse, thalamus

The cochlea is divided into two sections by the _________ membrane. This membrane is lined with microscopic hair cells. The vibration of the oval window triggers vibrations of cochlear fluid which then triggers vibrations of the hair cells lining the basilar membrane. The vibration of these hair cells then generates an _______. These impulses then travel along the auditory nerve, to __________, and then onto auditory cortex (of the temporal lobe) to be interpreted.

Memory

The cognitive ability to form mental representations of information, store and retrieve them at a later time

key variables

The cognitive or behavioral elements, the researcher believes, have a cause & effect relationship.

Transduction

The conversion of sensory stimuli into neural impulses

Sleep Debt

The cumulative effect of not getting sufficient amounts of sleep

Prenatal period

The development period before birth

Achievement Motivation

The drive to master a difficult skill, overcome a challenge or acquire knowledge. Without incentive motivation as the primary drive. They don't care if anyone knows that they achieved an accomplishment

extrinsic motivation

The drive to perform a behavior for external factors. Example: for money, praise, recognition, avoidance of punishment.

intrinsic motivation

The drive to perform a behavior for internal factors. Example: for a sense of enjoyment, pride, for a challenge.

replication

The duplication of an experiment using new subjects. If the results are replicated, the findings can be reliably generalized to larger groups of people. Repeated results assure they did not occur by chance or caused by an unknown confounding variable.

drug's placebo effect

The effects of a drug resulting from a person's expectations and not its active ingredients

Action potential

The electro-chemical process which generates an impulse within the neuron. It is the movement of positive/negative ions creates an electrical current; this current is the impulse. A neuron must repolarize (go back to its resting potential) before another action potential can be produced to repolarize; a sodium/potassium pump moves sodium back outside the neuron's membrane.

DSM-5

The following eating disorder summaries are based on their description in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual; 5th Edition (_______).

Human sexual response cycle

The four innate and uniform physiological stages of male/female sexual activity. The four stages are Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm ans Resolution. Masters and Johnson also researched the differences between male & female sexual responses during the cycle. Males experience a refractory period after orgasm and during the beginning of resolution.

Endocrine system and nervous system

The function of the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems require an interaction between the ________ ______ & the ________ _______ (the body's gland & hormone system)

Sound waves

The general function of the ear's anatomy is to channel ___________ toward the cochlea

Partial Reinforcement

The intermittent reinforcement of a previously learned behavior. Sometimes the behavior is reinforced; sometimes it is not. Like a gambling game

Habituation

The learned ability to not respond to frequently present environmental sensory stimuli (sounds, odors, etc). It results from experiences. When an intense stimulus is repeatedly present and no UCS follows, we learn to ignore it. Similar to sensory adaptation, which occurs because the sense organs become less responsive.

sensory adaptation

The longer a person is exposed to a consistent & unchanging stimulus; the less likely they are to detect it. Frees attention for the detection of novel stimuli, which have the potential to be dangerous, which makes it adaptive.

absolute threshold

The lowest level of a stimulus (light,sound, touch) that the human sense organs can detect; 50% of the time the stimulus is present

synapse

The microscopic space between them

accommodation

The modification of an existing schema to include/exclude new information.

Phonemes

The most basic sounds that make up a language. 44 in American English.

unconditional response (UCR)

The natural and automatic response to the UCS.

presynaptic neuron

The neuron sending the impulse

vicarious reinforcement

The observation of others being reinforced/punished, can increase/decrease the modeled behaviors.

behavior

The overall goal of the behavioral approach is: for psychology to focus on ________ because that is observable and can be quantified; To establish that humans learn their __________ in the same way animals do; To make behavioral research findings practical by making them applicable to daily life. (blanks are the same word)

Second order/higher order conditioning

The pairing of a new NEUTRAL stimulus with a CS; until the new stimulus produces a CR. New CR response will be weaker and may be extinguised more rapidly.

hippocampus

The part of the brain that forms new memories

Visual Pathway

The pathway impulses travel, from the optic nerve and onto the brain.

Visual system

The pathway neural impulses travel from eyes, along the optic nerve, onto the visual cortex.

Encoding

The process of creating a more permanent mental representation of sensory information. It transfer info from sensory register into a STM/LTM format. (See diagram)

Reuptake

The process of neurotransmitters (that did not bind with receptors on postsynaptic neuron) being absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron

self-actualization

The process of realizing and then expressing one's own unique capabilities

Perception

The process, through which sensory information is identified, labeled, understood, interpreted and organized

Assimilation

The process, through which, new information is brought into an existing schema.

Sensation

The process, through which, sensory organs/receptor cells detect sensory stimuli

Response rate

The rate at which the target behavior was performed

spontaneous recovery

The re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response. Pavlov observed that some of his dog's conditioned salivation responses, that had been extinguished, would suddenly re-emerge.

Retrieval

The recovery of information, stored in LTM, into the working memory. Retrieval cues. The encoding specificity principle is a process which aids in the retrieval of information. When information is first encoded, the surrounding context of that info is encoded along with it. Example: when learning a person's name, their name is encoded along with the location it was first learned. Memories are recalled most accurately when they are retrieved under the same conditions, or in the same context, as when it was encoded. Example: The name of that person will be remembered best, when you are in the same place you first learned their name. Encoding specificity also applies to emotional states and states of consciousness. Memories formed when angry; will be recalled best when angry at a later time. Memories formed when intoxicated; will be recalled best when intoxicated at a later time.

hypothesis

The researcher's expectation of how the key variables are related; which variable they believe will affect the other

Morphemes

The smallest meaningful units of sound in a language. It can be words, suffices & prefixes.

Conditional Stimulus (CS)

The stimulus the subject has learned to respond to.

Psycholinguistics

The study of the cognitive processes related to language development, use and comprehension.

Stanford Prison Experiment

The study was designed to test the impact social roles have on our behaviors and personality. It was also designed to examine the difficulties that often develip between prisoners and guards in military prison. So in order to investigate this concept further, Zimbardo designed a simulated prison at Stanford University.

insight learning

The sudden realization of a problem's solution, without use of trial and error

Grammar

The system of rules that govern the structure and use of a language. Psycholinguistics identifies two components of this: Syntax and Semantics.

Similarity-Attraction Effect

The tendency for people to be attracted to those they are similar to. The effect is strongest for shared attitudes, values & activity preferences. To a lesser extent for shared personality traits. Research has produced strong evidence supporting this phenomenon, but there is a hesitancy in referring to it as a "law", because of the occasional exceptions.

Propinquity (Proximity) Effect

The tendency for people to form relationships with those they are near & encounter often. When the proximity increases the number of positive interactions.

Partial reinforcement effect

The tendency of learned behaviors to continue with partial reinforcement

General Adaptation Syndrome

The three sequential stages, of physiological responses, to stressful situations.

auditory canal

The tube connecting the external and internal parts of the ear

Ossicles, Malleus, Incus, Stapes

The tympanic membrane transfers to the _________. There are three tiny bones of the middle ear (named the __________ or "hammer"; ______ or "anvil"; ______ or "stirrup") which further amplify air soundwaves in preparation for passing through the fluid filled organs of the ear.

perceptual organization and grouping

The unconscious & automatic cognitive steps taken to establish an order in what is seen, heard, etc

dependent variable

The variable which is then effected by the changes made to the IV: it is the variable which the researcher measures.

oval window

The vibrations from the Stapes are transferred to the ____ ________. A membrane which connects the ossicles to the inner ear.

pinna

The visible outer portion of the ear. It directs soundwaves into auditory canal.

electrical current

The what of the impulse, cannot cross synapse?

Surface structure

The words and syntax of a sentence

Perceptual Constancy

The, mostly learned, ability to maintain constant perception of a familiar object, despite changes in the viewer's perspective.

Julian Rotter

Theories of who (1916-2014) American Psychologist Researched the locus of control concept and its influence on personality development

dopamine pathways

They are active when we experience sensations of pleasure

Tolman's experiment

Three groups of rats were placed in a maze and their behavior was observed each day of the study: Group 1 rats- always found food at the end of the maze. Group 2 rats- never found food at the end of the maze. Group 3 rats found no food at the end of the maze, for 10 days, but then would find food there on the eleventh day. The time it took for each group, to reach the end of the maze, was recorded: Group 1 rats quickly learned to reach to the end of the maze. Group 2 rats wandered the maze but did not preferentially go to the end. Group 3 rats acted the same as the Group 2 rats for the first 10 days, when food was introduced on Day 11; then they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze and were just as fast as the Group 1 rats by next day.

Theories of Emotion

Three theories which explain the relationship between the physiological and cognitive responses experienced during an emotion. The theories focus on the order which the cognitive and physiological aspects, of an emotion, occur. The three theories are James-Lange Theory, Canon-Bard Theory, Schachter-Singer Theory.

refractory period

Time period when a neuron cannot produce an action potential. Occurs when the neuron is repolarizing & Na/K pump is active (action potential)

Refractory period

Time period when males are unable to reach orgasm and ejaculate

Cardinal traits

Traits heavily influences a lifestyle Rare; most people lack a single trait that shapes a lifestyle Ex: desire for fame; paranoia

True

True or False Freudian psychoanalytic approach influenced the development of other approaches

False

True or False Freudian psychoanalytic approach was later accepted by more scientific psychologists

Major Depressive Disorder

Two key symptoms: • persistent sadness, hopelessness or a feeling of emptiness • Loss of interest/pleasure in daily activities

0.05

Typical psychology research sets the p value standard at p<____; in other words There is less than a 5% chance the result occurred by chance

Other specified personality disorder

Unspecified personality disorder A category provided for two situations: 1) the individual's personality pattern meets the general criteria for a personality disorder, and traits of several different personality disorders are present, but the criteria for any specific personality disorder are not

Telegraphic speech

Use of simple and efficient sentences that exclude unnecessary info and more complex grammar (articles, conjunctions, verb tenses)

natural, sunlight

Use the concept of the circadian rhythm, and the impact sunlight has on its regulation, to explain why people experience jet lag: The sleep wake cycle (and other metabolic functions) are disrupted when the _______ circadian rhythm and amounts of _______ are not synchronized due to cross-time zone travel.

maintenance rehearsal

Using cognitive repetition to encode information.

cognitive appraisal

We conduct a rapid mental evaluation, of other's emotional responses and our surroundings, to establish a reason for the emotion

Neural signals

What activate that adrenal glands to begin the adrenaline secretion? (The fight or flight response)

Optic, light

What anatomical feature of the eye causes the blind spot? No rods or cones are found at the point where the _____ nerve leaves the eye; no ____ can be detected here.

Cognitive Approach

What approach focus on mental processes (process that cannot be directly observed) and study of memory, language comprehension, problem solving, and decision making?

Socio-cultural Approach

What approach focuses on societal & cultural factors (nationality, religious beliefs, gender roles, cultural traditions) that shape behaviors and mental processes and studies how certain behaviors & mental processes may be universal, regardless of cultural influences?

Biological Approach (biopsychology)

What approach focuses on the link between brain, nervous system, hormones, genetics, etc. and behavior/mental processes?

Evolutionary (sociobiological) Perspective

What approach has mental process/behaviors, that were adaptive at earlier stage of human evolution, are part of inherited genetic makeup?

eclectic approach

What approach is the use of multiple approaches to explain the cause of a thought or behavior? It is useful because many complex forces shape any one behavior or thought.

behaviorists, cognition, behavioral

What approach to psychology did Watson, Thorndike and Skinner follow? All were _________- they studied observable behaviors, shaped by experience. All were criticized for downplaying the role _______ played in behavioral learning. Cognitive-behavioral Approach: emphasizes the role thought processes play in ___________ learning.

Humanism

What approach was developed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)? It was developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It also mentions free will/choice.

Behavioral Approach

What approach was developed by American psychologist John Watson (1878-1958)?

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach

What approach was developed by the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)? It promoted the influence of the unconscious mind.

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies

What are 2 research methods used by psychologists that study development?

ANOVA Test and T-tests

What are examples of statistical hypothesis tests? (2 examples)

receptor cells

What are specialized cells located in the sensory organs (eye, ear skin, etc)? It detects environmental changes (light, sounds, temperature changes).

Statistical hypothesis tests

What are tests that are performed by researchers, to establish the statistical significance of their results?

dreams, daydreams, hallucinations

What are the different types of internalized (mental) experiences, people can have, while in those varying degrees of awareness?

Nodes of Ranvier

What are the gaps in the myelin sheath? It allows for movement of chemicals essential for impulse generation.

Anxiety and stress

What are the two causes of Insomnia?

mental process and behavior

What are the two other forces of psychology?

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning

What are the two types of associative learning?

Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It

What book was published by John Watson to outline the goals of the behavioral approach?

Phineas Gage Case Study

What case documented the connection between pre-frontal cortex & executive cognitive functions?

impulses

What cause muscle contractions?

Spinal cord

What connects the brain and peripheral nervous system? (A part of the central nervous system)

Terminal Buttons

What contain chemicals (neurotransmitters) involved in impulse transmission? They are also called axon terminals.

Medulla

What controls vital biological functions such as breathing, regulation of heartbeat and swallowing? (Hindbrain (brainstem))

z score

What converts the SD into a unit of "1"? Negative means it falls below the mean; positive are above it.

somatosensory cortex

What cortex that is located in the parietal lobe and interprets bodies' tactile sensations?

seat of the soul

What did Descartes call the pineal gland?

distinguish

What did Gazzaniga hypothesize that was a left hemispheric function? The ability to what between the individual elements, or a larger whole image.

facial recognition

What did Gazzaniga hypothesize that was a right hemispheric function?

genetics, abilities

What did John Locke downplay influence of ________ and innate _________?

learning and experience

What did John Locke think knowledge is gained through (2 things)?

brain regions

What did Phrenology lead to an understanding that specific _____ _______ coordinate specific mental processes & behaviors?

credibility

What did The Principles of Psychology add to the emergence of psychology?

introspection

What did Wundt refer to the process of objectively examining & measuring one's own mental processes?

P value

What do ANOVA test and T-tests (statistical hypothesis tests) produce?

attachment

What does the social development of children normally begin with? It is the emotional and social relationships that exists between a child and parent.

pineal gland

What gland secretes melatonin? It also regulates sleep/wake cycle. (Endocrine system and nervous system)

adrenal glands

What glands are located on the kidneys? They also secrete adrenaline (epinephrine) which elevates bodily functions in stressful situations. In addition, they also secrete nonadrenaline (norepinephrine) which enhances vigilance, alertness and focus. (Endocrine system and nervous system)

naturalistic observation

What is a procedure used to make observations, of a subject, during a case study? Subjects are observed in the environments they routinely function within (school, workplace, etc)

C-PAP machine

What is a treatment option for Obstructive Sleep Apnea? It is a machine that has a breathing mask that delivers pressurized air to keep airways open.

stored memories

What is an example of Pre-conscious?

McGurk Effect

What is an example of Visual capture? It is when they use the same audio but different lip movements so you "heard" something different every time.

1957 HM Case Study

What is an example that uses the Case Study Method

Case Study method

What is an in depth observation & detailed documentation of an individual's (or a small group of related people's) behavior/mental condition. It often focuses on people with rare characteristics, illnesses, etc.

neurons

What is lined up in a nerve fiber along which impulses travel and do not come into contact?

Brocca's Area

What is located only on left side of frontal lobe? It coordinates language production. Damage to this can cause Broca's aphasia; difficulty speaking fluently

Wernicke's area

What is located only on left side of temporal lobe? It coordinates language comprehension. Damage to this can cause Wernicke's Aphasia, which is speech is fluent but meaning is impaired.

pituitary gland

What is the body's "master gland"? It secretes hormones that activate other glands. Also secretes growth hormone. (Endocrine system and nervous system)

soma

What is the cell body called? It contains nucleus & organelles.

Myelin sheath

What is the insulating layer of fat cells surrounding the axon? It prevents dispersion of impulse & ensures speed of impulse transmission

obesity

What is the main cause of Obstructive Sleep Apnea?

Law of Pragnanz

What is the name of the law that when perceiving a stimulus, the tendency to begin with top-down processing first? We use this law because it requires less cognitive effort than bottom-up processing

American Psychological Association (APA)

What is the name of the organization that oversees psychological study in the U.S.?

brain anatomy

What is the point where body and mind converge?

.60 to 1

What is the range that indicates strong correlations.

0 to .59

What is the range that indicates weak correlations.

Phrenology

What is the study that unique contours and size of the skull indicated personality traits, intelligence and susceptibility to mental disorders?

diathesis-stress model

What is the terminology for when both nature & nurture interact to cause behaviors, mental processes, mental illness, personality, etc?

Afterimage

What occurs when a visual sensation briefly persists after the original stimulus has been removed?

frontal lobe

What part of the brain located in the cerebral cortex are these in: Motor cortex, Pre-frontal cortex and brocca's area (Cerebral cortex)

95%

What percent of the people that took the test will score within 2 SD's of the mean?

68%

What percent of the people that took the test; will score close to the mean score (within 1 SD; to be exact)?

5%

What percent of the test takers normally score extremely low or extremely high, within 3 SD's above or below the mean score?

Cones

What photoreceptors are active in well lit environments?

Dendrites

What receives impulses from other neurons or from sensory organs?

sympathetic nervous system

What system aroused body to expend energy? (A part of the autonomic nervous system)

parasympathetic nervous system

What system calms body to conserve and maintain energy? (A part of the autonomic nervous system)

peripheral nervous system

What system carries messages to and from the CNS? It has the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

autonomic nervous system

What system controls involuntary body functions? (A part of the peripheral nervous system)

somatic nervous system

What system controls voluntary muscles and transmits sensory information to the CNS? (A part of the peripheral nervous system)

central nervous system

What system includes the brain and the spinal cord?

gland secretion

What transfer information from sensory organs onto the brain and are involved in cognition?

interneurons

What transfers impulses between afferent and efferent neurons?

motor neurons

What transfers impulses from brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands? (Efferent)

sensory neuron

What transfers impulses from receptor cells to spinal cord or brain? Another name: afferent neuron.

axon

What transfers impulses onto other neurons, muscles or glands?

Motor cortex

What type of cortex located in frontal lobe controls voluntary muscle movements: right side of body, coordinated by left half of motor cortex, left side by the right

visual cortex

What type of cortex located in the occipital lobe interprets visual sensations? Right visual field processed by left visual cortex and vice versa.(Cerebral cortex)

Auditory cortex

What type of cortex located in the temporal lobe interprets auditory senstations? Impulses from left ear processed by right side of temporal lobe and vice versa.

antagonists

What type of drugs block neurotransmitters from bonding with their receptor sites?

agonists

What type of drugs mimic the effects of neurotransmitters?

two point sensitivity

What type of experiment did Wundt use?

scatterplot graph

What type of graph are used when graphing correlations?

sympathetic nervous system

What type of nervous system is the fight or flight first activated by?

Psychoanalytic (Freudian) Perspective on Dreams

What type of perspective states: Dreams consist of two components: manifest content and latent content?

sensory

What type of stimuli was Wundt's research subjects exposed to (example: lights, tactile sensations, etc)?

Likert Scale

What type of survey is formatted to gauge the strength of an opinion?

high variability

What type of variability is when scores are "spread out"? Some are much lower or higher than the average

low variability

What type of variability is when scores are close to the average?

the freudian view

What view on the unconscious consists of socially unacceptable impulses & urges that people are, mostly, unaware of? He was challenged because of a lack of scientific proof

third force of psychology

What was Humanism described as?

Little Albert Experiment

What was the name of the experiment that John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduct to determine the determinants of behavior? This led to learn that behaviors are learned through experience.

thoughts, hormones

What were Galen and Hippocrates were right about this? Body chemistry can influence ________, behaviors, etc ________, Neurotransmitters

excitatory neurotransmitters

What will start a new impulse in the postsynaptic neuron?

inhibitory neurotransmitters

What will suppress an impulse from starting in the postsynaptic neuron?

Stimulus discrimination, learn

What would happen if that higher pitched bell was then repeatedly presented without any food (an UCS) following? __________ ____________ would occur. The dog would _____ to distinguish between the different bell types.

Neurotransmitters

When an impulse reaches the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron; chemicals called _________________ are released into the synapse.

facial feedback

When you put a facial expression, your mind will start to feel that facial expression

pineal gland

Where did Descartes believe the body & mind were joined at?

Visual, light

Where, within the retina, would light from an object in view need to be focused to achieve the greatest degree of acuity? When an object is centered in the _____ field and _____ is focused on the fovea. The area of retina with the highest concentration of cones.

Rods

Which would become active when you move into a dark environment?

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

Who (2 people) researched the physiological components of human sexual activity? From 1957-1965, they observed & recorded the physiological responses, associated with sexual activity, of ~700 research participants. Researched identified Sexual Response Cycle. Research has been used to in the successful treatment of sexual dysfunction

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Who conducted research at Harvard (beginning in 1959) into the visual system? Created a map of the occipital lobe by showing how different visual patterns stimulated different areas of the visual cortex. Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1981 (shared with Roger Sperry)

Philip Zimbardo

Who conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment?

Bruner and Mintum

Who demonstrated the perceptual set study in 1955?

Max Wertheimer

Who developed the Gestalt Principles? He is an Austrian cognitive psychologist (1880-1943)

American Psychological Association (APA)

Who established an ethical code to ensure no unnecessary or unjustifiable deception/harm occurs?

Hippocrates

Who identified the Four Humors?

Galen

Who took the Hippocratic four humors and related them to personality types and their responsiveness to environmental conditions?

Roger Sperry

Who was awarded Nobel Prize in 1981 for research which established the legitmacy of brain lateralization? Research participants were corpus callostomy.

William James

Who was the American psychologist from 1842-1910 that published the first Psychology Textbook; The Principles of Psychology? He also developed functionalism view of psychology.

G. Stanley Hall

Who was the American psychologist from 1844-1924 that was the founder and president of the American Psychological Association (APA)?

Franz Gall

Who was the Austrian physiologist from 1758-1828 that developed a, now discredited, branch of science known as Phrenology

Charles Darwin

Who was the English Naturalist from 1809-1882 that developed Theory of Natural Selection?

John Locke

Who was the English philosopher from 1632-1704 that viewed the mind, at birth, as the tableau rasa (the blank slate)?

Edward Titchener

Who was the English psychologist from 1867-1927 that was a student of Wundt and established psychological laboratory at Cornell University which was the first in the United States? He also developed structuralism.

Rene Descartes

Who was the French Philosopher from 1596-1650 that proposed "Dualism"?

William Wundt

Who was the German psychologist from 1832-1920 who is named "The Father of Modern Psychology" and established first psychological laboratory? He was also the first person to be referred to as a psychologist and also the first to apply objective data collection.

Michael Gazzaniga

Who was the leading cognitive neuroscientist; student of sperry? He conducted research into funcational lateralization of the brain. He also studied corpus callostomy patients. How the specialized hemispheres communicate with each other.

Paul Ekman

Whose research? Born 1934. American psychologist. Researched at University of California. Specialized in the study of human emotions; particularly their relationship to facial expressions.

Meaningless

Why does Herman Ebbinghaus use non-sense syllables? They are ______________.

Bipolar, impulse

Why does it take 10 minutes for the transition between these photoreceptors to take place? Several rods, send impulses through one ______ cell, slowing ______ transmission.

Away, fastest, lessening

Why is the initial impulse generated by a painful stimulus, processed by spinal cord before brain? Allows movement ____ from source of pain to occur before conscious awareness Ensures _______ possible reaction to painful stimuli; _________ potential damage

Impulses, fastest

Why the sympathetic nervous system and not the pituitary gland? ________ travel more rapidly than hormones secreted into bloodstream This ensures the _______ reaction time (The fight or flight response)

independently, isolated, split

Why were corpus callostomy patients ideal for Sperry & Gazzaniga's research? Research participants had ____________ functioning left and right hemispheres. Allowing their unique functions to be ________ & studied. "_____-brain patients"

neural pathways

With repeated use of ______ ________; NT levels increase & more NT receptors develop at the synapse. It allows for more rapid NT transfer.

neuroplasticity

With repeated use of ___________; new dendrites (on the neurons in the pathway) develop. This increases connections with the other neurons within the pathway. These changes allow the behavior/cognitive function (controlled by that pathway) to occur with less mental effort.

Emotion

a complex pattern of responses, perceived to be personally significant. Physiological changes (blood pressure, HR changes). Cognitive changes (the sensation or "feeling" of an emotion). Observable/behavioral changes (gestures, posture, facial expressions).

schizotypal personality disorder

a pattern of acute discomfort in close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and eccentricities of behavior

schizoid personality disorder

a pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression

Paranoid personality disorder

a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness such that others' motives are interpreted as malevolent

percentile rank

a state used to rank test performance. By comparing a single test taker's score, to the scores of others that took the same test.

graphing

a visual way to identify trends and patterns in data

difference threshold

aka noticeable difference The smallest amount that a stimulus needs to change in order for a person to notice it's different.

False memories

also known as memory reconstruction or the misinformation effect

Forebrain

also known as the limbic system (meaning "marginal"). It is located above the brainstem, but below the outer portion of the brain (the cerebral cortex)

Homeostasis

an internal state of equilibrium of the body's systems

effectors

any muscle or gland that is effected by motor neuron

Social Learning Theory

behaviors can be learned through modeling (observational learning)

bio feedback

brain influencing body

microsleeps

brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds; they occur because of lack of sleep

Maturation of Motor Abilities

certain motor abilities, such as walking, develop as a result of maturation, as opposed to being learned: the process of an innate ability, gradually appearing after sufficient physical & neurological development.

Secondary traits

characteristics, known only to a select few, such as individual preferences

Bobo Doll Study Results

control group: averaged 2 aggressive behaviors during playroom session experimental group: averaged 38 aggressive behaviors (many modeled after the adult behavior) Experimental group children also modeled the aggressive language & play with aggressive toys (toy guns) In later studies; boys were more likely, than girls, to model aggressive behaviors of a same-sex adult

pre-frontal cortex

coordinates the executive cognitive functions which are thoughtful control of emotions and ability to plan, reason, make judgements

Nature

emotional states and preferences may have been genetically inherited from parents

Deep processing

encoding of information's meaning of significance. It leads to more accurate recall.

shallowing processing

encoding of information's surface structure (its superficial characteristics)

Central traits

general emotional & behavioral characteristics Found, to some degree in all people Ex: honesty, kindness Not as overwhelming as a cardinal trait

range

it is a simple measure of variability. Its the difference between the lowest and highest score after they have been arranged from highest tio lowest.

latent learning

learning that has occurred without reinforcement and is not displayed, until the learner has an incentive to do so

cognitive maps

mental representations of a physical space

neural threshold

minimum amount of stimulation needed to produce an action potential Operates on the "all or none" principle The required level of stimulation is either reached or it is not (the action potential)

Personality inventories

objective and standardized personality tests Example: Myers-Briggs Example: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) used identify abnormal personality traits & psychopathology

Behaviors

observable actions that a person can perform that allows them to adjust to their environment Ex: laughing

antisocial personality disorder

pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others

histrionic personality disorder

pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking

narcissistic personality disorder

pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control

avoidant personality disorder

pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation

dependent personality disorder

pattern of submissive and clinging behavior related to an excessive need to be taken care of

nurture

personality traits may be learned through the modeling; observation/imitation of parent displaying of their traits

Routinized language

phrases and language that accompany social routines; where the use of a phrase is more important than using it meaningfully

Memory trace

physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed

Non-Contingent Reinforcement

reinforcement that is given independently of any particular behavior. A concept tested by BF Skinner with pigeons in operant conditioning chambers (Skinner Boxes). Pigeons were reinforced w/food, regardless of the behavior they were performing. The pigeons then associated the coincidental behavior, they were performing at the time, with the reinforcement. The coincidental behavior was encouraged because of the reinforcement. The behavior continued with partial reinforcement

mean

the average of a larger data set- usually scores

nervous system

the body system which transfers electro-chemical messages called impulses throughout the body

median

the middle number when scores are arranged lowest to highest

mode

the most frequently appearing score

postsynaptic neuron

the neuron receiving the impulse

Mental processes

the performance of internalized, and largely unobservable cognitive (thought-related) functions Ex: pondering what you are going to do later, dreaming

accommodation

the process in which muscles can change the shape of the lens to better focus light

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Visual capture

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

restorative theory of sleep

the theory that states that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body. During sleep, chemicals that were used up during the day's activities are replenished and cellular damage is repaired. Brain plasticity is enhanced by sleep and there is evidence that most bodily growth and repair occur during the deepest stages of sleep, when enzymes responsible for these functions are secreted in higher amounts.

Experimenter bias

the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis

Deep structure

the underlying meaning of a sentence

states of consciousness

the varying degrees of awareness we can have of our environment & ourselves

adaptive theory of sleep

theory stating that sleep is a product of evolution. It proposes that animals and humans evolved different sleep patterns to avoid being present during their predators' normal hunting times, which typically would be at night. Preys usually sleep a lot less than predators.

Stanley Milgram's Obedience Study

• (1963) Inspired by the Nazi Nuremberg Trials • Milgram investigated why the Nazis obeyed the orders they were given during the Holocaust • Subject- "the teacher"; who was to deliver an electric shock to the "student" (a confederate seated in a different room) every time they answered a memory test question incorrectly • The "shocks" were simulated and student would yell out, as if in pain, but the teacher (the real subject of the study) was unaware of this • The teacher was told, by Milgram, to increase the intensity of the "shocks" with each incorrect response • 65% of subjects delivered what they believed was a fatal shock to the student when told to do so by Milgram • Milgram theorized it was a human tendency to obey orders, that will result in harm, when: ◦ Orders are given by an authority figure that is perceived to assume the responsibility

Social (Cultural) Norms

• A cultural group's expectations of what is, and is not, acceptable behavior • The "unwritten rules" about how to behave in a particular social setting

Deindividuation

• A decreased sense of responsibility, self-awareness and an increased sense of anonymity, experienced when being part of a group • Increases the likelihood the person would do things in the group, they would not do, when alone

self-fulfilling prophecy

• A person may make an assumption about someone • They then treat that person differently, based on that assumption • This differential treatment causes their assumption to manifest

Central route to persuasion

• A technique used to persuade someone or to get them to change their beliefs • Factual information is used during the persuasion

Peripheral routes to persuasion

• A technique used to persuade someone or to get them to change their beliefs • Stimuli that evoke emotional responses are used to during the persuasion

Mere exposure effect

• Aka the familiarity principle • Tendency for people to develop a positive attitude toward, or preference for, something merely because they are familiar with it

Five Factor Theory (Model)

• Aka: "The Big Five Traits" • Theory meant to consolidate the overlapping categories of 16PG • Five broad dimensions are now used to describe major personality traits • Most updated trait theory

Trauma and Stress Related Disorders

• Although the symptoms of these disorders vary; they all have an "exposure to a traumatic or stressful event" listed in their diagnostic criteria

psycholexical hypothesis

• An early attempt at organizing traits (more influential, than accurate, in a contemporary-sense) • Important personality traits will become part of a cultural group's language ◦ Allport identified 4,500 English words that represented personality traits

reciprocal determinism

• Bandura's theory on personality development • Personality traits draw a person to particular environments/situations • These environments and/or situations then strengthen a trait through operant conditioning

Confederates, 75

• Based on the studies of Solomon Asch (1955) • Subjects were assembled into 6-person groups & told they were taking a vision test • They were asked to choose which line (A, B, or C) was the same length as the line on the left and, one by one, publicly state their answer • 5 of the subjects were __________ (research assistants that play a deceptive role in a study) ◦ To deliberately give the incorrect answer; before the actual subject responded • __% of the subjects conformed and gave incorrect answer • Even though they seemed uncomfortable doing so

Depressive Disorders

• Characterized by extreme sadness or an "empty" mood • Changes to thought process and/or physical well being that further affect the ability to function • Maladaptive thoughts & behaviors to lessen/avoid that mood

Attribution theory

• Cognitive techniques used to explain the behaviors of others ◦ Situational cause ◦ Dispositional cause

psychodynamic therapy

• Developed by the Neo-Freudians ◦ Psychologists influenced by Freudian theory; but rejected its more radical elements or extended the theories in more practical directions

Personality Disorders

• Enduring and inflexible personality traits that deviate from cultural standards • These traits cause the individual distress or impair social relationships • Traits must develop in adolescence or early adulthood (They do not result from childhood cognitive development or developing childhood social experiences)

Kitty

• In 1964 _____ Genovese was a victim of a violent assault • 38 witnessed or heard the attack; no one called police; Why? ◦ The Bystander Effect ◦ Diffusion of Responsibility

Humanistic approach to therapy

• Influenced by Carl Rogers (Unit 10) • Emphasized the use of the term "client" over patient ◦ To downplay the idea of the person's having an "illness" • An insight & talk therapy

Psychotherapy

• Influenced by Frued's psychoanalytic approach • Modern therapy emphasizes the role of the unconscious in causing anxiety, etc

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

• Manifests during early childhood development • The disorders are characterized by deficits and/or delays in personal, social and/or academic development

Dissociative Disorders

• Marked by a separation between conscious awareness and past memories, personality and/or identity ◦ Example: Dissociative Identity Disorder ◦ Example: Dissociative Amnesia

Anxiety disorders

• Marked by excessive fear and/or anxiety. • And the maladaptive behaviors to avoid, escape or cope with that fear and/or anxiety

obsessive-compulsive disorder

• Marked by two important symptoms: ◦ Obsessions ◦ Compulsions

Compliance

• Occurs when someone does what is requested or asked of them • Do not confuse with obedience ◦ Occurs when someone does what they are ordered to do

systematic desensitization

• Often used for phobias and anxiety disorders triggered by specific stimuli (locations, etc) • Type of therapy which employs counter-conditioning • The exposure to the trigger of the anxiety is done systematically • The length of time and/or proximity to the trigger is incrementally increased

Compliance techniques

• Strategies used to increase the likelihood someone will comply with a request

group polarization

• Tendency for group discussion (held by people with shared opinions) to cause an individual group member's opinion to become more extreme ◦ May occur during political discussions; religious gatherings

Social inhibition (impairment)

• Tendency for people to perform, unfamiliar tasks, poorly in the presence of others

Social facilitation

• Tendency for people to perform, well-learned tasks, better in the presence of others

Social loafing

• Tendency for people to put forth less effort when in a group working toward a common goal, as compared to an individual effort • Same reward can be achieved with less effort

Halo effect

• Tendency to allow the positive traits, displayed during a FIRST impression, to overly influence our OVERALL impression of a person • Cause: tendency to assume positive/negative personality traits are clustered together ◦ Assuming a kind person is also honest, happy, etc

fundamental attribution error

• Tendency to overestimate the influence of internal personality traits (dispositional causes) and underestimate the role of the situation when assessing someone else's personality

locus of control

• The degree, to which people believe they have control over the outcome of life events ◦ Internal: tendency to attribute outcomes of events to one's own decisions, preparations and talents ◦ External: tendency to attribute outcomes to environment, actions of others, fate/luck

Social Roles

• The expectations, responsibilities, and behaviors we adopt based on the functions we serve in society

Somatic Symptom Disorder

• The experience of physical symptoms (pain, loss of sensation, fatigue) • WITHOUT a neurological or physiological cause ◦ Example: *Conversion Disorder* ◦ Example: *Illness Anxiety Disorder*

Bystander effect

• The greater the number of witnesses to someone in need, the less likely one of them will help

Diffusion of Responsibility

• The responsibility to help a victim is weakened shared (diffused) amongst the group

Conformity (aka normative social influence)

• The tendency for people to adopt the behaviors, beliefs, attitudes of others in a group

Social Psychology

• The ways people's thoughts, emotions, perceptions, motivations, behaviors are impacted by interactions with others

cognitive dissonance

• Theory of Leon Festinger • A state of "mental discomfort" or stress • Occurs when a person's actions are not consistent with their beliefs • People are often motivated to avoid cognitive dissonance; often in illogical/irrational ways

Bipolar and Related Disorders

• alternating week long episodes of Major Depressive Episodes and Manic Episodes

Groupthink

• occurs when people, involved in a group discussion or decision, may change their personal opinions, or fail to consider facts • Because they want to maintain the group's cohesiveness or unity above all else

self-efficacy

•Bandura also theorized that personality traits develop because of a person's sense of ____ _______ ◦ A person's belief in their ability to succeed in a specific situation or to accomplish a specific task ◦ A high/low sense of (same word) influences both motivation and personality ◦ Emphasizes how personality can change in response to a specific situation

Cochlea

"snail-shaped organ" is the site of transduction. it is located in the inner ear

Ernest Weber

(1795-1878) German Physician; researcher at University of Leipzig Along with Wundt; he is considered a leading contributor to experimental psychology Conducted research into human sensation Developed Weber's Law

Edward Thorndike

(1874-1949) American psychologist; conducted research at Columbia University. Developed an apparatus known as a "puzzle box" to conduct experiments on the behavioral learning tendencies of cats. Puzzle box was an enclosure, which cats could escape from, only if they pawed at certain levers in a specific order. His research led to his most important finding; known as the "Law of Effect." It became a foundational concept for operant conditioning.

B.F. Skinner

(1904-1990) American psychologist; conducted research at Harvard University. Designed an apparatus called the Operant Conditioning Chamber (often called "The Skinner Box") to experimentally refine Thorndike's Law of Effect. A 2002 article in the Review of General Psychology (an APA journal) ranked the 100 most influential psychologists; Skinner ranked #1.

John Garcia

(1917-2012) American psychologist that experimentally demonstrated learned taste aversion at the University of California in 1955. Rats were exposed to an irradiated substance (a UCS) and became nauseated afterward (a UCR). This irradiated substance was then paired with a unique taste, a sight and a sound (all Neutral Stimuli). The strongest nausea response resulted from the unique taste; the sight and sound did not produce a strong nausea response.

Avoiding Harm

(APA's Ethical Standards) • Mental or physical stress/harm must be limited, effects are temporary & justifiable

Coercion

(APA's Ethical Standards) • Participant's participation must be voluntary • Researcher cannot use position of authority to force participation

Debriefing

(APA's Ethical Standards) • Participants must be made aware of the purpose and results of a study at its conclusion

Anonymity

(APA's Ethical Standards) • Private participant information (names, address, etc) & study results cannot be released without informed consent

Informed Consent

(APA's Ethical Standards) • Written agreement to partake in the study must be obtained • Participant's must be informed of: ◦ Potential risks ◦ Right to withdraw

Deception

(APA's Ethical Standards) • this about a study's purpose is allowable; when: ◦ It is necessary part of study's design ◦ Participants are made aware at study's conclusion

pons

(Activation-Synthesis theory) What is known as "a dream state generator"

exploration, caregiver

(Ainsworth's 1965 Strange Situation Study) • Two aspects of the child's behavior are observed: 1) The amount of __________ (e.g. playing with new toys) the child engages in during the time period. 2) The child's reactions to the departure and return of his/her _________. • Ainsworth observed three different types of attachment from the children that underwent the strange situation procedure

channel

(Anatomy of the Eye) General function of the eye's anatomy is to ________ light toward the retina.

retina

(Anatomy of the Eye) The ______ is the site of transduction.

Benzodiazepines

(Anxiety Disorder Drug Treatments) • Brand names: Xanax, Valium • Enhances the effectiveness of GABA

Social Anxiety Disorder

(Anxiety Disorders) • Fear of, or anxiety triggered by social interactions ◦ Conversations: meeting unfamiliar people; performing in front of others • Maladaptive behaviors to avoid these interactions

agoraphobia

(Anxiety Disorders) • Fear of, or anxiety triggered by, being unable to escape from or being embarrassed, in public places ◦ Public transportation; being outside the home alone; being in enclosed public places (shops, movie theaters, standing in line) • Maladaptive behaviors to avoid these situations

Specific phobias

(Anxiety Disorders) • intense fear of of anxiety about a specific object or situation (flying, heights, animals, etc) • The fear is "out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the object/situation" • Maladaptive behaviors to avoid object or situation

Panic disorder

(Anxiety Disorders) • Marked by unpredictable & recurrent panic attacks

generalized anxiety disorder

(Anxiety Disorders) • Prolonged and excessive anxiety or worry about varied events, or activities (such as work, school, finances, health, etc.)

Situational cause

(Attribution Theory) assuming someone else's behaviors result from the situations they are in ‣ Assuming someone is late due to unexpected traffic

dispositional cause

(Attribution Theory) assuming someone else's behaviors results from their personality traits ‣ Assuming someone is late due to their irresponsibility or lack of concern for others

Support, severity

(Autism Spectrum Disorder) What criteria would be used to gauge the severity of Autism Spectrum Disorders? • The degree of assistance & ______ the person needs to carry out daily activities • Higher _______ = more substantial support needed

Garcia effect

(Behavioral Approach to Eating Behaviors) Discuss how classical conditioning influences eating behaviors _______ _____ (learned taste aversion) can influence food preferences

Observed

(Behavioral Approach to Eating Behaviors) Discuss how modeling of Bandura's social learning theory influences eating behaviors Eating habits/food preferences of parents, peers, etc. are __________ and imitated (modeling)

Positive, negative

(Behavioral Approach to Eating Behaviors) Discuss how operant conditioning influences eating behaviors (Positive/Negative) reinforcement: pleasant tastes of foods encourage the eating behaviors (Positive/Negative) Reinforcement: food can be used to alleviate stress, boredom Food is often used as a positive reinforcer

depression, trying

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) What mental illness did Seligman believe resulted from learned helplessness? Learned helplessness was the behavioral component of _________. When a person experiences a negative situation, and repeated attempts to end the situation fail, they learn to stop ______.

shuttle box, wall

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) An apparatus called a "________ ____" was used in Phase 2. The box was equipped with a speaker, to deliver the tone from Phase 1. The box was divided into two compartments, the floor of one side could be electrified; the other side could not. A low ____ separated the two compartments; the dogs could jump over the wall to escape the shocks.

not

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) Interpretation of Seligman's Results: Dogs experienced learned helplessness. Dogs learned the shocks were inescapable, so they learned ___ to attempt escape.

2, did not, did not

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) Phase __: Dogs were unharnessed and placed on the side that could be electrified. Dogs (did/did not) jump over the wall when the tone sounded or the shock began, as expected. Dogs (did/did not) attempt escape and endured the shock.

1, tone, shocks

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) Phase __: Study began with the conditioning of dogs Dogs were conditioned with a ____ followed by a painful shock; these dogs were harnessed in place to prevent them from initially escaping the shock (although they attempted to) Seligman's Hypothesis: Dogs would learn the tone was a signal and use it to escape the _____ when they were later unharnessed.

Martin Seligman

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) Born 1942. Researched at University of Pennsylvania. Conducted a1967 study, which investigated how unhealthy behaviors can be learned

Unhealthy

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) Certain behavioral psychologists support the idea that ______ thoughts and behaviors can be learned through classical and operant conditioning (just as good behaviors can be). These learned unhealthy behaviors and thoughts constitute some mental illnesses.

UCS, UCR, N,CS, CR

(Behavioral Learning and Mental Illness) For example: Use classical conditioning concepts to explain how a person suffering from panic attacks, may learn to have their panic attacks triggered by specific location, such as a friend's house. (UCS/UCR/N,CS/CR) person suffers from panic disorder (UCS/UCR/N,CS/CR) fear & anxiety (UCS/UCR/N,CS/CR) friend's house (UCS/UCR/N,CS/CR) fear and anxiety when at friend's house.

retinal (binocular) disparity

(Binocular cues) Each eye/retina has unique angle of view. The right eye "sees" something differently than the left (vice versa). That difference is especially true when an object is close to the viewer. If the left eye and right eye images are very different; the viewed object is perceived as being close. If the left eye and right eye images are very similar; the viewed object is perceived as being far away.

convergence

(Binocular cues) The eyes must converge inward to see an object that is up close. The more the eyes converge inward; the closer the object is to the viewer.

Type A and Type B Personality research

(Biological Approach) • "Type A Behavior and Your Heart", was published in 1974 and written by American cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman • Summarized the research into two broad personality types- Type A & B personality • The two types differed by degrees of competitiveness, levels of ambition, time management techniques and degrees of hostility

Manic episode

(Bipolar and Related Disorders) • Symptoms of a ____ ________ (at least three; lasting at least one week) ◦ Inflated self-esteem it grandiosity ◦ Little need for sleep ◦ Talkativeness ◦ Racing thoughts ◦ Distractibility ◦ Increase in goal-directed activities (work projects, home repairs, school work) ◦ Engaging in impulsive behaviors with a high risk for negative consequences (spending sprees, sexual promiscuity, foolish business investments)

language, parenting

(Bobo Doll Study) The 2001 list of the 100 most influential psychologists (the list that ranked BF Skinner #1) ranked Bandura #4. One of the reasons he is ranked so high, was that his Bobo studies have inspired other researchers to apply his theories and methods; what other applications does Bandura's research have? If you can model aggressive behavior, you can model other behaviors like learning a new _______. This has inspired a lot of research for violent video games, movies, television shows. This could also help with ________.

violent, video

(Bobo Doll Study) The research participants were prescreened before their participation in the study; what do you think the pre-screening was intended to identify? How could this factor become a confounding variable in the study? They were prescreened for any _____ tendencies that have been shown in the past. This was done because the child would've had done aggressive behaviors without even seeing the _____ so beats the purpose of the experiment.

guns, violent

(Bobo Doll Study) When Bandura's study was published, some other researchers criticized his use of the Bobo doll toy as the key piece of equipment used to measure aggression; what was the source of their criticism? What results could Bandura use to respond to this criticism? Ethical issues like how kids could be more aggressive in their lifetime because of this experiment. The toy is supposed to be played like that. The kids in the experimental group were also using the ____ and were more violent than those in the control group. They also used toys that weren't meant to be used as a violent toy. Lack of consequence when doing the ______ act.

Data driven processing

(Bottom up processing) When there is no prior knowledge about what an image is supposed to be. Perception must begin with the image's individual elements ("the data")

16 Personality Factors Theory

(Catell) There are 16 source traits found in all people They exist, to varying degrees, in each individual

Factor analysis

(Catell) a statistical technique used to identify commonalities in numerical data

High

(Causes & Treatments of Bipolar Disorder) • concordance rates are ____ ◦ 60-70% for monozygotic twins

Unknown

(Causes & Treatments of Bipolar Disorder) What is the exact cause of bipolar disorder?

Not

(Causes & Treatments of Bipolar Disorder) • Antidepressants alone are ___ effective ◦ Some studies show they may turn depressive episodes into manic episodes; increase the alteration between mania and depression or increase suicidal thoughts ◦ Treated with mood-stabilizers (Lithium, Depakote)

Cognitive Approach

(Causes of Depression) • Beck's Cognitive Triad • Developed in 1976 by Depression Specialist Aaron Beck ◦ Depressed individuals have irrational and pessimistic thought process leads them to negative thoughts about three key elements ‣ Themselves ‣ The world ‣ The future

Cognitive-Behavioral Cycle of Depression

(Causes of Depression) • Cognitive: Certain people have a *pessimistic explanatory style* and tend to blame themselves for negative events and believe these negative events will continue indefinitely • Person performs maladaptive behaviors as coping mechanisms ◦ Substance abuse, social isolation which leads to... ‣career issues, poor health and/or relationships • Behavioral: negative consequences of these behaviors reinforces the pessimism.

Behavioral Approach

(Causes of Depression) • Learned helplessness; tested by Martin Seligman, 1967 (see Unit 6)

Neurotransmitter abnormalities

(Causes of Depression) • low levels of serotonin

hypocretin

(Causes of Narcolepsy) Narcolepsy linked to low levels of what? It regulates transition between sleep/wake states

Dopamine Hypothesis

(Causes of Schizophrenia) What is the hypothesis name? Schizophrenia has been linked to overactive dopamine receptors located in two specific parts of the brain. -prefrontal cortex (impairs judgements, reasoning, etc) -sensory regions- visual cortex and auditory cortex (causes hallucinations)

High Concordance Rates

(Causes of Schizophrenia) ____ ____________ ____ -The probability that a pair of individual's (usually twins) will each develop a disease -Sign of genetic heritability

Ventricles

(Causes of Schizophrenia) Correlated with enlarged _________ (the cerebro-spinal fluid filled cavities in cerebral cortex)

Behavioral, negative

(Causes of obsessive-compulsive disorder) _________ Approach: Use the concept of _________ reinforcement to explain how the compulsive behaviors of OCD would persist • Compulsive behaviors are encouraged because they end the unpleasant obsessive thoughts

Extinction

(Classical conditioning concepts) aka the extinguishing of the CR; the weakening and the eventual disappearance of a CR

Stimulus generalization

(Classical conditioning concepts) tendency for a stimulus, similar to the CS, to produce a CR

stimulus discrimination

(Classical conditioning concepts) the LEARNED ability to distinguish between one stimulus and other similar stimuli. Occurs when a stimulus, similar to a CS, is present but is not paired with the UCS

Edward Tolman

(Cognitive Behavioral Views of Operant Conditioning) American cognitive-behavioral psychologist. Developed a school of thought, within behavioral psychology, called Purposive Behaviorism. He conducted a study in 1930 to show the effects cognition had on behavioral learning. Study involved rats, being operantly conditioned to run a maze.

Wolfgang Kohler

(Cognitive Behavioral Views of Operant Conditioning) German psychologist. 1887-1967. His 1924 study, involving the reinforcement of chimpanzee behaviors, challenged Thorndike's Law of Effect. He studied chimpanzees in an enclosed space, with food reinforcement placed out of reach. Chimps used tools and developed innovative cooperative behaviors to the reach food. Learning was NOT due to trial and error, as demonstrated in Thorndike's puzzle box cats. Chimps were displaying insight learning. Results showed that learning had occurred (the behaviors had changed)

Lev Vygotsky

(Cognitive Development) Russian Development psychologist. His theories on cognitive development contrast with Piaget's theories. He theorized that social interaction could foster cognitive development.

intensity, attention, stimulus

(Cognitive Factors and the Ability to Detect Stimuli) The ability to detect a stimulus depends on: The ________ of the stimulus (does it reach threshold?) Selective attention factors (are there other stimuli in the environment competing for __________?) The emotional state, expectations of and decision making processes of the person detecting the _________(signal detection theory)

past, timing

(Cognitive-Behavioral Views of Classical Conditioning) Critics of Pavlov's and Watson's research argued that it failed to account for the role cognitive processes played in classical conditioning The cognitive-behavioral view develops as a result: Behaviors are learned through ____ experiences Cognitive process affect the quality and ______ of the learning process.

suppressing, conscious

(Cognitive-Behavioral Views of Classical Conditioning) How was the spontaneous recovery, of the extinguished salivation response observed in Pavlov's dogs, an example of the cognitive-behavioral view? The dogs were ________ their salivation response. This suppression required ________ awareness (a cognitive process)

Reciprocity norm

(Compliance Techniques) • A social norm that dictates that someone should help you; when you have previously helped them

Door in the face strategy

(Compliance Techniques) • After refusing a large request people may be more likely to comply with a smaller request later on

Foot in the door strategy

(Compliance Techniques) • People that have complied, with a small request, in the past, are likely to comply with a larger request later on

Superego

(Components of the Psyche) It drives a person to maintain ideal social & moral behavior and drives a person toward their ego ideal

Ego

(Components of the Psyche) It seeks to satisfy id, in a socially acceptable way and operates on the reality principle.

Id

(Components of the Psyche) The part of us that seeks immediate gratification of our impulses. It is operated on the pleasure principle.

Conservation

(Concrete Operations Milestones) an understanding that the sizes/amounts of objects remain the same after they have been rearranged

Seriation

(Concrete Operations Milestones) the ability to sort objects by size, shape, color, etc

Asch Effect

(Conformity) • A majority opinion, or perspective, can lead other people to conform, despite being uncomfortable in doing so

serially

(Conscious Awareness) How are most conscious thought processed?

once

(Conscious Awareness) Thoughts, that require conscious awareness, occur how many times?

activation-information-mode model (AIM)

(Contemporary Dream Theories) A 2000 update, by James Hobson, to his Activation-Synthesis Theory. Like older theory- pons produces erratic neural activity during REM stage. This then acitvates regions of cerebral cortex most recently active during the storage of signifcant information or emotional events. Explains dreams with meaningful content.

Activation-Synthesis theory

(Contemporary Dream Theories) Aka Hobson-McCarley Theory; theory is based on studies done by James Hobson and Robert McCarley, 1977. Neurons of the pons erratically produce impulses during REM sleep. These impulses activate random regions of the cerebral cortex, causing a wide range of thoughts and sensations. Theory explains the random nature of dreams.

signal

(Contiguity vs Contingency Models of Classical Conditioning) How does the contingency model demonstrate a cognitive-behavioral view of classical conditioning? Salient stimuli are interpreted as a _____ & predict an event.

Rescorla-Wagner Model

(Contiguity vs Contingency Models of Classical Conditioning) The contingency model of classical conditioning is sometimes referred to as the _________-_________ ____ because of research done by Robert Rescorla and Allen Wagner at Yale and the University of Pennsylvania in 1972.

Consequence

(Continuous Reinforcement & Partial Reinforcement) When should each be used to ensure the most effective learning? Continuous reinforcement first to establish association between behavior and ____________. Then switch to partial reinforcement-because of the PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT EFFECT.

Stage 3

(Conventional) (Stage 3/4) Interpersonal concordance orientation: Doing what is right according to the majority to be a good boy/girl.

Stage 4

(Conventional) (Stage 3/4) Law and order orientation: Doing what is right because it is your duty and helps society.

Carol Gilligan

(Criticisms of Kohlberg) Moral thought does not always lead to moral action. Theories of _____ ________ (b. 1936): American social psychologist & worked as Kohlberg's research assistant. Critical of Kohlberg's theories. She theorized men and women have different perspectives on morality. Women prioritize maintaining balanced relationships (limiting women to conventional morality level in Kohlberg's stages)

Universal, fit

(DSM issues) Positives of: provides a ________ language to be used by professionals involved with mental health care Negative of: tendency to ___ a person into a diagnosis, based on DSM criteria alone

Cognitive, Genetic, Socio-cultural

(DSM's "Risk Factors" for eating disorder development) (Cognitive/Genetic/Socio-cultural)- Abnormal eating behaviors become a coping mechanism for anxiety and obsessive thinking (begins in childhood) (Cognitive/Genetic/Socio-cultural)- Eating disorders have high concordance rates for monozygotic twins (Cognitive/Genetic/Socio-cultural)- Most prevalent in industrialized; high income nations; media emphasis on body image motivates abnormal eating habits

Sublimation

(Defense mechanism) Acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially acceptable way

Intellectualization

(Defense mechanism) Avoiding negative emotions by focusing on the detail-oriented or mundane aspects of a situation

Regression

(Defense mechanism) Returning to a previous stage of development

Projection

(Defense mechanism) Seeking out, or reacting to, the unacceptable features in yourself when observed in someone else

Repression

(Defense mechanism) Some thoughts or memories may be so anxiety provoking they are pulled down into the unconscious so they can no longer be recalled (happens without conscious awareness)

Denial

(Defense mechanism) Stating or believing that an anxiety producing stimulus does not exist

Displacement

(Defense mechanism) Taking out negative feelings on a less threatening target

Reaction formation

(Defense mechanism) Taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes anxiety

Suppression

(Defense mechanism) Trying not to think about an unpleasant thought or memory (happens with conscious awareness)

Rioting, cheering

(Deindividuation) During what social situations is deindividuation likely to occur? • _______/looting (deindividuation is aka the mob mentality) • Group bullying, targeting a single person • ________/applauding while a member of an audience

Cognitive Therapy

(Depression Therapies) • Developed by American psychiatrist Aaron Beck (b. 1921) • Depression can result from illogical and/or distorted perceptions • Person works with therapist to identify these irrational thoughts and reverse them

Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT)

(Depression Therapies) • Developed by American psychiatrist Albert Ellis (1913-2007) • Therapist challenges person to realize anxiety/depression may be rooted in irrational beliefs ◦ Overly high expectations ◦ Over-reactions to setbacks • Person is encouraged to positively reinforce their own, more positive thinking

Electro convulsive therapy (ECT)

(Depression Treatments) • Low voltage electrical current administered unilaterally (to one hemisphere) or biologically (both hemispheres) • Highly effective in treating depression that has not responded to anti-depressants

Anti-depressant medications

(Depression Treatments) • Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (Zoloft, Prozac) maintain higher serotonin levels • MAOI's- inhibits enzymes that breakdown serotonin

Light Therapy

(Depression Treatments) • Used for Depression with Seasonal Pattern • "light box" that stimulates natural sunlight (without the UV risks) • Effective when used in combination with anti-depressants

Binocular cues

(Depth Perception) Visual information that can only be detected with both eyes

Monocular cues

(Depth Perception) Visual information, needed to perceive depth, that can be detected by one eye. When it is used, the brain unconsciously contrasts the images, detected in the visual field, to perceive depth.

prenatal

(Development & Health) Unhealthy development may begin in what period?

Diathesis

(Diathesis or Stress) A biological or genetic predisposition for a personality trait, the development of an illness etc may exist.

Stress

(Diathesis or Stress) An environmental factor must be present to trigger that disposition.

Dissociative Amnesia

(Dissociative Disorders) • Memory loss of a traumatic event; NOT resulting from neurological damage

Dissociative Identity Disorder

(Dissociative Disorders) • Subject exhibits two or more distinct personality types: "alters" and an original (host) personality ◦ Conscious awareness and behaviors are directed by one personality at a time

Speech, muscle, environment

(Down Syndrome) Delayed physical development can contribute to the intellectual delays. Large size of tongue delays _______ development. Poor ______ tone and delayed growth delays crawling and walking. This delays exploration and interaction with the ____________ (necessary for cognitive development).

secondary reinforcers

(Drive Reduction Theory) Although the drive-reduction theory explains the motivation for biological behaviors (eating, drinking, seeking shelter); Hull believed it could be used to explain "non-biological" behaviors. Use operant conditioning terms and the drive-reduction theory to explain why a person may be motivated to go to work. 2. People are motivated to obtain ________ ___________ (money) to be used for primary reinforcers (food, water, shelter)

Negative reinforcement

(Drive Reduction Theory) The drive-reduction theory was developed by American psychologist Clark Hull in 1943. His theory is recognized as the first formal theory of motivation. Clark followed a behavioral approach to psychology. Use operant conditioning terms to explain how the drive reduction theory works. 1. ________ ______________- the reduction of discomfort (thirst, hunger, etc) encourages drinking, eating behaviors

Not

(Drive Reduction Theory) What types of behaviors cannot be explained by the drive-reduction theory? 3. Theory does ___ account for behaviors that contribute to discomfort; risky/dangerous/thrill seeking behaviors

Self-reference effect

(Effects of meaning on memory) Information with personal significance, and/or related to personal experience, is most accurately encoded and recalled.

Chunking

(Effects of meaning on memory) The grouping of multiple pieces of information, with a shared meaning, into a single group (a chunk). Each chunk is encoded and recalled as a single unit, increasing memory capacity

J-L, C-B, S-S

(Emotion Theory Comparison) Apply the three theories and explain the emotional response of a person that is walking into their own surprise party: • (J-L, C-B, S-S):We experience the sudden increase in heart rate, startle response, etc.: mind labels that as surprise • (J-L, C-B, S-S): the physiological aspects of surprise and the sensation of surprise occur simultaneously • (J-L, C-B, S-S): physiological changes occur first; we know we are at an occasion where surprise is expected, we see others displaying positive facial expressions

Stage 5

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Adolescence- Age 12 to 18 Crisis: Identity vs Role Confusion Description: This is the time when we ask the question "Who am I?" To successfully answer this question, Erikson suggests, the adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts. Did we develop the basic sense of trust? Do we have a strong sense of independence, competence, and feel in control of our lives? Adolescents who have successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the "Identity Crisis", which is considered by Erikson as the single most significant conflict a person must face. Positive outcome: If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, he will come out of this stage with a strong identity, and ready to plan for the future. Negative outcome: If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices, especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and his role in life in general.

Stage 3

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Early Childhood- Age 2 to 6 Crisis: Initiative vs Guilt Description: Children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become more and more engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must learn to achieve a balance between eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies. Positive outcome: If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept without guilt, that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel shame when using their imagination and engaging in make-believe role plays. Negative outcome: If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be independent.

Stage 4

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Elementary and Middle School Years- Age 6 to 12 Crisis: Competence (aka "Industry) vs Inferiority Description: School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. And they do all these while making the transition from the world of home into the world of peers. Positive outcome: If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they will develop a sense of competence. Negative outcome: If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.

Stage 1

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Infancy- Age 0 to 1 Crisis: Trust vs Mistrust Description: In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore must be able to blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those. Positive outcome: If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants not only will develop a secure attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in general as well. Negative outcome: If not, infant will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even towards themselves.

Stage 8

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Late Adulthood- Age 65 to death Crisis: Integrity vs Despair Description: Late adulthood is a time for reflecting upon one's own life and seeing it filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointments and failures. Positive outcome: If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within himself and with others, he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the healthy adult will not fear death. Negative outcome: If not, the individual will despair and fear death.

Stage 7

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Middle Adulthood- Age 40 to 65 Crisis: Generativity vs Stagnation Description: By "generativity" Erikson refers to the adult's ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as much as children need adults, and that this stage reflects the need to create a living legacy. Positive outcome: People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next generation in other ways. Negative outcome: If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience stagnation later in life.

Stage 2

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Toddler- Age 1 to 2 Crisis: Autonomy (Independence) vs Doubt (Shame) Description: Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-confidence begins to develop at this stage. Positive outcome: If parents encourage their child's use of initiative and reassure her when she makes mistakes, the child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and independence. Negative outcome: If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child's acts of independence, she may begin to feel ashamed of her behavior, or have too much doubt of her abilities.

Stage 6

(Erikson's stages of psychosocial development) Young Adulthood- Age 19 to 40 Crisis: Intimacy vs Isolation Description: In this stage, the most important events are intimate & committed relationships. No matter how successful you are with your work, said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy. An individual who has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation. Positive outcome: Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense of identity. Negative outcome: If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and unable to depend on anybody in the world.

Pregnancy health

(Example of Primary Prevention) Prenatal vitamins containing folic acid can prevent the birth defect spina bifida. The abnormal development of the spinal cord & vertebrae.

Neonatal screening

(Example of Primary Prevention) Screening test given within 24 hours from birth, can identify presence or Phenylketonuria (PKU). Inability to metabolize certain amino acids; causes abnormal nervous system development. Disorder is prevented with neonatal dietary changes

Target behavior

(Example of Shaping a service dog's behavior) First a complex "_____ _________" is selected (ex: training the dog to turn on a light switch). The complex target behavior is then broken down into successive approximations

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

(Example of Teratogen) Developmental disorder caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Results in a wide range of physical abnormalities (see diagram). Intellectual disabilities may develop (poor memory, reasoning, low IQ). Deficiencies in adaptive behaviors.

Rosenthal-Jacobson Study

(Example of self-fulfilling prophecy) • California elementary school teachers were told some of their students were "intellectually gifted" and had genius level IQ scores; they were actually average students • The teachers changed their teaching methods, based on their assumptions and the students test scores improved

Lab experiments

(Experiment's Location) ___ ____________ are conducted in a controlled environment.

field experiments

(Experiment's Location) _____ ____________ are conducted in an actual, "real world" environments (similar to those naturalistic observations would be conducted in)

unhealthy, poverty, biological

(Extremes of Intelligence) Causes of Intellectual Disability ________ living conditions can affect brain development -Ex: lead poisoning from eating paint chips Factors result in inadequate brain development/health risks associated with ________ -Ex: malnutrition, lack of healthcare _______ include Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, fragile X syndrome Others: lack of oxygen at birth, damage to the fetus or child from diseases

IQ, 18, adaptive

(Extremes of Intelligence) Diagnosis of Intellectual Disability Previous DSM relied heavily on __ tests and must be prior to __ years old. New DSM bases on level of _________ functioning and level of support the individual requires. -Determined by standardized tests of intelligence and clinical assessment -Removes age criteria, but must be in developmental period

intellectual disability

(Extremes of Intelligence) Formerly mental retardation Neurodevelopmental disorder occurring 1% of population -Deficit in mental abilities (2 SD below the mean) -Adaptive behavior severely below person's age -Begin in developmental age

Brain

(Eye Anatomy & Visual Processes) Certain visual experiences result from the anatomical features of the eye and not perceptions occurring in the ____.

Anal fixation

(Fixations) Anal retentive (orderly, overly organized) Anal expulsive (lacking self control; disorganized) Toilet training

Phallic fixations

(Fixations) Gender confusion, promiscuity or asexuality

Oral fixation

(Fixations) Highly dependent; talkative; verbally abusive; gluttonous Breast feeding

Forgetting curve

(Forgetting) Ebbinghaus noted a trend in the rate at which he forgot information. A large amount of information is forgotten soon after it is memorized. The rate of forgetting eventually declines.

transience

(Forgetting) This forgetting was due to what? It is the decreased accessibility of memories over time.

unhealthy, stuck, shape

(Freud's psychosexual stages of development) If the libido is over- or under- satisfied during the first three stages a FIXATION could occur: An _________ attachment to one of the erogenous zones. Causes the person to remain "______" at that developmental stage. Fixations would then _____ personality traits into adulthood.

libido, erogenous zone

(Freud's psychosexual stages of development) One of the strongest unconscious impulses was the ______ (the sex drive). Freud theorized that the drive to satisfy our libido shaped our personalities and behaviors; beginning in infancy. Stimulation specific areas of the body (called ___________ ____) satisfied our libido. Each stage of development was marked by a unique erogenous zone used to satisfy the libido.

Resistance

(General Adaptation Syndrome) Stage 2: ______________ Selye compared the body, in the resistance phase, to a branch being bent by the force of our two hands. Like the branch, the body will temporarily bend in response to the stressor. If a stressors persists for a period of weeks, then original fight/flight responses are diminished and adrenal glands secrete the hormone cortisol

Exhaustion

(General Adaptation Syndrome) Stage 3: ___________ Selye compared the body, in the exhaustion phase, to the branch that has broken under force of our hands pressing on either end. If the resources, of resistance stage, are depleted due to a persistent stressor: alarm stage symptoms reappear, Abnormally high levels of adrenaline can (in the long term) lead to cardiovascular disease, and Abnormally high levels of cortisol will suppress the immune system, potentially leading to a "disease of adaptation"

Alarm stage

(General Adaptation Syndrome) Stage 1: ______ ______ Initial encounter with the stressor activates the fight or flight response. Physiological changes to deal with stressor in the short-term. If stressor persists; person moves onto second stage.

Longer, more

(Generalized Anxiety Disorder) What makes "generalized" anxiety different from the anxiety during panic disorder? • The anxiety is (longer/shorter) in duration and (more/less) pervasive than a panic attack ◦ DSM V- Anxiety occurs "more days than not" for at least 6 months

140

(Giftedness) IQ Scores constitute giftedness Above an IQ of 130 Falls above ___ to 145

longitudinal

(Giftedness) Lewis Terman Effect on Views of Gifted People Selected 1,528 children to participate in __________ study (IQ score 130-200) -socially well; skilled leaders; above average height, weight, physical looks; resistant to mental illness

successfully

(Giftedness) Zuo and Cramond Found most of the most successful "Termites" were (unsuccessfully/successfully) achieved

Experimental Group

(Groups of Subjects) The group of subjects test with changes made to the independent variable. The can be multiple because an experiment can have more than one IV.

Control Group

(Groups of Subjects) These subjects are not involved in IV conditions, but only have the measurements, related to the DV, taken

Spoiled

(Gustatory Sense (Taste)) What gustatory abilities do infants have? (hint: think of the four basic eating mechanisms) Neonates have the ability to monitor food quality; protecting them from ingesting _________ foods

18

(Harlow's 1958 Study Results) • infant monkeys averaged __ hrs/day with the cloth mother; 1 hr/day with nursing-wire mother • Harlow stated the attachment formed because of contact comfort

Mary Ainsworth

(Human Attachment) American Developmental Psychologist. She designed the strange situation procedure to identify the types of attachments that form between child & mother (caregiver)

Carl Rogers

(Humanism Theories) 1902-1987 American Clinical Psychologist. Along with Abraham Maslow, he is considered one of the founders of the Humanistic approach to psychology. He took the principles of humanism and applied them to therapeutic techniques. He used the term fully functioning person.

conditioned positive regard

(Humanism theories of Carl Rogers) ◦ Positive regard provided ONLY when the child meets parental expectations ◦ Leads to anxiety ‣ Not always ◦ A low sense of self worth ‣ Belief that a person is not deserving of the good things that happen to them

unconditional positive regard

(Humanism theories of Carl Rogers) Positive regard provided whether or not the child meets the parent's expectations

Positive regard

(Humanism theories of Carl Rogers) Rogers theorized that parent's stance on __________ _____ could effect their child's self concept and their growth as a fully functioning person. Love attention, affection provided by parents for their children.

non-directive therapy

(Humanistic Approach to Therapy) • A contrast to psychotherapy • Clients will determine the course of the dialogue and what they wish to focus on • This is meant to promote self-actualization

reflective listening

(Humanistic Approach to Therapy) • A verbal technique used to show an understanding of, and empathy for, the client • Statements like "So what you are saying is..."; "If I understand you correctly..."

Person (Client) Centered therapy

(Humanistic Approach to Therapy) • Some cases of anxiety, depression, conflict, etc. stems from lack of a supportive environment ◦ Environments with conditional positive regard ◦ Therapist should provide empathy and a supportive non-judgmental environment for the client

Hyperopia

(Hyperopia & Myopia) Far Sightedness and poor visual acuity for objects close to viewer

Myopia

(Hyperopia & Myopia) Near Sightedness and poor visual acuity for objects far from viewer

not, impossible

(IQ Tests and Cultural Bias) People raised in a different culture/economic situation from the people designing an IQ test are ___ likely to perform well. It is (impossible/possible) to create a test that is cultural bias free

culturally fair

(IQ Tests and Cultural Bias) Use questions that doesn't create disadvantage Ex: nonverbal abilities (rotating object)

cultural bias

(IQ Tests and Cultural Bias) tendency of IQ tests to reflect in language, dialect, and content, the culture of the person who designed test

pleasure principle

(Id) the instinctual drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain

More, better

(Incentive Motivation Theory) Besides salary, what other incentives are used to motivate productive workplace behaviors? • Health benefits, (more/less) vacation-time, access to (better/worst) facilities/equipment, exemption from menial tasks (all are primarily extrinsic)

need

(Incentive Motivation Theory) Use a cognitive-behavioral approach to explain why some incentives are more effective than others? • Personal preferences and the ____ for an incentive effect its ability to motivate

Irrational

(Indicators of Clinically Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts) behavior/thought (and its cause) is an extreme violation of social & cultural norms and continues despite evidence showing its irrational

Distress

(Indicators of Clinically Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts) behavior/thought causes prolonged and/or elevated levels of anxiety, fear, sadness, etc.

Maladaptive

(Indicators of Clinically Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts) behavior/thought interferes with daily living, achievement of personal goals or physical health

Statistically rare

(Indicators of Clinically Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts) behavior/thought is not commonly observed in the larger population

persistent

(Indicators of Clinically Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts) behavior/thought lasts beyond an acceptable & expected time frame

Increasing

(Interactions between Propinquity Effect & Similarity attraction) Explain how the similarity-attraction and propinquity effects interact: • Similar people, engage in similar activities, (decreasing/increasing) the likelihood they will be around each other frequently

Retroactive interference

(Interference theory) Newly memorized information disrupts the ability to recall older memories. When trying to recall a definition from Unit 1, definitions from Unit 7 come to mind.

Proactive interference

(Interference theory) Older memories information disrupts the ability to recall newly learned information. An older password keeps coming to mind when trying to recall a new one.

three, two

(Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development) According to Kohlberg: We progress through ______ levels of morality; each with ___ sub-stages. We progress through them in order and the reasoning of the new stage replaces the reasoning of the previous stage. Not everyone will progress all three.

Post Conventional

(Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development) 10% of adults; universal moral principles & personal conscience take precedence over society's views and laws.

Conventional

(Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development) Adolescents & adults; moral reasoning is influenced by society's expectations.

Pre-conventional

(Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development) Children up to age 10; morality is based on rules & consequences set by adults.

UCS

(Learned Taste Aversion) Identify the classical conditioning elements of this classical conditioning scenario (UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR). Bacteria in spoiled food; coincidental illness

UCR

(Learned Taste Aversion) Identify the classical conditioning elements of this classical conditioning scenario (UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR). Nausea because of bacteria or illness

N/CS

(Learned Taste Aversion) Identify the classical conditioning elements of this classical conditioning scenario (UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR). Smell or taste of the food eating at time of illness

CR

(Learned Taste Aversion) Identify the classical conditioning elements of this classical conditioning scenario (UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR). Nausea at smell of taste of the food.

13

(Lorenz's 1936 Imprinting Study Interpretation of Results) Imprinting ensures newborns attach to mother for safety & nourishment. Demonstrates there is a critical period for healthy development. After __ hour period without the mother (or a replacement) geese would not imprint.

2 week

(Major Depressive Disorder) According to the DSM V; how long must these two symptoms persist before a diagnosis may be considered? • Both must be present for a _ ____ period

Three, loss

(Major Depressive Disorder) _______ other symptoms must be present in that same time period; What other thoughts and/or changes in physical well being may occur during MDD? • Weight ____ or gain • Insomnia or hypersomnia • Fatigue • Excessive guilt or feeling of worthlessness • Difficulty concentrating • Contemplation of Suicide/recurrent thoughts about death

major depressive disorder with a seasonal pattern

(Major Depressive Disorder) • Appearance and remission of symptoms coincides with a particular time of the year (onset in fall or winter; with remission in the spring)

Secure Attachment

(Mary Ainsworth's Attachment Types) 66% of children in Ainsworth's original study showed this type of attachment. Shows some distress when their caregiver leaves. Soothed by caregivers return. Feels protected by caregiver as they explored the unfamiliar.

insecure attachment-avoidant type

(Mary Ainsworth's Attachment Types) Child had minimal interaction with parent while exploring the unfamiliar. Child avoids caregiver's attempt to provide comfort after separation.

Insecure attachment-ambivalent type

(Mary Ainsworth's Attachment Types) Child shows clingy and dependent behavior with caregiver; even before separation. Child seeks caregiver's comfort when upset; shows signs of resentment at separation. Child both seeks caregiver's comfort and shows signs of resentment after separation.

needs, insecure

(Mary Ainsworth's Attachment Types) What causes these types of attachment to develop? Ainsworth proposed the caregiver sensitivity hypothesis. Secure attachments develop when caregivers are consistently responsive to their children's appropriate _____. Inconsistencies in responsiveness lead to _______ attachments.

Wechsler Tests

(Measuring Intelligence) David Wechsler First to devise a series of tests designed for specific age groups. Developed an IQ test specifically for adults then for older school/ pre school age children (WAIS-IV, WISC-IV, WPPSI-IV) Used more frequently than Stanford-Binet WISC-IV and WAIS-IV organize items into four index scales: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed

Stanford-Binet and IQ

(Measuring Intelligence) Lewis Terman He adopted Stern's method for comparing mental age and chronological age for use with the revised Binet Test This allows testers to compare the intelligence levels of people, although IQ scores start to become meaningless as a person's chronological age passes 16. Most intelligence tests today use age-group comparison norms. SB5 is used by educators to make decisions about placing students in special ed programs. Scores are based on 5 primary areas of cognitive ability: fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory

Francis Galton

(Measuring Intelligence) Who was the first to use surveys to collect data and initiated the use of statistics and standardization to review his results?

Interposition (overlap)

(Monocular cues) An object of obstructing the view of another is perceived as being closer.

Texture Gradient

(Monocular cues) Objects closer to the viewer are seen with greater detail than those further away. Due to aerial (atmospheric) perspective- water vapor/pollutants obscure distant objects

Linear perspective

(Monocular cues) Parallel lines appear to converge at greater distances

relative size

(Monocular cues) Smaller images are perceived as being further away; larger images as closer

The motion parallax

(Monocular cues) While the viewer is moving; closer objects appear to move more quickly through the visual field than distant objects

Lawrence Kohlberg

(Moral Development) Research of who? American Developmental Psychologist. Theorized that moral reasoning (the ability to make decisions about what is right and wrong) develops and becomes more advanced with age. His theories were heavily influenced by Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development.

feature detectors

(Motion Perception) What of the visual cortex detects the rate which an image expands?

Beta movement

(Motion perception) Alternating still images, rapidly shown and then removed, are perceived as being in motion.

phi phenomenon

(Motion perception) Phi effect; still images illuminated in rapid successsion are perceived as being in motion.

Alfred Kinsey

(Motivation for Sexual Behaviors) Research of who? (1894-1956) American biologist and entomologist. Throughout the 1940'-50's he used standardized interviews and​ questionnaires to gather data about the personal sexual behaviors & sexual histories of middle class Americans. Summarized and published his findings in the form of two books (collectively known as "The Kinsey Reports"): Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953). Founded the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction

Kinsey Scale

(Motivation for Sexual Behaviors) The Kinsey Reports included the "_______ ____". Rating scale used to describe a person's sexual orientation, based on their experiences and interview responses. Emphasized that sexual orientation/behaviors are malleable and subject to change.

Cataplexy

(Narcolepsy) Sudden loss of muscle tone; often triggered by strong emotions

Nature

(Nature vs Nurture) Behavior results from genetically inherited brain structure/chemistry and/or inborn abilities shaped by evolution. (BORN)

Nurture

(Nature vs Nurture) Behaviors are learned through societal and familial experiences. (LEARN)

Twin and Adoption studies

(Nature/Nurture Controversy Regarding Intelligence) Genetically identical twins show that environment must play a part in some aspects of intelligence (correlation of 0.86) Environmental influences tend not to be a factor by adolescence Heritability of intelligence might be 0.91 by age 65

Flynn effect

(Nature/Nurture Controversy Regarding Intelligence) IQ scores are steadily increasing over time, from generation to generation, in modernized countries

Heritability

(Nature/Nurture Controversy Regarding Intelligence) Proportion of change in IQ within a population that is caused by genetic factors

Food, motor, evolution, absence

(Neonatal Reflexes) What seems to be the general purpose of these reflexes? Some are ____-finding reflexes (ex: sucking; rooting) Some will integrate into more complex ______-movements, like walking, later on (example: stepping; Galant) Some had a purpose at an earlier stage of ___________ (ex: Moro helped infants cling to their mothers) Although not the natural purpose, they are used diagnostically __________ of the reflexes can be used to assess abnormal development

Infancy

(Neonatal period & infancy) 1 month to 1 year

Neonatal period

(Neonatal period & infancy) birth to 1 month

Autism Spectrum Disorder

(Neurodevelopmental Disorders) • Deficits in social communication and interaction (See Diagnostic Criteria A) • Repetitive behavior patterns or restrictive interests and activities (see Diagnostic Criteria B)

multiple

(Non-conscious process) How many non-conscious functions can occur simultaneously?

parallel

(Non-conscious process) Most non-conscious processes are processed how?

Obsessions

(Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder) • Recurring and persistent, intrusive thoughts and urges ◦ Example: feeling contaminated by germs

Compulsions

(Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder) • Repetitive and/or ritualized maladaptive behaviors to lessen the anxiety of an obsession ◦ Examples: Time consuming, ritualized and excessive hand washing

Nourishment, cupboard

(Olfactory Sense (Smell) & Auditory Sense) Although limited in their range, neonatal sensory abilities "guide" the infant towards an attachment with their mother. From a strictly evolutionary perspective, why is the formation of this attachment important? A rapid attachment to the mother, increases chances of survival because she provides ____________. This is the basis of an outdated approach to infantile attachment called the _________ theory.

Delayed reinforcement

(Operant Conditioning Concepts) Occurs when a significant amount of time passes between the performance of a behavior and reinforcement. Effective when the quality of the reinforcer increases with time. Example: dieting behaviors, training programs, higher education degrees

immediate reinforcement

(Operant Conditioning Concepts) Reinforcement given immediately after a target behavior is performed. Establishes the cognitive association between the behavior & it's consequence

primary reinforcers

(Operant Conditioning Concepts) Reinforcement that satisfies biological or emotional needs. Food, praise, recognition

Secondary reinforcers

(Operant Conditioning Concepts) Reinforces exchanged for, or associated with, primary reinforces. Money, awards, trophies. Aka conditioned reinforces. Through classical conditioning they may be CS, that evoke a CR.

Instinctual Drift

(Operant Conditioning Concepts) The tendency for instinctual behaviors to be resistant to operant conditioning. Tendency for an operantly conditioned animals to "drift" back to the influence of instinct.

Shaping

(Operant Conditioning Concepts) Used to operantly condition complex/multi-step behaviors. Frequently used to teach service dogs to perform complex behaviors.

maladaptive behaviors

(Panic Disorder) What are two other symptoms, of Panic Disorder, that are related to the panic attack experience? • Anticipatory Anxiety • ___________ __________ to avoid having another (avoiding environments where they have occurred)

Panic attack

(Panic Disorder) • an intense and abrupt surge of fear or discomfort; including accelerated heart rate, sweating, dizziness, chest pains, shortness of breath, etc.

anticipatory anxiety

(Panic Disorder) • persistent worry about when/where next attack will occur

Parapsychology

(Parapsychology & perception) The study of psychological phenomenon that cannot be scientifcally validated. For example: the study of Extrasensory Perception- perception beyond normal sensory capabilites (telepathy, clairvoyance (ability to predict future events))

Diana Baumrind

(Parenting Styles) • Researched by (1927-2018); American Developmental Psychologist • Her research involved conducting interviews with, and naturalistic observation of, parents interacting with their children • In 1967 she published a summary of her observations, in which she identified three parenting styles often used by parents

Authoritarian, Involved

(Parenting Styles) What impact do you believe each of these styles would have on the development of these children: 1. Who would rate highest? Lowest?

Permissive

(Parenting Styles) What impact do you believe each of these styles would have on the development of these children: 3. Which children had the greatest difficulty regulating their emotions? (Authoritarian, Permissive)

Authoritarian

(Parenting Styles) What impact do you believe each of these styles would have on the development of these children: 4. Which children were the most anxious? (Authoritarian, Permissive)

Permissive

(Parenting Styles) What impact do you believe each of these styles would have on the development of these children: 5. Which children were the most defiant when challenged? (Authoritarian, Permissive)

Authoritarian

(Parenting Styles) What impact do you believe each of these styles would have on the development of these children: 6. Which children had a tendency to handle frustrating situations poorly? (Authoritarian, Permissive)

Authoritarian

(Parenting Styles) What impact do you believe each of these styles would have on the development of these children: 2. Which children would perform best in school? (Authoritarian, Permissive)

Ratio, Interval

(Partial Reinforcement schedules) Why do ratio schedules produce higher responses rates than interval schedules? _____- An increase in behaviors performance leads to an increase in a reinforcement _________- Passage of time cannot be impacted by an increase in behaviors

Pupil

(Pathway of Light through the eye) Opening in the eye (appears black) allows light to enter

Cornea

(Pathway of Light through the eye) Outermost layer of eye; plays a role a in focusing light onto the retina. A protective layer against dirt & germs.

Iris

(Pathway of Light through the eye) colored portion of the eye surrounding the pupil; a muscle which constricts or dilates the pupil-allowing more or less light in

Lens

(Pathway of Light through the eye) structure which helps to focus light onto the retina (along with cornea) Accommodation

Projective Tests

(Personality Assessments) subjective personality assessments, during which test takers are asked to provide a description or interpretation of ambiguous stimuli Responses are indicative of influential personality traits Example: Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test

agonists

(Physiological Addiction) For (agonists/antagonists): body slows the natural production of the mimicked NT

dopamine

(Physiological Addiction) Many drugs activate the _________ reward pathway. The neural pathway linked to pleasurable and gratifying sensations. With prolonged drug use, dendrites of the (same word as blank 1) pathway become thicker and less responsive. Requiring greater quantities of the drug to activate.

neurological

(Physiological Addiction) When drug use is discontinued, ________ changes require time to revert to normal levels; some are irreversible

The Place Theory

(Pitch Perception) The hair cells, responsive to high pitched sounds, are located in one area of the cochlea while hair cells responsive to low pitched sounds are located in another area

The Frequency Theory

(Pitch Perception) The rate which hair cells vibrate determines pitch. Faster vibrations; higher pitch. Slower vibrations; lower pitch

Stage 5

(Post Conventional) (Stage 5/6) Social contract or legalistic orientation: Doing what is right even if it is against the law because the law is too restrictive.

Stage 6

(Post Conventional) (Stage 5/6) Universal ethical principles orientation: Doing what is right because of our inner conscious which has absorbed the principles of justice and equality and sacredness of life.

Stage 1

(Pre-Conventional) (Stage 1/2) Punishment and obedience orientation: Doing what is right because of fear of punishment.

Stage 2

(Pre-Conventional) (Stage 1/2) Hedonistic orientation: Doing what is right for personal gain, perhaps a reward.

Animistic thought

(Preoperational Stage milestones) belief that inanimate objects have human characteristics, such as emotions

Artificialism

(Preoperational Stage milestones) belief that natural/environmental events are caused by people

Centration

(Preoperational Stage milestones) tendency to focus (to "center") on only one aspect of a situation at a time

Rorschach inkblot test

(Projective tests) Test taker is asked for description of an ambiguous image. Tester records their observations and the reasons the provide for their response

Thematic Apperception Test

(Projective tests) test takers are asked to create a story about a visual image, without any captions, to gauge personality traits and degrees of motivation

Manifest content

(Psychoanalytic (Freudian) Perspective on Dreams) The imagery, sounds and story content of a dream.

Latent content

(Psychoanalytic (Freudian) Perspective on Dreams) The unconscious impulses, fears & anxieties the manifest content represents. The interpreted meaning manifest content

Avoid, word, conscious

(Psychodynamic Therapy) Like psychotherapy/psychoanalysis: • A talk & insight therapy • Defense mechanisms are used, by people, to _____ conflict • Resistance, transference, ____ association are important Unlike psychotherapy/psychoanalysis • Emphasis is on _________ awareness, especially of social and interpersonal relationships • Adolescent/adult experiences are emphasized

positive

(Psychological Dependence) This belief can develop because of confirmation bias: A person may selectively recall ________ experiences associated with drug use, and not the negative experiences.

positive, negative

(Psychological Dependence) This belief can develop because of experience-based learning: A _______ experience, in a person's past, may be attributed to drug use & encourages continued use The _______ experience of withdrawl encourages person to continue drug use, so the experience can be avoided.

talk therapy

(Psychotherapy) • Therapy relies on dialogue between therapist and client

Resistance, Transference

(Psychotherapy) • ____________ ◦ A client's unwillingness to discuss a certain topic, person or situation • ____________ ◦ The projection of a client's strong feelings, for someone else, onto their therapist

Insight therapy

(Psychotherapy) • Goal is for person to understand the *causes* of their difficulties as opposed to directly treating symptoms

free association, word association

(Psychotherapy) • ___ __________ ◦ Client is asked to speak about any topic they wish; without fear of judgement • ___ ___________ ◦ Client is asked to describe whatever comes to mind when given a particular word

The Premack Principle

(Qualities of Reinforcers and their Affects on Learning) Enjoyable activities can be, effectively, used to reinforce the performance of unenjoyable activities

food, influences

(Qualities of Reinforcers and their Affects on Learning) The rats and pigeons, used in Skinner's research, were kept underweight; Why? To ensure they would be hungry and always want ____ as reinforcement. Motivation and preference for a reinforcer _________ the quality & course of learning

dream enacting behaviors

(REM sleep behavior disorder) repeated episodes of vocalizing and/or performing complex behaviors during REM stage of sleep

parasomnias

(REM sleep behavior disorder) sleep walking/talking episodes common in younger children; they occur during non-REM sleep

UCR

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Control Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Flinch

CR

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Control Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Flinch at sight of shape

UCS

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Control Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Puff of Air to Eyes

N/CS

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Control Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Sight of a Shape

needed, quickly

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Control Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Many pairings of N & UCS ______; CR was extinguished _____

UCR

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Second Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Flinch

CR

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Second Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Flinch at sound of horn

N/CS

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Second Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Horn sound

UCS

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Second Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Identify if UCS, UCR, N/CS, CR: Puff of Air to Eyes

salient, less

(Rescorla-Wagner Model Experiment, 1972) Second Phase of the Study- monkeys as subjects Why was a horn used as the N in the second phase? It is a _____ stimulus. The CR required ___ pairings and was resistant to extinction.

Innate, universal, 6

(Research of Paul Ekman 1) He theorized that the ability to produce a facial expression is _____ and the product of human evolution. The ability to recognize a facial expression is _________ and not a result of cultural learning. Ekman identified (#?) universal facial expressions recognized cross-culturally. Cross cultural research participants consistently identified the emotions signaled by these facial expressions

culture

(Research of Paul Ekman 2) While Ekman's research showed that producing & recognizing a facial expression is universal; Ekman theorized that ______ does play an important role in another aspects of facial expressions. Display rules

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

(Research of Paul Ekman) Creating a facial expression can induce the emotion it is meant to signal. Research participants that held a pen in their mouths, to simulate the muscle movements made when smiling, reported feeling happier and enjoyed assigned tasks more than research participants that did not.

harry Harlow, cupboard

(Research of who) American Developmental Psychologist (1905-1981). Researched at University of Wisconsin. His research with rhesus monkeys was intended to: 1. Challenge the _________ theory of attachment. 2. Supplement the care-giver sensitivity hypothesis (that there were other variables beyond responsiveness to a child's needs that caused attachment)

Ghrelin

(Role of Hypothalamus & Endocrine Systematically) 1 The hormone _________ (called the "hunger hormone") is secreted by the stomach & monitors the need for food. When the stomach is empty, (same word) is secreted. (Same word) activates the Lateral Hypothalamus (LH).

Leptin

(Role of Hypothalamus & Endocrine Systematically) 2 The hormone ________ (called the "appetite suppressor hormone") is secreted by stored fat cells & plays a role in stopping eating behaviors. When fat stores increase, (same word) is secreted. (Same word) activates the Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH).

Obesity

(Role of Hypothalamus & Endocrine Systematically) 3 Lesions, made to a lab rat's VMH, interrupted its ability to feel satiety and they ate to the point of ________

tardive dyskinesia

(Schizophrenia Drug Treatment Side Effects) Tics of the facial muscles

Antipsychotic drugs

(Schizophrenia Drug Treatment) Ex: Haldol, Thorazine Controls delusional thinking and hallucinations (a dopamine antagonist). Side effects: Tardive Dyskinesia; "shakes" or tremors in the arms and legs

Delusions, hallucinations

(Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder Key Symptoms) _________: false or irrational beliefs which persist despite conflicting evidence _________: imagined sensory perception (seeing, hearing, feeling things that are not there) -primarily hearing

Persecutory

(Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder) An example of a delusion ________ (paranoid) delusions- irrational belief that a person/group of people seeks to do them harm

Change blindness

(Selective Attention) A type of inattentional blindness. Failure to detect changes in visual stimuli because attention is focused on another stimulus.

stimulus-driven capture

(Selective Attention) Large magnitude & novel stimuli are rapidly (sometimes automatically) selectively attended to. These stimuli may indicate danger, necessitating a rapid response, which makes it adaptive.

Goal-directed attention

(Selective Attention) The selective attention of stimuli necessary for completing a task. Occurs with conscious awareness.

echoic memory

(Sensory register) Sensory memory of auditory stimuli; lasts about 2-4 seconds

Iconic memory

(Sensory register) sensory memory of visual stimuli; lasts about 1/2-1 second.

rebound, REM, immune

(Sleep Debt) Sleep cycle changes because of sleep debt. REM Stage begins earlier and occurs more frequently (REM _______). ___ Stage occurs in place of Stages 3 & 4. Impairing ______ system function

without, 8

(Sleep Research) Dement's research involved placing research participants in a sleep lab, _______ clocks or exposure to natural sunlight, to determine how long people would sleep with a "free-running" circadian rhythm. Study participants averaged an _ hour sleep period.

William Dement

(Sleep Research) Who is the leading authority on sleep, the effects of insufficient sleep and sleep disorders? "The Father of Sleep Medicine". He established the Sleep Research Center at Stanford University.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

(Sleep-Wake Disorders) Marked by airway constriction, during sleep, that interrupts normal breathing. Excessive snoring & body movements to open the airway, interrupt the sleep cycle.

Insomnia Disorder

(Sleep-Wake Disorders) Marked by difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep. Sleep distrubances cause significant distress and/or impair daily routine. Occurs at least three nights per week for a 3 month period

REM sleep behavior disorder

(Sleep-Wake Disorders) Marked by dream enacting behaviors. Sleep disturbances cause significant distress and/or impair daily routine (including injury to self or others). distinct from parasomnias.

Narcolepsy

(Sleep-Wake Disorders) Marked by excessive & overwhelming daytime drowsiness and lapsing into sleep (Not due to another condition such as insomnia or sleep deprivation and occurs at least 3 times a week). Episodes of cataplexy. Experience of hallucinations due to hypnogogic sensations or sudden onset of REM sleep

Erik Erikson

(Social Development) Theories of who? (1902-1994) German Developmental Psychologist. Influenced by the Freudian psychoanalytic perspective (trained under Sigmund Freud's daughter Anna Freud). Identified eight, age-spe​cific stages, crucial for social development called the Stages of Psychosocial Development.

Albert Bandura

(Social Learning Theory) Born 1925. Canadian psychologist; conducted research at Stanford University. Influential learning and personality psychologist. Developed and researched the social learning theory through his series of "Bobo Doll" studies (1961-1964).

Individually

(Social Loafing) What steps could be taken to reduce the effects of social loafing during group projects in school or the workplace? • _____________ assess each group member's performance

Conversion Disorder

(Somatic Symptom Disorder) • A loss of motor function or sensory abilities that cannot be attributed to a medical condition

Illness Anxiety Disorder

(Somatic Symptom Disorder) • Preoccupation with having of acquiring a serious illness

g factor

(Spearman's G Factor) aka general intelligence ability to reason and solve problems IQ tests are most likely to measure this

s factor

(Spearman's G Factor) aka specific intelligence task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art

Two Word Stage

(Stages of Language Acquisition) Language. ~24 months. Simple nouns and verb combinations: telegraphic speech. Example: "Daddy feed Kate?". Overregularization.

Holophrasing/One-word Stage

(Stages of Language Acquisition) Pre language. ~12 months. Single words used to make requests; express emotions; identify objects. "The naming explosion"

Babbling Stage

(Stages of Language Acquisition) Pre-language. ~6 months. Spontaneous pronunciation of a wide range of phonemes. Including those not used in household language. Around 10 months: phonemes limited to those spoken in household.

practical intelligence

(Sternberg's Triarchic Theory) "street smarts" Ability to use information to get along in life People with a high degree of this intelligence know: how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations to their advantage, how to use inside information to increase their odds of success

analytical intelligence

(Sternberg's Triarchic Theory) Ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem-solving Measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests ("book smarts")

creative intelligence

(Sternberg's Triarchic Theory) Ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems (divergent thinking); it refers to the ability to automatically process certain aspects of information (frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty)

analytical, creative, practical

(Sternberg's Triarchic Theory) Example: All three come into play when planning/completing an experiment (Analytical/creative/practical): Run a statistical analysis on data (Analytical/creative/practical): Design the experiment (Analytical/creative/practical): Funding for the experiment from donors.

Limitations of Correlation Studies

(Strengths of Correlation Studies/Limitations of Correlation Studies) • "correlations DO NOT imply causation" • Results are susceptible to the illusory correlation

Strengths of Correlation Studies

(Strengths of Correlation Studies/Limitations of Correlation Studies) • organizes/summarizes large amounts of data • trends in data are easily identified

Strengths of the field experiment

(Strengths of the field experiment or Weaknesses of the field experiment) • environments are more similar to those the subjects would actually encounter

Weaknesses of the field experiment

(Strengths of the field experiment or Weaknesses of the field experiment) • lack of control over the environment makes the experiment more susceptible to confounding variables

Strengths of the lab experiment

(Strengths of the lab experiment or Weaknesses of the lab experiment) • researcher has greater control over environmental conditions

Weaknesses of the lab experiment

(Strengths of the lab experiment or Weaknesses of the lab experiment) • subject to "artificiality" ◦ The lack of authenticity in lab setting ◦ Contributes to the observer effect

Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale

(Stress Assessments) A survey used to identify stressors and the impact they may have on physical & mental health. Identifies common stressors and assigns them a point value known as LCU's (life changing units). Test-takers identify the stressors, they have recently dealt with, and then total the LCU's associated with that stressor. LCU's totals are translated into the risk of developing a stress-related illness (a disease of adaptation)

Ego ideal

(Superego) an imaginary vision, a person has of themselves, at their moral best

Positive, confirmation bias

(Superstitious Behaviors & Non-Contingent Reinforcement) Skinner theorized that superstitious human behaviors result from non-contingent reinforcement. Explain how a person's superstitious behaviors may have been influenced by non-contingent reinforcement • A superstitious behavior may have been reinforced with a coincidental ______ consequence in the past • This encourages the behavior • Partial reinforcement and _________ ___ maintains the behavior

Surface, deep, innate

(Surface vs. deep structure of Chomsky's universal grammar) 1) You close the door. 2) The door was closed by you. 3) Close the door! Each sentence has a different (surface/deep) structure; but a shared (surface/deep) structure. Shared deep structure, despite surface differences, stems from the ______ elements of a language.

Counter-conditioning

(Systematic Desensitization) • Removing an unwanted conditioned response (like a fear reaction to a spider) by pairing the spider with a new more calming sensation

High, low

(Temperament) Kagan's longitudinal research showed: ◦ (High/Low) reactive infants developed shy tendencies by age 2 ◦ (High/Low) reactive infants- more outgoing tendencies by age 2

Nature, nurture

(Temperament) Kagan's theorized both nature & nurture play a role in personality development • (Nature/Nurture)-temperament results from genetically determined brain structure and neurochemistry • (Nature/Nurture)-parenting styles and decisions are often a reaction to a child's temperament • This can encourage or discourage the development of a temperament type

fluid intelligence

(Test Construction) Ability to problem solve and reason abstractly (also pick up new skills). Diminishes as we age.

Validity

(Test Construction) Degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure Extent that an obtained score accurately reflects the intended skill or outcome in real-life situations (ecological validity) Ex: Someone who passes his/her test for a driver's license will also be able to safely operate a motor vehicle when they are actually on road

same, randomly

(Test Construction) How are tests standardized? One aspect is the establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration -All test subjects take test under ____ conditions Another aspect addresses the comparison group whose scores will be used to compare individual test results -standardization groups are chosen ___________ for whom test intended for

Standardization

(Test Construction) Process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed

crystallized intelligence

(Test Construction) We use knowledge we've accumulated over time. This knowledge holds steady as we age.

reliability

(Test Construction) Test producing consistent results each time it is given to the same individual or group of people Ex: Nicholas takes a personality test today and then again in a month, the results should be very similar

norms

(Test Construction) The scores from the standardization group

accurately

(Test Construction) What is the purpose of establishing a norm? The normal curve allow IQ scores to be more _________ estimated

not natural

(The Altered States of Consciousness) Changes in conscious awareness due to drug use and hypnosis are ___ ________ changes in conscious awareness and are referred to as the altered states of consciousness

natural

(The Altered States of Consciousness) Transition into sleep and dream states are _______ changes in conscious awareness

The cocktail party effect

(The Auditory Sense) Ability to focus attention on one particular sound (one person's voice) while filtering out other sounds (ex: other conversations at a party).

sound localization

(The Auditory Sense) The ability to determine the origin of a sound. Determine by judging the relative time and intensity which sound waves reach each ear. Sounds from the right ear, reach the right ear before the left. The skull muffles the intensity of a sound. Sounds, coming from the right, reach the left ear at weaker intensity.

circadian rhythm

(The Biological Aspects of Sleep) The 24 hours cycle, during which, the body's biological functions fluctuate (changes in body temp, heart rate, sleepiness).

nervous and endocrine system

(The Biological Aspects of Sleep) What are the two systems that regulate the circadian rhythm?

sunlight, melatonin

(The Biological Aspects of Sleep) What environmental conditions play a role in regulating the sleep-wake component of the circadian rhythm? Changes in _______ Sunlight exposure suppresses _______ secretion

Hypothalamus

(The Biological Aspects of Sleep) What part of the brain regulate metabolic functions of the circadian rhythm?

pineal gland and melatonin hormone

(The Biological Aspects of Sleep)What are the two things that regulate the sleep-wake component of the circadian rhythm? High levels induce sleep

correct, incorrect

(The Cold Reading Technique) Use the concept of confirmation bias to explain why some people accept a cold reading as a demonstration of psychic ability: People will focus on, and remember, the ______ guesses that support the psychic's ability; ignore the _______ guesses.

Freud

(The Dream State) Who published the 1900 "On the Interpretation of Dreams"

Law of Common region

(The Gestalt Principles) Objects enclosed in borders or backgrounds are often perceived as a single unit

Law of Common fate

(The Gestalt Principles) Visual elements seen moving in the same direction, at the same direction, at the same rate, are perceived as a whole unit. This tendency arose from the evolutionary need for prey to distinguish a camouflaged predator from its background. The features of this spider are obscured and difficult to see. Once the spider moves it is easier to detect as its markings move in unison.

Increase, calm

(The Inverted U function) Use the inverted U function to explain the differences between the ways a professional musician prepares for their practices and their first public performance. ◦ They may have to self-motivate to (increase/decrease) physical/mental arousal, to perform best during routine practices ◦ They may have to ____ themselves, to avoid anxiety and perform well during their first show

No

(The Retina and Transduction) Are there rods or cones found at the point where the optic nerve leaves the retina/eye? (Yes/No)

Photoreceptors

(The Retina and Transduction) Cone & Rod receptors are also, collectively known, as the _____________.

Bipolar cells

(The Retina and Transduction) Impulses from rods & cones then activate _____ ____. These are the cells which transfer impulses from rods & cones to ganglion cells. Several rods may be connected to one. Only one cone will be attached to one.

Cones

(The Retina and Transduction) What are activated by colors and bright colors (~6 million in each eye)?

Rods

(The Retina and Transduction) What are activated by low light (~90-120 million in each eye)?

Optic nerve

(The Retina and Transduction) What do the axons of ganglion cells bundle together to form?

First, cone, rod

(The Retina and Transduction) When light reaches the retina, it passes by the ____ layers of cells, until it reaches and activates the ___ and ___ receptors

ganglion cells

(The Retina and Transduction) Where are bipolar cells then transferred to?

Cones, macula, fovea

(The Retina and Transduction) ____ are most densely packed in a small area, on the retina, called the ______. The area with the highest density of (same as first word), within the (same as second word), is called the

Rods, peripheral

(The Retina and Transduction) ____ are most densely packed in the _________ areas of the retina.

Stages 3 & 4

(The Sleep Cycle) As the night progresses, less time is spent in ______ _ _ _; more in REM stage.

2

(The Sleep Cycle) First Rem period occurs about _ hours into the 8 hour sleep cycle.

5

(The Sleep Cycle) How many stages does one cycle consist of? Each stage repeats during the course of the cycle.

8

(The Stages of Sleep) How many hours are the five stages experienced in?

slow wave sleep

(The Stages of Sleep) Indicates slowing neural activity, Stage 3 & 4 are aka what?

slows, stimuli, thalamus, sleep spindles

(The Stages of Sleep) Stage 2 Light sleep; heart & breathing rate ____; body temp decreases Brain begins to limit the body's sensitivity to sensory _______ Neural regions in the _________ slows Limits sensory information sent to brain's sensory regions Thalamus changes cause an EEG pattern called ______ _______

hypnogogia

(The Stages of Sleep) What does Stage 1 begin with? It is the transition from wakefulness to a sleep state.

N3 stage

(The Stages of Sleep) What is Stages 3 & 4 combined to?

paradoxical sleep state

(The Stages of Sleep) What is another name for REM sleep (Stage 5)?

The REM stage

(The Stages of Sleep) What is another name for Stage 5? It stands for Rapid Eye Movement.

physical restoration

(The Stages of Sleep) What mostly occurs during Stages 3 & 4? Some examples would be growth hormone secreted and damaged tissue repaired.

Sleep paralysis

(The Stages of Sleep) What occurs in Stage 5 in which temporary inability to use voluntary muscles and prevents dream content from being acted out?

Deep sleep state

(The Stages of Sleep) What state in Stages 3 & 4 is difficult to wake a person from; person may be disoriented when woken from this stage?

physiological and neurological

(The Stages of Sleep) What two changes are experienced in each stage?

dreaming and sleep paralysis

(The Stages of Sleep) What two things occurs in the REM stage (Stage 5)?

EEG

(The Stages of Sleep) What type of machine indicates the neurological changes of a unique brain wave pattern?

Hypnagogic sensations

(The Stages of Sleep) What type of sensations are common in Stage 1? They are hallucinations that occur during the transition into a sleep state.

delta waves

(The Stages of Sleep) What type of wave patterns do EEG record in Stages 3 & 4?

alpha waves

(The Stages of Sleep) What types of waves are recorded by the EEG? They are present while awake; decrease in frequency during Stage 1.

Drive-reduction Theory

(The Theories of Motivation) The biological drive to maintain homeostasis motivates behaviors. When a person falls out of a homeostatic state they experience discomfort. This creates a drive to take action to reduce that discomfort. Explains motivators behind eating when hungry, seeking shelter when cold, etc.

Sensory register (sensory memory)

(The Three Box Model) The brief preservation of sensory stimuli (frequently, what is seen and heard). Iconic memory, Echoic memory. Large capacity. Contains sensory information. Very brief retention of images (up to 1/2 second for visual; 2 seconds for auditory).

Bottom up processing

(The Types of Perception) A stimulus' individual elements are analyzed and built into a complete perception. Also known as data driven processing

top down processing

(The Types of Perception) Occurs when stimuli are perceived as an organized whole; rather than individual features. It can be influenced by brain neurology. (Example: facial recognition is localized to right hemisphere). Aka conceptual driven processing

Semantics

(The components of Grammar) One of the two elements grammar. The system of rules that governs word meanings. Example: He likes to dance. He went to the dance.

Syntax

(The components of Grammar) One of the two elements of grammar. The system of rules that governs how words/phrases are to be ordered in a sentence

correct rejection

(The four signal detection theory observer responses) It occurs when a stimulus (such as a sight or sound) is NOT present and the observer does NOT report seeing or hearing it.

False positive (false alarm)

(The four signal detection theory observer responses) It occurs when a stimulus (such as a sight or sound) is NOT present and the observer reports seeing or hearing it.

miss

(The four signal detection theory observer responses) It occurs when a stimulus (such as a sight or sound) is present and the observer does not report seeing or hearing it.

hit

(The four signal detection theory observer responses) It occurs when a stimulus (such as a sight or sound) is present and the observer does report seeing or hearing it.

stimulus, uncertainty

(The four signal detection theory observer responses) There are four responses, a person may give, when they are presented with a _______ (such as a sight or sound); especially when there is a level of ____________ regarding the presence of that stimulus. In other words; a person is not sure whether the stimulus will, or will not, be there.

Spearman's G Factor

(Theories of Intelligence) Charles Spearman Two different abilities: g factor, s factor He believed that superiority in one type of intelligence predict superiority overall. Criticism: Other researchers felt that Spearman had oversimplified the concept of intelligence

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

(Theories of Intelligence) Howard Gardener He believes that reason, logic, and knowledge are different aspects of intelligence, along with several other abilities. Originally listed seven different kinds of intelligence (now there are nine) Criticism: Some argue there are few scientific studies providing evidence others claim there is evidence. Some say that such intelligences are no more than different abilities (abilities are not the same as intelligences)

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

(Theories of Intelligence) Three kinds of intelligence: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence higher practical intelligence means lower analytical intelligence

Biological Approach

(Theories of Personality) •Emphasizes the influence neurology & genetics have on personality •Research on the biological aspects of personality often focuses on temperament ◦ An individual's innate and genetically heritable emotional disposition ◦ Indication of temperament type may be evident in infancy

Trait Theory

(Theories of Personality) A focus on identifying & categorizing personality traits, as opposed to how they develop A focus on assessing the degrees of influence a personality trait can have on a person's lifestyles, social interactions, decisions, values, etc.

humanism

(Theories of Personality) It was known as psychology's "Third Force" because it was a direct response to Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism. What specific aspects of personality development would the Humanists propose in response to Freudian theory? ◦ People are essentially good (opposed to Id impulses & the pleasure principle) ◦ People are self determining; free will & choice plays a role in the personality development (opposed to psychic determinism) ◦ Personality development relies on growth and fulfillment (opposed to fixations, defense mechanisms, etc)

Socio-Cognitive Theories

(Theories of Personality) Social, cognitive and behavioral learning variables interact and influence personality development

unconscious level

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory levels) Impulses & desires a person is completely unaware of It is the iceberg deep underwater because like it, we are unaware of it, it is the larger part, it "drives" the rest of the iceberg through the water.

Preconscious level

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory levels) Thoughts a person is not always aware of, but can easily be shifted It is the iceberg just below the waterline because it is mostly unseen, but can be briefly revealed/hidden when water level changes. It compares to storage and recollection of a memory.

Conscious level

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory levels) Thoughts and perception a person is aware of It is the peak of the iceberg, above the waterline because like it, we are aware of it & it is the smallest part.

Sigmund Freud

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory) Developed by Austrian neurologist Known as the "Father of Psychoanalysis"; the founder of the psychoanalytic approach to psychology

Components of the Psyche

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory) Found within the levels of the mind were three major components that influenced an individual's personality

defense mechanisms

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory) Freud theorized the id, ego, superego conflict caused anxiety They are mental techniques people used to cope with this anxiety. The tendency to favor a defense mechanism was an element of an individual's personality.

Three

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory) How many levels of the mind did Freud theorized there were that shaped an individual's personality?

strong, weak

(Theories of Personality-Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory) Personality is shaped by "ego strength" A (strong/weak) ego satisfies the id in a socially acceptable way. A (strong/weak) ego is overpowered by either the id or superego