A.P. U.S. History 1 Final Exam Review

Virginia Plan

"Large state" proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress. The plan favored larger states and thus prompted smaller states to come back with their own plan for apportioning representation. Based upon population which gave larger states an advantage.

John Brown

"Old Brown" of Osawatomie led a band of his followers to Pottawatomie Creek in May 1856. There they literally hacked to pieces five surprised men, presumed to be proslaveryites. This terrorist butchery damaged the reputation of the free-soil cause and brought vicious retaliation from the proslavery forces.

New Jersey Plan

"Small-state plan" put forth at the Philadelphia convention, proposing equal representation by state, regardless of population, in a unicameral legislature. Small states feared that the more populous states would dominate the agenda under a proportional system.

Nullify

"nullies" tried to gather the necessary 2/3 vote for nullification in the South Carolina legislature, but were blocked by Unionists. The too groups clashed head-on in the state election of 1832.

Ku Klux Klan

(Founded in Tennessee in 1866) Besheeted nightriders, their horses' hooves muffled, would approach the cabin of an "upstart" black and hammer on the door. In ghoulish tones one thirsty horseman would demand a bucket of water. Then, under pretense of drinking, he would pour it into a rubber attachment concealed beneath his mask and gown, smack his lips, and declare that this was the first water he had tasted since he was killed at the Battle of Shiloh. If fright did not produce the desired effect, force was employed. Such tomfoolery and terror proved partially effective. Many ex-bondsmen and white "carpetbaggers," quick to take a hint, shunned the polls. Those stubborn souls who persisted in their "upstart" ways were flogged, mutilated, or even murdered.

Loose interpretation

(How Hamilton responded to Jeffersons argument regarding the bank of the U.S.) Hamilton boldly invoked the clause of the Constitution that stipulates that Congress may pass any laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers vested in the various government agencies . The government was explicitly empowered to collect taxes and regulate trade. In carrying out these basic functions, Hamilton argued, a national bank would be not only "proper" but "necessary." By inference or implication—that is, by virtue of "implied powers"—Congress would be fully justified in establishing the Bank of the United States.

Boston Massacre

(March 5 1770) Clash between unruly Bostonian protestors and locally stationed British redcoats "ruffians", who fired on the jeering crowd without orders, killing or wounding eleven citizens. Towns people threw snowballs and taunted redcoats because they were mad over the death of an 11 year old boy shot ten days earlier during a protest. Both sides were to blame, and two of the redcoats were found guilty of manslaughter.

Advantages of South

-The Confederacy could fight defensively behind interior lines. -If it merely fought the invaders to a draw and stood firm, Confederate independence would be won. Fighting on their own soil for self-determination and preservation of their way of life, Southerners at first enjoyed an advantage in morale as well. -The South had the most talented officers. -Accustomed to managing horses and bearing arms from boyhood, they made excellent cavalrymen and foot soldiers.

Advantages of North

-The economy (biggest strength) -Yankees boasted about three-fourths of the nation's wealth, including three-fourths of the thirty thousand miles of railroads. -The North also controlled the sea. With its vastly superior navy, it established a blockade that, though a sieve at first, soon choked off Southern supplies and eventually shattered Southern morale. Its sea power also enabled the North to exchange huge quantities of grain for munitions and supplies from Europe, thus adding the output from the factories of Europe to its own. - Population of 22 million (13 million more than the south)

Overall reasons for American victory

-home court advantage -moral -war was costly and British debated if it was necessary

Whig Party

-pro bank of u.s. (national bank) -pro high tariffs -pro federal funding for internal improvements -pro political action for social reform -divided on terms of slavery to conscience and cotton whigs

Military Reconstruction

1867; divided the South into five districts and placed them under military rule; required Southern States to ratify the 14th amendment; guaranteed freedmen the right to vote in convention to write new state constitutions. _______________ of the South not only usurped certain functions of the president as commander in chief but set up a martial regime of dubious legality.

Battle of Long Island

A British fleet appeared off New York, it consisted of some 500 shipped and 35000 men, the largest armed force to be seen in America. General Washington, dangerously outnumbered, could muster only 18000 ill-trained troops. Disaster befell the Americans at his battle in the summer and fall of 1776. Outgeneraled and outmaneuvered. By the narrowest of margins, and thanks to a favoring wind and fog, Washington escaped to Manhattan Island. Retreating northward he crossed the Hudson River to New Jersey and finally reached the Delaware River with the British close at his heels. The enemy used fox hunting calls to taunt the Americans. The patriotic cause at low ebb when the rebel remnants fled across the river after collecting all available boats to forestall pursuit.

Battle of Bull Run

A Union army of some thirty thousand men drilled near Washington in the summer of 1861. It was ill-prepared for battle, but the press and the public clamored for action. Lincoln eventually concluded that an attack on a smaller Confederate force here (Manassas Junction), some thirty miles southwest of Washington, might be worth a try. If successful, it would demonstrate the superiority of Union arms. It might even lead to the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, one hundred miles to the south. If Richmond fell, secession would be thoroughly discredited, and the Union could be restored without damage to the economic and social system of the South. First major battle of the Civil War and a victory for the South (inflating there already dangerous overconfidence), it dispelled Northern illusions of swift victory.

Second Great Awakening

A boiling reaction against the growing liberalism in religion set in about 1800. A fresh wave of roaring revivals, beginning on the southern frontier but soon rolling even into the cities of the Northeast, sent this surging across the land. Sweeping up even more people than the First _______________ almost a century earlier, this was one of the most momentous episodes in the history of American religion. This tidal wave of spiritual fervor left in its wake countless converted souls, many shattered and reorganized churches, and numerous new sects. It also encouraged an effervescent evangelicalism that bubbled up into innumerable areas of American life—including prison reform, the temperance cause, the women's movement, and the crusade to abolish slavery. This was spread to the masses on the frontier by huge "camp meetings." As many as twenty-five thousand people would gather for an encampment of several days to drink the hellfire gospel as served up by an itinerant preacher. Thousands of spiritually starved souls "got religion" at these gatherings and in their ecstasy engaged in frenzies of rolling, dancing, barking, and jerking. Many of the "saved" soon backslid into their former sinful ways, but the revivals boosted church membership and stimulated a variety of humanitarian reforms. Responsive easterners were moved to do missionary work in the West with Indians, in Hawaii, and in Asia.

Alexander Hamilton

A charismatic New Yorker, thirty-one-year old ______________, brilliantly saved the Articles of Confederation meeting in Annapolis from complete failure by engineering the adoption of his report. It called upon Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia the next year, not to deal with commerce alone, but to bolster the entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation.

Sam Houston

A distinguished latecomer and leader was an ex-governor of Tennessee, ______________. His life had been temporarily shattered in 1829 when his bride of a few weeks left him and he took up transient residence with the Arkansas Indians, who dubbed him "Big Drunk." He subsequently took the pledge of temperance. Commander in chief of the Lone Star Republic. Did not want to admit Texas as a part of the U.S.

Erie Canal

A few canals had been built around falls and elsewhere in colonial days, but ambitious projects lay in the future. Resourceful New Yorkers, cut off from federal aid by states' righters, themselves dug this , linking the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. They were blessed with the driving leadership of Governor DeWitt Clinton. Begun in 1817, the canal eventually ribboned 363 miles. On its completion in 1825, a garlanded canal boat glided from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Hudson River and on to New York harbor. There, with colorful ceremony, Governor Clinton emptied a cask of water from the lake to symbolize "the marriage of the waters." Now, the cost of shipping a ton of grain from Buffalo to New York City fell from $100 to $5, and the time of transit from about twenty days to six. The value of land along the route skyrocketed, and new cities—such as Rochester and Syracuse—blossomed. Industry in the state boomed. The new profitability of farming in the Old Northwest attracted thousands of European immigrants to the unaxed and untaxed lands now available. The price of potatoes in New York City was cut in half, and many dispirited New England farmers, no longer able to face the ruinous competition, abandoned their rocky holdings and went elsewhere.

Sojourner Truth

A freed black woman in New York who fought tirelessly for black emancipation and women's rights.

Wilderness Campaign

A grimly determined Grant, with more than 100,000 men, struck toward Richmond. He engaged Lee in a series of furious battles in the Wilderness of Virginia, during May and June of 1864, notably in the leaden hurricane of the "Bloody Angle" and "Hell's Half Acre." In this campaign , Grant suffered about 50,000 casualties, or nearly as many men as Lee commanded at the start. But Lee lost about as heavily in proportion.

Plymouth

A group of the Separatists in Holland, after negotiating with the Virginia Company, at length secured rights to settle under its jurisdiction. But their crowded Mayflower, sixty-five days at sea, missed its destination and arrived off the stony coast of New England in 1620. They finally chose for their site the shore of inhospitable _________ Bay. This area was outside the domain of the Virginia Company, and consequently the settlers became squatters.

Virginia Company of London

A joint-stock company, known as this, received a charter from King James I of England for a settlement in the New World. The main attraction was the promise of gold, combined with a strong desire to find a passage through America to the Indies. Like most joint-stock companies of the day, this was intended to endure for only a few years, after which its stockholders hoped to liquidate it for a profit. This arrangement put severe pressure on the luckless colonists, who were threatened with abandonment in the wilderness if they did not quickly strike it rich on the company's behalf. Few of the investors thought in terms of long-term colonization. Apparently no one even faintly suspected that the seeds of a mighty nation were being planted.

Samuel de Champlain

A leading figure, intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title "Father of New France". He sailed up St Lawrence River, and founded the city of Quebec in 1608.

California Constitution of 1849

A majority of Californians, as decent and law-abiding citizens needing protection, grappled earnestly with the problem of erecting an adequate state government. Privately encouraged by President Taylor, they drafted a constitution in 1849 that excluded slavery and then boldly applied to Congress for admission. California would thus bypass the usual territorial stage, thwarting southern congressmen seeking to block free soil. Southern politicians, alarmed by the Californians' "impertinent" stroke for freedom, arose in violent opposition.

Benjamin Franklin

A month before the Albany congress assembled, he published in his Pennsylvania Gazette the most famous cartoon of the colonial era. Showing the separate colonies as parts of a disjointed snake, it broadcast the slogan "Join, or Die." He was the leading spirit of the Albany Congress. His outstanding contribution was a well-devised but premature scheme for colonial home rule.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

A mother of seven who had insisted on leaving "obey" out of her marriage ceremony, shocked fellow feminists by going so far as to advocate suffrage for women.

Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell

A pioneer in a previously forbidden profession for women, was the first female graduate of a medical college.

James Madison

A profound student of government, made contributions to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia so notable that he has been dubbed "the Father of the Constitution."

Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia

A quorum of the fifty-five emissaries from twelve states finally convened at ________________ on May 25, 1787, in the imposing red-brick statehouse. The smallness of the assemblage facilitated intimate acquaintance and hence compromise. Sessions were held in complete secrecy, with armed sentinels posted at the doors. Delegates knew that they would generate heated differences, and they did not want to advertise their own dissensions or put the ammunition of harmful arguments into the mouths of the opposition. They were determined to preserve the union and ensure security against uprisings

Great Awakening

A rousing religious revival exploded in the 1730s and 1740s and swept through the colonies like a fire through prairie grass. The Awakening was first ignited in Northampton, Massachusetts, by a tall, delicate, and intellectual pastor, Jonathan Edwards. This was the first spontaneous mass movement of the American people. It tended to break down sectional boundaries as well as denominational lines and contributed to the growing sense that Americans had of themselves as a single people, united by a common history and shared experiences.

Chesapeake

A royal frigate overhauled a U.S. frigate, the Chesapeake, about ten miles off the coast of Virginia. The British captain bluntly demanded the surrender of four alleged deserters. London had never claimed the right to seize sailors from a foreign warship, and the American commander, though totally unprepared to fight, refused the request. The British warship thereupon fired three devastating broadsides at close range, killing three Americans and wounding eighteen. Four deserters were dragged away, and the bloody hulk called the Chesapeake limped back to port.

General Edward Braddock

A sixty year old British officer experienced in European warfare, was sent to Virginia with a strong detachment of British regulars. He sent out with some two thousand men to capture fort Duquesne. His expedition dragging heavy artillery moved slowly. A few miles from fort Duquesne he encountered a much smaller French and Indian army, at first the enemy was repulsed, but it quickly melted into the thickets and poured a murderous fire into the ranks of the redcoats. In the ensuing battle George Washington had two horses shot from under him and four bullets pierced his coat. He was mortally wounded and the entire British force was routed after appalling loses.

Christopher Columbus

A skilled Italian seafarer who persuaded the Spanish monarchs to outfit him with three tiny but seaworthy ships, manned by a motley crew. Daringly he headed westward. His superstitious sailors, fearful of venturing into the oceanic unknown, grew increasingly mutinous. After six weeks at sea, failure loomed until the crew sighted an island in the Bahamas. A new world thus swam within the vision of Europe. His achievement obscures the fact that he was one of the most successful failures in history. Seeking a new water route to the fabled Indies, he had bumped into an enormous land barrier blocking the ocean pathway. For decades thereafter explorers strove to get through it or around it. The truth gradually dawned that new continents had been discovered. Yet he was so certain that he reached the "Indies" that he called the native people Indians and the name somehow stuck. The discovery would eventually convulse four continents- Europe, Africa, and the two Americas.

Sharecropping

A system used on southern farms after the Civil War in which farmers worked land owned by someone else in return for a small portion of the crops. Lacking capital, and with little to offer but their labor, thousands of impoverished former slaves slipped into this status, as did many landless whites. They gradually sank into a morass of virtual peonage and remained there for generations. Formerly slaves to masters, countless blacks as well as poorer whites in effect became slaves to the soil and to their creditors.

William Pitt

A tall and imposing figure who is know as "the great commoner" he drew much of his strength from the common people who admired him greatly. A splendid orator endowed a majestic voice, he believed passionately in his cause, in his country, and in himself. The foremost leader in the British government . Throwing himself headlong into,his task, he soon earned the title "organizer of victory". He wisely decided to soft pedal assaults on the French West Indies which had been bleeding away much Britain strength, and to concentrate on the vitals of Canada- the Quebec Montreal area. He also picked young energetic leaders thus bypassing old cautious ones. He first dispatched a powerful expedition against Louisbourg, which became the first significant victory of the entire war.

Walker Tariff of 1849

A tariff-for-revenue bill that reduced the average rates of the Tariff of 1842 from about 32 percent to 25 percent. With the strong support of low-tariff southerners, this bill made its way through Congress, though not without loud complaints from the Clayites, especially in New England and the middle states, who cried that American manufacturing would be ruined. But these prophets of doom missed the mark. This of 1846 proved to be an excellent revenue producer, largely because it was followed by boom times and heavy imports.

Stamp Act

A tax to raise revenues to support the new military force. It mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax. Stamps were required on bills of sale for about fifty trade items as well as on certain types of comercial and legal documents, including playing cards, pamphlets, newspapers, diplomas, bills of lading, and marriage licenses. Repealed in 1766.

Mercantilism

A theory embraced by British authorities that justified their control over the colonies. This idea said that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth (and thus, power) could be measured by the gold or silver it possessed. With this theory, possessing colonies created an advantage for Britain. Justified Britians control over the colonies.

Andrew Jackson

A third British blow of 1814, aimed at New Orleans, menaced the entire Mississippi Valley. Gaunt and hawk-faced _________________, fresh from crushing the southwest Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, was placed in command. His hodgepodge force consisted of seven thousand sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, as well as militiamen from Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Among the defenders were two Louisiana regiments of free black volunteers, numbering about four hundred men. When the British made the mistake of launching a frontal attack at the Battle of New Orleans, it resulted in an astonishing victory for him and his men. He became a national hero as poets and politicians lined up to sing the praises of the defenders of New Orleans.

John Winthrop

A well-to-do pillar of English society, who became the Massachusetts Bay Colony's first governor. A successful attorney and manor lord in England, he eagerly accepted the offer to become governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, believing that he had a "calling" from God to lead the new religious experiment. He served as governor or deputy governor for nineteen years. The resources and skills of talented settlers like him helped Massachusetts prosper, as fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding blossomed into important industries, especially fish and ships. The Massachusetts Bay Colony rapidly shot to the fore as both the biggest and the most influential of the New England outposts.

William Penn

A wellborn and athletic young Englishman, was attracted to the Quaker faith in 1660, when only sixteen years old. His father, disapproving, administered a sound flogging. After various adventures in the army, the youth firmly embraced the despised faith and suffered much persecution. The courts branded him a "saucy" and "impertinent" fellow. His thoughts naturally turned to the New World, where a sprinkling of Quakers had already fled, notably to Rhode Island, North Carolina, and New Jersey. Eager to establish an asylum for his people, he also hoped to experiment with liberal ideas in government and at the same time make a profit. Finally, in 1681, he managed to secure from the king an immense grant of fertile land. The king called the area Pennsylvania ("Penn's Woodland") in honor of the sire. Pennsylvania was by far the best advertised of all the colonies. Its founder—the "first American advertising man"—sent out paid agents and distributed countless pamphlets printed in English, Dutch, French, and German.

Bacon's Rebellion

About a thousand Virginians broke out of control in 1676, led by a twenty-nine-year-old planter, Nathaniel Bacon. Many of the rebels were frontiersmen who had been forced into the untamed backcountry in search of arable land. They fiercely resented Berkeley's friendly policies toward the Indians, whose thriving fur trade the governor monopolized. When Berkeley refused to retaliate against a series of brutal Indian attacks on frontier settlements, Bacon and his followers took matters into their own hands. They fell murderously upon the Indians, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and put the torch to the capital. As this civil war in Virginia ground on, Bacon suddenly died of disease. Berkeley thereupon crushed the uprising with brutal cruelty, hanging more than twenty rebels. The rebellion eventually grew into a broader conflict between impoverished settlers and the planter elite.

"10 Percent" Reconstruction Plan

Abraham Lincoln believed that the Southern states had never legally withdrawn from the Union. Their formal restoration to the Union would therefore be relatively simple. Accordingly, Lincoln in 1863 proclaimed this. It decreed that a state could be reintegrated into the Union when 10 percent of its voters in the presidential election of 1860 had taken an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledged to abide by emancipation. The next step would be formal erection of a state government. Lincoln would then recognize the purified regime.

Gettysburg Address

Abraham Lincoln's soft-quoted speech, delivered at the dedication of the cemetery at Gettysburg battlefield. In the address, Lincoln framed the war as a means to uphold the values of liberty

Gadsden Purchase

Acquired additional land from Mexico for $10 million to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad. The transaction aroused much criticism among northerners, who objected to paying a huge sum for a cactus-strewn desert nearly the size of his South Carolina. Undeterred, the Senate approved the pact, in the process shortsightedly eliminating a window on the Sea of Cortez.

Impressments

Act of forcibly drafting an individual into military service, employed by the British navy against American seamen in times of war against France, 1793-1815. This was a continual source of conflict between Britain and the United States in the early national period.

Alien Laws

Acts passed by a Federalist Congress raising the residency requirement for citizenship to fourteen years and granting the president the power to deport dangerous foreigners in times of peace and to deport or imprison them in time of hostilities. This was an arbitrary grant of executive power contrary to American tradition and to the spirit of the Constitution, even though the stringent acts were never enforced.

John Marshall

Adams appointed him to the supreme court. (fourth choice) Thomas Jeffersons cousin. He shaped the American legal tradition more profoundly than any other single figure. He had served at Valley Forge during the revolution and saw the drawbacks of a feeble central authority. The experience had made him a lifelong federalist, committed above all to strengthening the power of the federal government. He served 30 days under a Federalist administration and 34 years under the administrations of Jefferson and subsequent presidents. He fought for Marburys position as the justice for peace for the district of columbia.

Compromise of 1850

Admitted California as a free state, opened New Mexico and Utah to popular sovereignty, ended the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in Washington, D.C., and introduced a more stringent fugitive slave law. Widely opposed in both the North and South, it did little to settle the escalating dispute over slavery.

Bill of Rights

Adopted by the necessary number of states (2/3) in 1791, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, popularly known as this, safeguard some of the most precious American principles. Among these are protections for freedom of religion, speech, and the press; the right to bear arms and to be tried by a jury; and the right to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances. This also prohibits cruel and unusual punishments and arbitrary government seizure of private property.

General William Tecumseh Sherman

After Chattanooga was liberated, Georgia's conquest was entrusted to him. He captured Atlanta in September 1864 and burned the city in November of that year. He then daringly left his supply base, lived off the country for some 250 miles, and weeks later emerged at Savannah on the sea. Cut a sixty-mile swath of destruction through Georgia.

"Kansas Civil War"

After John Browns attack, Civil war in Kansas erupted in 1856 and continued intermittently until it merged with the large-scale Civil War of 1861-1865. Altogether, the Kansas conflict destroyed millions of dollars' worth of property, paralyzed agriculture in certain areas, and cost scores of lives.

Abraham Lincoln

After making his mark in the Illinois legislature as a Whig politician of the logrolling variety, he served one undistinguished term in Congress, 1847-1849. Until 1854, when he was forty-five years of age, he had done nothing to establish a claim to statesmanship. But the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in that year lighted within him unexpected fires. After mounting the Republican bandwagon, he emerged as one of the foremost politicians and orators of the Northwest. Elected as the nominee for the Republican Party in 1860.

Quebec

After rocky beginnings, success finally rewarded the exertions of France in the New World. In 1608, the year after the founding of Jamestown, the permanent beginnings of a vast empire were established here, a granite sentinel commanding the St. Lawrence River. The leading figure was Samuel de Champlain. (first permanent French settlement in North America)

Treaty of Ghent

After the Battle of New Orleans it hardly mattered when word arrived that a peace treaty had been signed in Belgium, ending the war two weeks before the battle. The United States had fought for honor as much as material gain. This treaty, signed on Christmas Eve, 1814, was essentially an armistice. Both sides simply agreed to stop fighting and to restore conquered territory. No mention was made of those grievances for which America had ostensibly fought: the Indian menace, search and seizure, Orders in Council, impressment, and confiscations. These discreet omissions have often been cited as further evidence of the insincerity of the war hawks. Rather, they are proof that the Americans had not managed to defeat the British. With neither side able to impose its will, the treaty negotiations—like the war itself—ended as a virtual draw. Relieved Americans boasted "Not One Inch of Territory Ceded or Lost"—a phrase that contrasted strangely with the "On to Canada" rallying cry at the war's outset.

Queen Elizabeth I

After the Protestant ____________ ascended to the English throne in 1558, Protestantism became dominant in England, and rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified. Ireland, which nominally had been under English rule since the twelfth century, became an early scene of that rivalry. The Catholic Irish sought help from Catholic Spain to throw off the yoke of the new queen. But Spanish aid never amounted to much; in the 1570s and 1580s, her troops crushed the Irish uprising with terrible ferocity, inflicting unspeakable atrocities upon the native Irish people. The English crown confiscated Catholic Irish lands and "planted" them with new Protestant landlords from Scotland and England. This policy also planted the seeds of the centuries-old religious conflicts that persist in Ireland to the present day. Many English soldiers developed in Ireland a sneering contempt for the "savage" natives, an attitude that they brought with them to the New World.

Franco-American Alliance

After the humiliation at Saratoga in 1777, the British Parliament belatedly passed a measure that in effect offered the Americans home rule within the empire. If the French were going to break up the British Empire, they would have to bestir themselves. Franklin now played skillfully on French fears of Anglo-American reconciliation. On February 6, 1778, France offered the Americans a treaty of alliance. It did not conform exactly to the terms of the Model Treaty Franklin had brought with him. Against its better judgment, the young Republic concluded its first entangling military alliance and would soon regret it. -The treaty with France constituted an official recognition of America's independence -Lent powerful military heft to the Patriot cause. -Both allies bound themselves to wage war until the United States had fully secured its freedom and until both agreed to terms with the common enemy. -With those pledges, the American Revolutionary War now became a world war.

Half-Way Covenant

Agreement allowing unconverted offspring of church members to baptize their children (but not "full communion"). It signified a waning of religious zeal among second and third generation Puritans. This widening of church membership gradually erased the distinction between the "elect" and other members of society. In effect, strict religious purity was sacrificed somewhat to the cause of wider religious participation.

Macon's Bill No. 2

Aimed at resuming peaceful trade with Britain and France, the act stipulated that if either Britain or France repealed its trade restrictions, the United States would reinstate the embargo against the nonrepealing nation. To Madison the bill was a shameful capitulation. It practically admitted that the United States could not survive without one of the belligerents as a commercial ally, but it left determination of who that ally would be to the potentates of London and Paris. When Napoleon offered to lift his restrictions on British ports, the United States was forced to declare an embargo on Britain, thereby pushing the two nations closer toward war.

Corrupt Bargain of 1824

Alleged deal between presidential candidates John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to throw the election, to be decided by the House of Representatives, in Adams' favor. (and Clay becoming secretary of state) Jackson gained most popular votes but Adams and Crawford had the electoral vote, so the House had to choose between these three. Clay was Speaker of the House, so he chose Adams. Though never proven, the accusation became the rallying cry for supporters of Andrew Jackson. No positive evidence has yet been unearthed to prove that Adams and Clay entered into this. Clay was a natural choice for secretary of state, and Adams was both scrupulously honest and not given to patronage. Even if a bargain had been struck, it was not necessarily corrupt. Deals of this nature have long been the stock-in-trade of politicians. But the outcry over Adams's election showed that change was in the wind. What had once been common practice was now condemned as furtive, elitist, and subversive of democracy. The next president would not be chosen behind closed doors.

Iroquois Confederacy

Allies to New Netherland. They acquired guns from them, so were superior to other natives. They fought other natives in "beaver wars" over furs and incorporated the defeated into their tribe.

Missouri Compromise

Allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state but preserved the balance between North and South by carving free-soil Maine out of Massachusetts and prohibiting slavery from territories acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, north of the line of 36°30'.Yet the restriction on future slavery in the territories was not unduly offensive to the slave-owners, partly because the northern prairie land did not seem suited to slave labor. Even so, a majority of southern congressmen still voted against the compromise.

Mayflower Compact

Although setting an invaluable precedent for later written constitutions, this document was not a constitution at all. It was a simple agreement to form a crude government and to submit to the will of the majority under the regulations agreed upon. The compact was signed by forty-one adult males. The pact was a promising step toward genuine self-government, for soon the adult male settlers were assembling to make their own laws in open-discussion town meetings—a vital laboratory of liberty.

Wilmot Amendment

Amendment that sought to prohibit slavery from territories acquired from Mexico. Introduced by Pennsylvania congressman David Wilmot, the failed amendment ratcheted up tensions between North and South over the issue of slavery.

Enumerated products

America may only ship these products to England, even though prices might be better elsewhere. (notably tobacco)

Patriots

American rebels, Whigs. Colonists who supported the American Revolution/Independence. Most numerous where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished, notably in New England.

Texas

Americans, greedy for land, continued to covet the vast expanse of _____________, which the United States had abandoned to Spain when acquiring Florida in 1819.

George Whitefield

An Anglican minister with great oratorical skills. His emotion-charged sermons were a centerpiece of the Great Awakening in the American colonies in the 1740s.

Income Tax

An income tax was levied for the first time in the nation's experience, and although the rates were painlessly low by later standards, they netted millions of dollars.

James Wolfe

An officer since the age of fourteen, though slight and sickly he combined a mixture of dash with painstaking attention to detail. The British attackers were making woeful progress when he, in a daring night move, sent a detachment up a poorly guarded part of the rocky eminence protecting Quebec. In the morning the two armies faced each other on the plains of Abraham on the outskirts of Quebec. He fell fatally wounded, but the French were defeated.

Boston Tea Party

Angered by Hutchinson's orders to ships at the Boston harbor to unload their tea cargo, Bostonians disguised as Indians boarded the docked ships in 1773 and smashed open chests of tea, dumping it into the Boston harbor.

Eli Whitney

Another mechanical genius, Massachusetts-born _________________, now made his mark. After graduating from Yale, he journeyed to Georgia to serve as a private tutor while preparing for the law. There he was told that the poverty of the South would be relieved if someone could only invent a workable device for separating the seed from the short-staple cotton fiber. Within ten days, in 1793, he built a crude machine called the cotton gin that was fifty times more effective than the handpicking process. Adopted the process of interchangeable parts.

Bill of Rights

Anti-federalists charged that the sovereignty of the states was being submerged and that the freedoms of the individual were jeopardized by the absence of a this. (alarmed by its absence) but the federalists assured them that the first Congress would add such a safeguard by amendment.

Frederick Douglass

Antiblack feeling was in fact frequently stronger in the North than in the South. The gifted and eloquent former slave _____________________, an abolitionist and self-educated orator of rare power, was several times mobbed and beaten by northern rowdies. The greatest of the black abolitionists. Escaping from bondage in 1838 at the age of twenty-one, he was "discovered" by the abolitionists in 1841 when he gave a stunning impromptu speech at an antislavery meeting in Massachusetts. Thereafter he lectured widely for the cause, despite frequent beatings and threats against his life. In 1845 he published his classic autobiography.

Ratifying the Constitution

Antifederalist opposed the ratification of the Constitution because it gave more power to the federal government and less to the states, and because it did not ensure individual rights. Many wanted to keep the Articles of Confederation. The Antifederalists were instrumental in obtaining passage of the Bill of Rights as a prerequisite to ratification of the Constitution in several states. After the ratification of the Constitution, the Antifederalists regrouped as the Democratic-Republican (or simply Republican) party. Only forty-two of the original fifty-five members remained to sign the Constitution. Three of the forty-two, refusing to do so, returned to their states to resist ratification.

Cotton Kingdom

Areas in the south where cotton farming developed because of the high demand for cotton. This developed into a huge agricultural factory, pouring out avalanches of the fluffy fiber. Quick profits drew planters to the loamy bottomlands of the Gulf states. As long as the soil was still vigorous, the yield was bountiful and the rewards were high. Caught up in an economic spiral, the planters bought more slaves and land to grow more cotton, so as to buy still more slaves and land.

Moctezuma

As Cortés proceeded, the Aztec chieftain ______________ sent ambassadors bearing fabulous gifts to welcome the approaching Spaniards. The superstitious ______________ also believed that Cortés was the god Quetzalcoatl, whose return from the eastern sea was predicted in Aztec legends. Expectant yet apprehensive, he allowed the conquistadores to approach his capital unopposed. He treated Cortés hospitably at first, but soon the Spaniards' hunger for gold and power exhausted their welcome and the Aztecs attacked on noche triste.

Components of Union's "total war"

As finally developed, the Northern military plan had six components: -first, slowly suffocate the South by blockading its coasts -second, liberate the slaves and hence undermine the very economic foundations of the Old South -third, cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River backbone -fourth, chop the Confederacy to pieces by sending troops through Georgia and the Carolinas -fifth, decapitate it by capturing its capital at Richmond -sixth (this was Ulysses Grant's idea especially), try everywhere to engage the enemy's main strength and to grind it into submission.

"Stonewall" Jackson

At the first battle of Bull Run went well for the Yankees. But this confederate general and his soldiers stood like a stone wall (here he won his nickname) and his forces arrived unexpectedly. Panic seized the green Union troops and many fled in shameful confusion.

Fort Duquesne

At the pivotal point where the Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers join to form the Ohio—the later site of Pittsburgh. The Virginians under George Washington fired the first shots of the French and Indian War against the French forty miles from here. The French leader was killed and troops retreated giving the Fort to the Virginians.

King George III

Attempted to assert the power of the British monarchy. He was a good man in private morals, but he proved to be a bad ruler. Earnest, industrious, stubborn, and lustful for power, he surrounded himself with cooperative "yes men" (lord north being one of them).

Sir Edmund Andros

Autocratic head of the Dominion of England. Establishing headquarters in Puritanical Boston, he generated much hostility by his open affiliation with the despised Church of England. The colonists were also outraged by his noisy and Sabbath-profaning soldiers, who were accused of teaching the people "to drink, blaspheme, curse, and damn." He ruthlessly curbed the cherished town meetings; laid heavy restrictions on the courts, the press, and the schools; and revoked all land titles. Dispensing with the popular assemblies, he taxed the people without the consent of their duly elected representatives. He also strove to enforce the unpopular Navigation Laws and suppress smuggling. Liberty-loving colonists, accustomed to unusual privileges during long decades of neglect, were goaded to the verge of revolt. The Dominion of England soon rose up against the regime, and Andros attempted to flee but could not and was shipped off to England.

Andrew Jackson's "bank war"

Battle between President Andrew Jackson and Congressional supporters of the Bank of the United States over the bank's renewal in 1832. Jackson vetoed the Bank Bill, arguing that the bank favored moneyed interests at the expense of western farmers. Jackson vs. Bank & Biddle Jackson begins taking out funds and putting them into pet banks, successfully "killing" the bank; leads to fluctuation in economy and eventual panic; Jackson believed the Bank of US had too much power and was too rich.

William Henry Harrison

Before his new term had fairly started, he contracted pneumonia. Wearied by official functions and plagued by office seekers, the enfeebled old warrior died after only four weeks in the White House—by far the shortest administration in American history, following by far the longest inaugural address.

Oligarchy

Before the Civil War, the South was in some respects not so much a democracy as this—or a government by the few.

Manifest Destiny

Belief that the United States was destined by God to spread its "empire of liberty" across North America. Served as a justification for mid-nineteenth-century expansionism.

Manifest Destiny

Belief that the United States was destined by God to spread its "empire of liberty" across North America. Served as a justification for mid-nineteenth-century expansionism. The intoxicating victory in the Mexican War, coupled with the discovery of gold in California just nine days before the war's end, reinvigorated the spirit of this.

Pontiac's War

Bloody campaign waged by Pontiac to drive out the British out of Ohio country. Laid siege to Detroit and eventually overran all but three British posts west of the Appalachians, killing some two thousand soldiers. It was brutally crushed by British troops, who resorted to distributing blankets infected with smallpox as a means to put an end to the rebellion.

Compact theory

Both Jefferson and Madison stressed this, a theory popular among English political philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As applied to America by the Jeffersonians, this concept meant that the thirteen sovereign states, in creating the federal government, had entered into a "compact," or contract, regarding its jurisdiction. The national government was consequently the agent or creation of the states. The individual states were the final judges of whether their agent had broken the "compact" by overstepping the authority originally granted. Invoking this logic, Jefferson's Kentucky resolutions concluded that the federal regime had exceeded its constitutional powers and that with regard to the Alien and Sedition Acts, "nullification"—a refusal to accept them—was the "rightful remedy."

"King Cotton"

British textile mills depended on the American South for 75 percent of their cotton supplies. Wouldn't silent looms force London to speak? Humanitarian sympathies aside, Southerners counted on hard economic need to bring Britain to their aid. Why did King Cotton fail them? He failed in part because he had been so lavishly productive in the immediate prewar years of 1857-1860. Enormous exports of cotton in those years had piled up surpluses in British warehouses. When the shooting started in 1861, British manufacturers had on hand a hefty oversupply of fiber. The real pinch did not come until about a year and a half later. Cotton growers of Egypt and India, responding to high prices, increased their output and captured a share of the world cotton market.

Fugitive Slave Law

By 1850 southerners were demanding a new and more stringent these. The old one, passed by Congress in 1793, had proved inadequate to cope with runaways, especially since unfriendly state authorities failed to provide needed cooperation. Unlike cattle thieves, the abolitionists who ran the Underground Railroad did not gain personally from their lawlessness. But to the slaveowners, the loss was infuriating, whatever the motives. The moral judgments of the abolitionists seemed, in some ways, more galling than outright theft. They reflected not only a holier-than-thou attitude but a refusal to obey the laws solemnly passed by Congress.

Declaration of the War of 1812

By the spring of 1812, Madison believed war with Britain to be inevitable. The British arming of hostile Indians pushed him toward this decision, as did the whoops of the war hawks in his own party. Above all, Madison turned to war to restore confidence in the republican experiment. Madison asked Congress to declare war on June 1, 1812. Congress obliged him two weeks later—the first of just five times in all of American history that Congress has formally exercised its constitutional power to declare war The vote in the House was 79 to 49 for war, in the Senate 19 to 13. The close tally revealed deep divisions over the wisdom of fighting. The split was both sectional and partisan. Support for war came from the South and West, but also from Republicans in populous middle states such as Pennsylvania and Virginia. Federalists in both North and South damned the conflict, but their stronghold was New England, which greeted the declaration of war with muffled bells, flags at half-mast, and public fasting. Thus perilously divided, the barely United States plunged into armed conflict against Britain, then the world's most powerful empire. No sober American could have much reasonable hope of victory, but by 1812 the Jeffersonian Republicans saw no other choice.

Puritans

Calvinism was their dominant theological credo. English Protestant reformers who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic rituals and creeds. Some of the most devout Puritans believed that only "visible saints" should be admitted to church membership.

Battle of Gettysburg

Civil War battle in Pennsylvania that ended in Union victory, spelling doom for the Confederacy, which never again managed to invade the North. Site of General George Pickett's daring but doomed charge on the Northern lines.

Second Battle of Bull Run

Civil War battle that ended in a decisive victory for Confederate General Robert E. Lee, who was emboldened to push further into the North.

Federalist Papers

Collection of essays written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton and published during the ratification debate in New York to lay out the Federalists' arguments in favor of the new Constitution. Since their publication, these influential essays have served as an important source for constitutional interpretation.

Naval Stores

Colonial naval stores —such as tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine—were highly valued, for Britain was anxious to gain and retain a mastery of the seas. London offered generous bounties to stimulate production of these items; otherwise Britain would have had to turn to the uncertain and possibly hostile Baltic areas. Towering trees, ideal as masts for His Majesty's navy, were marked with the king's broad arrow for future use. The luckless colonist who was caught cutting down this reserved timber was subject to a fine. Even though there were countless unreserved trees and the blazed ones were being saved for the common defense, this shackle on free enterprise engendered considerable bitterness.

General Robert E. Lee

Confederate General who launched a devastating counterattack (the Seven Days' Battles) during the Peninsula Campaign. The Confederates slowly drove McClellan back to the sea. Defeated General John Pope in the Second Battle of Bull Run.

Thirteenth Amendment

Constitutional amendment prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude. Former Confederate States were required to ratify the amendment prior to gaining reentry into the Union.

First Continental Congress

Convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies (not Georgia) that convened in Philadelphia to craft a response to the Intolerable Acts. Delegates established Association, which called for a complete boycott of British goods and drew up a Declaration of Rights. The delegates sought merely to repeal legislation and return to days before parliamentary taxation, but not seek independence. The Congress' petitions were rejected by Parliament.

"Freeport Doctrine"

Declared that since slavery could not exist without laws to protect it, territorial legislatures, not the Supreme Court, would have the final say on the slavery question. First argued by Stephen Douglass in 1858 in response to Abraham Lincoln.

Proclamation of 1763

Decree issued by Parliament in the wake of Pontiac's uprising prohibiting settlement beyond the Appalachians. Contributed to rising resentment of British rule in the American colonies.

Division of Democratic Party

Deeply divided, the Democrats met in Charleston, South Carolina, with Douglas the leading candidate of the northern wing of the party. But the southern "fire-eaters" regarded him as a traitor, as a result of his unpopular stand on the Lecompton Constitution and the Freeport Doctrine. After a bitter wrangle over the platform, the delegates from most of the cotton states walked out. When the remainder could not scrape together the necessary two-thirds vote for Douglas, the entire body dissolved. The Democrats tried again in Baltimore. This time the Douglas Democrats, chiefly from the North, were firmly in the saddle. Many of the cotton-state delegates again took a walk, and the rest of the convention enthusiastically nominated their hero. The platform came out squarely for popular sovereignty and, as a sop to the South, against obstruction of the Fugitive Slave Law by the states. Angered southern Democrats promptly organized a rival convention in Baltimore, in which many of the northern states were unrepresented. They selected as their leader the stern-jawed vice president, John C. Breckinridge, a man of moderate views from the border state of Kentucky. The platform favored the extension of slavery into the territories and the annexation of slave-populated Cuba.

Loyalists

Deeply rooted loyalty to the British empire caused many Americans to deny intention of independence and stay loyal to Britain. They were similar to Tories (Tory), a British party. They made up 16% of Americans, usually Anglican (except Virginia) and old (didn't come for religious freedom). If Britain had won, they would have still been punished for being rebels. People of education and wealth were satisfied with their lot and believed that nay violent change would only be for the worse. Least numerous in New England. Most numerous in New York city and Charlestown. Also in New Jersey and Quaker Pennsylvania.

"Scalawags"

Derogatory term for pro-Union Southerners whom Southern Democrats accused of plundering the resources of the South in collusion with Republican governments after the Civil War.

General Ulysses S. Grant

Despite a difficult start, he rose to success after heavy fighting, and captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers in February 1862. When the Confederate commander at Fort Donelson asked for terms, he bluntly demanded "an unconditional and immediate surrender." He next attempted to capture a Confederate railroad junction, but was foiled at the Battle at Shiloh. Lincoln resisted all demands to remove him because of his poor drinking habits. The siege of Vicksburg was his best-fought campaign of the war. Grant was rewarded by being made general in chief after his victories near Chattanooga.

XYZ Affair

Diplomatic conflict between France and the United States when American envoys to France were asked to pay a hefty bribe for the privilege of meeting with the French foreign minister Talleyrand. Many in the U.S. called for war against France, while American sailors and privateers waged an undeclared war against French merchants in the Caribbean.

Lord de la Warr

Diseased and despairing, the remaining colonists dragged themselves aboard homeward-bound ships in the spring of 1610, only to be met at the mouth of the James River by a long-awaited relief party headed by a this new governor. He ordered the settlers back to Jamestown, imposed a harsh military regime on the colony, and soon undertook aggressive military action against the Indians.

Wilmot Proviso

Dispute over whether any Mexican territory that America won during the Mexican War should be free or a slave territory. A representative named David ___________ introduced an amendment stating that any territory acquired from Mexico would be free. This amendment passed the House twice, but failed to ever pass in Senate. This became a symbol of how intense dispute over slavery was in the U.S. and causes sectionalism.

Dred Scott Case

Dred Scott, a black slave, had lived with his master for five years in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory. Backed by interested abolitionists, he sued for freedom on the basis of his long residence on free soil. It ruled, not surprisingly, that Dred Scott was a black slave and not a citizen, and hence could not sue in federal courts. A majority of the Court decreed that because a slave was private property, he or she could be taken into any territory and legally held there in slavery. The reasoning was that the Fifth Amendment clearly forbade Congress to deprive people of their property without due process of law. Now the Court ruled that the Compromise of 1820 had been unconstitutional all along: Congress had no power to ban slavery from the territories, regardless even of what the territorial legislatures themselves might want.

Burning of Washington D.C.

During the Battle of Bladensburg, the British entered the capital and set fire to most of the public buildings, including the Capitol and the White House.

Nueces River

During the long era of Spanish Mexican occupation, the southwestern boundary of Texas had been this.

German Immigration

During these troubled years (1830-1860), over a million and a half Germans stepped onto American soil. The bulk of them were uprooted farmers, displaced by crop failures and other hardships. But a strong sprinkling were liberal political refugees. Saddened by the collapse of the democratic revolutions of 1848, they had decided to leave the autocratic fatherland and flee to America—the brightest hope of democracy. Unlike the Irish, many of the Germanic newcomers possessed a modest amount of material goods. Most of them pushed out to the lush lands of the Middle West, notably Wisconsin, where they settled and established model farms The Conestoga wagon, the Kentucky rifle, and the Christmas tree were all German contributions to American culture. Seeking to preserve their language and culture, they sometimes settled in compact "colonies" and kept aloof from the surrounding community.

Sugar Act

Duty on imported sugar from the West Indies. It was the first tax levied on the colonists by the crown and was lowered substantially in response to widespread protests.

Lone Star Rebellion

Early in 1836 the Texans declared their independence, unfurled their Lone Star flag, and named Sam Houston commander in chief.

Moral Tariff Act

Early in 1861, after enough antiprotection Southern members had seceded, Congress passed this, superseding the low Tariff of 1857. It increased the existing duties some 5 to 10 percent, boosting them to about the moderate level of the Walker Tariff of 1846. But these modest rates were soon pushed sharply upward by the necessities of war. The increases were designed partly to raise additional revenue and partly to provide more protection for the prosperous manufacturers who were being plucked by the new internal taxes. A protective tariff thus became identified with the Republican party, as American industrialists, mostly Republicans, waxed fat on these welcome benefits.

Madison's presidency

Elected the fourth president of the United States. Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810), stated the US would trade with either country who would cease attacks on American shipping; 1809-1817 Battle of Tippecanoe (1811), William Henry Harrison led an army to defeat Tecumseh; 1809-1817 War of 1812; 1809-1817 Hartford Convention (1814-1815); 1809-1817 Treaty of Ghent (1814), ended the War of 1812; 1809-1817 Tariff of 1816, first protective tariff; 1809-1817

Cotton Gin

Eli Whitney's invention that sped up the process of harvesting cotton. The gin made cotton cultivation more profitable, revitalizing the Southern economy and increasing the importance of slavery in the South. A device that separated the seed from the short-staple cotton fiber.

Battle at Antietam Creek

Emboldened by his success in the Second Battle of Bull Run, Lee daringly thrust into Maryland. He hoped to strike a blow that would not only encourage foreign intervention but also seduce the still-wavering Border State and its sisters from the Union. Events finally converged toward a critical battle in Maryland. Lincoln, yielding to popular pressure, hastily restored "Little Mac" to active command of the main Northern army. Fortune shone upon McClellan when two Union soldiers found a copy of Lee's battle plans wrapped around a packet of three cigars dropped by a careless Confederate officer. With this crucial piece of intelligence in hand, McClellan succeeded in halting Lee on September 17, 1862, in one of the bitterest and bloodiest days of the war. This battle was more or less a draw militarily. But Lee, finding his thrust parried, retired across the Potomac. McClellan, from whom much more had been hoped, was removed from his field command for the second and final time. The long-awaited "victory" that Lincoln needed for launching his Emancipation Proclamation .

Sedition Act

Enacted by the Federalist Congress in an effort to clamp down on Jeffersonian opposition, the law made anyone convicted of defaming government officials or interfering with government policies liable to imprisonment and a heavy fine. The act drew heavy criticism from Republicans, who let the act expire in 1801. Was a direct slap at two priceless freedoms guaranteed in the Constitution by the Bill of Rights—freedom of speech and freedom of the press (First Amendment).

Embargo Act of 1806

Enacted in response to British and French mistreatment of American merchants, the Act banned the export of all goods from the United States to any foreign port. The embargo placed great strains on the American economy while only marginally affecting its European targets, and was therefore repealed in 1809.

Sir Francis Drake

Encouraged by the ambitious Elizabeth I, hardy English buccaneers now swarmed out upon the shipping lanes. They sought to promote the twin goals of Protestantism and plunder by seizing Spanish treasure ships and raiding Spanish settlements, even though England and Spain were technically at peace. The most famous of these semipiratical "sea dogs" was him. He swashbuckled and looted his way around the planet, returning in 1580 with his ship heavily ballasted with Spanish booty. The venture netted profits of about 4,600 percent to his financial backers, among whom, in secret, was Queen Elizabeth. Defying Spanish protest, she brazenly knighted him on the deck of his barnacled ship.

Columbian Exchange

Europeans (the "Old World") gained gold, silver, corn, potatoes, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, and diseases like syphilis from the New World. The New World gained wheat, sugar, rice, coffee, horses, cows, pigs, and diseases like smallpox, measles, the bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, and scarlet fever from the Old World. Also, Africa became a part of this by providing the New World with slave labor and in return receiving New World foods such as maize and sweet potatoes.

Triangular trade

Exchange of rum, slaves, and molasses between the North American Colonies, Africa, and the West Indies. A small but immensely profitable subset of the Atlantic trade. A skipper, for example, would leave a New England port with a cargo of rum and sail to the Gold Coast of Africa. Bartering the fiery liquor with African chiefs for captured African slaves, he would proceed to the West Indies with his sobbing and suffocating cargo sardined below deck. There he would exchange the survivors for molasses, which he would then carry to New England, where it would be distilled into rum. He would then repeat the trip, making a handsome profit on each leg of the triangle.

Townshend Acts

External, or indirect, levies on glass, white lead, paper, paint and tea, the proceeds of which were used to pay colonial governors, who had previously been paid directly by colonial assemblies. Sparked another round of protests in the colonies.

John Wilkes Booth

Fanatically pro-Southern actor who slipped behind Lincoln as he sat in his box at Ford's Theater and shot him in the head.

Federal Arsenal at Harpers Ferry

Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by abolitionist John Brown in 1859. Though Brown was later captured and executed, his raid alarmed Southerners who believed that Northerners shared in Brown's extremism.

"Midnight judges"

Federal justices appointed by John Adams during the last days of his presidency. Their positions were revoked when the newly elected Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act.

"Free-Soilers"

Few northerners were prepared to abolish slavery outright, but a growing number, including Lincoln, opposed extending it to the western territories. People of this stamp, commonly called __________________ swelled their ranks as the Civil War approached.

Homestead Act

Financial distress in the North (from panic of 1857), especially in agriculture, gave a new vigor to the demand for free farms of 160 acres from the public domain. For several decades interested groups had been urging the federal government to abandon its ancient policy of selling the land for revenue. Instead, the argument ran, acreage should be given outright to the sturdy pioneers as a reward for risking health and life to develop it. In 1860, after years of debate from eastern industrialists and the south, Congress finally passed this—one that made public lands available at a nominal sum of twenty-five cents an acre. But it was stabbed to death by the veto pen of President Buchanan, near whose elbow sat leading southern sympathizers.

Articles of Confederation

First American constitution that established the United States as a loose confederation of states under a weak national Congress, which was not granted the power to regulate commerce or collect taxes. They were replaced by a more efficient Constitution in 1789. Adopted by Congress in 1777 it was translated into French after the Battle of Saratoga so as to convince France that America had a genuine government in the making. They were not ratified by all 13 states until 1781, less that 8 months before the victory at Yorktown.

Lexington and Concord

First battles of the Revolutionary War, fought outside of Boston. The colonial militia successfully defended their stores of munitions, forcing the British to retreat to Boston. British wanted to bag Samuel Adams and John Hancock. At Lexington the colonial "Minute Men" refused to disperse rapidly enough, and shots were fired that killed eight Americans and wounded several more. The affair was more the "Lexington Massacre" than a battle. The redcoats pushed on to Concord, whence they were forced to retreat by the rough and ready Americans

Jamestown

First permanent English settlement in North America founded by the Virginia Company. The site was easy to defend, but it was mosquito-infested and devastatingly unhealthful. The early years of ________________ proved a nightmare for all concerned—except the buzzards. Forty would-be colonists perished during the initial voyage in 1606-1607. Another expedition in 1609 lost its leaders and many of its precious supplies in a shipwreck off Bermuda. Once ashore in Virginia, the settlers died by the dozens from disease, malnutrition, and starvation. Ironically, the woods rustled with game and the rivers flopped with fish, but the greenhorn settlers, many of them self-styled "gentlemen" unaccustomed to fending for themselves, wasted valuable time grubbing for nonexistent gold when they should have been gathering provisions. Virginia was saved from utter collapse at the start largely by the leadership and resourcefulness of an intrepid young adventurer, Captain John Smith. Disease continued to reap a gruesome harvest among the Virginians. By 1625 Virginia contained only some twelve hundred hard-bitten survivors of the nearly eight thousand adventurers who had tried to start life anew in the ill-fated colony.

Border States

Five slave states—Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and West Virginia—that did not secede during the Civil War. To keep the states in the Union, Abraham Lincoln insisted that the war was not about abolishing slavery but rather protecting the Union. Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri would almost double the manufacturing capacity of the South and increase by nearly half its supply of horses and mules. The strategic prize of the Ohio River flowed along the northern border of Kentucky and West Virginia. Two of its navigable tributaries, the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers, penetrated deep into the heart of Dixie, where much of the Confederacy's grain, gunpowder, and iron was produced. In Maryland Lincoln declared martial law where needed and sent in troops, because this state threatened to cut off Washington from the North.

Whiskey Rebellion

Flared up in southwestern Pennsylvania in 1794, sharply challenged the new national government. Hamilton's high excise tax bore harshly on these homespun pioneer folk. They regarded it not as a tax on a frivolous luxury but as a burden on an economic necessity and a medium of exchange. Even preachers of the gospel were paid in "Old Monongahela rye." Rye and corn crops distilled into alcohol were more cheaply transported to eastern markets than bales of grain. Defiant distillers finally erected whiskey poles, similar to the liberty poles of anti-stamp tax days in 1765, and raised the cry "Liberty and No Excise." Boldly tarring and feathering revenue officers, they brought collections to a halt. Washington alarmed by what he called these "self-created societies." With the hearty encouragement of Hamilton, he summoned the militias of several states. When the army of thirteen thousand reached the hills of western Pennsylvania, they found no insurrection. The "Whiskey Boys" were overawed, dispersed, or captured. Washington, pardoned the two convicted culprits.

Trail of Tears

Forced march of 15,000 Cherokee Indians from their Georgia and Alabama homes to Indian Territory. Some 4,000 Cherokee died on the arduous journey.

Declaration of Independence

Formal pronouncement of independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson and approved by congress. The declaration allowed Americans to appeal for foreign aid and served as an inspiration for later revolutionary movements worldwide.

The Alamo

Fortress in Texas where four hundred American volunteers were slain by Santa Anna in 1836. "Remember the _______" became a battle cry in support of Texan independence.

Mexican-American War

Fought from 1846 to 1848 on the principle of "manifest destiny" and after the 1845 US annexation of Texas. Polk was also looking to acquire California, including the New Mexico region. This conflict was supported by southern planters desiring to expand the cotton culture, but was opposed by northerners who thought it would give the south more political power. After disputes over Texas lands that were settled by Mexicans the United States declared war on Mexico in 1846. By the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848 the U.S. took Texas, California, Arizona and New Mexico, Nevada, Utah and part of Colorado and paid Mexico $15,000,000.

Bunker Hill

Fought on the outskirts of Boston, on breeds hill, the battle ended in the colonial militias retreat, though at a heavy cost to the British. British victory on account of the depletion of American supplies; gave them confidence- pushed Americans towards a final decision for war.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

French power was thrown completely off the continent of North America, leaving behind a fertile French population that is to this day a strong minority in Canada. The French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and two never to be fortified islets in the gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations. A final blow came when the French to compensate their luckless Spanish ally for its losses ceded to Spain all trans-Mississippi Louisiana plus the outlet of New Orleans. Spain for its part turned Florida over to Britain in return for cuba. Ended the seven years war.

John Quincy Adams

From Massachusetts, free living gambler and duelist. On the first ballot, thanks largely to Clay's behind-the-scenes influence, he was elected president in 1824. He ranks as one of the most successful secretaries of state, yet one of the least successful presidents. "Minority president" He resolutely declined to oust efficient officeholders in order to create vacancies for his supporters. During his entire administration, he removed only twelve public servants from the federal payroll. Such stubbornness caused countless Adams followers to throw up their hands in despair. If the president would not reward party workers with political plums, why should they labor to keep him in office? Much of the nation was turning away from post-Ghent nationalism and toward states' rights and sectionalism. But he swam against the tide. Confirmed nationalist that he was, __________, in his first annual message, urged upon Congress the construction of roads and canals. He renewed George Washington's proposal for a national university and went so far as to advocate federal support for an astronomical observatory. _____________ land policy likewise antagonized the westerners. They clamored for wide-open expansion and resented the president's well-meaning attempts to curb feverish speculation in the public domain.

Andrew Jackson

From Tennessee, the gaunt and gutsy hero of New Orleans and presidential candidate in the 1824 election. he had the strongest personal appeal, especially in the West, where his campaign against the forces of corruption and privilege in government resonated deeply. He polled almost as many popular votes as his next two rivals combined, but he failed to win a majority of the electoral vote and lost the election because of the "corrupt bargain". Born in the Carolinas and early orphaned, "Mischievous Andy" grew up without parental restraints. As a youth he displayed much more interest in brawling and cockfighting than in his scanty opportunities for reading and spelling. The youthful Carolinian shrewdly moved "up West" to Tennessee, where fighting was prized above writing. Won the election of 1828 and became the first president from the west.

Seneca Falls Womens Rights Convention (1848)

Gathering of feminist activists in Seneca Falls, New York, where Elizabeth Cady Stanton read her "Declaration of Sentiments," stating that "all men and women are created equal." One resolution formally demanded the ballot for females. Amid scorn and denunciation from press and pulpit, this meeting launched the modern women's rights movement.

Battle of Yorktown

George Washington with he aid of the French army, besieged Cornwallis at ____________ while the French naval fleet prevented British reinforcements from coming ashore. Cornwallis surrendered, dealing a heavy blow to the British war effort and paving the way for eventual peace.

Washington's presidency

George Washington, the esteemed war hero, was unanimously drafted as president by the Electoral College in 1789—the only presidential nominee ever to be honored by unanimity. Balanced rather than brilliant, he commanded his followers by strength of character rather than by the arts of the politician. He established the cabinet

Martin Luther

German friar who nailed his protest against Catholic doctrines to the door of the Wittenberg's cathedral in 1517. Denouncing the authority of priests and popes, he declared that the Bible alone was the source of God's word. He ignited a fire of religious reform (the "Protestant Reformation") that licked its way across Europe for more than a century, dividing peoples, toppling sovereigns, and kindling the spiritual fervor of millions of men and women—some of whom helped to found America.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Gilbert's ill-starred dream inspired his gallant half-brother _______________ to try again in warmer climes. He organized an expedition that first landed in 1585 on North Carolina's Roanoke Island , off the coast of Virginia.

Confederate States of America

Government established after seven Southern states seceded from the Union. Later joined by four more states from the Upper South. President was Jefferson Davis.

Battle at Shiloh

Grant next attempted to exploit his victory by capturing the junction of the main Confederate northsouth and east-west railroads in the Mississippi Valley at Corinth, Mississippi. But a Confederate force foiled his plans in a gory battle here, just over the Tennessee border from Corinth, on April 6-7, 1862. Though Grant successfully counterattacked, the impressive Confederate showing confirmed that there would be no quick end to the war in the West.

Inflation

Greenbacks fluctuated with the fortunes of Union arms and at one low point were worth only 39 cents on the gold dollar.

Bank of the United States

Hamilton proposed this. He took the Bank of England as his model. Specifically, he proposed a powerful private institution, of which the government would be the major stockholder and in which the federal Treasury would deposit its surplus monies. The central government not only would have a convenient strongbox, but federal funds would stimulate business by remaining in circulation. The bank would also print urgently needed paper money and thus provide a sound and stable national currency, badly needed since the days when the Continental dollar was "not worth a Continental." The proposed bank would indeed be useful. But was it constitutional? created by Congress in 1791, was chartered for twenty years. Located in Philadelphia, it was to have a capital of $10 million, one-fifth of it owned by the federal government. Stock was thrown open to public sale.

Uncle Toms Cabin

Harriet Beecher Stowe's widely read novel that dramatized the horrors of slavery. It heightened Northern support for abolition and escalated the sectional conflict. The novel was immensely popular abroad, especially in Britain and France. When the guns in America finally began to boom, the common people of England sensed that the triumph of the North would spell the end of the black curse. The governments in London and Paris seriously considered intervening in behalf of the South, but they were sobered by the realization that many of their own people, aroused by the "Tommania," might not support them.

John C. Calhoun

He appeared as the vice-presidential candidate on both the Adams and Jackson tickets in the election of 1824. He secretly wrote the South Carolina Exposition in 1828, while he was vice president.

Samuel Slater

He has been acclaimed the "Father of the Factory System" in America, and seldom can the paternity of a movement more properly be ascribed to one person. A skilled British mechanic of twenty-one, he was attracted by bounties being offered to British workers familiar with the textile machines. After memorizing the plans for the machinery, he escaped in disguise to America, where he won the backing of Moses Brown, a Quaker capitalist in Rhode Island. Laboriously reconstructing the essential apparatus with the aid of a blacksmith and a carpenter, he put into operation in 1791 the first efficient American machinery for spinning cotton thread.

John Adams

He served as the defense attorney for the solders of the Boston massacre during the trial.

John Tyler

He was a Virginia gentleman of the old school—gracious and kindly, yet stubbornly attached to principle. He had earlier resigned from the Senate, quite unnecessarily, rather than accept distasteful instructions from the Virginia legislature. Still a lone wolf, he had forsaken the Jacksonian Democratic fold for that of the Whigs, largely because he could not stomach the dictatorial tactics of Jackson. Tyler's enemies accused him of being a Democrat in Whig clothing, but this charge was only partially true because he belonged to a minority wing, which embraced a number of Jeffersonian states' righters. He had in fact been put on the ticket partly to attract the vote of this fringe group, many of whom were influential southern gentry. He deserves much of the credit for shepherding Texas into the fold. Aware of the opposition, he despaired of securing the needed two-thirds vote for a treaty in the Senate. He therefore arranged for annexation by a joint resolution. This solution required only a simple majority in both houses of Congress. After a spirited debate, the resolution passed early in 1845, and Texas was formally invited to become the twenty-eighth star on the American flag.

Francis Scott Key

He was a detained American who anxiously watched the bombardment from a British ship, and was inspired by the doughty defenders to write the words of "The Star-Spangled Banner." Set to the tune of a saucy English tavern refrain, the song quickly attained popularity.

Fransisco Pizarro

He was an ironfisted conquerer who crushed the Incas of Peru in 1532 and added a huge hoard of booty to Spanish coffers.

James Monroe

He was nominated for the presidency in 1816 by the Republicans, continuing the Virginia dynasty. The fading Federalists ran a candidate for the last time in their checkered history, and he was crushed by 183 electoral votes to 34, leaving the field to the triumphant Republicans and one-party rule. As the last president to wear an old-style cocked hat, he straddled two generations: the bygone age of the Founding Fathers and the emergent age of nationalism. Never brilliant, and perhaps not great, the serene Virginian was in intellect and personal force the least distinguished of the first eight presidents. But the times called for sober administration, not dashing heroics. And he was an experienced, levelheaded executive, with an ear-to-the-ground talent for interpreting popular rumblings. Emerging nationalism was further cemented by a goodwill tour he undertook early in 1817, ostensibly to inspect military defenses. He pushed northward deep into New England and then westward to Detroit, viewing en route Niagara Falls. Even in Federalist New England, "the enemy's country," he received a heartwarming welcome; a Boston newspaper was so far carried away as to announce that an "Era of Good Feelings" had been ushered in. This happy phrase has been commonly used since then to describe the administrations of him.

General George Washington

He was selected by the Second Continental Congress to head the hastily improvised army (continental army) besieging Boston. Although he had never risen above the rank of a colonel in the militia, he was gifted with outstanding powers of leadership and immense strength of character. He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice. He was a great moral face rather than a military mind. He insisted on serving without pay. Led the battle of trenton and the battle of long island.

Peter Cartwright

He was the best known of the Methodist "circuit riders," or traveling frontier preachers. This ill-educated but sinewy servant of the Lord ranged for a half-century from Tennessee to Illinois, calling upon sinners to repent. With bellowing voice and flailing arms, he converted thousands of souls to the Lord. Not only did he lash the Devil with his tongue, but with his fists he knocked out rowdies who tried to break up his meetings.

Charles Grandson Finney

He was the greatest of the revival preachers. Trained as a lawyer,he abandoned the bar to become an evangelist after a deeply moving conversion experience as a young man. Tall and athletically built, he held huge crowds spellbound with the power of his oratory and the pungency of his message. He led massive revivals in Rochester and New York City in 1830 and 1831. He preached a version of the old-time religion, but he was also an innovator. He devised the "anxious bench," where repentant sinners could sit in full view of the congregation, and he encouraged women to pray aloud in public. Holding out the promise of a perfect Christian kingdom on earth, he denounced both alcohol and slavery. He eventually served as president of Oberlin College in Ohio, which he helped to make a hotbed of revivalist activity and abolitionism.

The American System

Henry Clay's system had three main parts. It began with a strong banking system, which would provide easy and abundant credit. Clay also advocated a protective tariff, behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish. Revenues gushing from the tariff would provide funds for the third component —a network of roads and canals, especially in the burgeoning Ohio Valley. Through these new arteries of transportation would flow foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West to the North and East. In exchange, a stream of manufactured goods would flow in the return direction, knitting the country together economically and politically.

Henry Clay

High-living colleague of John Quincy Adams who was part of the group of American peacemakers in Ghent. Developed American System.

John Rolfe

His marriage to Pocahontas sealed the peace settlement of the First Anglo Powhatan War. A series of Indian attacks after the First Anglo Powhatan War left 347 settlers dead, including him.

Samuel F.B. Morse

His telegraph was among the inventions that tightened the sinews of an increasingly complex business world. A distinguished but poverty-stricken portrait painter, he finally secured from Congress, to the accompaniment of the usual jeers, an appropriation of $30,000 to support his experiment with "talking wires." In 1844 he strung a wire forty miles from Washington to Baltimore and tapped out the historic message, "What hath God wrought?" The invention brought fame and fortune to him, as he put distantly separated people in almost instant communication with one another. By the eve of the Civil War, a web of singing wires spanned nearly the entire continent, revolutionizing news gathering, diplomacy, and finance.

Juan Ponce de Leon

In 1513 and 1521, he explored Florida, which he at first thought was an island. Seeking gold (probably not the mythical "fountain of youth") and he was killed by native Indians.

Hernan Cortes

In 1519 he set sail from Cuba with sixteen fresh horses and several hundred men aboard eleven ships, bound for Mexico and for destiny. On the island of Cozumel off the Yucatán Peninsula, he rescued a Spanish castaway who had been enslaved for several years by the Mayan-speaking Indians. A short distance farther on, he picked up the female Indian slave Malinche, who knew both Mayan and Nahuatl, the language of the powerful Aztec rulers of the great empire in the highlands of central Mexico. In addition to his superior firepower, he now had the advantage, through these two interpreters, of understanding the speech of the native peoples whom he was about to encounter, including the Aztecs. Near present-day Veracruz, Cortés made his final landfall. Through his interpreters he learned of unrest within the Aztec empire and of the alluring tales of the gold and other wealth stored up in the legendary Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. He lusted to tear open the coffers of the Aztec kingdom. To quell his mutinous troops, he boldly burned his ships, cutting off any hope of retreat. Gathering a force of some twenty thousand Indian allies, he marched on Tenochtitlán. The superstitious Moctezuma believed that he was the god Quetzalcoatl, whose return from the eastern sea was predicted in Aztec legends. Expectant yet apprehensive, Moctezuma allowed the conquistadores to approach his capital unopposed. Moctezuma treated Cortés hospitably at first, but soon the Spaniards' hunger for gold and power exhausted their welcome. On the noche triste (sad night) of June 30, 1520, the Aztecs attacked, driving the Spanish down the causeways from Tenochtitlán in a frantic, bloody retreat. he then laid siege to the city, and it capitulated in 1521.

"Tariff of Abominations"

In 1824 Congress had increased the general tariff significantly, but wool manufacturers (in the north) bleated for still-higher barriers. Ardent Jacksonites now played a cynical political game. They promoted a high-tariff bill, expecting to be defeated, which would give a black eye to President Adams. To their surprise, the tariff passed in 1828, and Andrew Jackson inherited the political hot potato. Southerners, as heavy consumers of manufactured goods with little manufacturing industry of their own, were hostile to tariffs. They were particularly shocked by what they regarded as the outrageous rates of the Tariff of 1828. Hotheads branded it the "Black Tariff" or this . Several southern states adopted formal protests.

Joseph Smith

In 1830 _________________—a rugged visionary, proud of his prowess at wrestling—reported that he had received some golden plates from an angel. When deciphered, they constituted the Book of Mormon, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the Mormons ) was launched. It was a native American product, a new religion, destined to spread its influence worldwide. After establishing a religious oligarchy, he ran into serious opposition from his non-Mormon neighbors, first in Ohio and then in Missouri and Illinois. His cooperative sect antagonized rank-and-file Americans, who were individualistic and dedicated to free enterprise. The Mormons aroused further anger by voting as a unit and by openly but understandably drilling their militia for defensive purposes. Accusations of polygamy likewise arose and increased in intensity, for he was reputed to have several wives. Continuing hostility finally drove the Mormons to desperate measures. In 1844 him and his brother were murdered and mangled by a mob in Carthage, Illinois, and the movement seemed near collapse

Nat Turner

In 1831 the semiliterate ______________, a visionary black preacher, led an uprising that slaughtered about sixty Virginians, mostly women and children. Reprisals were swift and bloody, and this was soon extinguished. It also raised fears among white Southerners of further uprisings.

California Gold Rush

Inflow of thousands of miners to Northern California after news reports of the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in January of 1848 had spread around the world by the end of that year. The onslaught of migrants prompted Californians to organize a government and apply for statehood in 1849.

Albany Congress

Intercolonial congress summoned by the British government to foster greater colonial unity and assure Iroquois support in the escalating war against the French. Travel-weary delegates from only seven of the thirteen colonies showed up. The immediate purpose was to keep the scalping knives of the Iroquois tribes loyal to the British in the spreading war. Benjamin Franklin was the head. His outstanding contribution was a well-devised but premature scheme for colonial home rule. The Albany delegates unanimously adopted the plan, but the individual colonies spurned it, as did the London regime. To the colonists, it did not seem to give enough independence; to the British officials, it seemed to give too much.

Irish Immigration

Ireland, already groaning under the heavy hand of British overlords, was prostrated in the mid-1840s. A terrible rot attacked the potato crop, on which the people had become dangerously dependent, and about one-fourth of them were swept away by disease and hunger. Starved bodies were found dead by the roadsides with grass in their mouths. All told, about 2 million perished. Tens of thousands of destitute souls, fleeing the Land of Famine for the Land of Plenty, flocked to America in the "Black Forties." Ireland's great export has been population, and the Irish take their place beside the Jews and the Africans as a dispersed people. These uprooted newcomers—too poor to move west and buy the necessary land, livestock, and equipment—swarmed into the larger seaboard cities. Noteworthy were Boston and particularly New York, which rapidly became the largest Irish city in the world. Before many decades had passed, more people of Hibernian blood lived in America than on the "ould sod" of Erin's Isle.

Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

Issued by George Washington, it proclaimed America's formal neutrality in the escalating conflict between England and France, a statement that enraged pro-French Jeffersonians.

Land Ordinance of 1785

It provided that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. The vast area was to be surveyed before sale and settlement, thus forestalling endless confusion and lawsuits. It was to be divided into townships six miles square, each of which in turn was to be split into thirty-six sections of one square mile each. The sixteenth section of each township was set aside to be sold for the benefit of the public schools—a priceless gift to education in the Northwest. The orderly settlement of the Northwest Territory, where the land was methodically surveyed and titles duly recorded, contrasted sharply with the chaos south of the Ohio River, where uncertain ownership was the norm and fraud was rampant.

Freedmen's Bureau

It was to provide food, clothing, medical care, and education both to freedmen and to white refugees. The bureau achieved its greatest successes in education. It taught an estimated 200,000 blacks how to read. Many former slaves had a passion for learning, partly because they wanted to close the gap between themselves and whites and partly because they longed to read the Word of God. But in other areas, the bureau's accomplishments were meager. Although the bureau was authorized to settle former slaves on forty-acre tracts confiscated from the Confederates, little land actually made it into blacks' hands. Instead local administrators often collaborated with planters in expelling blacks from towns and cajoling them into signing labor contracts to work for their former masters. Still, the white South resented the bureau as a meddlesome federal interloper that threatened to upset white racial dominance. President Andrew Johnson, who shared the white supremacist views of most white Southerners, repeatedly tried to kill it, and it expired in 1872. Oliver O. Howard was the head of this.

Marco Polo

Italian adventurer who returned to Europe in 1295 and began telling tales of his nearly twenty-year sojourn in China. Though he may in fact never have seen China, he must be regarded as an indirect discoverer of the New World, for his book, with its descriptions of rose-tinted pearls and golden pagodas, stimulated European desires for a cheaper route to the treasures of the East.

Whig Party

Jackson's opponents, fuming at his ironfisted exercise of presidential power, condemned him as "King Andrew I" and began to coalesce as the _____________—a name deliberately chosen to recollect eighteenth-century British and Revolutionary American opposition to the monarchy. This party contained so many diverse elements that it was mocked at first as "an organized incompatibility." Hatred of Jackson and his "executive usurpation" was its only apparent cement in its formative days. They first emerged as an identifiable group in the Senate, where Clay, Webster, and Calhoun joined forces in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his single-handed removal of federal deposits from the Bank of the United States. Whigs thought of themselves as conservatives, yet they were progressive in their support of active government programs and reforms. Instead of boundless territorial acquisition, they called for internal improvements like canals, railroads, and telegraph lines, and they supported institutions like prisons, asylums, and public schools. The Whigs welcomed the market economy, drawing support from manufacturers in the North, planters in the South, and merchants and bankers in all sections. By absorbing the Anti-Masonic party, the Whigs blunted much of the Democratic appeal to the common man. The egalitarian anti-Masons portrayed Jackson, and particularly his New York successor Martin Van Buren, as imperious aristocrats. trumpeted the natural harmony of society and the value of community, and were willing to use government to realize their objectives. They also berated those leaders—and they considered Jackson to be one—whose appeals to self-interest fostered conflict among individuals, classes, or sections.

Virginia Resolution

James Madison drafted a similar but less extreme statement compared to Jeffersons, which was adopted by the legislature of ________ in 1798. Argued that states were the final arbiters of whether the federal government overstepped its boundaries and could therefore nullify, or refuse to accept, national legislation they deemed unconstitutional.

Strict interpretation

Jefferson argued vehemently against the bank of the U.S. There was, he insisted, no specific authorization in the Constitution for such a financial octopus. He was convinced that all powers not specifically granted to the central government were reserved to the states, as provided in the about-to-be-ratified Bill of Rights. He therefore concluded that the states, not Congress, had the power to charter banks. Believing that the Constitution should be interpreted "literally".

"Johnson's Impeachment"

Johnson provided the radicals with a pretext to begin impeachment proceedings when he abruptly dismissed Stanton early in 1868. The House of Representatives immediately voted 126 to 47 to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors," as required by the Constitution, charging him with various violations of the Tenure of Office Act. Two additional articles related to Johnson's verbal assaults on the Congress, involving "disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt, and reproach."

Johnson's "Reconstruction proclamation"

Johnson soon disillusioned them. He agreed with Lincoln that the seceded states had never legally been outside the Union. Thus he quickly recognized several of Lincoln's 10 percent governments, and on May 29, 1865, he issued his own proclamation. It disfranchised certain leading Confederates, including those with taxable property worth more than $20,000, though they might petition him for personal pardons. It called for special state conventions, which were required to repeal the ordinances of secession, repudiate all Confederate debts, and ratify the slave-freeing Thirteenth Amendment. States that complied with these conditions, Johnson declared, would be swiftly readmitted to the Union.

King George III

King who formally proclaimed the colonies were rebelling, which was treason. Hired Hessians.

Hartford Convention

Late in 1814, when the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts issued a call for a convention. The states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island dispatched full delegations; neighboring New Hampshire and Vermont sent partial representation. This group of prominent men, twenty-six in all, met in complete secrecy for about three weeks to discuss their grievances and to seek redress for their wrongs. Although a minority of delegates gave vent to wild talk of secession, the convention's final report was quite moderate. It demanded financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade and proposed constitutional amendments requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared. Most of the demands reflected Federalist fears that a once-proud New England was falling subservient to an agrarian South and West. Delegates sought to abolish the three-fifths clause of the Constitution, to limit presidents to a single term, and to prohibit the election of two successive presidents from the same state. This last clause was aimed at the much-resented "Virginia dynasty." As the rest of the nation congratulated itself on a glorious victory (War of 1812), New England's wartime complaints seemed petty at best and treasonous at worst.

National Banking System

Launched partly as a stimulant to the sale of government bonds, it was also designed to establish a standard bank-note currency. Banks that joined the National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money backed by them. The war-born National Banking Act thus turned out to be the first significant step taken toward a unified banking network since 1836, when the "monster" Bank of the United States was killed by Andrew Jackson. Spawned by the war, this new system continued to function for fifty years, until replaced by the Federal Reserve System in 1913.

Nathaniel Bacon

Led Bacons Rebellion, when Governor Berkeley refused to retaliate against a series of brutal Indian attacks on frontier settlements. ________ and his followers fell murderously upon the Indians, friendly and hostile alike, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and put the torch to the capital. Unfortunately, he suddenly died of disease.

General Benedict Arnold

Led a small American force that captured Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point along with Ethan Allen. Joined Richard Montgomery at Quebec and was wounded in one leg. His men had been reduced to eating dogs and shoe leather during the grueling march through the Maine woods. Assembled and fitted out every floatable vessel, flotilla destroyed after desperate fighting.(Lake Champlain) If this had not happened the British would have recaptured Fort Ticonderoga. United States general and traitor in the American Revolution; offered British West Point.

Border States

Lee hoped to gain these crucial states in the Battle of Antietam Creek, but his failure ensured their loyalty to the North. After Lincoln knew he had these states, he was ready to declare his Emancipation Proclamation. (Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri) They were angered by the emancipation proclamation because they volunteered to fight for the Union, not against slavery

"Stonewall" Jackson

Lee's chief lieutenant for much of the war was ______________, a gifted tactical theorist and a master of speed and deception.

Primogeniture

Legal principle that the oldest son inherits all family property or land. Landowner's younger sons, forced to seek their fortunes elsewhere, pioneered early exploration and settlement of the Americas. Landholders' ambitious younger sons, among them Gilbert, Raleigh, and Drake, were forced to seek their fortunes elsewhere.

Emancipation Proclamation

Lincoln himself, who had earlier professed his unwillingness to tamper with slavery where it already existed, now declared that the rebels "cannot experiment for ten years trying to destroy the government and if they fail still come back into the Union unhurt." He began to draft this after the Peninsula Campaign. Declared after the Battle of Antietam. Declared all slaves in rebelling states to be free but did not affect slavery in nonrebelling Border States. The Proclamation closed the door on possible compromise with the South and encouraged thousands of Southern slaves to flee to Union lines.

Wade-Davis Bill

Lincoln's 10 percent plan provoked a sharp reaction in Congress, where Republicans feared the restoration of the planter aristocracy to power and the possible reenslavement of blacks. Republicans therefore rammed this through Congress in 1864. The bill required that 50 percent of a state's voters take the oath of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation than Lincoln's as the price of readmission to the Union. Lincoln "pocket-vetoed" this bill by refusing to sign it after Congress had adjourned. Republicans were outraged. They refused to seat delegates from Louisiana after that state had reorganized its government in accordance with Lincoln's 10 percent plan in 1864.

Thirteenth Amendment

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation clearly foreshadowed the ultimate doom of slavery. This was legally achieved by action of the individual states and by their ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, eight months after the Civil War had ended. Constitutional amendment prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude.

Transcendentalism

Literary and intellectual movement that emphasized individualism and self-reliance, predicated upon a belief that each person possesses an "inner-light" that can point the way to truth and direct contact with God.

Samuel Adams

Master propagandist and engineer of rebellion. Unimpressive in appearance. He lived and breathed only politics. His friends had to buy him a presentable suit of clothes when he left Massachusetts on intercolonial business. Ultra-sensative to infractions of colonial rights. Cherishing a deep faith in the common people appealed effectively to what was called his "trained mob".Leading spirit in hosting the Boston Tea Party.

Peninsula Campaign

McClellan's waterborne approach to Richmond, through the peninsula formed by the James and York Rivers. After taking a month to capture historic Yorktown, he finally came within sight of the spires of Richmond. At this crucial juncture, Lincoln diverted McClellan's anticipated reinforcements to chase "Stonewall" Jackson, whose lightning feints in the Shenandoah Valley seemed to put Washington, D.C., in jeopardy. Stalled in front of Richmond, McClellan General Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack—the Seven Days' Battles—June 26-July 2, 1862. The Confederates slowly drove McClellan back to the sea. The Union forces abandoned this as a costly failure. If McClellan had succeeded in taking Richmond and ending the war in mid-1862, the Union would probably have been restored with minimal disruption to the "peculiar institution."

Indentured Servants

Migrants who, in exchange for transatlantic passage, bound themselves to a colonial employer voluntarily mortgaging the sweat of their bodies for several years (usually four to seven) to Chesapeake masters. In exchange they received transatlantic passage and eventual "freedom dues," including an ax and a hoe, a few barrels of corn, a suit of clothes, and perhaps a small parcel of land. Their migration addressed the chronic labor shortage in the colonies and facilitated settlement.

General Robert E. Lee

Most conspicuous among a dozen or so first-rate commanders was gray-haired ___________________, who embodied the Southern ideal. Lincoln had unofficially offered him command of the Northern armies, but when Virginia seceded, he felt honor-bound to go with his native state.

"Immortal Trio of the Senate"

Most distinguished assemblage of statesmen since the Constitutional Convention of 1787—the Old Guard of the dying generation and the young gladiators of the new. Clay, Calhoun, and Webster—appeared together for the last time on the public stage.

Middle Passage

Most of the slaves who reached North America came from the west coast of Africa. They were originally captured by African coastal tribes, who traded them in crude markets on the shimmering tropical beaches to itinerant European—and American—flesh merchants. Usually branded and bound, the captives were herded aboard sweltering ships for the gruesome _____________ , on which death rates ran as high as 20 percent. Terrified survivors were eventually shoved onto auction blocks in New World ports like Newport, Rhode Island, or Charleston, South Carolina, where a giant slave market traded in human misery for more than a century.

Louisiana Purchase

Napoleon induced the king of Spain to cede to France, for attractive considerations, the immense trans-Mississippi region of Louisiana, which included the New Orleans area. He suddenly decided to sell all of Louisiana and abandon his dream of a New World empire. Napoleon decided to sell the huge wilderness to the Americans and pocket the money for his schemes nearer home. Early in 1803 Jefferson sent Monroe to Paris to join forces with the regular minister there, Robert R. Livingston. The two envoys were instructed to buy New Orleans and as much land to its east as they could get for a maximum of $10 million. If these proposals should fail and the situation became critical, negotiations were to be opened with Britain for an alliance. Bought Louisiana for 15 million dollars. This was not authorized, and Jefferson was conflicted. He submitted the treaties to the Senate though he believed it to be unconstitutional. Most people approved the transaction. This purchase avoided American and French conflict. Acquisition of Louisiana territory from France. The purchase more than doubled the territory of the United States, opening vast tracts for settlement.

General Charles Cornwallis

Nathaniel Greene defeated him in the southern colonies.

Jefferson's presidency

Naturalization Law (1802), required recorded entry of all aliens; 1801-1809 Marbury v. Madison (1803); 1801-1809 Louisiana Purchase (1803); 1801-1809 12th Amendment (1804), provided the current procedure for electing a vice president; 1801-1809 Embargo Act (1807), enacted during British and French conflict; 1801-1809 Congress bans importation of African slaves (1808); 1801-1809 Non-Intercourse Act (1809), lifted embargo for all trade except with France and Britain; 1801-1809

Jay's Treaty

Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in an effort to avoid war with Britain, the treaty included a British promise to evacuate outposts on U.S. soil and pay damages for seized American vessels, in exchange for which Jay bound the United States to repay pre-Revolutionary war debts and to abide by Britain's restrictive trading policies toward France.

Dorothea Dix

New England teacher-author. A physically frail woman afflicted with persistent lung trouble, she possessed infinite compassion and willpower. She traveled some sixty thousand miles in eight years and assembled her damning reports on insanity and asylums from firsthand observations. Though she never raised her voice, her message was loud and clear. Her classic petition of 1843 to the Massachusetts legislature, describing cells so foul that visitors were driven back by the stench, turned legislative stomachs and hearts. Her persistent prodding resulted in improved conditions and in a gain for the concept that the demented were not willfully perverse but mentally ill.

French and Indian War

Nine year war between the British and the French in North America. It resulted in the expulsion of the French from the North American mainland (ohio valley) and helped spark the seven years war in Europe.

12th Amendment

None of the candidates polled majority of the electoral vote. In such a deadlock, the House of Representatives, as directed by this amendment, must choose among the top three candidates. Clay was thus eliminated, yet as Speaker of the House, he presided over the very chamber that had to pick the winner.

General George McClellan

Northern hopes brightened later in 1861, when he was given command of the Army of the Potomac. A brilliant, thirty-four-year-old West Pointer. As a serious student of warfare who was dubbed "Young Napoleon," he had seen plenty of fighting, first in the Mexican War and then as an observer of the Crimean War in Russia. Hating to sacrifice his troops, he was idolized by his men, who affectionately called him "Little Mac." But he was cocky, overcautious (Lincoln accused him of having "the slows") and a perfectionist He consistently but erroneously believed that the enemy outnumbered him. He continued to drill his army rather than moving to Richmond, making him known as "Tardy George", so Lincoln eventually had to order him to advance, and he began the Peninsula Campaign. When he failed, Lincoln temporarily abandoned him as commander of the Army of the Potomac. Nominated as the Democratic nominee in the election of 1864.

Woman's suffrage

Now, with the war ended and the Thirteenth Amendment passed, feminist leaders believed that their time had come. They reeled with shock, however, when the wording of the Fourteenth Amendment, which defined equal national citizenship, for the first time inserted the word male into the Constitution in referring to a citizen's right to vote. Both Stanton and Anthony campaigned actively against the Fourteenth Amendment despite the pleas of Frederick Douglass, who had long supported woman suffrage but believed that this was "the Negro's hour." When the Fifteenth Amendment proposed to prohibit denial of the vote on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude," Stanton and Anthony wanted the word sex added to the list. They lost this battle, too. Fifty years would pass before the Constitution granted women the right to vote.

Franco-American Alliance

Ominously, this was still on the books. By its own terms, it was to last "forever." It bound the United States to help the French defend their West Indies against future foes, and the booming British fleets were certain to attack these strategic islands. Many Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans favored honoring the alliance. Aflame with the liberal ideals of the French Revolution, red-blooded Jeffersonians were eager to enter the conflict against Britain, the recent foe, at the side of France, the recent friend. America owed France its freedom, they argued, and now was the time to pay the debt of gratitude. But President George Washington, levelheaded as usual, was not swayed by the clamor of the crowd. Backed by Hamilton, he believed that war had to be avoided at all costs.

William Loyd Garrison

On New Year's Day, 1831, a shattering abolitionist blast came from the bugle of him, a mild-looking reformer of twenty-six. The emotionally high-strung son of a drunken father and a spiritual child of the Second Great Awakening, he published in Boston the first issue of his militantly antislavery newspaper, The Liberator . With this mighty paper broadside, he triggered a thirty-year war of words and in a sense fired one of the opening barrages of the Civil War. He often appeared to be more interested in his own righteousness than in the substance of the slavery evil itself. He repeatedly demanded that the "virtuous" North secede from the "wicked" South. Yet he did not explain how the creation of an independent slave republic would bring an end to the "damning crime" of slavery. Although he had no demonstrable connection with the Turner conspiracy, his Liberator appeared at about the same time, and he was bitterly condemned as a terrorist and an inciter of murder. The State of Georgia offered $5,000 for his arrest and conviction.

Thomas Paine

Once an impoverished corset-maker's apprentice, who had come over from Britain a year earlier. He began his incendiary tract with a treatise on the nature of government and eloquently anticipated Thomas Jeffersons Declaration of Independence that the only lawful states were those that derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed." As for the king, whom the Americans professed to revere, he was nothing but the royal brute of great Britain. He wrote Common Sense that became a best seller, within a few months 120,000 copies were sold. He branded the shilly-shallying of the colonists as contrary to common sense. He wondered why the tiny island of Britain controlled the vast continent of America. He convinced the American colonists that their true cause was independence, rather than reconciliation with Britain. Wanted a republic.

William Marbury

One of the "midnight judges" of 1801 presented John Marshall with a historic opportunity. He was obscure ______________, whom President Adams had named a justice of the peace for the District of Columbia. When Marbury learned that his commission was being shelved by the new secretary of state, James Madison, he sued for its delivery. Chief Justice Marshall knew that his Jeffersonian rivals, entrenched in the executive branch, would hardly spring forward to enforce a writ to deliver the commission to his fellow Federalist. He therefore dismissed his suit, avoiding a direct political showdown. But the wily Marshall snatched a victory from the jaws of this judicial defeat. In explaining his ruling, Marshall said that the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 on which he tried to base his appeal was unconstitutional. The act had attempted to assign to the Supreme Court powers that the Constitution had not foreseen.

John Deere

One of the first obstacles that frustrated the farmers was the thickly matted soil of the West, which snagged and snapped fragile wooden plows. ___________ of Illinois in 1837 finally produced a steel plow that broke the stubborn soil. Sharp and effective, it was also light enough to be pulled by horses, rather than oxen.

National Republicans

One of the political parties created before the election of 1828 and ended the Era of Good Feelings one party dictatorship. Adams was their standard-bearer. Adamsites adopted the oak as the symbol of their oakenly independent candidate.

Democratic-Repubicans

One of the political parties created before the election of 1828 and ended the Era of Good Feelings one party dictatorship. The fiery Jackson headed their ticket. Rallying cries of the Jackson zealots were "Bargain and Corruption," "Huzza for Jackson," and "All Hail Old Hickory." Jacksonites planted hickory poles for their hickory-tough hero.

Democratic-Republicans

One of the two first political camps; led by Thomas Jefferson, it feared centralized political power, supported states' rights, opposed Hamilton's financial plan, supported ties with France, and believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution. one of two of the first political camps. They appealed to middle class and underprivileged, demanded a weak central regime and called for the rule of the people.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the 1787 Constitution, they cast the document as antidemocratic, objected to the subordination of the states to the central government, and feared encroachment on individuals' liberties in the absence of a bill of rights. A motley crew gathered in the ____________ camp. Its leaders included prominent revolutionaries like Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee. Their followers consisted primarily, though not exclusively, of states' rights devotees, backcountry dwellers, and one-horse farmers—in general, the poorest classes. They were joined by paper-moneyites and debtors, many of whom feared that a potent central government would force them to pay off their debts—and at full value. Large numbers of ________________ saw in the Constitution a plot by the upper crust to steal power back from the common folk.

Indian Removal Act

Ordered the removal of Indian Tribes still residing east of the Mississippi to newly established Indian Territory west of Arkansas and Missouri. Tribes resisting eviction were forcibly removed by American forces, often after prolonged legal or military battles.

Judiciary Act of 1789

Organized the federal legal system, establishing the Supreme Court, federal district and circuit courts, and the office of the attorney general.

Old and New Lights

Orthodox clergymen, known as old lights , were deeply skeptical of the emotionalism and the theatrical antics of the revivalists and they were in favor of a more rational spirituality. New lights , on the other hand were ministers who took part in the revivalist, emotive religious tradition pioneered by George Whitefield during the Great Awakening.

British East India Company

Overburdened with 17 million pounds of unsold tea, was facing bankruptcy. If it collapsed, the London government would lose heavily in tax revenue. The ministry therefore decided to assist the company by awarding it a complete monopoly of the American tea business. The giant corporation would now be able to sell the coveted leaves more cheaply than ever before, even with the three-pence tax tacked on. But many American tea drinkers, rather than rejoicing at the lower prices, cried foul. They saw this British move as a shabby attempt to trick the Americans, with the bait of cheaper tea, into swallowing the principle of the detested tax. For the determined Americans, principle remained far more important than price. Not a single one of the several thousand chests of tea shipped by the ________________ ever reached the hands of the consignees. In Philadelphia and New York, mass demonstrations forced the tea-bearing ships to return to England with their cargo holds still full. At Annapolis, Marylanders burned both cargo and vessel, while proclaiming "liberty and Independence or death in pursuit of it." In Charleston, South Carolina, officials seized the tea for nonpayment of duties after intimidated local merchants refused to accept delivery.

Intolerable Acts

Parliaments response to the Boston tea party with measures that brewed a revolution. By huge majorities, it passed a series of acts designed to chastise Boston in particular, and Massachusetts in general. "massacre of American Liberty." the most drastic of all was the Boston port act. It closed the tea-stained harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensued. Many colonial rights were swept away. restrictions were placed on the precious town meetings. Contrary to previous practice, enforcing officials who killed colonists in the line of duty could now be sent to Britain for trial.

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809

Passed alongside the repeal of the Embargo Act, it reopened trade with all but the two belligerent nations, Britain and France. The Act continued Jefferson's policy of economic coercion, still with little effect.

Fugitive Slave Law of 1850

Passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, it set high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways. Strengthened the antislavery cause in the North. Also known as "the Bloodhound Bill"

Force Bill

Passed by Congress alongside the Compromise Tariff, it authorized the president to use the military to collect federal tariff duties. Known among Carolinians as the "Bloody Bill." Faced with civil war within and invasion from without, the Columbia convention met again and repealed the ordinance of nullification. As a final but futile gesture of fist-shaking, it nullified the unnecessary ____________ and adjourned.

Force Acts of 1870 and 1871

Passed by Congress following a wave of Ku Klux Klan violence, the acts banned clan membership, prohibited the use of intimidation to prevent blacks from voting, and gave the U.S. military the authority to enforce the acts.

Reconstruction Act

Passed by the newly elected Republican Congress, it divided the South into five military districts, disenfranchised former confederates, and required that Southern states both ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and write state constitutions guaranteeing freedmen the franchise before gaining readmission to the Union.

Civil Rights Bill

Passed over Andrew Johnson's veto, the bill aimed to counteract the Black Codes by conferring citizenship on African Americans and making it a crime to deprive blacks of their rights to sue, testify in court, or hold property.

Sons of Liberty

Patriotic groups that played a central role in agitating against the Stamp Act and enforcing nonimportation agreements. Often tarring and feathering, ransacking houses, etc.

"Carpetbaggers"

Pejorative used by Southern whites to describe Northern businessmen and politicians who came to the South after the Civil War to work on Reconstruction projects or invest in Southern infrastructure.

Mestizos

People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico. To this day Mexican civilization remains a unique blend of the Old World and the New, producing both ambivalence and pride among people of Mexican heritage.

"Cult of domesticity"

Pervasive nineteenth-century cultural creed that venerated the domestic role of women. It gave married women greater authority to shape home life but limited opportunities outside the domestic sphere.

Republicanism

Political theory of representative government, based on the principle of popular sovereignty, with a strong emphasis on liberty and civic virtue. Influential in eighteenth-century American political thought, it stood as an alternative to monarchical rule. Do things for the common good instead of selfish reasons. Was opposed by aristocracy and monarchy.

General Zachary Taylor

Polk ordered four thousand men, under ___________________, to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, provocatively near Mexican forces. Polk's presidential diary reveals that he expected at any moment to hear of a clash. When none occurred after an anxious wait, he informed his cabinet on May 9, 1846, that he proposed to ask Congress to declare war on the basis of (1) unpaid claims and (2) Slidell's rejection. These, at best, were rather flimsy pretexts. Two cabinet members spoke up and said that they would feel better satisfied if Mexican troops should fire first. That very evening, as fate would have it, news of bloodshed arrived. On April 25, 1846, Mexican troops had crossed the Rio Grande and attacked his command, with a loss of sixteen Americans killed or wounded.

"Era of Good Feelings"

Popular name for the period of one-party, Republican, rule during James Monroe's presidency. The term obscures bitter conflicts over internal improvements, slavery, and the national bank

Great Comprimise

Popular term for the measure which reconciled the New Jersey and Virginia plans at the constitutional convention, giving states proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate. The compromise broke the stalemate at the convention and paved the way for subsequent compromises over slavery and the Electoral College. Each state, no matter how poor or small, would have two senators. The big states obviously yielded more. As a sop to them, the delegates agreed that every tax bill or revenue measure must originate in the House, where population counted more heavily.

George Grenville

Prime Minister _____________ first aroused the resentment of the colonists in 1763 by ordering the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the Navigation Laws. He also secured from Parliament the so-called Sugar Act of 1764, the first law ever passed by that body for raising tax revenue in the colonies for the crown. Then in the same year, 1765, he imposed the most odious measure of all: a stamp tax. regarded all of these measures as reasonable and just. He was simply asking the Americans to pay a fair share of the costs for their own defense, through taxes that were already familiar in Britain. His noxious legislation seemed to jeopardize the basic rights of the colonists as Englishmen. He dismissed these American protests as hairsplitting absurdities. The power of Parliament was supreme and undivided, he asserted, and in any case the Americans were represented in Parliament. Elaborating the theory of "virtual representation," he claimed that every member of Parliament represented all British subjects, even those Americans in Boston or Charleston who had never voted for a member of Parliament.

Gag Resolution

Prohibited debate or action on antislavery appeals. Driven through the House by pro-slavery Southerners, this passed every year for eight years, eventually overturned with the help of John Quincy Adams.

Federalist's

Proponents of the 1787 Constitution, they favored a strong national government, arguing that the checks and balances in the new Constitution would safeguard the people's liberties. Silver-buckled __________________ had power and influence on their side. They enjoyed the support of such commanding figures as George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. Most of them lived in the settled areas along the seaboard, not in the raw backcountry. Overall, they were wealthier than the antifederalists, more educated, and better organized. They also controlled the press. More than a hundred newspapers were published in America in the 1780s; only a dozen supported the Anti-Federalist cause.

Lecompton Constitution

Proposed Kansas constitution, whose ratification was unfairly rigged so as to guarantee slavery in the territory. (the constitution would either be "with slavery" or "with no slavery." If they voted against slavery, one of the remaining provisions of the constitution would protect the owners of slaves already in Kansas.) Initially ratified by proslavery forces, it was later voted down when Congress required that the entire constitution be put up for a vote.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Proposed that the issue of slavery be decided by popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, thus revoking the 1820 Missouri Compromise. Introduced by Stephen Douglass in an effort to bring Nebraska into the Union and pave the way for a northern transcontinental railroad.

Overall defense of slavery

Proslavery whites launched a massive defense of slavery as a positive good. In doing so, they forgot their own section's previous doubts about the morality of the "peculiar institution." Slavery, they claimed, was supported by the authority of the Bible and the wisdom of Aristotle. It was good for the Africans, who were lifted from the barbarism of the jungle and clothed with the blessings of Christian civilization. Slavemasters strongly encouraged religion in the slave quarters. White apologists also claimed that master-slave relationships really resembled those of a family. On many plantations, especially those of the Old South of Virginia and Maryland, this argument had a certain plausibility. Southern whites were quick to contrast the "happy" lot of their "servants" with that of the overworked northern wage slaves, including sweated women and stunted children. The blacks mostly toiled in the fresh air and sunlight, not in dark and stuffy factories. Provided with a jail-like form of Social Security, they were cared for in sickness and old age, unlike northern workers, who were set adrift when they had outlived their usefulness.

John Quincy Adams

Puritanical son of John Adams who led a group of five American peacemakers in Ghent.

Polk's "four-point program"

Purposeful in the highest degree, he developed a positive this and with remarkable success achieved it completely in less than four years. One of its goals was a lowered tariff; another was the restoration of the independent treasury (dropped by Whigs in 1841), which was achieved in 1846. The third and fourth points were the acquisition of California and the settlement of the Oregon dispute.

Susan B. Anthony

Quaker-reared _________________, a militant lecturer for women's rights, fearlessly exposed herself to rotten garbage and vulgar epithets. She became such a conspicuous advocate of female rights that progressive women everywhere were called "Suzy Bs."

Massachusetts Bay Company

Quiet and quaint, the little colony of Plymouth was never important economically or numerically. Its population numbered only seven thousand by 1691, when, still charterless, it merged with its giant neighbor, the _________________. But the tiny settlement of Pilgrims was big both morally and spiritually. In 1629 an energetic group of non-Separatist Puritans, fearing for their faith and for England's future, secured a royal charter to form this company. They proposed to establish a sizable settlement in the infertile Massachusetts area, with Boston soon becoming its hub. Stealing a march on both king and church, the newcomers brought their charter with them. For many years they used it as a kind of constitution, out of easy reach of royal authority.

Tariff of 1828

Raised the tariff on imported manufactured goods. The tariff protected the North but harmed the South. The South claimed that it was discriminatory and unconstitutional.

Andrew Johnson

Reached the White House from humble beginnings. (Born to impoverished parents in North Carolina and orphaned early, Johnson never attended school but taught himself) Johnson early became active in politics in Tennessee, where he had moved when seventeen years old. He shone as an impassioned champion of poor whites against the planter aristocrats, although he himself ultimately owned a few slaves. Elected to Congress, he attracted much favorable attention in the North (but not the South) when he refused to secede with his own state. Appointed war governor. He was a dogmatic champion of states' rights and the Constitution. A Southerner who did not understand the North, a Tennessean who had earned the distrust of the South, a Democrat who had never been accepted by the Republicans, a president who had never been elected to the office, he was not at home in a Republican White House. Hotheaded, contentious, and stubborn, he was the wrong man in the wrong place at the wrong time.

"Black belt" of the Deep South

Region of the Deep South (that stretched from South Carolina and Georgia into the new southwest states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana) with the highest concentration of slaves. This emerged in the nineteenth century as cotton production became more profitable and slavery expanded south and west.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Related to the governing of the Old Northwest. This law came to grips with the problem of how a nation should deal with its colonies—the same problem that had bedeviled the king and Parliament in London. The solution provided by the this was a judicious compromise: temporary tutelage, then permanent equality. First, there would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government. Then, when a territory could boast sixty thousand inhabitants, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the thirteen charter members. The ordinance also forbade slavery in the Old Northwest—a path-breaking step, though it exempted slaves already present.

Second Continental Congress

Representative body of delegates from all thirteen colones that met in Philadelphia. The conservative element was still strong, despite the shooting in Massachusetts. There was still no well-defined sentiment for independence--merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances. Congress hopefully drafted new appeals to the British people and king--appeals that were spurned. The delegates also adopted measures to raise money and to create an army and navy. Eventually drafted the Declaration of Independence and managed the colonial war effort.

House of Burgesses

Representative self-government was also born in primitive Virginia in 1619. The Virginia Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as this. A momentous precedent was thus feebly established, for this assemblage was the first of many miniature parliaments to flourish in the soil of America. As time passed, James I grew increasingly hostile to Virginia. He detested tobacco, and he distrusted the representative _______________ which he branded a "seminary of sedition." In 1624 he revoked the charter of the bankrupt and beleaguered Virginia Company, thus making Virginia a royal colony directly under his control.

Fourteenth Amendment

Republicans feared that the Southerners might one day win control of Congress and repeal the hated civil rights law. So the lawmakers undertook to rivet the principles of the Civil Rights Bill into the Constitution. The proposed amendment, approved by Congress and sent to the states in June 1866 and ratified in 1868, was among the most sweeping amendments ever passed. (1) conferred civil rights, including citizenship but excluding the franchise, on the freedmen (2) reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral College if it denied blacks the ballot (3) disqualified from federal and state office former Confederates who as federal officeholders had once sworn "to support the Constitution of the United States" (4) guaranteed the federal debt, while repudiating all Confederate debts.

Quartering Act

Required colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. Many colonists resented the act, which they perceived as an encroachment on their rights.

Tenure of Office Act

Required the President to seek approval from the Senate before removing appointees. When Andrew Johnson removed his secretary of war in violation of the act, he was impeached by the house but remained in office when the Senate fell one vote short of removing him.

Kentucky Resolution

Resentful Jeffersonians naturally refused to take the Alien and Sedition Acts lying down. Jefferson himself feared that if the Federalists managed to choke free speech and free press, they would then wipe out other precious constitutional guarantees. His own fledgling political party might even be stamped out of existence. If this had happened, the country might have slid into a dangerous one-party dictatorship. To combat this Jefferson secretly penned a series of resolutions. Argued that states were the final arbiters of whether the federal government overstepped its boundaries and could therefore nullify, or refuse to accept, national legislation they deemed unconstitutional.

Spoils System

Rewarding political supporters with public office—was introduced into the federal government on a large scale. Its name came later from Senator William Marcy's classic remark in 1832, "To the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." The system had already secured a firm hold in New York and Pennsylvania, where well-greased machines ladled out the "gravy" of office. Jackson defended this on democratic grounds. "Every man is as good as his neighbor," he declared—perhaps "equally better." As this was believed to be so, and as the routine of office was thought to be simple enough for any upstanding American to learn quickly, why encourage the development of an aristocratic, bureaucratic, officeholding class? Better to bring in new blood, he argued; each generation deserved its turn at the public trough. Scandal inevitably accompanied the ______________. Men who had openly bought their posts by campaign contributions were appointed to high office. Illiterates, incompetents, and plain crooks were given positions of public trust; men on the make lusted for the spoils—rather than the toils—of office. It was an important element of the emerging two-party order, cementing as it did loyalty to party over competing claims based on economic class or geographic region.

Clermont

Robert Fulton installed a powerful steam engine in a vessel that posterity came to know as this but that a dubious public dubbed "Fulton's Folly." On a historic day in 1807, the quaint little ship, belching sparks from its single smokestack, churned steadily from New York City up the Hudson River toward Albany. It made the run of 150 miles in 32 hours.

James Madison

Secretary of State. Tried to shelve Marbury's commission.

Alexander Hamilton

Secretary of the Treasury A financial wizard, he set out immediately to correct the economic vexations that had crippled the Articles of Confederation. His plan was to shape the fiscal policies of the administration in such a way as to favor the wealthier groups. They, in turn, would gratefully lend the government monetary and political support. The new federal regime would thrive, the propertied classes would fatten, and prosperity would trickle down to the masses. The youthful financier's first objective was to bolster the national credit. Without public confidence in the government, he could not secure the funds with which to float his risky schemes. He therefore boldly urged Congress to "fund" the entire national debt "at par" and to assume completely the debts incurred by the states during the recent war. Urged Congress to assume the debts of the states, totaling some $21.5 million. "Father of the National Debt" proposed a bank of the United States

Three-Fifths Compromise

Sectional jealousy intruded. Should the voteless slave of the southern states count as a person in apportioning direct taxes and in according representation in the House of Representatives? The South, not wishing to be deprived of influence, answered "yes." The North replied "no," arguing that, as slaves were not citizens, the North might as logically demand additional representation based on its horses. Determined that each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a person for the purpose of apportioning taxes and representation. The compromise granted disproportionate political power to Southern slave states.

Lincoln/Douglas Debates

Series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglass during the U.S. Senate race in Illinois. Douglass won the election but Lincoln gained national prominence and emerged as the leading candidate for the 1860 Republican nomination.

Navigational Laws

Series of laws passed, beginning in 1651, to regulate colonial shipping; the acts provided that only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports, and that all goods destined for the colonies would first pass through England.

Navigational Laws

Series of laws passed, beginning in 1651, to regulate colonial shipping; the acts provided that only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports, and that all goods destined for the colonies would first pass through England. Like colonial peoples everywhere, the Americans chafed at such confinements, and smuggling became an increasingly common and honorable occupation.

Salem Witch Trials

Series of witchcraft trials launched after a group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women of the town. Larger-scale witchcraft persecutions were then common in Europe, and several outbreaks had already flared forth in the colonies—often directed at property-owning women. But the reign of horror in Salem grew not only from the superstitions and prejudices of the age but also from the turmoil of the wars with the Indians, as well as the unsettled social and religious conditions of the rapidly evolving Massachusetts village. Most of the accused witches came from families associated with Salem's burgeoning market economy; their accusers came largely from subsistence farming families in Salem's hinterland. The Salem witch trials thus reflected the widening social stratification of New England, as well as the fear of many religious traditionalists that the Puritan heritage was being eclipsed by Yankee commercialism. Twenty individuals were put to death before the trials were put to an end by the Governor of Massachusetts.

Pocahontas

She "saved" Smith by dramatically interposing her head between his and the war clubs of his captors. The symbolism of this ritual was apparently intended to impress Smith with Powhatan's power and with the Indians' desire for peaceful relations with the Virginians. She became an intermediary between the Indians and the settlers, helping to preserve a shaky peace and to provide needed foodstuffs. (Powhatan's daughter)

Harriet Beecher Stowe

She published the heartrending novel Uncle Tom's Cabin. Dismayed by the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, she was determined to awaken the North to the wickedness of slavery by laying bare its terrible inhumanity, especially the cruel splitting of families. Her wildly popular book relied on powerful imagery and touching pathos. "God wrote it," she explained in later years—a reminder that the deeper sources of her antislavery sentiments lay in the evangelical religious crusades of the Second Great Awakening. She had never witnessed slavery at first hand in the Deep South, but she had seen it briefly during a visit to Kentucky, and she had lived for many years in Ohio, a center of Underground Railroad activity.

Sherman's March

Sherman's hated "Blue Bellies," sixty thousand strong, cut a sixty-mile swath of destruction through Georgia. They burned buildings, leaving only the blackened chimneys ("Sherman's Sentinels"). They tore up railroad rails, heated them red-hot, and twisted them into "iron doughnuts" and "Sherman's hairpins." They bayoneted family portraits and ran off with valuable "souvenirs." One of the major purposes of this was to destroy supplies destined for the Confederate army and to weaken the morale of the men at the front by waging war on their homes.

Industrial Revolution

Shift toward mass production and mechanization that included the creation of the modern factory system.

Joint-Stock Company

Short-term partnership between multiple investors to fund a commercial enterprise; such arrangements were used to fund England's early colonial ventures.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World. Spain received the bulk of territory in the Americas, compensating Portugal with titles to lands in Africa and Asia.

Roanoke Island

Sir Walter Raleigh organized an expedition that landed at this place in North Carolina, off the coast of Virginia. It was a vaguely defined region named in honor of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen." After several false starts, the hapless __________ colony mysteriously vanished, swallowed up by the wilderness.

Appomattox Courthouse

Site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865 after almost a year of brutal fighting throughout Virginia in the "Wilderness Campaign."

Conquistadores

Sixteenth-century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, from Colorado to Argentina, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires.

Election of 1860

Sixty percent of the voters preferred some other candidate than Lincoln. He was also a sectional president, for in ten southern states, where he was not allowed on the ballot, he polled no popular votes. Douglas, though scraping together only twelve electoral votes, made an impressive showing. Boldly breaking with tradition, he campaigned energetically for himself. He drew important strength from all sections and ranked a fairly close second in the popular-vote column. In fact, the Douglas Democrats and the Breckinridge Democrats together amassed 365,476 more votes than did Lincoln. Yet the South, despite its electoral defeat, was not bad off.

Separatists

Small group of Puritans who sought to break away entirely from the Church of England; after initially settling in Holland, a number of English Separatists made their way to Plymouth Bay, Massachusetts in 1620.

The South Carolina Exposition

South Carolinians took the lead in protesting against the "Tariff of Abominations." Their legislature went so far as to publish in 1828, though without formal endorsement, a pamphlet known as ________________________. It had been secretly written by John C. Calhoun, one of the few topflight political theorists ever produced by America. (As vice president, he was forced to conceal his authorship.) The Exposition denounced the recent tariff as unjust and unconstitutional. Going a stride beyond the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, it bluntly and explicitly proposed that the states should nullify the tariff—that is, they should declare it null and void within their borders.

Spanish Armada

Spanish fleet defeated in the English Channel in 1588. The defeat of the Armada marked the beginning of the decline of the Spanish Empire. (Within a few decades, the Spanish Netherlands (Holland) would secure its independence, and much of the Spanish Caribbean would slip from Spain's grasp. Bloated by Peruvian and Mexican silver and cockily convinced of its own invincibility, Spain had overreached itself, sowing the seeds of its own decline.)

Encomienda

Spanish government's policy to "commend," or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to Christianize them. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue Indian tribes in the West Indies and on the North American mainland.

Junipero Serra

Spanish missionaries led by him founded at San Diego the first of a chain of twenty-one missions that wound up the coast as far as Sonoma, north of San Francisco Bay. His brown-robed Franciscan friars toiled with zealous devotion to Christianize the three hundred thousand native Californians. They gathered the seminomadic Indians into fortified missions and taught them horticulture and basic crafts. These "mission Indians" did adopt Christianity, but they also lost contact with their native cultures and often lost their lives as well, as the white man's diseases doomed these biologically vulnerable peoples.

Ferdinand Magellan

Started from Spain in 1519 with five tiny ships. After beating through the storm-lashed strait off the tip of South America that still bears his name, he was slain by the inhabitants of the Philippines. His one remaining vessel creaked home in 1522, completing the first circumnavigation of the globe.

Monroe Doctrine

Statement delivered by President James Monroe, warning European powers to refrain from seeking any new territories in the Americas. The United States largely lacked the power to back up the pronouncement, which was actually enforced by the British, who sought unfettered access to Latin American markets.

James Buchanan

Strongly under southern influence and blind to sharp divisions within his own Democratic party, he threw the weight of his administration behind the notorious Lecompton Constitution. Democratic nominee in the Election of 1856, on the platform for popular sovereignty.

Gibbons v. Ogden

Suit over whether New York State could grant a monopoly to a ferry operating on interstate waters. The ruling reasserted that Congress had the sole power to regulate interstate commerce.

Marbury vs.Madison

Supreme Court case that established the principle of "judicial review"—the idea that the Supreme Court had the final authority to determine constitutionality.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward

Supreme Court case that sustained Dartmouth University's original charter against changes proposed by the New Hampshire state legislature, thereby protecting corporations from domination by state governments.

Molasses Act

Tax on imported molasses passed by Parliament in an effort to squelch the North American trade with the French West Indies. It proved largely ineffective due to widespread smuggling. If successful, this scheme would have struck a crippling blow to American international trade and to the colonists' standard of living. American merchants responded to the act by bribing and smuggling their way around the law. Thus was foreshadowed the impending imperial crisis, when headstrong Americans would revolt rather than submit to the dictates of the far-off Parliament, apparently bent on destroying their very livelihood.

"Domestic feminism"

The "fertility rate," or number of births among women ages fourteen to forty-five, dropped sharply among white women in the years after the Revolution and, in the course of the nineteenth century as a whole, fell by half. Birth control was still a taboo topic for polite conversation, and contraceptive technology was primitive, but clearly some form of family limitation was being practiced quietly and effectively in countless families, rural and urban alike. Women undoubtedly played a large part—perhaps the leading part—in decisions to have fewer children. This newly assertive role for women has been called ________________ because it signified the growing power and independence of women, even while they remained wrapped in the "cult of domesticity."

Battle of Quebec

The British attackers were making woeful progress when Wolfe, in a daring night move, sent a detachment up a poorly guarded part of the rocky eminence protecting Québec. In the morning the two armies faced each other on the Plains of Abraham on the outskirts of Québec, the British under Wolfe and the French under the Marquis de Montcalm. Both commanders fell, fatally wounded, but the French were defeated and the city surrendered.

Treaty of Paris 1783

The British formally recognized the independence of the US, and granted generous boundaries to the Mississippi, the Great Lakes, and Florida.

"Five Civilized Tribes

The Cherokees of Georgia made especially remarkable efforts to learn the ways of the whites. They gradually abandoned their seminomadic life and adopted a system of settled agriculture and a notion of private property. Missionaries opened schools among the Cherokees, and the Indian Sequoyah devised a Cherokee alphabet. In 1808 the Cherokee National Council legislated a written legal code, and in 1827 it adopted a written constitution that provided for executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Some Cherokees became prosperous cotton planters and even turned to slaveholding. Nearly thirteen hundred black slaves toiled for their Native American masters in the Cherokee nation in the 1820s. For these efforts the Cherokees—along with the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles—were numbered by whites among the _______________________. All this embrace of "civilization" apparently was not good enough for whites. In 1828 the Georgia legislature declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian affairs and Indian lands. The Cherokees appealed this move to the Supreme Court, which thrice upheld the rights of the Indians. But President Jackson, who clearly wanted to open Indian lands to white settlement, refused to recognize the Court's decisions. In a callous jibe at the Indians' defender, Jackson allegedly snapped, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it."

Cohens v. Virginia

The Cohen brothers, found guilty by the Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, appealed to the highest tribunal. Virginia "won," in the sense that the conviction of the Cohens was upheld. But in fact Virginia and all the individual states lost, because Marshall resoundingly asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review the decisions of the state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government. The states' rights proponents were aghast. Case that reinforced federal supremacy by establishing the right of the Supreme Court to review decisions of state supreme courts in questions involving the powers of the federal government.

"Radical Republicans"

The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War, was mostly dominated by "radical" Republicans who resented the expansion of presidential power in wartime and who pressed Lincoln zealously on emancipation.

Electoral College

The Constitution as drafted was a bundle of compromises; they stand out in every section. A key compromise was the method of electing the president indirectly by this, rather than by direct means. While the large states would have the advantage in the first round of popular voting, as a state's share of electors was based on the total of its senators and representatives in Congress, the small states would gain a larger voice if no candidate got a majority of electoral votes and the election was thrown to the House of Representatives, where each state would have, for this purpose only, just a single vote Although the framers of the Constitution expected election by the House to occur frequently, it has happened just twice, in 1800 and in 1824.

Jonathan Edwards

The Great Awakening was first ignited in Northampton, Massachusetts, by a tall, delicate, and intellectual pastor, ____________. Perhaps the deepest theological mind ever nurtured in America, he proclaimed with burning righteousness the folly of believing in salvation through good works and affirmed the need for complete dependence on God's grace. Warming to his subject, he painted in lurid detail the landscape of hell and the eternal torments of the damned. "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" was the title of one of his most famous sermons. He believed that hell was "paved with the skulls of unbaptized children."

"Starving time"

The Jamestown colonists died in droves, and living skeletons were driven to desperate acts. They were reduced to eating "dogges, Catts, Ratts, and Myce" and even to digging up corpses for food. One hungry man killed, salted, and ate his wife, for which misbehavior he was executed. Of the four hundred settlers who managed to make it to Virginia by 1609, only sixty survived this winter of 1609-1610.

Ulysses S. Grant

The North was much less fortunate in its higher commanders. Lincoln was forced to use a costly trial-and-error method to sort out effective leaders from the many incompetent political officers, until he finally uncovered a general, ________________, who was determined to slog his way to victory at whatever cost in life and limb.

William Bradford

The Pilgrims were extremely fortunate in their leaders. Prominent among them was the cultured ________________, a self-taught scholar who read Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and Dutch. He was chosen governor thirty times in the annual elections. Among his major worries was his fear that independent, non-Puritan settlers "on their particular" might corrupt his godly experiment in the wilderness. Bustling fishing villages and other settlements did sprout to the north of Plymouth, on the storm-lashed shores of Massachusetts Bay, where many people were as much interested in cod as God.

Alaska Purchase

The Russians by 1867 wanted to sell a vast and chilly expanse of land. They had already overextended themselves in North America, and they saw that in the likely event of another war with Britain, they probably would lose their defenseless northern province to the sea-dominant British. It had been ruthlessly "furred out" and was a growing economic liability. The Russians were therefore quite eager to unload their "frozen asset" on the Americans, and they put out seductive feelers in Washington. They preferred the United States to any other purchaser, primarily because they wanted to strengthen the American Republic as a barrier against their ancient enemy, Britain. In 1867 Secretary of State William Seward, an ardent expansionist, signed a treaty with Russia that transferred Alaska to the United States for the bargain price of $7.2 million.

Stephen Austin

The Spanish authorities wanted to populate this virtually unpeopled area, but before they could carry through their contemplated plans, the Mexicans won their independence, in 1821. A new regime in Mexico City thereupon concluded arrangements in 1823 for granting a huge tract of land to him, with the understanding that he would bring into Texas three hundred American families. Immigrants were to be of the established Roman Catholic faith and upon settlement were to become properly Mexicanized. Mexico emancipated its slaves in 1830 and prohibited the further importation of slaves into Texas, as well as further colonization by troublesome Americans. The Texans refused to honor these decrees. They kept their slaves in bondage, and new American settlers kept bringing more slaves into Texas. When he went to Mexico City in 1833 to negotiate these differences with the Mexican government, the dictator Santa Anna clapped him in jail for eight months.

Anglo-Powhatan Wars

The atmosphere grew even more strained between the Indians and settlers after Lord De La Warr arrived in 1610. He carried orders from the Virginia Company that amounted to a declaration of war against the Indians in the Jamestown region. A veteran of the vicious campaigns against the Irish, De La Warr now introduced "Irish tactics" against the Indians. His troops raided Indian villages, burned houses, confiscated provisions, and torched cornfields. A peace settlement ended the first war in 1614, sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to the colonist John Rolfe—the first known interracial union in Virginia. A fragile respite followed, which endured eight years. But the Indians, pressed by the land-hungry whites and ravaged by European diseases, struck back in 1622. A series of Indian attacks left 347 settlers dead, including John Rolfe. In response the Virginia Company issued new orders calling for "a perpetual war without peace or truce," one that would prevent the Indians "from being any longer a people." In the second war in 1644, the Indians made one last effort to dislodge the Virginians. They were again defeated. The peace treaty of 1646 repudiated any thought of assimilating the native peoples into Virginia society or of peacefully coexisting with them. Instead it effectively banished the Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral lands and formally separated Indian from white areas of settlement.

"Divorce Bill"

The beleaguered Van Buren tried to apply vintage Jacksonian medicine to the ailing economy through his controversial ________________. Convinced that some of the financial fever was fed by the injection of federal funds into private banks, he championed the principle of "divorcing" the government from banking altogether. By establishing a so-called independent treasury, the government could lock its surplus money in vaults in several of the larger cities. Government funds would thus be safe, but they would also be denied to the banking system as reserves, thereby shriveling available credit resources.

Sir Humphrey Gilbert

The bleak coast of Newfoundland was the scene of the first English attempt at colonization. This effort collapsed when its promoter, ____________, lost his life at sea in 1583.

Olive Branch Petition

The continental congress adopted this, professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities. But following Bunker Hill, King George III slammed the door on all hope of reconciliation. He formally proclaimed the colonies in rebellion; the skirmishes were now out and out treason, a hanging crime.

"Demise of Whig Party"

The election of 1852 was fraught with frightening significance, though it may have seemed tame at the time. It marked the effective end of the disorganized Whig party and, within a few years, its complete death. The Whigs' demise augured the eclipse of national parties and the worrisome rise of purely sectional political alignments. The Whigs were governed at times by the crassest opportunism, and they won only two presidential elections (1840, 1848) in their colorful career, both with war heroes. They finally choked to death trying to swallow the distasteful Fugitive Slave Law.

Lewis and Clark

The enormous extent of the new area (Louisiana Purchase) was more fully unveiled by a series of explorations under Jefferson's direction. In the spring of 1804, Jefferson sent his personal secretary, ______________, and a young army officer named _______________ to explore the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase. There Corps of Discovery ascended the "Great Muddy" (Missouri River) from St. Louis and spent the winter of 1804-1805 with the Mandan Indians in present-day North Dakota. Then, aided by the Shoshone woman Sacajawea, the thirty-three adventurers (one had died from illness in Iowa, the group's only casualty) struggled across the northern prairies and through the Rockies, finally descending the Columbia River to the Pacific coast. There two-and-one-half-year expedition yielded a rich harvest of scientific observations, maps, knowledge of the Indians in the region, and hair-raising wilderness adventure stories.

Rio-Grande River

The expansive Texans, on rather far-fetched grounds, were claiming the more southerly this as the southwestern boundary of Texas.

New France

The government of _______________ (Canada) finally fell under the direct control of the king after various commercial companies had faltered or failed. This royal regime was almost completely autocratic. The people elected no representative assemblies, nor did they enjoy the right to trial by jury, as in the English colonies. The population of Catholic New France grew at a listless pace. This did contain one valuable resource: the beaver. European fashion-setters valued beaver-pelt hats for their warmth and opulent appearance. To adorn the heads of Europeans, French fur-trappers ranged over the woods and waterways of North America in pursuit of beaver.

George Washington

The governor of Virginia ______________, a twenty one year old surveyor and fellow Virginian, onto the stage of history. To secure the Virginians claims, he was sent to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia militiamen. Encountering a small detachment of French troops in the forest about forty miles from fort Duquesne the Virginians fired shots of the globe girdling new war. The French leader was killed and his men retreated. The French promptly returned with reinforcements, who surrounded him in his hastily constructed breastworks fort necessity. After a ten hour siege he was forced to surrender his entire command on the Fourth of July. But he was permitted to march his men away with full honors of war. (During the French and Indian War)

"Judicial review"

The idea that the Supreme Court alone had the last word on the question of constitutionality.

"Nativists"

The invasion by this so-called immigrant "rabble" in the 1840s and 1850s inflamed the prejudices of American ______________. They feared that these foreign hordes would outbreed, outvote, and overwhelm the old "native" stock. Not only did the newcomers take jobs from "native" Americans, but the bulk of the displaced Irish were Roman Catholics, as were a substantial minority of the Germans. The Church of Rome was still widely regarded by many old-line Americans as a "foreign" church; convents were commonly referred to as "popish brothels."

House of Representatives

The larger states were conceded representation by population in this section, and it was agreed that every tax bill of revenue measure must originate here, where population counted more heavily.

General William Henry Harrison

The leading Whig "favorite son" was heavy-jawed ________________________ of Ohio, hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe; ran for president in 1836 and lost. Ran for president again in 1840 and won.

"Radical Republicans"

The minority group believed that the South should atone more painfully for its sins. Before the South should be restored, they wanted its social structure uprooted, the haughty planters punished, and the newly emancipated blacks protected by federal power.

Harriet Tubman

The most amazing of these "conductors" from the Underground Railroad was an illiterate runaway slave from Maryland. During nineteen forays into the South, she rescued more than three hundred slaves, including her aged parents, and deservedly earned the title "Moses."

Battle of New Orleans

The overconfident British, numbering some eight thousand battle-seasoned veterans, blundered badly. They made the mistake of launching a frontal assault, on January 8, 1815, on the entrenched American riflemen and cannoneers. The attackers suffered the most devastating defeat of the entire war, losing over two thousand, killed and wounded, in half an hour, as compared with some seventy for the Americans. It was an astonishing victory for Jackson and his men. The United States had fought for honor as much as material gain. This battle restored there honor, at least in American eyes, and unleashed a wave of nationalism and self-confidence.

Fifteenth Amendment

The radical Republicans were still worried. The danger loomed that once the unrepentant states were readmitted, they would amend their constitutions so as to withdraw the ballot from blacks. The only ironclad safeguard was to incorporate black suffrage in the federal Constitution. This goal was finally achieved by the _________________ , passed by Congress in 1869 and ratified by the required number of states in 1870. Prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on account of race. It disappointed feminists who wanted the Amendment to include guarantees for women's suffrage.

Ostend Manifesto

The secretary of state instructed the American ministers in Spain, England, and France to prepare confidential recommendations for the acquisition of Cuba. Meeting initially at ________, Belgium, the three envoys drew up a top-secret dispatch, soon known as this. This startling document urged that the administration offer $120 million for Cuba. If Spain refused, and if its continued ownership endangered American interests, the United States would "be justified in wresting" the island from the Spanish. This quickly leaked out. Northern free-soilers, already angered by the Fugitive Slave Law and other gains for slavery, rose up in wrath against the "manifesto of brigands." The red-faced Pierce administration hurriedly dropped its reckless schemes for Cuba.

Senate

The smaller states were conceded representation in this section where every state had 2 representatives

Robert Fulton

The steamboat craze, which overlapped the turnpike craze, was touched off by an ambitious painter-engineer named ________________. He installed a powerful steam engine in a vessel that posterity came to know as the Clermont but that a dubious public dubbed "____________ Folly."

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

The terms of the treaty were breathtaking. They confirmed the American title to Texas and yielded the enormous area stretching westward to Oregon and the ocean and embracing coveted California. This total expanse, including Texas, was about one-half of Mexico. The United States agreed to pay $15 million for the land and to assume the claims of its citizens against Mexico in the amount of $3,250,000. Signed by Trist

John Marshall

The upsurging nationalism of the post-Ghent years, despite the ominous setbacks concerning slavery, was further reflected and reinforced by the Supreme Court. The high tribunal continued to be dominated by him. One group of his decisions—perhaps the most famous—bolstered the power of the federal government at the expense of the states. A notable case in this category was McCulloch v. Maryland.

Black Codes

These laws were designed to regulate the affairs of the emancipated blacks, much as the slave statutes had done in pre-Civil War days. Mississippi passed the first such law in November 1865, and other Southern states soon followed suit. They varied in severity from state to state (Mississippi's was the harshest and Georgia's the most lenient), but they had much in common. -ensure a stable and subservient labor force (Need for resurgence of cotton) -Penalties for jumping on labor contracts, which usually committed them to work for the same employer for one year, and generally at pittance wages. Violators could be made to forfeit back wages or could be forcibly dragged back to work by a paid "Negro-catcher." -Restoring pre-war race relations; Provided with freedom, right to marry, forbade a black to serve on a jury, some even barred blacks from renting or leasing land. -The worst features of these would eventually be repealed, but their revocation could not by itself lift the liberated blacks into economic independence.

Excise Tax

These taxes on tobacco and alcohol were substantially increased by Congress in the North.

Federalist's

They believed in a strong central government, a strong army, industry, and loose interpretation of the Constitution. Their programs were the National Bank and taxes to support the growth of industry.

"Know-Nothing Party"

They professed to believe that in due time the "alien riffraff" would "establish" the Catholic Church at the expense of Protestantism and would introduce "popish idols." The noisier American "nativists" rallied for political action. In 1849 they formed the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, which soon developed into the formidable American party, more commonly known as this, a name derived from its secretiveness. "Nativists" agitated for rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization and for laws authorizing the deportation of alien paupers. They also promoted a lurid literature of exposure, much of it pure fiction.

Free-Soilers

They were unable to stomach the fraudulent conspiracy of the Border ruffians, and established an extralegal regime of their own in Topeka.

Fletcher v. Peck

This arose when a Georgia legislature, swayed by bribery, granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River country (Mississippi) to private speculators. The next legislature, yielding to an angry public outcry, canceled the crooked transaction. But the Supreme Court, with Marshall presiding, decreed that the legislative grant was a contract (even though fraudulently secured) and that the Constitution forbids state laws "impairing" contracts. The decision was perhaps most noteworthy as further protecting property rights against popular pressures. It was also one of the earliest clear assertions of the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws conflicting with the federal Constitution.

Shay's Rebellion

This flared up in western Massachusetts in 1786. Impoverished backcountry farmers, many of them Revolutionary War veterans, were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. Led by Captain Daniel _________, a veteran of the Revolution, these desperate debtors demanded that the state issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspend property takeovers. Hundreds of angry agitators, again seizing their muskets, attempted to enforce their demands. Massachusetts authorities responded with drastic action. Supported partly by contributions from wealthy citizens, they raised a small army. Several skirmishes occurred—at Springfield three Shaysites were killed, and one was wounded—and the movement collapsed. Daniel _________, who believed that he was fighting anew against tyranny, was condemned to death but was later pardoned.

Virginia Dynasty

This last clause of the Hartford Convention was aimed at the much-resented ________________—by 1814 a Virginian had been president for all but four years in the Republic's quarter-century of life.

Fort Sumter

This stronghold had provisions that would last only a few weeks. If no supplies were forthcoming, its commander would have to surrender without firing a shot. If Lincoln sent reinforcements, the South Carolinians would undoubtedly fight back; they could not tolerate a federal fort blocking the mouth of their most important Atlantic seaport. Lincoln adopted a middle-of-the-road solution. He notified the South Carolinians that an expedition would be sent to provision the garrison, though not to reinforce it. But to Southern eyes "provision" still spelled "reinforcement." A Union naval force was next started on its way here—a move that the South regarded as an act of aggression. On April 12, 1861, the cannon of the Carolinians opened fire on the fort, while crowds in Charleston applauded and waved handkerchiefs. After a thirty-four-hour bombardment, which took no lives, the dazed garrison surrendered.

McCulloch v. Maryland

This suit involved an attempt by the State of Maryland to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on its notes. John Marshall, speaking for the Court, declared the bank constitutional by invoking the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied powers. At the same time, he strengthened federal authority and slapped at state infringements when he denied the right of Maryland to tax the bank. With ringing emphasis, he affirmed "that the power to tax involves the power to destroy" and "that a power to create implies a power to preserve."

Underground Railroad

This virtual freedom train consisted of an informal chain of "stations" (antislavery homes), through which scores of "passengers" (runaway slaves) were spirited by "conductors" (usually white and black abolitionists) from the slave states to the free-soil sanctuary of Canada.

"Popular sovereignty "

This was the doctrine that stated that the sovereign people of a territory, under the general principles of the Constitution, should themselves determine the status of slavery. The public liked it because it accorded with the democratic tradition of self-determination. Politicians liked it because it seemed a comfortable compromise between the free-soilers' bid for a ban on slavery in the territories and southern demands that Congress protect slavery in the territories. This tossed the slavery problem into the laps of the people in the various territories. Advocates of the principle thus hoped to dissolve the most stubborn national issue of the day into a series of local issues. Yet this had one fatal defect: it might serve to spread the blight of slavery.

Common Sense

Thomas Paines pamphlet urging the colonies to declare independence and establish a republican government. The widely read pamphlet helped convince colonists to support the revolution.

Barbados Slave Codes

To control the large and potentially restive slave population in the West Indies, English authorities devised formal "codes" that defined the slaves' legal status and their masters' prerogatives. They denied even the most fundamental rights to slaves and gave masters virtually complete control over their laborers, including the right to inflict vicious punishments for even slight infractions.

St. Augustine

To secure the northern periphery of their New World domain against such encroachments and to convert more Indian souls to Christianity, the Spanish began to fortify and settle their North American borderlands. In a move to block French ambitions and to protect the sea-lanes to the Caribbean, the Spanish erected a fortress at ____________, Florida, in 1565, thus founding the oldest continually inhabited European settlement in the future United States.

Battle of Vicksburg

Two-and-a-half month siege of a Confederate fort on the Mississippi River in Tennessee. Vicksburg finally fell to Ulysses S. Grant in July of 1863, giving the Union Army control of the Mississippi River and splitting the South in two.

Specie Circular

U.S. Treasury decree requiring that all public lands be purchased with "hard," or metallic, currency. Issued after small state banks flooded the market with unreliable paper currency, fueling land speculation in the West.

Battle of Saratoga

Unable to advance or retreat, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command to the American General Horatio Gates. This battle ranks high among the decisive battles of both American and World history. The victory immensely revived the faltering colonial cause. Even more important, it made possible the urgently needed foreign aid from France, which in turn helped ensure American Independence.

Thomas Jefferson

Under the executive branch of the new constitution, he was the Secretary of State. When Alexander Hamilton wanted to create a new national bank, he adamantly spoke against it. He felt it would violate states rights by causing a huge competitor for the state banks, then causing a federal monopoly. His argument was that since the Constitution did not say Congress could create a bank they should not be given that power. This is the philosophy of strict construction. His beliefs led to the creation of the political party, Democratic Republicans.

"Salutary neglect"

Unofficial policy of relaxed royal control over colonial trade and only weak enforcement of Navigation Laws. Lasted from the Glorious Revolution to the end of the French and Indian War in 1763.

Interchangeable Parts

Up to this time, each part of a firearm had been hand-tooled, and if the trigger of one broke, the trigger of another might or might not fit. About 1798 Whitney seized upon the idea of having machines make each part, so that all the triggers, for example, would be as much alike as the successive imprints of a copperplate engraving. Journeying to Washington, he reportedly dismantled ten of his new muskets in the presence of skeptical officials, scrambled the parts together, and then quickly reassembled ten different muskets.

Independent Treasury Bill

Van Buren's "divorce" scheme was never highly popular. His fellow Democrats, many of whom longed for the risky but lush days of the "pet banks," supported it only lukewarmly. The Whigs condemned it, primarily because it squelched their hopes for a revived Bank of the United States. After a prolonged struggle, this passed Congress in 1840. Repealed the next year by the victorious Whigs, the scheme was reenacted by the triumphant Democrats in 1846 and then continued until the Republicans instituted a network of national banks during the Civil War.

Martin Van Buren

Vice president, __________________ of New York, was Jackson's choice for "appointment" as his successor in 1836. Jackson, now nearing seventy, was too old and ailing to consider a third term. But he was not loath to try to serve a third term through ________________, something of a "yes man." Leaving nothing to chance, Jackson carefully rigged the nominating convention and rammed his favorite down the throats of the delegates. He was supported by the Jacksonites without wild enthusiasm, even though he had promised "to tread generally" in the military-booted footsteps of his predecessor. ___________________, eighth president, was the first to be born under the American flag. "The wizard of Albany" From the outset the new president labored under severe handicaps. As a machine-made candidate, he incurred the resentment of many Democrats—those who objected to having a "bastard politician" smuggled into office beneath the tails of the old general's military coat.

Thomas Jefferson

Virginia Lawyer of 33. He was appointed to draft the declaration of independence. He gave his appeal by invoking on the natural rights of humankind-not just British rights. He argued persuasively that because the king had flouted these rights, the colonists were justified in cutting there connection. He then set forth a long list of the presumably tyrannous misdeeds of George III. This included imposing taxes without consent, dispensing with trial by jury, abolishing valued laws, establishing military dictatorship, maintaining standing armies in peacetime, cutting off trade, burning towns, hiring heists, and inciting hostility among the Indians. He took certain liberties with historical truth. "all men are created equal" haunted him and his people for generations.

John Smith

Virginia was saved from utter collapse at the start largely by the leadership and resourcefulness of this intrepid young adventurer. Taking over in 1608, he whipped the gold-hungry colonists into line with the rule "He who shall not work shall not eat." He had been kidnapped in December 1607 and subjected to a mock execution by the Indian chieftain Powhatan, whose daughter Pocahontas had "saved" him by dramatically interposing her head between his and the war clubs of his captors.

Battle of Trenton

Washington stealthily crossed the ice-clogged Delaware river. On December 26, 1776, he surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping off there Christmas celebration. This brilliant New Jersey campaign, crowned by these two lifesaving victories, revealed "Old Fox" Washington at his military best.

General William Howe

Washingtons adversary, did not speedily crush the demoralized American forces. He was no military genius, and he well remembered the horrible slaughter at Bunker Hill, where he had commanded. The country was rough and supplies were coming slow, and as a profesional soldier, he did not relish the rigors of winter campaigning. He evidently found more agreeable the bedtime company of his mistress. Was suppose to advance up the Hudson river to meet Burgoyne near Albany. Instead he embarked with the main British army for an attack on Philadelphia, the rebel capital. He wanted to destroy Washington's army and leave the path wide-open for Burgoynes thrust. settled in Philadelphia, He had not captured Philadelphia, Philadelphia captured him. -Benjamin Franklin

Bank of the United States

What made the bank a monster in Jackson's eyes? The national government minted gold and silver coins in the mid-nineteenth century but did not issue paper money. Paper notes were printed by private banks. Their value fluctuated with the health of the bank and the amount of money printed, giving private bankers considerable power over the nation's economy. No bank in America had more power than the this. In many ways the bank acted like a branch of government. It was the principal depository for the funds of the Washington government and controlled much of the nation's gold and silver. Its notes, unlike those of many smaller banks, were stable in value. A source of credit and stability, the bank was an important and useful part of the nation's expanding economy. To some the bank's very existence seemed to sin against the egalitarian credo of American democracy. The bank also won no friends in the West by foreclosing on many western farms and draining "tribute" into eastern coffers. Profit, not public service, was its first priority.

Fort McHenry

While Washington burned, the Americans at Baltimore held firm. The British fleet hammered this fort with their cannon but could not capture the city.

Pacific Railroad Act

While the South had been "out" from 1861 to 1865, the Republicans in Congress had enjoyed a relatively free hand. They had passed much legislation that favored the North, such as this that helped fund the construction of the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad with the use of land grants and government bonds.

South Carolina/southern states secede

___________, which had threatened to go out if the "sectional" Lincoln came in, was as good as its word. Four days after the election of the "Illinois baboon" by "insulting" majorities, its legislature voted unanimously to call a special convention. Meeting at Charleston in December 1860, the convention unanimously voted to secede. During the next six weeks, six other states of the lower South, though somewhat less united, followed the leader over the precipice: Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Four more were to join them later, bringing the total to eleven.

Henry Clay

_____________ of Kentucky, the gamy and gallant "Harry of the West" Because none of the candidates polled majority of the electoral vote, the House of Representatives was directed to eliminate a candidate under the twelfth amendment. He was thus eliminated, yet as Speaker of the House, he presided over the very chamber that had to pick the winner. He was in a position to throw the election to the candidate of his choice. He reached his decision by process of elimination. Crawford, recently felled by a paralytic stroke, was out of the picture. Clay hated the "military chieftain" Jackson, his archrival for the allegiance of the West. Jackson, in turn, bitterly resented his public denunciation of his Florida foray in 1818. The only candidate left was the puritanical Adams, who was eventually elected president due to his behind the scenes influence. A few days after the election he was announced secretary of state. The office of secretary of state was the prize plum then, even more so than today. Three of the four preceding secretaries had reached the presidency, and the high cabinet office was regarded as an almost certain pathway to the White House. "Judas of the West"

Stephan A. Douglas

_____________, who had championed true popular sovereignty, would have none of this semi popular fraudulence of the Lecompton constitution. Deliberately tossing away his strong support in the South for the presidency, he fought courageously for fair play and democratic principles. Northern democratic nominee in the election of 1860.

Denmark Vesey

_________________ a free black, led another ill-fated rebellion in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1822. Also betrayed by informers, ____________ and more than thirty followers were publicly strung from the gallows.