AP World Oral Exams

Discuss the reasons why Mao Zedong launched the Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956)

Mao's launch of the Hundreds flowers campaign was genuine in the beginning because he knew that in order for his government to thrive they'd need the support of the intellectuals or else they would lose their power. He wanted to expand heavy industry and promote socialism by allowing people to openly criticize the government. However, one could also say that his main reason for launching this campaign was so that he would know who was against his government and violently persecute them. --- Historical Context: Great Leap Forward- very detrimental and Mao starts losing power and denouncing of Stalin or Hungarian Revolution (all of these things threatened them) Needed support of intellectuals- Needed to finance the expansion of heavy industry but these activities required large numbers of trained and capable personnel, and it became clear that the support of the educated classes would be necessary for the strategy to succeed Communist Party- Led five anti-rightist campaigns, The campaigns also created immense psychological pressure which discouraged anyone from speaking out about anything, or taking any initiative which might be misinterpreted as an attempt at personal gain Cultural Revolution On the correct handling of the contradictions among the people (Mao's Speech)- Mao displayed open support for the Hundred Flowers Campaign, saying "Our society cannot back down, it could only progress... criticism of the bureaucracy is pushing the government towards the better." The speech, published on February 27, 1957, encouraged people to vent their criticisms as long as they were "constructive" rather than "hateful and destructive". He convinced the people that by speaking out and criticizing the government they were only making the government better. Socialism- The idea was to have intellectuals discuss the country's problems in order to promote new forms of arts and new cultural institutions. Mao, however, also saw this as the chance to promote socialism. He believed that after discussion it would be apparent that socialist ideology was the dominant ideology over capitalism, even amongst non-communist Chinese, and would propel the development and spread of the goals of socialism. Schools of thought- He alluded to the Warring States era when numerous schools of thought competed for ideological, not military, supremacy. Historically, Confucianism and Taoism had gained prominence, and socialism would now stand to its test. Maoism- The ideological crackdown following the campaign's failure re-imposed Maoist orthodoxy in public expression, and catalyzed the Anti-Rightist Movement Anti Rightist campaign- After this brief period of liberalization, Mao used this to oppress those who challenged the communist regime by using force. The crackdown continued through 1957-59 as an Anti-Rightist Campaign against those who were critical of the regime and its ideology. Those targeted were publicly criticized and condemned to prison labor camps. --- Historian 1: Historian Jonathan Spence suggests that the campaign was simply a culmination of a muddled and convoluted dispute within the Party regarding how to address dissent HIstorian 2: Historian Jun Chang believes that the campaign was, from the start, a ruse intended to expose rightists and counter-revolutionaries, and that Mao Zedong persecuted those whose views were different from the party's. For instance, in Jun Chang and Jon Halliday's text Mao: The Unknown Story, Chang asserts that "...Mao was setting a trap, and...was inviting people to speak out so that he could use what they said as an excuse to victimise them

To what extent by 1890 had the Meiji Restoration (1868) in Japan created a "modern late-nineteenth century state"?

Meiji Japan created "a modern late-nineteenth century state" to the extent that they adopted a new constitution, had large scale militarization, and took modern capitalist actions. --- Required military conscription (big army = modern) Emperor Meiji Tokugawa shogunate (former political power) Rapid industrialization Centralized govt Gave lots of money/power to industry (capitalized) Created Diet (parliament) with House of Reps and House of Peers with elected officials Expanded their imperialist/territorial claims Lower class gets more autonomy CounterPoints Economy went in the trash and was practically saved by American intervention in WWII Military had too much self control, caused Rape of Nanking --- Historian: "The government met two obstacles to this modernization work. First the labour problems, and, secondly, financial difficulties presented themselves." -Paul Akamatsu

Compare and contrast the ways in which China and Japan were opened up for trade with the Western powers between the late 18th and the mid 19th century.

China: -Late 18th century China exported tea, cotton, and silk (586) -Before, Qing Dynasty controlled trade by permitting only one market point for each foreign sector. Late 1700s Britain becomes worried about its massive trade deficit with China (585). -Britain would trade tea for silver. Late 1700s Qing government needed the silver and was disinclined to loosen import restrictions due to declining domestic revenues (585). - Trade with Britain effectively came to an end due to lack of Chinese interest in Britain's inventions and failure to observe the rules of the British diplomatic system. - China forced to sign unequal trade treaties after losing the Opium War -China "carved up like a melon" while European countries competed for "spheres of influence" -Limited China's ability to make money from trade Japan: -Unil the Meiji restoration era beginning in 1868, the Japanese rejected Western trade and overall influence -Decrees were made in the 1500's and 1600's with the intention of eradicating Christianity and ending trade with Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands -Meiji restoration began mimicry of Western lead industrialization and trade resurfaced

Compare the effects of both World Wars on two of the following regions - Americas, Africa, East Asia, and Southwest Asia

Compared Americas to Southwest Asia Thesis: WW1 had many effects on both Americas and Southwest Asia, however it impacted America in a more positive way where rights were gained and they had industrialized, however there was an increase in intolerance, but in the middle east the ottoman empire completely disappeared leaving a power vacuum that allowed for foreign countries to take control over it. Similarly, after WW2, the situation in the Americas improved because while they entered the cold war, there were lots of social movements that called for a change of the people's rights, but the situation in the middle east only get worse because even though many gained independence, the Taliban rose to power and it brought lots of corruption and violence to the middle east which still lives on today. --- WW1 Americas: Women's roles/ Jobs increased, they filled in the roles of the males that had gone off to war or gone to Europe to take of wounded and after the war they realized how helpful the women were and jobs opened up for them 19th Amendment- women got right to vote Debt from war- taxes increased 14 Points/League of nations- created to help solve european problems after war Growth of KKK- increase of intolerance World Industrial Leader- production and efficiency had increased w/ WW1 Mid East: Ottoman empire- completely dissolved Sykes-Picot Agreement- the French and British carved up the Middle-East into zones of control/influence for each of them-> carved up without any regard for the culture, ethnicity, religious beliefs or interests of the peoples living in the regions. It was done arbitrarily to create conflict, turmoil and corruption, thus giving the British and the French control over the area. The Balfour Declaration- called for creation of Israel for the establishment of "a national home for the jewish people"-> part of palestine became Israel --- WW2: Americas: Decrease in economics- less demand for goods bc many didn't have money hence many were laid off Decrease in discrimination- Order 8802 which prohibited racial discrimination in job training programs GI Bill- made it economically viable for Veterans to have home ownership and attend college "We can do it"- more women in work force and views on women working had changed forever Cold war- soviet union, arms race Mid East: Taliban/ AL-Queda rose to power because US supported them during soviet occupation had armed them Independence- accelerated the independence of Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Egypt from British Proclamation of the State of Israel- led to terrorist outrages Petro-States- emergence of Iran and later Saudi Arabia as oil rich countries where wealth and power is concentrated into few hands

Using your knowledge of world history, analyze continuities and changes in social and political conditions in Japan in the period circa 1885 to 1945. (Historical thinking skill: Continuity and Change Over Time)

During the period circa 1885 to 1945, Japan changed the country with by implementing a new wave of urbanization, a new focus on territorial expansion, and a new system of government. Japan shows continuity, however, in the new government's basis of power. --- The Japanese Diet Abolition of the feudal system Nanking Massacre Annexation of Korea Russo Japanese War Urbanization Urban migration Westernization World War 2 --- Kiichiro Yagi, professor of economics at Kyoto University, claims that economic liberation in the West caused Japan to abolish the feudal system. Thomas Berger claims that the hierarchical system was always followed up to the beginning of WWII.

"The Cultural Revolution (1966-1969) was more about retaining power than about ideology." Is this a fair assessment of Mao's motives?

It is a fair assessment that Mao initiated the Cultural Revolution to retain power rather than to execute ideology due to it being Mao's attempt to establish himself as the leader of the Communist World, through methods that ignored and contradicted everything the Communist ideology stood for. --- Points: Khrushcev (new Soviet Union leader)'s anti-Stalinist policies and stance threatened Mao The Great Leap Forward's massive failure diminished Mao's role in the party and he was desperate to regain control Shutting down schools shows lack of concern for anything culture related Red Guards easy to manipulate at first (retaining power) Hong Yung Lee's 1978 historical studies present the theory that the Cultural Revolution started out as a conflict between party elites Counterpoints: The execution of the Cultural Revolution was based on ideology via Mao's Little Red Book Mao's spoken motivation was "a bourgeoisie infiltration" of Chinese society

Compare and contrast attempts at modernization in China and Japan in the period up to 1895.

Japan's Meiji Restoration and China's Self Strengthening Movement both used failed isolation as motivation to economically industrialize, but differed in that Japan's modernization was far more comprehensive and revolutionary than that of China. --- Compare: Motivations rooted in European defeat The Japanese daimyō's anti-West feelings resulted in multiple European nations attacking Japanese ports, leading to the daimyō overthrowing the toppling of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1866) and a more pro West policy change The Treaty of Peking (1860) transformed China from a combative to submissive force towards the West (gave a lot of land to Russia, gave port control to Europe) established infrastructures for railways, telephone and telegraph communications, etc Expanded economies to focus on industry Western-Style education Both nations sent students to study abroad Universites established (Tokyo Imperial University) Contrast: Japan's supported by the government as a form of revolution, whereas China's was led by bearucrats and military officials that crushed rebellions --- As historian Immanuel Hsu states, ""The provincial promoters of Self-Strengthening rivaled rather than cooperated with each other and regarded their achievements as the foundation of personal power. Their sense of regionalism and their eagerness for self-preservation persisted very strongly." Japan established a national bank and capitalist institutions China's did not modernize culture

Analyze and assess the impact of the influence of the Empress Dowager Cixi (Tz'u-his) upon China's government between 1861 and 1908.

Opposed railways and other foreign technologies (765) Was opposed to any foreign infulence Encouraged people to destroy Western technologies Encouraged the Boxer Uprising (antiforeign riots) The riots were put down by European countries, Japan, and the United States (765) Japan took advantage of China's weakness and took control of Manchuria, China (766) Cixi slowed down foreign intrusion and influence, but by doing so denied themselves the best defense against foreign pressure (765)

Compare and contrast attempts at modernization in China and Japan in the period up to 1895.

Self-Strengthening Movement: After failures in Opium Wars China tries to modernize with: Adoption of Western ideas and technologies (especially in the military) Creation of wealth by bolstering industries such as railways, telegraphy and agriculture The Textile Industry But Historian Jane Elliot says little of the humiliation following Opium Wars which led to the Movement was shared by peasant population Meiji Restoration in Japan aims to combine modern advances with traditional values: Ended unlawful shogunate Conscription for army and other military modernizations Centralized culture (shared language and dialect) Industrial Revolution saw massive increases in silk, coal and railway production and many more merchants The Meiji Constitution called upon ancestors while also promoting reforms of society and government --- While some schools of thought view Meiji Restoration as oppressive and reactionary, historian L. M. Cullen saw reforms as a rational step forward

Compare the effects of two of the following revolutions on the roles of women in family, economic and political life: (HTS: Comparison) Communism in Russia, Communism in China, Communism in Cuba, Islamic Revolution in Iran.

Thesis: Both communism in Russia and China improved the lives of women, although in China womens' progress was limited by Chinese patriarchal traditions. Contextualization: In the 19th and 20th centuries, industrialization both created jobs for women in factories and created new working conditions. --- P1: Russia pre-Revolution women were not included in trade unions or politics Women given suffrage in 1917 Abortion allowed for ideological reasons Socialism advocated for equality of the sexes P2: China Pre-revolution China dominated by patriarchy Women given suffrage in 1949, when Mao took power Women worked in factories + agriculture, but never held the same positions or status as men Foot-binding outlawed Men still are in charge, both in households and politically 1995 Beijing Women's Conference --- Some historians (Margery Wolf) believe that although women are supposed to receive "equal rights" in China, they often are still oppressed by the the patriarchal society they live in

"The Cultural Revolution (1966-1969) was more about retaining power than about ideology." Is this a fair assessment of Mao's motives?

The statement that "The Cultural Revolution (1966-1969) was more about retaining power than about ideology" is a fair assessment of Mao's motives because of the intent to retain communist power and because of the communist legacy passed on to later generations. --- Communism Red guards Bourgeois Traditionalist Maoism Great leap forward Deng Xiaoping Mao Zedong Lin Biao --- One school of thought claims that the Cultural Revolution destroyed Confucian culture and Chinese culture in the process because of the destruction of Chinese artifacts. Neo-Maoists claim that Mao was protecting Chinese society against becoming capitalist. They claim that capitalism in China is a result of the failure of the cultural revolution.

To what extent were the aims of the Tiananmen Square demonstrations achieved?

Thesis: Following the demonstrations at Tiananmen Square in 1989, the Chinese government began to reform the economy into a more capitalist system, however this was combined with harsh political oppression and crackdown within the Chinese Communist Party. --- Terms/Notes: Tiananmen Square protest for political change in China and against government corruption Media censorship Great Firewall - Internet censorship Great Shield - Internet censorship Did achieve the demand for higher education spending Did achieve the demand for higher pay for intellectuals Government budget for "social stability" higher than defense Freshman at universities "re-educated" on what "really" happened at Tiananmen Square Zhao Ziyang (Western ideals kinda guy) forced to step down from high government position --- Historical Controversy: Some schools of thought believe that following the Tiananmen Square demonstrations, the Chinese Communist Party opened up the economy. Others believe that the protests actually caused the Party to pull back on the path they were already on to open up the economy.

With reference to the period up to 1990, examine the efforts on Japanese society of globalization.

Thesis: Japan transitioned from an isolationist nation to a globalized nation as a result of persistent Western efforts to influence Japan's government and economy. --- Contextualization: Buddhism brought to Japan from Korea, Japan was at the eastern end of the Silk Road, although Japan didn't necessarily import goods its exports made it as far as Europe --- P1: Japan's isolationism: Tokugawa Shogunate 1614 ban on Christianity 1633-1639 edicts shut down trade w/ Europeans Meiji Restoration caused political autonomy, modernized on its own Japan defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War Japanese Imperialism Sino-Japanese War P2: Japan's internationalism Japanese initially had limited trade with Europeans Jesuit missionaries in Japan Commodore Perry arrives in Japan in 1853 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa Imperial Japan relies on trade Late 20th century Japanese economic development --- Some historians (Herbert Bix) argue that emperor Hirohito completely modernized Japan, while others suggest that Japan's modernization was the result of Western influence + prodding

Evaluate the successes and failures of Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) and the Communist Party in their social and economic policies between 1949 and 1961.

Thesis: Mao Zedong implemented a number of economic policies that were for the most part failures, and some social policies that were successful and had a positive impact, but also some that weren't so successful. --- Terms/Notes: First Five Year Plan - 1953 Nationalization of industry and large commercial enterprise Private property abolished 100 Flowers Campaign - February 1957 (economic failure) Free speech campaign but then intellectuals started criticizing Mao and he got mad :( Led to intellectuals in labor camps for "re-education" Great Leap Forward - 1958 (economic failure) Political and natural factors led to famine resulting in millions of deaths Strict rationing imposed in 1959 to reduce deaths bc of famine Marriage Law of 1950 (social success) Women and men equal in marriage Agrarian Reform Law of 1950 (economic success) Three-Antis Campaign Five-Antis Campaign --- Historical Controversy: Some schools of thought see Mao Zedong's reforms as a horrid string of actions that led to millions of deaths and repression by the government. Other schools of thought see the reforms as the groundwork for today's economic prosperity in China.

To what extent was the Boxer Rebellion (1900-1901) a reaction against the spread of Christianity in China?

Thesis: The Boxer Rebellion began in 1900 and was lead by a group known as the "Order of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists" and they were both anti-christian and anti because of the belief of them trying to take over China. --- I. Origins of the Boxer Rebellion date back to the mid 1800s when there were signs of exploitation. II. Called the boxers because of their various forms of mixed martial arts. III. Boxer uprising was a direct effect of the oppression from Western and Japanese influence IV. 1900-1901 the boxer reign lead V. From June to August the Boxer Rebellion uproared in a very violent manner. VI. Pre-Boxer Rebellion the wide spread of Western Powers and influx of Japanese culturalization forced the dynasty (Qing) to surrender and suppress to their teachings. VII. 1900: Killed Chinese Christians and Christian Missionaries. Tore down Churches. VIII. The movement spread through the Beijing area. IX. June 20th marked the beginning of a siege that lasted throughout the whole summer months. X. Boxer Rebellion ended formally September 7th, 1901 under the Boxer protocol.

Evaluate the impact on the May Fourth Movement (1919) on China.

Thesis: The May Fourth Movement influenced the modernization of China by steering the cultural and political trajectory of the nation away from Confucianism. --- Background info: Following the Chinese Revolution in 1911, the Qing Dynasty disintegrated. This marked the end of thousands of years of powerful imperial rule. The Republic of China was established. Because the last dynasty had been overthrown, the hope was that a new era in which political power rested with the people. However, the reality was that China was a fragmented nation dominated by warlords, who were more concerned with their own political powers and private armies than national interests. What was the May Fourth Movement? The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese independence, cultural, and political movement growing out of student participants in Beijing on 4 May 1919, protesting against the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, which stated that Germany's territorial rights in China were not returned to the Chinese, as had been expected, but were instead turned over to the Japanese. On this date, student representatives from local universities met in Beijing and drafted resolutions to address their grievances. They believed the way out of China's problems was to adopt Western notions of equality and democracy and to abandon the Confucian approach which stressed hierarchy in relationships and obedience. Impact: -The decline of traditional ethics -the family system was accelerated -the emancipation of women gathered momentum -vernacular literature emerged -rise in nationalism -educated intellectuals became a major factor in China's subsequent political developments -The movement also spurred the successful reorganization of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), later ruled by Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), and stimulated the birth of the Chinese Communist Party as well -On the morning of 4 May 1919, student representatives from thirteen different local universities met in Beijing and drafted five resolutions Failures of the movement: -many of the intellectuals at the time opposed the anti-traditional message and many political figures ignored it -Chiang Kai-shek, as a nationalist and Confucianist was against the May Fourth Movement. -Considered to be corrupting the youth --- Historian perspective: "The atmosphere and political mood that emerged around 1919," in the words of Mitter (2004), "are at the centre of a set of ideas that has shaped China's momentous twentieth century."

How did the events of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) determine Japan's progression upon a path of imperialism

Thesis: The Russo-Japanese war was a turning point in Japan becoming a world power, the use of new technology and treaties between Russia and Japan, lead Japan onto the path of imperialism. --- The Japanese were viewed as a powerful nationalist force against the European imperial nations. Used modern technology against the Russian navy and army. The Japanese used larged guns that used omnidirectional firing meaning the guns could be fire in any direction in which they were previously aimed at while being reloaded By the end of 1904 the Japanese sunk every Russian ships Their growing army and navy continued to grow into the World Wars Made Japan a great power -Nationalism for the Meiji government grew this is seen in art B. Was able to gain territory as a result of the war and growing power Was a protectorate of Korea in 1905 during the war Annexed Korea in 1910 Kwantung Leased Territories in 1905 in southern Manchuria was given to Japan from Russia The Portsmouth Treaty to end the war gave Japan control of Korea and the Kwantung Leased Territories

Using specific examples, compare the implementation of Communism by Communist rulers in the Soviet Union and China in the period circa 1917 to 1970. (Historical thinking skill: Comparison)

Thesis: The original implementation of Communism in both the Soviet Union and China were very similar, however as time went on, the way the two countries ruled over their people became increasingly different. --- Similarities Overthrow of the Dynastic system Qing Dynasty and Romanov Dynasty Five Year Plan Collectivization of agriculture and development of heavy industry Cult of personality of Mao and Stalin Totalitarian Rule One Party system with all aspects of political and economic life under state control Workers' Revolution (USSR) vs. Peasant Revolution (China) Khrushchev lifted some government oppression implemented under Stalin and China disagreed with that "Khrushchev Thaw" vs. Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution Soviet New Economic Plan --- Historical Controversy: Most historians believe that Mao was influenced by Stalin, however, some historians believe Mao was a Stalinist himself while others believe he believed in a different form of Communism (Maoism) because of the different circumstances of China from the Soviet Union.

"Brutal and a failure" Discuss with reference to Jiang Jieshi's rule in Taiwan up to 1950.

Thesis: Through brutal corruption, mass violence, and totalitarian rule Jiang Jieshi's rule in Taiwan starting in 1945, allowed for him to maintain control through intolerance. Jiang Jieshi was not a failure because the Communists did not capture Taiwan and he remained in power. --- Background info: Jiang Jieshi was the leader of the Guomindang, the National Revolutionary Army and the Chinese republic between 1926 and 1949. Nationalist forces were eventually forced to flee from China to Taiwan by the Chinese Communist Party in 1949. Jiang served as head of the Guomindang and president of the Republic of China (Taiwan). The Taiwanese were extremely dissatisfied with the governing officials of the Republic of China after the end of World War II. The Kuomintang controlled the island while the party engaged in a war against the communists and Mao Zedong. Information: -The Kuomintang (KMT) troops from Mainland China initially welcomed, but their behaviour maladministration contributed to Taiwanese discontent -The February 28 Massacre was an anti-government uprising in Taiwan that was violently suppressed by the Kuomintang-led Republic of China government -The number of Taiwanese deaths is estimated to be 10,000 -The massacre marked the beginning of the White Terror in which tens of thousands of other Taiwanese went missing, died or were imprisoned -This incident was a crucial event in Taiwan's modern history -Martial law was declared in Taiwan and halted some democratic processes, including presidential and parliamentary elections, until the mainland could be recovered from the CPC (not lifted until 1987) -massive suppression and murder -imprisonment of political dissidents resulted in Jiang Jieshi gaining power -single-party rule of the KMT -Soldiers fired upon innocent, unarmed civilians in an attempt to instill fear in the people and thereby restore order -dissidents disappeared

Question: To what extent do you agree that the Tokugawa Shogunate was at the point of collapse by 1853?

Thesis: Well I agree with it to the extent that the Tokugawa Shogunate was at the point of collapse by 1853 due to both internal and external factors. Government was a feudal military dictatorship. Emperor was more of a presence at the time rather than an actual ruler The Shogun of Japan during the time actually had greater power. Samurai were heavy in population during this time period as well. Tokugawa instilled great respect to authority and their people of the time frame as well. Comrade Matthew Perry of 1853 He lead the socio-economic problems of the time period. Between the gold and silver trading period. This flux in the economy hit the living of several people very hard. Rates of death, famine and poverty sky rocketed

Evaluate the impact of the First World War on the rise of militarism and nationalism in Japan?

Thesis: World war one created an economic crisis in Japan which lead to the formation of new political parties, liberal ideals and a strong sense of nationalism. --- Economic crisis -Japan was reliant on exportation to foreign countries and the Great Depression caused many countries to stop importing goods from Japan - Lack of natural resources because of the growing -Exports fell by 50% between 1929-1931 -Capitalist and business men were blamed: The Zaibatsu created political corruption and large monopolies by taking advantage of the growing economic system, that grew as a result of the industrial revolution. -The Zaibatsu were able to gain political recognition by working with the government to expand and control trade Political changes -Western-style parties grew especially in cities -Trade unions gained more power and attention -The army and navy gained political power as a result of the corrupted business class. A military dictatorship was formed -Military made government decisions without consulting the prime minister -Joined the League of Nations after WW1 C. Liberal Ideals -Many Japanese were participants in education programs improving literacy

"During the Meiji period, Japan changed its clothes but not its soul." To what extent is this an accurate assessment of the modernization of the country over that period?

This assessment is not very accurate pertaining to the modernization of Japan because Japan changed all aspects of itself and while its traditional culture was prevalent, Western culture played a big part of the restoration. --- Western clothes+haircuts Matthew Perry Gunboat diplomacy Govt stuff (Diet, centralization, emperor) Industry jump started w/capitalist organizations Super fast industrialization Social mobility (peasants get more rights) Men vote Samurais get phased out Daimyos consolidated and dished out to peasants Bakufu "Economic and financial centralization of the empire at the same time also involved fiscal and administrative unification." -Paul Akamatsu

To what extent did the response of the foreign powers to the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 demonstrate full international cooperation in regard to China?

Whole point of rebellion was to oust foreigners and Christians and to support the Qing government Boxers sieged the International Legations in which thousands of Christians and foreigners hid for 55 days Empress Dowager Cixi initially supported them but others in government and army didn't (While other schools of thought see this move in one of a series of power-advances or mistakes, historian Jung Chang claims, though executed poorly, Cixi did this in hopes of bringing reforms and individuality to the Qing Dynasty) Eight-Nation alliance: Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States; set up in response to rebellion Foreign response included invasion which saw many suspected Boxers killed Boxer Protocol: signed by the Eight-Nation alliance, put military forces in play and determined concessions from China Alliance didn't ask for too much because they hadn't necessarily won the war or defeated the Boxers Listed as one of the "Unequal Treaties" which were forced upon China in 19th and 20th centuries without a representative at the table --- Historian Jose Marti painted foreign intervention in the Boxer Rebellion as imperialistic