ap world: unit 2
what is religious pluralism? how does it relate to studying west african communities?
- = flexibility and inclusiveness of faith -inclusivity of muslim and locally religious people (islam was a powerful force in west africa sudanic area) -different rituals allowed -participation in multiple types of prayers and practices -remains a feature of many west african communities today
monsoon winds
- = alternating wind currents (blew northeast in summer, blew southwest in winter) -allowed merchants to plan out their voyages
astrolabe
-calculated latitude -how far north or south from the equator could be determined
what type of diseases spread along the silk roads?
-measles -smallpox -bubonic plague (widespread of disease may not have happened, if it were not for the silk roads)
innovation of the banking house
-precursor to modern banking -c. 200 bce -china
innovations in existing transportation technologies (sand roads)
arabian camel -could go 10 days without water -made crossing sahara possible --initiated regular trans-saharan commeerce --north african arabs (islamic) organized caravans across the desert
how many people are estimated to have died from the plague
as many as 100 million people across afro-eurasia
sea roads
before 1500, the indian ocean represented the world's largest sea-based network of communication and exchange, stretching from southern china to eastern africa
new imperial states (mongols)
by 1227, genghis khan's khanate reached from northern china sea to eastern persia
why were camels the best way for traders to move their goods on land?
camels were tough -withstood the harsh desert conditions of central asia -could carry up to 500 pounds
bills of exchange
contract promising payment
innovations in commercial technologies (sea roads)
facilitated indian ocean trade
banking houses
offered credit to merchants
southeast asia in sea roads
situated by geography to play an important role in indian ocean commerce
innovations in previously existing transportation (sea roads)
transportation was cheaper -ships could carry more weight than camels
what traveled across long distances because of indian ocean trade?
-bulk goods that are too heavy to travel over land (cotton cloth, food, timber) -goods traded were for mass market (silk road focused on luxury goods) -ideas also traveled
what technologies spread through the bantu migration?
-cattle herding (early technology in northern africa; farming came later) -pottery -iron tools
innovation of the coin
-minted precious metals (silver, bronze, gold) with own inherent value -c. 500 bce -lydia, turkey
merchants (sea roads)
-permanent settlements of foreign traders along the indian ocean routes --learned local languages, cultures, and trading practices (still retained links to their home societies_ - = diasporic communities
expansion of geographical range covered by silk roads
-the silk roads linked the various peoples and civilizations of the eurasian landmass from china to europe by the early centuries of the common era -merchants could benefit immensely from their involvement in long-distance trade (larger profit) -silk road trading networks prospered most when large and powerful states provided relative security for merchants and travelers across long distances
when did the bantu migration begin, and by what time did it extend across the "trunk" of africa?
-bantu migration = passing of information down through oral tradition -as early as 2000 bce -about 1200 ce, "bantu-ness" across the vast trunk of africa (= cultural and technological network)
what role did the regional trade network play in helping johannes gutenberg create his printing press?
-europeans traveled silk roads → many chinese products and technologies reached europe (including technology gutenberg used for printing press)
innovation of the hanseatic league
-first common market and confederation of merchant guilds -1296 ce -germany
improved commercial practices before silk roads
-increase in production of silk → increased trade -chinese dynasties wanted to develop commercial relationships with foreign trading centers/civilizations
why did islam spread to indonesia more than to thailand, laos, cambodia, or vietnam?
-indonesian rulers and elites adopted islam for religious and economic ties with people they traded with -didn't spread to thailand, laos, cambodia, or vietnam because they weren't centers of trade
islam in west africa (sand roads)
-islam accompanied trade -introduced by muslim traders across the sahara (accepted peacefully, voluntary, in west african urban centers) -provided link to muslim trading centers and source of literate officials to assist in state administration and religious legitimacy -by 16th century, many west african cities became major centers of islamic religious and intellectual life (ex: timbuktu) -remained the culture of urban elites (little spread in rural areas) -rulers adopted islam bu governed people who practiced local african religions (little imposition of islam)
declining cities
-kashgar by the late 1300s (destroyed by tamerlane) -constantinople (fourth crusade, bubonic plague, fell to the ottomans in 1453)
mali (sand roads)
-kept import of strategic goods (horses and metals) for themselves -taxed duties on salt, copper, etc -reserved gold for themselves (permitted free export of gold dust) -ibn battuta surprised at mali's casual intimacy of unmarried men and women (despite commitment to islam)
khan's mongolian armies/soldiers
-khan's empire was not possible without skilled, fearsome soldiers under his command (strong riders, proficient with short bow, highly disciplined, khan developed command structure, messenger force created) -mongolian armies mapped terrain to prepare against attacks -military strategies extended to surprise and craft -at enemy settlements, if enemy refused surrender, khan killed all aristocrats, but recruited craftworkers, miners, and other with skills/literate (others used as laborers) -genghis khan created a type of pony express that carried oral messages
mongol khanates
-khanate = kingdom -three of genghis khan's grandsons set up their own khanates
who was mansa musa, and why might he have had a problem with his portrayal in photos?
-mansa musa was an african king, ruler of the state of mali -possibly the wealthiest of his time -the crown and scepter were not west african symbols of kingship
interregional contacts and conflicts with mongols
-mongol invasions brought technology, culture, new ideas, and even disease -mongols conquered more than romans (mongol empire was the largest, continuous, land empire in history) -mongol conquests helped transmit fleas that carried bubonic plague from southern china to central asia to se asia and europe (followed familiar paths of trade and military conquest)
mongol economies and trade networks
-mongols did not produce much and weren't active traders, but they promoted international commerce and taxed it -provided financial backing for caravans, introduced standardized weights and measures, gave tax breaks to merchants
how was the eurasian trading system during the period of the mongol empire different from the early ages of the silk roads with the han and roman empire?
-mongols taxed trade -mongols were religiously tolerant -missionaries and merchants pushed their religion on "old" silk road -mongols spread their empire through warfare -mongols controlled many civilizations through imperialism -in older periods, each region had their own empire
why is indian ocean trade described as a "monsoon marketplace"? what was the significance of monsoons?
-monsoons = the wind that brought rainy seasons -a sailor could count on the wind to assist in sailing (africa to india during april-september; india to africa during november-february) -winds were predictable --made trade less risky (led to cheaper trade → more trade)
how did trade on the silk roads lead to the formation of new cities?
-most trade on the silk road was by caravan --they had to stop for food and water -towns became wealthy from providing for travelling merchants
what did the mongols have to do with the black death?
-probably responsible -opened trade → opened vectors for disease to travel -plague spread through flies infected with yersinia pestis -most likely spread through fleas on rats on black sea ships that were trading with europe (trade existed because of mongols)
improved commercial practices (sea roads)
-production or gathering of porcelain (china), spices (islands of southeast asia), cotton goods/pepper (india), ivory/gold (east african coast), incense (southern arabia) → incentive for indian ocean commerce -production of textiles, pepper, timber, rice, sugar, wheat → more products for mass market
what impact did annual fairs have on the european economy?
-products were protected -merchants from all over europe had access to credit and currency exchange -these fairs boosted production -encouraged merchants to organize into companies → improved european trade and finances
which policies did genghis khan use to unite the mongol confederation?
-promotion based on merit (not family position) -lower classes of conquered people brought into his tribe (dispossession of the conquered leaders) -won the loyalty of more people, declared great khan (leader of the mongols)
how did the mongol empire affect trade and exchange across eurasia (and even parts of africa)
-reinvigorated cross-eurasian trade (silk road) -mongols value trade because they taxed it -made the silk road safe -increased communication (yam system)
how did the mongols recruit people to work for them? what world-historical effect did this have?
-relocated people who were useful to them (artists, musicians, especially administrators) -they found people who were good at their speciality and moved them across the empire -created "cross-cultural pollination"
mongols' facilitation of afro-eurasian trade and communication
-resecured silk road (safe trade from asia to europe) -freed from warfare, genghis khan's soldiers protected silk roads (made them safe for trade) -ushered in third golden age of silk roads -established new trade channels between asia, middle east, africa, & europe -built a system of roads (continued to maintain and guard the trade routes) -yuan dynasty - kublai extended grand canal and promoted trade -mongols enabled the circulation of goods, information, disease, and styles of warfare across eurasia and parts of africa
interregional trade (sand roads)
-sand roads --linked north africa and mediterranean with west africa --before european slave system -rooted in environmental variation -varied environments provided economic incentive for trade -arabians wanted gold, others wanted african ivory, kola nuts, and slaves --west africans got horses, cloth, dates, various manufactured goods, and *salt* in exchange
city states of the swahili coast
-set of commercial city states along the east african coast (present day somalia to mozambique) --commercial centers that accumulated local goods and exchanged for foreign products -extensive commercial life of the western indian ocean stimulated growth (followed rise of islam) -local people had opportunity for wealth/power in the growing demand for east african products -commercial opportunities → african merchant class developed -long distance trade → sharp distinctions between mercantile elite and commoners -rapidly became islamic and linked cities to larger indian ocean world
porcelains (silk road)
-valuable commodity carried west on the silk road -peasants in the yangzi river delta of southern china sometimes gave up the cultivation of food crops to focus on products, such as porcelains (as luxury goods for the markets of the silk roads)
margery kemp
English mystic whose book was one of the earliest autobiographies in English -She could not read or write; dictated to scribes -Descriptions of pilgrimages to Jerusalem, Rome, Germany, and Spain -Rare first-hand account of a middle-class medieval woman's life (14 children!!)
how did indian ocean trade compare to the silk road?
similar -a network of trade routes that connected people to others that wanted and were willing to pay for their goods -lots of trade routes connecting various ports different -much more diverse
powerful new trading cities in silk roads
some major central asian commercial cities developed from caravanserai -(bukhara, samarkand, khotan, kashgar, and dunhuang) centers of cultural exchange as merchants from many religious and cultural traditions met and mingled
arab and persian communities in east africa
swahili civilization -arab/indian/persian merchants welcome visitors → diasporic communities -arab/persian origins were highly respected -swahili language was written in arabic script and used some arabic words -one bronze lion depicted african lion, used indian artistic style, made from chinese coins
what was the yam system?
system of way stations with horses and riders that quickly relayed information (pony express-like system) -bronze passports facilitated travel
spread of islam
*africa:* -Swahili language is a blend of Bantu and Arabic, and is still widely spoken today -Timbuktu became a center of Islamic learning -Leaders of African states deepened Islamic ties through pilgrimages to Mecca *south asia:* -Before Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism were popular -After Islam arrived, Buddhists converted more readily than Hindus because they were disillusioned by the corruption among Buddhist priests -With its emphasis on equality, Islam also atrracted lower-caste Hindus -Architecture blended Hindu designs with Islamic patterns -Urdu language had influences from Sanskrit-based Hindi, as well as from Arabic and Farsi, a Persian language -Bhakti poets and missionaries sought links between Hinduism and Islam *se asia:* -Muslim rulers on Java combined Mughal Indian features, local traditions, and Chinese-Buddhist and Confucian traits -Traditional Javanese stories, puppetry, and poetry absorbed Muslim characters and techniques
caravanserai
- = inns or guest houses caravans stopped at -located along the trade routes from the eastern mediterranean to china -merchants could rest, exchange goods with local people and other traders, and resupply their animals -centers of cultural exchange as religiously and culturally different merchants met and mingled
bubonic plague
-"black death" -mongol conquests transmitted the fleas that carried the plague from southern china to central asia → southeast asia and europe -caravanserai may have contributed to spread because they housed people and animals together -killed ⅓ of european population -agricultural production declined with fewer workers -reduced number of workers → each person's labor became more valuable, so workers could demand higher wages -shift helped lead to economic changes that came with feudalism's decline -killed others in north africa, china, and central asia (south asia and sub-saharan africa spared because of few trading ports)
gender hierarchies in west africa
-(not as rigid as eurasian civilizations) -rulers, merchants, and public officials usually male -powerful women seen as "dangerous, not to be trusted, seductive distraction" -ordinary women central to agricultural production and weaving
influence of buddhism
-Came to China through the Silk Roads; Buddhist monk Xuanzang helped make it popular -Chan (or Zen) Buddhism = Buddhism + Daoism; popular among ordinary citizens -Development of printing = Buddhist scriptures widely available -Buddhist writers wrote in the vernacular (common people) language rather than formal language of Confucian scholars -Korea = educated elite studied Confucianism; peasants practiced Buddhism -Neo-Confucianism = rational thought of Confucianism with abstract ideas of Buddhism and Daoism (Widespread in Japan and Vietnam) (Became Korea's state ideology)
marco polo
-European traveler who went as far as China in search of great trade possibilities. --Visited the court of Kublai Khan --He brought back to Europe a depiction of life in China - which was far advanced from that of Europe at the time. -His view as a merchant = writings focused on trade-related matters
diffusion of scientific or technological innovations
-Islamic scholars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic, saving the worker of classical Greek thinkers -Islamic scholars also brought math texts from India and papermaking from China -Improvements in agriculture: Champa rice from India to Vietnam to China -↑ population = more production of porcelain, silk, steel and iron in China -Papermaking and printing from China reached Europe by the 13th century -Maritime technologies - spread from China to India to Middle East (Lateen sails, stern rudder, astrolabe, magnetic compass -Gunpowder and guns from China spread along trade routes
ibn battuta
-Sufi muslim scholar who traveled across the vast Indian Ocean trade network in search of a greater understanding of the Muslim world. -His writings depict many things: African and Islamic economies, Political and societal information, and Cultural traditions of many locations. -His point of view is of a Muslim devoted to his faith
innovation of bill of exchange
-a written order without interest that binds one party to pay a fixed sum to another party at a predetermined date in the future -c. 700 ce -china
sailendra kingdom
-agriculturally rich region -massive building program that featured hindu temples and buddhist monuments
how does the study of genetics help establish routes and dates of the bantu migration?
-analyze the modern speakers of bantu languages -determined which populations shared genetic code with the original bants of western africa (enables comparison of shared code) -↓ developed a chronological family tree
why is the afro-eurasian system of long-distance trade described as an archipelago?
-archipelago = chain of islands -trade network was concentrated to rely on local markets (ignored rural areas because products were mostly luxury items) -cities were like islands of production in a sea of rural areas
how does archaeology help us determine the routes and dates of the bantu migration?
-artifacts = good evidence of agriculture -pottery-making associated with sedentary lifestyles -ceramic style is used to recognize and trace the movements of people -data of pots can be used to map the spread of agriculture (can see where it started in western africa and how it spread south and east)
how mongols brought others to their economy and trade network
-assimilation (brought steppe tribes and conquered people into their army; mixed men from different tribes in army units → mongol unity) -distributed treasure from war across the army -with each conquest, the mongol empire expanded with new people absorbed into its economy and networks of exchange -mongol rulers were religiously tolerant (conquered people could keep their religious beliefs; clergy were free from taxation and service; houses of worship for different religions built in capital - karakorum) -yuan dynasty - kublai tried to balance mongol and chinese cultures -yuan dynasty - four-level structure on society (mongols on top, chinese on bottom) -when mongols ruled china, foreigners were welcomed and treated better than the chinese
batu and the golden horde
-batu (son of khan's oldest son) led 100,000 mongolian soldiers into russia -batu's army = the golden horde -marched west, conquered small russian kingdoms and forced them to pay tributes -1240, capital city of kiev was looted and destroyed (sympathy for mongols based on religious toleration and promotion of trade evaporated) -1241, successful military encounter with polish, german, and french knights -defeated force of hungarian knights -mongols ruled northern russia through existing russian rulers who sent regular tributes (didn't want to live in forests) -rulers of moscow built anti-mongol coalition among russian city-states (defeated golden horde in 130 at the battle of kulikovo → mongol influence ↓) -mongols' impact on russia: prompted military organization and acceptance of more centralized leadership, severed russian ties with western europe → developed distinct russian culture, resistance created foundation for modern russian state
how did adaptability help the mongols build their empire?
-became experts at siege warfare by interrogating prisoners -adopted gunpowder (introduced it to europeans) -built ships to attack japan
why were mongols generally more egalitarian than many other societies?
-both men and women had to work for social order to survive -less patriarchal domination of women (mongol women rarely went to war)
buddhism in the silk roads
-buddhism spread through the trans-eurasian trade routes of the silk roads (conversion to buddhism in such places was voluntary, without the pressure of conquest or foreign rule) -buddhism changed as it spread across the silk roads (buddhist monasteries in the rich oasis towns of the silk roads found themselves very much involved in secular affairs) -the more devotional mahayana buddhism flourished on the silk roads -buddhism picked up elements of other cultures while in transit on the silk roads -pure land buddhism became a highly popular and authentically chinese version of the indian faith --accompanied by a persistent undercurrent of resistance and criticism (the chinese state took direct action against the buddhist establishment and against other foreign religions) -despite persecution, buddhism did not vanish from china (the chan school of chinese buddhism) (neo-confucianism: buddhism & confucianism) -buddhism in china became assimilated into chinese culture alongside its other traditions (chinese cultural traditions spread to nearby societies such as korea, japan, and vietnam)
cotton/sugar/citrus crops
-caliphs spread cultivation as they conquered lands beyond arabian peninsula -new foods were available at the markets along the trade routes (ex: samarkand introduced new fruits and vegetables to europe)
samarkand
-caravanserai that developed into a major central asian commercial city -buddhism took root in this oasis city of central asia -dependent on long-distance trade, the inhabitants and rulers found in buddhism both a rich spiritual tradition and the link to the larger, wealthy, and prestigious civilization of india -central point for trade across the region; substantial because of its craft production
kashgar
-caravanserai that developed into a major central asian commercial city -once an isolated oasis on the long trade route across asia -major hub along the silk road as the northern and southern silk routes crossed here and caravans departed from here -livestock market, ivan bazaar, has the reputation of one of the largest, most colorful markets in the region
what were some technologies that promoted trade within muslim communities?
-checks and bills of exchange (easier and safer than coins) -mathematical innovations (easier, especially currency conversions and investment returns) -caravan (= traveling communities that used pack animals (especially camels) to carry cargo and people across long distances; slow)
what was traded along these routes?
-china: silk/jade/silver/iron -mediterranean: olives/olive oil/wine -india: fine cotton textiles -east africa: ivory -arabia: incense/spices/tortoise shells
use of paper money
-chinese innovation called "flying cash" -made it unnecessary to carry heavy metal coins
innovation of paper money
-currency in paper form -c. 800 ce -china
we generally hear about expanded trade as a purely good thing. how does the "trade networks and the black death" article affect that view?
-demonstrated how disease can be spread among other foreign goods -trade was in many places between many people, so the plague spread to those places and people very quickly -caused devastating amount of death
what was the effect of the mongol empire on trade?
-early 13th century, chinggis khan conquered central asia and the persian gulf region → turned silk road into a safe and unified trade system
collapsed empires (mongols)
-east: mongols attacked jin empire (manchuria, inner mongolia, northern china) -west: mongols conquered central asian kara khitai empire and islamic khwarazm empire
srivijaya
-emerged during competition between small ports along the malay peninsula and and the coast of sumatra to attract traders and travelers passing through the straits -supply of gold, access to spices, and taxes on passing ships attracted supporters (funded an embryonic bureaucracy and created military/naval forces that brought security) -indians for higher ranks, sanskrit tiles for lower -imported indian political ideas and buddhist religious concepts -major center of buddhist observance and teaching
adoption of uyghur script
-genghis khan tried to unify empire by captured scribe adapting uyghur alphabet to represent mongol 9effort to establish one system throughout the empire failed (but still used in mongolia today)
innovations in previously existing transportation (silk roads)
-goods carried in large camel caravans -technological innovations (ex: yokes, saddles, and stirrups) made the use of camels, horses, and oxen more effective means of transportation
what are some arguments for considering mali an empire?
-had a core of people who share a language and culture (while surrounding, conquered people did not) -mali's rulers became very wealthy by controlling growing trade in the region (created a demand for currency)
thriving cities
-hangzhou in china -samarkand and kashgar along the silk roads -timbuktu in west africa
how did the plague affect economies?
-higher wages created a european middle class -fewer workers made them more valuable -middle class helped to revive the economy and reestablish trade networks -higher wages → more workers could afford "luxuries"
hulegu and the islamic heartlands
-hulegu took charge of the sw region -1258, led mongols into abbasid territories → destroyed baghdad, killed caliph and residents -1260, defeated because of temporary alliance between muslim mamluks and palestinian christian crusaders (both viewed mongols as a serious threat) -hulegu's kingdom = il-khanate -in central asia, stretched from byzantium to oxus river -under mongol rule, but had persian ministers and provincial/local officials (resulted in maximum tax collection) -il-khanate tolerated all religions until islam conversion
larger ship designs (sea roads)
-improved sails -new ships --chinese junks --indian/arab dhows (wooden ships, dominated seas during post-classical era)
where was the plague the worst? why?
-in europe -from 1347 to 1351, 25 million europeans (⅓ of population) died -crowded, damp, and poorly sanitized cities
technological and cultural transfers (mongols)
-incorporated weapons and tech from conquered people -islamic scientific knowledge made its way to china -chinese paper allowed for revolution in communication powered by the gutenberg printing press -mongol fighting techniques led to the end of western europe's use of knights in armor → could not react in time to mongols' use of speed and surprise -walled city in europe came to an end → proved useless against mongols' siege technology -cannon considered a mongol invention → made of chinese gunpowder, muslim flamethrowers, european bell-casting techniques -marco polo brought back innovations from mongol that weren't in europe (coal, paper currency, eyeglasses, postal system) -chinese technology/artistic conventions (painting, printing, gunpowder weapons, compass navigation, high-temperature furnaces, medical techniques) flowed west (cultural sensibilities shaped the acceptance of mongolian ideas and practices) -plants and crops circulated within mongol domain
innovation of caravanserai
-inns along trade routes were travelers could trade, rest, and replenish -c. 500 bce -persian empire
bananas
-introduced to sub-saharan africa by indonesian seafarers -nutrition-rich food → spike in population -allowed bantu-speaking peoples to migrate to place where yams couldn't grow -farmers increased land for banana cultivation → enriched diets and led to population growth
champa rice
-introduced to the champa states by vietnam; offered to the chinese as tribute -drought-resistant, flood-resistant, and capable of yielding to crops a year -widely distributed in china to meet the needs of the growing population → population growth -grown where land was thought unusable for growing rice (people still migrated south to original rice growing region → growth of cities)
environmental knowledge (sea roads)
-knowledge of monsoons -increasing shipbuilding technology -improving oceanic navigation -↓ created "an interlocked human world joined by the common highway of the indian ocean" --chinese, malays, indians, arabs, persians, swahilis, etc
mongols lose power
-kublai khan adopted many chinese customs but alienated many chinese -official policy was tolerance but mongolians remained separate from chinese -prohibited non mongols from speaking mongolian -batu reached limit of mongol expansion to the west, mongolian rulers failed expanding beyond china -1274, yuan dynasty failed to conquer japan, indochina, burma, java -1350s, white lotus society organized to put an end to yuan dynasty -1368, zhu yuanzhang led revolt that overthrew yuan dynasty and founded ming dynasty -mongols' defeat in china → decline in power everywhere/empire began to shrink
kublai khan and the yuan dynasty
-kublai khan set sights on china (then ruled by song dynasty) -spent 1235-1271 attempting to conquer china -1260, kublai assumed title of great khan → 11 years later, finally defeated the chinese -kublai established yuan dynasty, chinese tradition rather than mongolian leadership and control -rebuilt capital at zhongdu, called it dadu -instituted policy of religious tolerance → loyalty in formerly oppressed groups -brought prosperity to china through cultural exchange and improved trade -mongol women led more independent lives than women in other societies of the time
how does linguistics (the study of language) help to establish routes and dates of the bantu migration?
-looks at how people speak right now to find clues about the past -establishes a chronology for the development of branches in the bantu language tree -language spreads with the physical movement of people speaking it (theorized: bantu-speaking people of western africa migrated south and east between 2000 bce - 1000 ce)
diffusion of crops along trade routes
-merchants introduced crops where they had not grown before -new crops had an impact on land use, population growth, and distribution -some found ways to sustain abundant production, some overused the land leading to environmental degradation
how did mongol migratory patters affect their production and distribution?
-migrated according to climate conditions so they could feed their flocks -didn't produce manufactured goods; needed trade, so lived near settled people
slavery (sand roads)
-most slaves were women (domestic servants and concubines) -west african civilization - male slaves were states officials, porters, craftsmen, miners, *agricultural laborers* -most slaves used in west african civilization until trans-saharan slave trade developed (between 1100-1400, 5,500 slaves per year crossed desert to work in wealthy homes in islamic north africa)
gujarat
-most western state of india -oversaw efficiency in production -raised money through customs (taxes on imported goods) -fees for seaport use -custom revenue was worth much more than some european states -architecture and language → reflected diverse religious and ethno-linguistic communities -evidence of islamic and hindu presence
why did china keep the process of silk making secret and for what purposes did they use silk?
-much of china's wealth came from silk production -used silk as fishing line, to buy off nomadic raiders to keep peace, and to write (before invention of paper) -as an export, mostly used for clothes
the mongols
-multiple clans of pastoral nomads (herded goats and sheeps) -lived in simple tents = yurts or gers -hunter foragers -north of the gobi desert in east asia -expected all to become skilled horse riders -highly valued courage in hunting and warfare -easy access to luxury goods (silk clothing, gold jewelry, etc) -in 1206, temujin elected khan of the mongolian kingdom (genghis khan or "ruler of all") -genghis khan earned reputation as a terrifying, brutal warrior (induced some leaders to surrender before an attack)
how did the growth of imperial power expand trade?
-near the end of the second century bce, the han dynasty traded for "heavenly horses" from ferghana -han china gained control of the ferghana valley through the war of the heavenly horses --control of the ferghana valley also opened a route to the west
environmental variation in interregional trade (sand roads)
-north african coastal regions generated cloth, glassware, weapons, books, and other manufactured goods --sahara had copper and *salt* -sub-saharan africa: savanna grasslands and forest areas --savanna grasslands (south of savanna) produced grain crops (millet and sorghum) --forest areas (further south) product root and tree crops (yams and kola nuts)
increased volume of trade in silk roads
-occupied different ecological zones -altered habits of consumption foreign goods became available --some (ex: silk/jade) enabled elites to distinguish themselves from commoners -encouraged specialization in particular products for sale in distant markets rather than for use in their own communities -the wealth from controlling/taxing trade motivated the creation of states in various parts of the world and sustained those states once they were constructed -spread religious ideas, technological innovations, disease-bearing germs, and plants and animals (far from place of origin)
ming admiral zheng he
-over 300 ships with about 27,000 -visited ports in southeast asia, indonesia, india, arabia, and east africa -who? muslim eunuch -sought to enroll distant peoples and states in the chinese tribute system -foreign rulers accompanied fleets back to china (presented tribute, performed required rituals of submission, and received gifts/titles/trading opportunities) -established chinese power and prestige in the indian ocean -exerted chinese control over foreign trade -abruptly ended --many high-ranking officials had seen the expeditions as a waste of resources (believed that china did not require foreign goods; if they did, it would be brought to them)
what were the silk roads if not a road made of silk?
-overland route where merchants carried goods for trade (one route connected the eastern mediterranean to central asia; one from central asia to china) -involved sea routes -network of trade routes
khan's governance
-pax mongolica = mongolian peace (between 13th and 14th centuries) -genghis khan established the capital of his empire at karakorum (near center of modern-day mongolia) --consulted with scholars and engineers of chinese and islamic traditions --responsible for most new bridges --liberal social policies (ex: religious tolerance)
factors contributing to the decline of cities
-political instability and invasions -disease -decline of agricultural productivity
factors contributing to the growth of cities
-political stability and decline in invasions -safe and reliable transportation -rise of commerce -plentiful labor supply -increased agricultural output
technological and cultural transfers (sea roads)
-porcelain (china), spices (islands of southeast asia), cotton goods/pepper (india), ivory/gold (east african coast), incense (southern arabia) → traded in indian ocean commerce -chinese products entered indian ocean trade --attracted goods from india and southeast asia -traders and sailors introduced buddhism, hinduism, and islam to southeast asia -srivijaya - attracted buddhist monks and students for its buddhist observance and teaching - sailendra kingdom, champa kingdom, & khmer kingdom - established hinduism and some temples -malacca - demonstrated blending islam with local and hindu/buddhist traditions; islam became respected; international maritime culture became islamic -swahili civilization - impact of indian ocean trade spread to african interior; rapidly islamic by introduction from arab traders (not in the south); banana production increased in east africa from southeast asia
why did the roman government try to ban the importation of silk?
-silk was so popular among the roman elite -roman senate complained of trade imbalances caused by the silk trade --silk was also not modest
sultanate of malacca
-southeastern edge of the malay peninsula -growing role of islam in southeast asia -location on the straits of malacca → a central role in indian ocean trade -stable government, low custom duties, and openness to all merchants attracted foreign merchants to establish themselves in malacca -shops sold books (islamic middle east), textiles (india), spices (spice islands), carpets (java, silk/porcelain (china), sugar (philippines), etc -gold was readily available
indigenous cultures
-srivijaya - chiefs possessed magical powers and were responsible for the prosperity of their people --↓ images of buddha and other bodhisattvas to resemble deceased kings with curses -swahili civilization --swahili language - grammatically an african tongue, written in arabic script/used some arabic words --bronze lion - cosmopolitan character of swahili culture
powerful new trading cities (sea roads)
-srivijaya - supply of gold, access to spices, and taxes on passing ships attracted supporters -khmer kingdom - exported exotic forest products for chinese and indian handicrafts -malacca - shops sold books (islamic middle east), textiles (india), spices (spice islands), carpets (java, silk/porcelain (china), sugar (philippines), etc -swahili civilization - commercial centers that accumulated local goods and exchanged for products of distant civilizations
what is the sahelian state model? what is its significance?
-states generally relied on the domination of long-distance trade for the funds they needed to govern and survive -states all relied on densely populated, wet, grain-producing centers (little control over the people in the surrounding drier regions/ nomadic hunters) -all these states had to deal with religious diversity (inclusive regardless)
how did islam religious and legal though develop in this period?
-supported by money from trade (ideas led to a growth of science and culture) -in great muslim cities, ideas and local knowledge contributed to revolutionary ideas and technologies -paper revolution (literacy grew; people wrote and read more → intellectual communities grew) -religious scholars (ulema) combined the sayings of the prophet (hadith) into collections -islamic law was developed into a canon (sharia) -division of sunni and shia became clearer -different islamic groups were combined in smaller (but still huge) networks of religious belief and practice
what does the map tell us about settlements of communities in the sahel?
-tells us the that the settlements of of communities in the sahel were divided into three -these different communities built states -these kingdoms competed and fought with each other
what do gerbils have to do with the plague?
-the fleas that carried the bubonic plague lived on great gerbils -great gerbils = a species of rodent -any temperature increase increased bacteria in gerbils (climate change in 14th century helped spread disease from central asia)
how did the silk roads help the people of central asia?
-the nomadic people of central asia became more important to world history --ability to move stuff and resistance to disease made them good traders -nomads made a large profit from professional merchants travelling the silk roads
what would you expect to happen along the silk roads during a period in which the roman empire, and then the han dynasty, collapsed? what evidence would show whether this was, in fact, happening?
-the silk roads would be expected to decrease in trade -these civilizations would not have the economy to produce or exchange products for trade -evidence of this happening could be found in lack of foreign products in local areas --trade allowed products specific to an area to be used in another area
what are some reasons that trade played such an important role in the spread of islam?
-trade is the main way islam spread -merchants, teachers, pilgrims, and mystics traveled outside caliphate borders (spread islam as they went) -muslim trading hubs (bahdad, cairo, samarkand, etc) connected land routes and sea lanes -male merchants often married local women (gained knowledge of their culture, possibly islam)
expansion of empires (sand roads)
-trade provided incentive and resources for building new and larger political structures -between 600-1600, new west african civilization from atlantic coast to lake chad -hausa-speaking people (td's northern nigeria) created independent city-states --resembled swahili city-states of east african coast --created urban, commercial culture --middleman in west african commerce -all states were monarchies --elaborate court life --varying degrees of administration and military forces --gained wealth from trade, taxed merchants (gained reputation for great riches)
how was the eurasian trading system during the period of the mongol empire similar to the early ages of the silk roads with the han and roman empire?
-trade was widely promoted -merchants traveled along silk rod to get foreign goods during both periods
iron and steel (manufacture in silk road)
-traded east and west -as the manufacture of iron and steel expanded in china, used for different purposes (army: armor, weapons) (iron and steel tools) -peasants in the yangzi river delta of southern china sometimes gave up the cultivation of food crops to focus on products, such as iron tools (created as luxury goods for the markets of the silk roads)
improved transportation technologies (sea roads)
-transportation was cheaper --ships could carry more weight than camels --sea roads traded more goods for general people than silk roads -(possibly arabian) lateen sails --triangle shape made wind easy to catch -chinese stern rudder --made ships more stable and easy to maneuver
how did the success of the mongol state help the black death spread?
-war free time allowed more trade connections to develop all across today's africa, europe, asia -trade connections spread the plague across huge empire -fleas traveled with traders and caravans→ rodents→ trading ships→ trading ports -unifying role of the mongol empire made diverse interactions possible → infection spread -mongol empire interconnected the world through trade and conquest → black death was deadly and widespread
how did the silk roads change the social and political hierarchy of some areas (like rome)?
-wealth shaped governance -trade allowed a person to become wealthy without being a king or lord -merchant class came to have a lot of political clout --began the tension between wealth and politics
afro-eurasian trade and communication (sand roads)
-west african states developed substantial urban and commercial centers (traders congregated and exchanged goods) -some cities became manufacturing centers -cities described as "cosmopolitan places" -trans-saharan commerce facilitated by diasporic communities (north african merchants lived in mali; hausa merchants established permanent settlements throughout west african commercial network) -growth of long-distance trade stimulated development of west african civliization
how did the silk roads change the lives of ordinary people?
-wider economic impact (more people chose to go into silk production) -trading ideas (ex: spread and "evolution" of buddhism in east asia) -spread of disease (many types of disease spread across the silk roads)
what was the role of women in silk production, and why is that role significant?
-women were in charge of silk harvesting and weaving -generated lots of money from both the trade on the silk road networks and through the payment of taxes to the government -their jobs were important for the benefit of the han dynasty and its economy
luxury goods traded in silk roads
-would compensate for the high costs of transportation across such long and forbidding distances -silk was the most prominent -silk road trade focus on luxury goods limited its direct impact on most people
spread of hinduism and buddhism
Originated in India and spread to SE Asia -Srivijaya = Hindu kingdom -Majapahit (Java) = Buddhist -Sinhala Dynasties in Sri Lanka = Buddhist (especially infuential) -Khmer Empire (aka Angkor Kingdom) - most successful of SE Asia --Angkor Thom - royal monuments of both Hindu and Buddhist influence; Hindu artwork and sculptures of Hindu gods throughout the city --Buddhist sculptures added when Khmer rulers adopted Buddhism
forms of credit/money economies
facilitated the operation of the silk road network
how did cities along indian ocean trade routes benefit from trade? what were some downsides?
huge source of wealth -cities could tax trade through import/export duties or port fees weak foundation for cities -high taxes could deter traders (to find a cheaper route) -reliance on trade makes a city vulnerable to the unpredictability of global economy
compass
improved versions of magnetic needles → improved compass
chinese/persian/indian artisans and merchants
innovations in silk production and effective transportation were made in these countries -products made in these countries were often traded/exchanged by chinese/persian/indian artisans and merchants
hierarchy in west africa
international trade generated social complexity and hierarchical characteristics in all civilizations -royal families/elite classes, merchants/artisans, military/religious officials, free peasants and slaves
chinese merchant communities in southeast asia
khmer kingdom -angkor wat = architectural expression of hinduism (temple complex) -exported exotic forest products for chinese and indian handicrafts -welcomed chinese merchants as a permanently settled diasporic community
growth of states (sea roads)
long distance trade gave rise to states
malay communities in the indian ocean basin
malacca -central role in the trade of the entire india ocean basin (15th century) -stable government, low custom duties, and openness to all merchants attracted foreign merchants to establish themselves in malacca -during 15th century, created a loose imperial control over neighboring regions -islam of malacca demonstrated blending with local and hindu/buddhist traditions -center for islamic learning --expansion of islam gave rise to an international, increasingly islamic, maritime culture
who were some key players in spreading ideas and beliefs across the islamic world and to new areas?
merchants pilgrims -muslim pilgrims traveled to sacred lands -bought and sold goods and services -holy pilgrimages give us important stories sufis -muslim mystics -their versions of islam adapted to many different cultures -built monasteries everywhere -energized the spread of islam even after the fall of the major caliphates
diasporic communties
merchants were in a position to facilitate commercial exchange among different peoples as they introduced new religious traditions to their host society
what are three theories for how language, technology, and people moved through the bantu migration?
migration theory -large groups moved from bantu homeland to west africa; brough technologies; claimed territory diffusion theory -bantu speakers in west africa moved in small groups (families); brought technology; locals learned bantu adoption theory -bantu language/technology moved while people didn't; neighbors adopted
transfer of numbering system to europe
mongols transferred arabic numbering system to western europe
transfer of greco-islamic medical knowledge to western europe
mongols transferred greco-islamic medical knowledge to western europe
afroeurasian increasing demand for luxury goods
most goods exchanged in eurasia were luxury products, rather than staple goods -destined for an elite and wealthy market
who controlled how indian ocean trade worked and protected trade routes?
muslim merchants -had money to build ships -terms of trade were set by the merchants and the demands of the market (self-regulating trade was successful/peaceful) -merchant ships could sail without the need for naval protection
diffusion of pathogens (epidemic diseases) along trade routes
no knowledge at the time could have prevented the spread of diseases through trade
what are some arguments against considering mali an empire?
not very centralized -different regions were independent -little evidence that conquered people were treated as inferior
what were the pax sinica and pax romana, and how did they impact trade?
pax sinica = chinese peace -led to by expansion of han control -standard of living in china rose and cities grew in size -economic growth and political stability led to increased demand for luxury goods from far-off places pax romana = roman peace -rome expanded to control all of the mediterranean shoreline -for about 200 years, hardly any wars --political stability brought more trade
economic and social consequences in silk road
peasants in the yangzi river delta of southern china sometimes gave up the cultivation of food crops -focused instead on silk, paper, porcelain, lacquerware, or iron tool production
textiles (silk road)
silk -as the supply of silk increased, its many varieties circulated even more extensively across afro-eurasian trade routes --production of raw silk in china, korea, japan,india, persia, byzantine empire -in central asia, silk was used as currency and a means of accumulating wealth -in china and byzantine empire, silk became a symbol of high status, restricted to members of the elite -silk associated with sacracy in buddhism and christianity -early catalyst for the trade routes across central asia
what was one negative effect of interconnected trade?
the spread of disease/plague through the efficient interconnectivity of afro-eurasia (specifically black death)