APUSH - By the People - Chpt 25

E Nixon Clifford Virginia Durr

*Blake* summoned the Montgomery police who arrested *Parks*. When she was allowed to call home, *Parks* told her mother of her arrest and her mother immediately got in touch with _(1)_, the acknowledged leader of Montgomery's civil rights community who was not a newcomer to making tough decisions. _(1)_, then 56, was president of Montgomery's chapter of the NAACP. He worked as a porter on the railroad and was vice-president of the Alabama branch of the *Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters*, the most powerful black-led union in the United States. He had been one of the planners for the 1941 March on Washington. _(1)_ asked _(2)_ and _(3)_, Montgomery whites who were civil rights activists, to join him and the three went to the Montgomery jail to sign the bond for *Rosa Parks*' release. Within a few hours, *Parks* was free and at home. (781) 2

Leonard Bernstein

*Elvis* was the top musical star leading many other musicians such as black rock 'n' roll artists *Chuck Berry*, *Chubby Checker*, and *Fats Domino* as well as traditional pop music and jazz greats, but it was the new rock n' roll that defined the era. ___, one of the great composers of the century, once described *Elvis Presley* as "the greatest cultural force in the 20th century." (777) 2

I Have a Dream

*Martin Luther King's* "___" speech is now iconic, but in August 1963, it took courage to make that speech not only because civil rights workers and leaders were being beaten and killed, as *King* would be, but also because many would think such hopes foolish and empty. Even as King spoke, it was unclear whether *Kennedy* or the Congress would do much to expand freedom or pass a civil rights bill. (786) 3

Fred Gray Jo Robinson Women's Political Caucus

*Parks*, *Nixon*, and the *Durrs* retained a young African-American lawyer, _(1)_, as her attorney. *Nixon* began calling the local ministers. The new minister at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, *Martin Luther King, Jr*., was third on his list. Among the people _(1)_ called that evening was _(2)_, a professor at Montgomery's all black Alabama State College and a leader in the black _(3)_ in Montgomery, who remembered, "Telephones jangled; people congregated on street corners and in homes and talked.... [but] A numbing helplessness seemed to paralyze everyone." Without consulting other leaders, _(2)_ and the _(3)_ decided to call a boycott of the Montgomery buses when *Parks* went on trial. She, another professor, and two students pretended that they needed to grade papers and went to their offices in the middle of the night. By 4 a.m. the next morning, using the school's mimeograph machine, they had prepared thousands of leaflets that said: Another Negro woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down.... This has to be stopped...We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest. Between 4 a.m. and 7 a.m., _(2)_ and her students distributed the leaflets. They finished in time for _(2)_ to teach her 8 a.m. class on schedule and then distributed more leaflets. (782) 1

Martin Luther King Jr Montgomery Improvement Association

*Robinson's* leaflet fell into the hands of the white Montgomery Advertiser, which published news of the plan on its front page on Saturday, inadvertently helping the campaign along. The story was meant to inform the white community what was afoot, but it also meant that every black knew about the boycott. Nearly all of Montgomery's blacks stayed off the buses that first day. At a planning meeting on Monday afternoon, _(1)_, then 26 years old, was elected president of what would be called the _(2)_. As president, _(1)_ was the main speaker at a Monday evening service. He called on Montgomery's African-American community to protest with courage and dignity. After _(1)_'s sermon, *Ralph Abernathy*, minister of Montgomery's First Baptist Church proposed that the boycott continue until the demands—courteous treatment by the bus operators and the seating of passengers on a first-come, first-served basis, whites from the front, blacks from the hack—were met. Segregation itself was not yet challenged, only the kind of humiliating enforcement of segregation experienced by *Parks*. From that evening it was clear; it was not to be a one-day boycott. People would wait as long as it took. (782) 2

Myles Horton Highlander Folk School

A Protestant from the rural South, _(1)_ had much in common with *Dorothy Day*. _(1)_ studied with *Reinhold Niebuhr* and later *Jane Addams*, joined the Socialist Party, picketed for the *International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union*, and participated in endless seminars and late night discussions. In 1931, he moved back to Tennessee where he opened the _(2)_ "to work with people from the bottom, who could change society from the bottom." In the 1930s and 1940s, _(2)_ trained grass-roots leadership for the labor movement, and in the 1950s and 1960s, for the *Civil Rights Movement.* (776) 2

Norman Peale Mainstream Reinhold Niebuhr

A Protestant minister within the Reformed Church in America, _(1)_, took the quest for peace of mind to a wide audience through his books, *Guide to Confident Living* published in 1948 and *The Power of Positive Thinking* published in 1952, which broke all previous records for the sales of a religious book. _(1)_'s message was "believe in yourself' and develop "a humble but reasonable confidence." Religious groups known as the "_(2)_" of American Protestantism—Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Episcopalians—flourished in the 1950s with large memberships and with influence rivaling any point in their history. _(3)_'s book, *Moral Man and Immoral Society*, challenged religious people to find ways to make ethical decisions in a complex world. Both _(3)_ and the German-born theologian *Paul Tillich* appeared on the cover of Time magazine. (774) 5

Brown v Board of Education

A Supreme Court decision in 1954 declaring that "separate but equal" schools for children of different races violated the Constitution. (778)

Mohandas Gandhi Bahai

A much smaller number of Americans also looked beyond the bounds of the traditional western faiths. The inspiration of _(1)_ in India led some to look at Hinduism. From the teachings of the *Vedanta Society* or the California-based *Self-Realization Fellowship*, some people turned to yoga or transcendental meditation. Others were attracted to the _(2)_ movement, an offshoot of Shiite Islam in Iran that sought to synthesize the teachings of all world religions. Buddhism remained small in the United States in the 1950s, mostly limited to communities of Asian immigrants, though in the 1960s that status would change quickly. (775) 4

Interstate Highway System

A national system of super highways that Congress approved at the urging of President *Eisenhower* in 1956 to improve car and truck travel across the United States. (772)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

A new government agency created in 1958 in response to *Sputnik* and specifically charged with fostering American space efforts; eventually led to the first manned moon landing of the and the space shuttle. (767)

Spirit of Geneva

A perspective fostered by *Eisenhower* and *Khrushchev* that the *Cold War* might, at the least, be limited by their personal engagement with each other. (767)

Massive Retaliation

A policy adopted by the *Eisenhower* administration to limit the costs of the Cold War. Rather than keep a large military presence, the administration used the threat to use the hydrogen bomb if the Soviet Union expanded its grasp to new territory. (762)

Nation of Islam Elijah Muhammad

A religious and political organization founded by _(2)_ that mixed Muslim religious teachings with a campaign for African-American separatism, pride, and self-determination. (775)

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

A separate Democratic delegation, launched as a result of the *SNCC*-led voter registration campaign, that challenged the right of the regular, all-white delegation to represent Mississippi at the 1964 Democratic Convention. (787)

Elijah Muhammad Nation of Islam

African-American communities also had their own revivals of religion, usually quite separately from white communities. The *National Baptist Convention*, the *African Methodist Episcopal*, and the *African Methodist Episcopal Zion* churches, the nation's three largest African-American religious bodies, all grew during the 1950s. *Black Pentecostalism* flourished in northern cities as it long had in the rural South. The *Church of God in Christ*, founded in the 1890s, saw its largest growth in the 1950s and by 1963 had 420,000 members in 4,150 churches. The *United House of Prayer for All People*, led by "*Sweet Daddy*" Grace, promised grace in return for strict obedience to the church's teaching. In addition. _(1)_ built up the _(2)_ from the small Detroit *Temple Number One*, founded in 1931, to perhaps a community of 100,000 members. (775) 3

Nation of Islam Organization of Afro American Unity

After his break with the ___, he established his own independent Muslim Mosque Incorporated to preach what he believed was a truer Islam than that taught by the Black Muslims. He also established a political organization, the _(2)_ to advance his political agenda. His top priority, he said, was to submit "the case of the American Negro before the *United Nations*." Rather than focus on federal legislation, *Malcolm* believed that African-Americans had a case to bring their continuing marginalization before the *UN*, and with the support of African and Middle Eastern nations, he was confident they would win. (791) 1

John Dulles Massive Retaliation

Along with his Secretary of State _(1)_, *Eisenhower* tried to craft a foreign policy that kept the financial costs of the *Cold War* to a minimum, protected U.S. influences in key corners of the globe, and avoided war. This foreign policy comprised two key elements. The first was a policy of _(2)_, announced by _(1)_ in January 1954. The United States was not prepared to take on the cost of keeping troops in every corner of the globe, especially after the war in Korea. Rather, the United States would try to protect the noncommunist world with programs like the *Marshall Plan* and the *Berlin airlift* where possible, but also with the promise that if the Soviets tried to expand their sphere of influence, if they were to invade European or other countries allied with the West, then, said _(1)_, the United States was prepared "to retaliate, instantly, by means and at a place of our choosing. Some called the policy "*brinkmanship*" since the United States was ready to go to the brink of destruction if the Soviets moved outside their sphere of influence, and the Soviets were being put on notice that the United States was prepared to use its H-bombs and use them quickly. The Soviets might have had a larger army and navy, but the United States had plenty of bombs, Polaris submarines, as well as Atlas and Minuteman rockets that could hit the Soviet Union any time and any place. From a force of 1,500 nuclear weapons, the U.S. stockpile increased to 6,000. Relying on those weapons, the country could reduce the size of the military and overall military expenditures, keep taxes relatively low, and avoid inflation yet still ensure U.S. power around the globe. (762) 3

Kennedy Richard Nixon

Although *Eisenhower* despised the _(1)_'s, whom he saw as rich, ambitious, and unprincipled, his lack of enthusiasm for his vice president was hard to hide. When a reporter asked Ike to name a major _(2)_ contribution to the administration, he replied, "If you give me a week, I might think of one." Although he immediately recanted, the damage was done. (769) 2

GI Bill of Rights

Although national worries had led to *NDEA* and the new curriculum materials that resulted, the 1950s had already been a time of considerable advances in education. In 1940, less than half (49%) of the nation's 17-year-olds graduated from high school. By 1950, 57.4 percent of 17-year-olds completed high school; in 1960, 63.4 percent; and in 1970, 75.6 percent graduated. Before 1950, more girls than boys had finished high school but more males than females went to college. For a time after that, graduation and college attendance ratios began to even out, though imbalance would return later. Although white graduation rates remained far ahead of those for African-American and Latino students, many more students of color attended and graduated from high school in the 1950s than ever before. Given the perceived national need, federal programs began to encourage more females to study in the sciences. At the college level, the ___ had generated a rapid increase in college attendance for military veterans, overwhelmingly white men, but as the decade went on, more students of all races and genders attended college. College faculty in the sciences benefitted from grants for military research, though some worried about the impact of these grants. Even before Sputnik was launched, a Time magazine article asked, "Is the military about to take over U.S. science lock, stock, and barrel, calling the tune for U.S. universities and signing up the best scientists for work fundamentally aimed at military results?" (767) 4

Dorothy Day Peter Maurin Civil Catholic Worker Movement Catholic Worker

Although the 1950s have been described as a time of conformity, not everyone conformed. Born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1897, ___ joined the *Socialist Party* and later the *IWW* as a young woman, opposed U.S. entry into *World War I*, and was arrested for picketing the White House as she demanded the vote for women. In the 1920s, she lived a bohemian life with poets and communists in New York's Greenwich Village. Then in 1927, she experienced a dramatic conversion to Catholicism, left the man with whom she was living, and was baptized along with her new baby In the 1930s, along with the Catholic mystic _(2)_, founded the _(3)_ and its related newspaper, The _(4)_, which _(1)_ edited until her death in 1980. _(1)_ embraced voluntary poverty, set up the *St. Joseph's House of Hospitality* in New York to provide food and clothing to those in need, and protested the buildup of nuclear arms and the wars in Korea and later Vietnam. The _(4)_ Movement sometimes made church officials uncomfortable because it represented a voice of dissent within the Catholic Church and the larger American culture in the 1950s. (776) 1

One Nation Under God In God We Trust

As Americans became more actively engaged in their religious communities, political leaders sought to catch up. In the midst of the *Cold War*, they saw American religious sentiment as an important counter to atheistic communism. In 1954, Congress voted to add the phrase "_(1)__" to the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag. A year later, Congress added the words "_(2)_" to American paper currency. While some believers and nonbelievers found this public religiosity offensive, most Americans embraced the sort of civic religion embedded in the new pledge and coins with enthusiasm. President *Eisenhower* said, "Our government makes no sense unless it is founded on a deeply felt religious faith—and I don't care what it is." (775) 6

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Lyndon Johnson

As more blacks registered to vote, they also organized the _(1)_ to challenge the official all-white Mississippi delegation for the August 1964 Democratic Convention at which _(2)_, then president, was to be nominated for reelection. Just weeks before the national convention, hundreds of newly registered Mississippi voters, having been turned away from the regular all-white Democratic Party meetings in Mississippi, met in Jackson and elected 66 delegates to the convention. (787) 5

American Road Builders Association Highway Trust Fund

Automobiles needed support services and infrastructure, most of all, highways. By the early 1950s, the _(1)_ was able to successfully lobby for the creation of the _(2 )_ in which all revenue generated from automobiles, especially the tax on gasoline, could be used only to build highways with the result that, in the United States, funding for road building was ample, though funds for mass transit were more scarce. European countries used similar funds not only for roads but also for mass-transit, schools, and hospitals. (772) 3

Sputnik

Because of U.S. spy flights over the Soviet Union, *Eisenhower* knew that although the Soviets might launch a satellite, the United States was far ahead in missile development. However, he could not say so without admitting to the spying, which he did not want to do. It was a difficult moment for an administration that worried as much about national security as they did about a race to space. Nevertheless, two important results came from ___ and the fears that the satellite induced—a new government space agency and improved education. (767) 1

Nashville

Before February ended, there were sit-ins in 31 cities in eight southern states. One of the largest and longest took place in ___, Tennessee. After hearing of the Greensboro actions, over 500 well-dressed African-American college students walked into downtown ___ and sat down at lunch counters in all of the major stores. The ___ police allowed a mob to beat many of the demonstrators, and more than 60 protesters were jailed in ___. The mayor sought compromise and agreed to appoint a biracial committee to look at segregation in the stores. The appointment of the committee was a victory long sought by ___'s older civil rights leaders, and it had been won by the students. By July, the lunch counters in Greensboro had also become desegregated. (784) 2

Gasoline Service Stations

Between 1920 and 1950, ___ offering fuel and automobile services, some in a grand style, became the most widely built new commercial structure in the United States. With their signs advertising *Mobil*, *Shell*, and *Esso* (later *Exxon*), they made it possible to keep cars fueled and on the move. The gasoline these stations pumped also had an impact on U.S. foreign policy as American political leaders understood the nation's love affair with the automobile and the need to maintain a steady supply of cheap gasoline, much of it from the Middle East and Latin American, if they were to stay in office. (772) 6

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

Black civil rights organization founded in 1960 that drew heavily on younger activists and college students. (786)

WEB Du Bois

But as the year wore on, the boycott had its impact. The boycott received favorable national media attention. Fundraising became easier, and *King* found himself becoming a national celebrity. The aged ___ wrote that, though he still had his doubts about boycotts, if *King's* passive resistance could undermine American racism, it would be a huge victory. On June 4, an appeals court ruled in favor of *Rosa Parks*, and on November 13, 1956, the United States Supreme Court concurred. Early in the morning of December 21, 1956, 1 year and 3 weeks after *Rosa Parks* had refused to move, *King* and a few others, followed by reporters, boarded the first bus of the day. "We are glad to have you," the polite driver said. (782) 5

Malcolm X Marcus Garvey

By the 1960s, half of the nation's African-Americans lived in the North, most in racially segregated urban neighborhoods. While the hopes of blacks in the South generally focused on ending the brutal segregation and on winning the right to vote, the hopes of northern blacks focused on ending segregated housing patterns, poor quality schooling, and economic marginalization. One of the most prominent voices for northern urban blacks was _(1)_. As _(2)_ had done for a previous generation, _(1)_ spoke of pride, self-sufficiency, and self-determination. (789) 1

Lewis Mumford Raymond Tucker Robert Moses

Critics worried about the impact of the automobile on American culture. In *The City in History*, _(1)_ complained that the automobile "annihilates the city whenever it collides with it." For _(1)_, it was the city, not suburban sprawl, that created community. _(2)_, mayor of St. Louis also noted, "The plain fact of the matter is that we just cannot build enough lanes of highways to move all of our people by private automobile and create enough parking space to store the cars without completely paving over our cities." Nevertheless, in the 1950s, more Americans agreed with New York's master highway builder _(3)_, who designed a series of bridges in and around New York as well as the Brooklyn Queens Expressway, the Cross Bronx Expressway, and the Long Island Expressway, and who kept advocating for more roads even as some protested. (773) 1

Gamal Nasser Aswan High Dam John Dulles Suez Canal

Despite these advances, conflicts and differences continued to produce tensions, to which U.S. leaders were challenged to respond. In October, hostilities flared up in the Middle East. _(1)_, the Arab nationalist ruler of Egypt, sought funding from both the United States and the Soviet Union to build the _(2)_ on the upper Nile River to irrigate new areas of Egypt, provide electricity, and promote industrialization. His flirtation with both skies angered both countries, and in 1956, _(3)_cancelled the U.S. loan. _(1)_ responded by taking control of the _(4)_, the essential waterway between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea that was owned by a British and French canal company and crucial to the flow of oil to Europe. _(1)_ said he wanted the revenue from the canal to build his dam, but his actions angered and frightened the British and French. (766) 1

Morris Dickstein

During and after the 1950s, many looked on that era as one of complacency at home and trouble abroad. By 1960, however, the United States was a very different place at home from what it had been in 1950. During the 1950s, the nation became much more prosperous. In 1960, the average family income of $5,620 was 30 percent higher than it had been in 1950, and 62 percent of homes were owner occupied—up from 35 percent in 1950 and 44 percent in 1940. After the end of the *Korean War* in 1953, the decade was one of relative peace for the United States despite conflicts elsewhere. But the decade of the 1950s was also, as the writer ___ noted, "a fertile period, a seedbed of ideas that would burgeon and live in the more activist, less reflective climate that followed." (769) 5

Martin Luther King Jr

During the competitive campaign, *Kennedy* accused *Eisenhower* of allowing a "missile gap" to develop between the United States and the Soviet Union and promised that, if elected, the United States would expand its defenses and its missions in space. He also addressed his Catholicism in a well-received speech to Protestant clergy in Houston, Texas. Late in the campaign, when ___, was arrested in Georgia, *Nixon* tried to intervene quietly, but *Kennedy* made a very public call to ___'s wife, *Coretta*, and *Bobby Kennedy* made a successful request for ___'s release. Many blacks, key voters in some states, decided to vote Democratic that fall. On election day, with the highest turnout since *World War II*, *Kennedy* won by one of the smallest margins in history-49.7 percent to *Nixon's* 49.6 percent though he won in the Electoral College 303 to 219. (769) 3

Bull Connor Medgar Evers

Early in 1963, *King* began a campaign to desegregate Birmingham, Alabama, perhaps the most segregated city in the South. He expected resistance. *King* was promptly arrested during a protest—and used the time to write one of his most famous publications, "Letter from Birmingham Jail." The Birmingham police, under their chief _(1)_ also arrested some 3,000 protesting children and turned fire hoses and attack dogs on children and adults. Civil rights organizers also met with violent resistance elsewhere. _(2)_, the NAACP field secretary in Jackson, Mississippi, was murdered on his front porch that June. Riots erupted in northern cities in July. Who knew what was coming next? (785) 4

Atoms for Peace

Early in his first term, *Eisenhower* lamented, "We are in an armaments race. Where will it lead us? At worst, to atomic warfare. At best to robbing every people and nation on earth of the fruits of their own toil." *Eisenhower* tried to diffuse the situation, In December 1953, he proposed an "___" plan to the *United Nations* by which the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, would turn over some of their nuclear material to an international agency for peaceful use. However, little came of the plan. The distrust between the two superpowers was too great. Influential political leaders in the United States would not support a reduction in defense spending because they worried about the Soviets and because military spending—a total of more than $350 billion during *Eisenhower's* two terms was key to defense industries and jobs in almost every congressional district in the country. So the United States and the Soviets continued to build. The United States tested 203 nuclear weapons in the Pacific and at Nevada test sites, exposing some 200,000 civilians and soldiers to radiation and even more people to the radioactive fallout in more distant areas. The Soviets conducted at least as many tests if not more. (762) 2

Brown v. Board of Education

Early in that evening, the matter could have ended. The court would probably have let *Parks* off with a small fine, and the segregated world of Montgomery could have returned to normal. But as *Nixon* and the *Durrs* talked with *Rosa Parks*, her husband, and her mother, the question arose: Was this incident the test case they had all been waiting for? In ___ the year before, the Supreme Court had ruled that segregated schools were illegal. But what about transportation? If she were willing, if she could overcome her husband Raymond's fear that, "The white folks will kill you, *Rosa*," there could not be a better person than *Rosa Parks* for the test case they all sought. (781) 3

Central Intelligence Agency

Established by President *Truman* and expanded by President *Eisenhower*, the ___ was the nation's spy agency charged with keeping tabs on developments in other countries and with engaging in secret missions to advance American interests. (763)

Alfred Kinsey

Even in science, more overt attention to human sexuality challenged traditional norms in the 1950s. ___, the Indiana University researcher whose book, *Sexual Behavior in the Human Male*, had produced an outcry in 1948, published *Sexual Behavior in the Human Female* in 1953, which though long and full of dry scientific data, sold 250,000 copies. While ___ insisted that he was simply reporting, not making value judgments, findings like the fact that 37 percent of all men and 13 percent of women had at least one homosexual experience or the fact that 50 percent of married men and 26 percent of married women had committed adultery, shocked Americans and simultaneously created an "everybody's doing it" mentality. (777) 3

Fannie Hammer Mississippi Freedom Summer

Even when the threat of violence and murder was not imminent, people who had lived with segregation and violence all their lives were reluctant to challenge the system, in the winter of 1963-64, *SNCC* developed a plan to bring a thousand mostly white college students to Mississippi to help with the voter registration effort and to focus national attention on the denial of rights in Mississippi. Some *SNCC* field organizers worried that so many whites would undermine the strength of the black community. On the other hand, grass-roots leaders like _(1)_ argued, "If we're trying to break down this barrier of segregation, we can't segregate ourselves." in June 1964, thousands of student volunteers, white and black, arrived for what became _(2)_ to register local African-Americans to vote and to demonstrate to the nation what an interracial coalition looked like. They were met with considerable hostility. Three of the volunteers, *James Chaney*, a black, and *Andrew Goodman* and *Michael Schwerner*, both white, were killed in late June near Philadelphia, Mississippi. There were also tensions within the movement, yet ___ garnered national publicity for voting rights and changed the lives of may who participated. (787) 4

National Defense Education Act

Federal aid to improve education, especially science and math education, approved by Congress in 1958. (767)

Rosa Parks

Given her background, many have wondered whether ___'s action on the bus had been planned. She insisted it had not. But her life had prepared her for what happened. A few months later, ___ said, "There had to be a stopping place, and this seemed to have been the place for me to stop being pushed around and to find out what human rights I had, if any." (781) 5

Wayne Coy Federal Communications Commission

In 1948, _(1)_, a member of the _(2)_ that regulated television and radio, said, "Make no mistake about it, television is here to stay. It is a new force unloosed in the land. I believe it is an irresistible force." From 104 commercial stations broadcasting to 5 million homes in 1950, television expanded to almost 600 stations received in 45,750,000 homes in 1960—almost 80 percent of all of U.S. homes. (770) 1

Rosa Parks

In 1955, a year and a hall after the Brown decision, ___ finished her work day in Montgomery, Alabama, and began her bus ride home. She took a seat in the prescribed "Negro section" in the back, of the bus. A few blocks later, when more whites boarded, the driver, *J. P. Blake*, moved the line between the sections so that all of the whites could have seats. When none of the blacks moved, *Blake* warned them, "You better make it light on yourselves and let me have those seats." When others moved, ___ stayed where she was. "Are you going to stand up?" *Blake* asked, ___ said, quite simply, "No." (781) 1

National Aeronautics and Space Agency

In 1958, the administration proposed the creation of the ___ and before long, ___ scientists and engineers had launched the first U.S. satellite and soon closed the gap with the Soviet Union. later ___-led efforts resulted in human flight in space, a moon landing, a string of satellites that could be used for telecommunications (and spying), and a space shuttle that could bring cargo to replacement crews to orbiting space stations. For all of the fears of 1957 and 1958, the United States had far greater resources than the Soviets to devote to these efforts once the determination was made to do so. (767) 2

Nikita Khrushchev DeStalinization

In February 1956, _(1)_ surprised the world with a speech—originally a "secret speech" to Soviet leaders only, but word spread quickly—in which he said that *Stalin* had been a tyrant who had inflicted purges, show trials, forced labor, terror, and mass executions on his people. _(1)_ declared it was time to begin the _(2)_ of the Soviet Union. The speech was a relief to those who saw the beginning of a new era in Russia, though devastating to die-hard Communists. (765) 2

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

In January 1957, *King*, *Abernathy*, and some 60 black ministers created the ___, based in Atlanta, Georgia. The *MIA* had been a temporary organization focused on the bus boycott. The ___ institutionalized the energy and the planning that had started in Montgomery and created a permanent national organization and a long-term platform for *King*. (782) 6

Nikita Khrushchev

In July 1955, *Eisenhower* met in Geneva with the new Soviet leader, ___, and leaders of Britain and France. The summit meeting, whose purpose was to reduce international tensions, produced a treaty recognizing the independence of Austria, which had been jointly occupied by the four powers after *World War II* much like Germany had been. Although, the summit did not accomplish all that *Eisenhower* wished, many were optimistic about a new spirit of coexistence. (765) 1

Nikita Khrushchev

In October 1956, in the midst of the *Suez* crisis, discontent with Soviet rule boiled over in Hungary. _(__'s denunciation of *Stalin* had raised hopes for a more liberal policy in Eastern Europe. The Soviet government granted some concessions to the Hungarians, but when they pressed for more independence, ___ sent 200,000 troops and 4,000 tanks to Budapest to end the uprising. Some 40,000 Hungarians were killed and another 150,000 fled the country seeking asylum in the west. Some called for American intervention, after all, *Eisenhower* had talked about the liberation of "captive peoples," but the old general understood the military reality that Hungary was surrounded by other Communist nations. Most Americans seemed satisfied to label the uprising as more proof of Soviet tyranny and leave it at that. (766) 3

E Hurst

In September 1961, *Herbert Lee*, a supporter of the Amite County, Mississippi, was shot by ___, a white state representative. ___ admitted that he had shot *Lee* but was never prosecuted for the murder. Other murders followed. (787) 3

James Meredith Ross Barnett

In September 1962, _(1)_ became the first black to enroll at the University of Mississippi, backed by a federal court order. In response, Mississippi governor _(2)_ promised that "No school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor." *Robert Kennedy* thought he had a promise from _(2)_ to keep order on the campus, but when _(2)_ instead whipped up a crowd of some 3,000 whites who began throwing rocks and eventually shooting, *Kennedy* sent federal marshals and then federal troops, who restored order at the university. (785) 3

Spirit of Geneva

In spite of "*mutually assured destruction*" and the space race with the Soviets, *Eisenhower*, who had seen more of war than most Americans, desperately wanted to find a path to peace, not only to avoid the economic costs of war but also to create a lasting peace. Although the July 1955 summit conference at Geneva had been disappointing, the "___," and the commitment to coexistence was something on which Eisenhower wanted to build, especially in his last years in office. On Otober 31, 1958, the United States announced that it was suspending nuclear testing in the atmosphere. The Soviets also suspended their testing, By 1958, atmospheric nuclear testing was found to be a health risk to millions around the world as well as an unnecessary military provocation, and the cessation was important. (768) 1

Charles Houston Thurgood Marshall U.S. Court of Appeals

In the 1930s, the *NAACP* began to challenge state "separate but equal' laws, bypassing state legislatures and governors with federal court cases arguing that the separate facilities were, in fact, far from equal. Two brilliant lawyers took charge of the NAACP legal effort—_(1)_, then dean of the Howard University Law School, and his former student, _(2)_. When _(1)_ retired in 1935, _(2)_ , then just 30 years old, became the *NAACP* chief counsel, a position he held for 23 years. In 1961, _(2)_ was appointed as a federal judge serving on the _(3)_, and from 1967 to 1991, he served as the first appointed African-American justice of the U. S. Supreme Court. (778) 4

Francis Spellman Richard Cushing

In the 1950s, American Catholics were still a minority but were more numerous than any single Protestant denomination. As white Catholics moved to new suburban communities, Catholic bishops created new parishes where none had been. Some Catholic prelates such as New York's _(1)_ continued to keep their distance from Protestants, but others such as Boston's _(2)_ found ways to reach out to non-Catholics while building Catholic churches and parochial schools at a furious rate. The walls of distrust were still high in the 1950s: parish priests warned young people not to date a Protestant, and many Protestants still saw Catholicism as inherently foreign and undemocratic. Nevertheless, many of those who sat in the pews of Catholic and Protestant churches were ready to ignore the old divides. (774) 6

Two Thirds

In the 1950s, Americans drove to church and watched religious programs on television in numbers never seen before. The religious boom of the 1950s was both a cultural and a spiritual phenomenon. For most of the nation's history, a little over one-third of the people were involved in religious activities. However, in the 1950s, that number grew to over ___, and on some Sunday mornings, more than half of all of the people in the country were in church. After *World War II*, Americans became active in religious organizations in numbers never seen before, and their participation kept rising for the next 15 years. Visitors from other countries were stunned by the American embrace of religion. In no other country was there a similar upsurge, certainly not in war-weary Europe. Americans identified with religious communities, built new churches at an astounding rate, especially in the new suburbs, and enjoyed songs like "I Believe," "It's No Secret What God Can Do," and "Vaya con Dios," as popular secular music. Historians continue to ask what accounted for this upsurge in religious activity. The roots of something as elusive as religious faith and as hard to discover as social conformity may be impossible to find, but the signs of the times that pointed to a more religious culture were numerous. (774) 1

Muhammad Mussadegh Muhammad Pahlevi

In the summer of 1953, the *CIA* organised a coup against the elected Prime Minister of Iran, _(1)_, who had nationalized oil interests belonging to British companies and who some feared might have communist sympathies. With the covert help of the *CIA*, he was overthrown and replaced with the pro-Western _(2)_, who ruled the country for more than 20 cars before being displaced by an anti-U.S. Islamic revolution in the late 1970s. (763) 2

I love Lucy show

Lighter entertainment was very successful, too. Radio had been available to many since the 1930, and some programs, like *Jack Benny's* comedy routines, shifted from radio to television with little change. The long-running ___ With *Lucille Ball* and *Desi Arnaz* was the most popular show on television. Other comedies, especially *The Adventures Ozzie and Harrier*, *Father Knows Best*, and *Leave it to Beaver*, used humor to reaffirm the white, middle class, suburban lifestyle in which the wise, sometimes befuddled father supported the family while the passive (if sometimes conniving) mother staved home to happily manage the house. (770) 4

Fulton Sheen Peace of Soul

Monsignor _(1)_ became a popular preacher not only at Catholic religious gatherings (never called revivals) but also on television. He brought Catholic teachings into the mainstream of American culture, and his book _(2)_, published in 1949, anticipated some of the positive-thinking themes in *Peale's* work. _(1)_ restated traditional Catholic beliefs in ways that appealed to a wide audience, Catholic and non-Catholic. (775) 1

Malcolm X

More important than any organization, however, ___ fostered a new sense of pride in a generation of northern African-Americans. He challenged the quality of education in black communities. He led demonstrations against police violence. He called on African-Americans to "control the politics in his own residential areas by voting...and investing in the businesses." He had a vision of African-Americans making international alliances with the people of the then newly independent African nations and with the Muslim world. As the scholar *Manning Marable* said of him, "___'s great strength was his ability to speak on behalf of those to whom society and state had denied a voice due to racial prejudice." (791) 2

Kemmons Wilson Wallace Johnson

New industries sprang up to service the automobile and the highway. Fast-food restaurants allowed busy drivers to pick up a meal and keep moving. Medical, legal, and insurance services for the victims of traffic accidents grew. Motels became new place to stay, replacing grand downtown hotels that had catered to those who traveled by train or ship. _(1)_ and _(2)_ opened the first "Holiday Inn" in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1952, and by 1960, there were 60,000 motels, belonging to chains like Holiday Inn or Howard Johnson, catering to people who valued cleanliness, comfort, and the convenience of being able to drive directly to the door of a room. (772) 5

Little Rock Nine Elizabeth Eckford

Nine brave young students, known as the _(1)_, were scheduled to test the integration of Central High School. _(2)_ remembered the terror when she found herself face to face with a white mob: Somebody started yelling, "Lynch her! Lynch her!" I tried to see a friendly face somewhere in the mob--someone who maybe would help. I looked into the face of an old woman and it seemed a kind face, but when I looked at her again, she spat on me. It was a harrowing experience that _(2)_ never forgot. (780) 2

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Ella Baker John Lewis

No one did more to shape _(1)_ than _(2)_. _(2)_ had worked for the *NAACP* in the 1940s. *Martin Luther King* recruited her to the _(1)_ in the 1950s, but she found herself deeply frustrated by the male dominance of the minister-led _(1)_. Her own philosophy was that "People have to he made to understand that they cannot look for salvation anywhere but to themselves." _(3)_, the youngest speaker at the March on Washington and another _(1)_ founder, said "We all recognize the fact that if any radical social, political, and economic changes are to take place in our society, the people, the masses must bring them about." Like many in _(1)_, _(3)_ was distrustful of any single charismatic leader, even *King*. In the sit-in movement and in _(1)_, _(2)_ and _(3)_ found like-minded souls. (786) 5

Billy Graham

No one represented the religious movements of the 1950s more dramatically than ___. ___ was born on a farm near Charlotte, North Carolina, in 1918. In 1949, he led a revival in Los Angeles that brought him national attention and remained the nation's best known religious leader for the next 50 years. The *___ Evangelistic Association* had an annual budget of $2 million and a staff of 200 in the 1950s. It produced books, television programs, radio, and its own films. Most of all, the association organized massive religious revivals that were held in football stadiums and civic auditoriums around the country. To the frustration of some conservative supporters, ___ would not plan a religious crusade, as he called a revival, without the support of the local council of churches, which included liberal as well as conservative clergy. ___ also refused to hold racially segregated revivals, even in the Deep South. (774) 2

Grace Metalious

Novelists joined in the celebration of sexuality. ___, who had never-written a book before, published *Peyton Place* in 1956, a novel that detailed scandalous affairs in a suburban context. *Vladimir Nabokov*, a respected writer, published *Lolita*, about the life of a young sex-addicted woman and a sex-obsessed middle-age man. In 1958, *Grove Press* published an unexpurgated edition of *D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover*, unavailable previously in the United States. Whatever else Americans were doing in the privacy of their homes, larger numbers of them were clearly reading much more sexually explicit material in the 1950s than in any previous generation. (777) 5

Ella Baker James Lawson Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

On Easter weekend of 1960, some of the students who had been participating in sit-ins across the South gathered at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina. _(1)_, who helped organize the Raleigh meeting, later recalled, "Just as the sit-ins had skyrocketed or escalated without rhyme or reason, so too the response to the concept of a conference escalated beyond our expectations." _(2)_, who had played a major role in the sit-in movement in Nashville and had been expelled from the Vanderbilt University Divinity School for his efforts, also joined the Raleigh conference. He told the students that their actions were "a judgment upon middle-class conventional, halfway efforts to deal with radical social evil." The students voted to form their own organization rather than affiliate with either the *SCLC* or the *NAACP*. Thus, the _(3)_ was born. (786) 4

Woolworth Southern Christian Leadership Conference

On February 1, 1960, 3 years after the buses in Montgomery were integrated and as *John F. Kennedy* battled to win presidential primaries, four African-American freshmen at *North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College* sat down at the whites-only lunch counter of the _(1)_'s store in Greensboro, North Carolina. They asked politely for service and ordered coffee. After sitting at the counter all day, they still had not received their orders. Nineteen students joined the sit-in the next day, and on the third day, they numbered 85. On the fourth day, more than 300 people joined the sit-in, expanding it to another store's lunch counter. This group action was not a well-planned event. The established civil rights leaders in neither the NAACP nor *King's* _(2)_ had been involved and, indeed, knew nothing of it until after the fact. They struggled to decide whether to support, ignore, or lead the sit-ins. But it didn't matter what they did. The student-led sit-ins that started in Greensboro spread like wildfire across the South. (784) 1

U 2 Francis Powers

On May 1, 1960, the progress stopped. A _(1)_ reconnaissance plane—the type that had been providing the kind of information about Soviet military capability that *Eisenhower* had kept secret—was shot down by a Soviet rocket as it flew 1,300 miles inside Russia. *Khrushchev* announced that the Soviets not only had the wreckage of the _(1)_—and it was no weather plane—but also had captured the pilot. _(2)_, alive and had found both the poison needle with which he was supposed to kill himself rather than risk capture and a pistol with a silencer that he had been supplied. "Why the silencer?" *Khrushchev* asked, and then answered, "To blow men's brains out! The men who supplied him with the silence gun pray in church and call us godless atheists!" (768) 3

Brown v. Board of Education Earl Warren

On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court announced its unanimous decision in the legal challenge to the racial segregation of public schools, a case known as _(1)_. Chief Justice _(2)_ wrote: We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. It had been a long road to the day of that finding. (778) 2

Anthony Eden

On October 29, with British and French backing, Israel attacked Egypt. *Eisenhower* was outraged. He sponsored a *UN* resolution demanding an Israeli withdrawal. It was an ironic moment with the United States and the Soviet Union united in opposition to Britain, France, and Israel. When the British and French ignored the *UN* and bombed Egypt, *Nasser* sank ships and blocked the canal. The United States condemned the British action and threatened to send troops to Egypt. The British never expected the United States to take a hard line. British Prime Minister ___ and *Ike* were wartime friends, but the president was furious. A cease fire was arranged, and the canal was reopened under Egyptian management. The Soviet Union and the United States looked good to Arab countries. Israel remained strong. Only Britain and France suffered. ___ resigned as Prime Minister, and neither Britain nor France was again a major influence in the Middle East. (766) 2

Sputnik Laika

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched _(1)_, a space satellite. Although _(1)_ was small, about the size of a large beach ball, and weighed only 184 pounds, it was the first orbiting satellite ever launched into space. A month later, a much larger _(1)_ II was launched, which carried a dog, _(2)_, as well as scientific and medical instruments. While the Soviet Union celebrated, Americans panicked. The Soviets were dearly winning the "space race," critics said. Democratic Senator *Henry Jackson* of Washington State talked of the "shame and danger" of the moment. *G. Mennen Williams*, Michigan's Democratic governor, wrote of _(1)_, "it's a Commie sky. And Uncle Sam's asleep." (766) 5

Elvis Presley Beatles

On The Ed Sullivan Show, the poker-faced Ed Sullivan introduced _(1)_ (who Sullivan insisted be shown only from the waist up) and, later, The _(2)_ to American audiences. Daytime soap operas (their original sponsors were soap companies) moved from radio to television, and *Guiding Light*, *Love of Life*, and *Search for Tomorrow* provided a dash of scandal to daytime viewers. Families gathered to eat TV dinners (first marketed in 1954) on TV trays, rather than around a dining room table, to watch *Gunsmoke*, featuring a stronger and more silent *Marshal Dillon* than had been possible on radio, plus *Maverick*, and *Have Gun—Will Travel*, as well as detective stories, including *Dragnet*, *77 Sunset Strip*, and *Perry Mason*. Children's cartoons took over Saturday mornings. Reruns of old movies were shown in the late evening. (771) 1

Patrol Torpedo

On inauguration day, January 20, 1961, the youngest person ever elected president replaced the oldest serving president. The general who had commanded all allied troops in Europe in *World War II was replaced by a man who had commanded a small ___ boat in the Pacific and who became a hero when his PT-109 was sunk. The new president made much of the leadership change, telling the nation, "Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans." (769) 4

Brown v Board of Education

Only after going on strike did the students appeal to the NAACP. The national organization sent word that they would consider taking the case, but only if the challenge was for completely integrated schools. the students agreed and called on the adults in their community to follow them. Thus was launched one of the five cases that would be consolidated as ___. (779) 3

Interstate Highway Act Interstate Highway System

President *Eisenhower*, who remembered a miserable cross-country journey he had made as a young army officer on the nation's ill-maintained highways of the 1920s, adopted a plan that had been put together during the *Truman* administration and proposed the _(1)_, which became law in 1956, The act created the _(2)_, a numbered network of 41,000 miles of roads from Interstate 5 in California, Oregon, and Washington to Interstate 95 that ran from Florida to Maine, connected to east-west interstates 70, 80, and 90 as well as feeder highways for which the federal government paid 90 percent of the cost. These highways made travel by car, truck, or bus much easier and cheaper than ever before. At the same time, urban, suburban, and rural sprawl was exacerbated. Suburban houses sprang up and tight knit urban communities went into decline. Shopping malls replaced Main Street. Mass transit declined. In Los Angeles, what had once been the largest electric interurban railway in the world with 1,100 miles of track, was replaced with a system of highways using buses produced by *General Motors* with tires from *Firestone Rubber*. (772) 4

Separate but Equal

Segregation, economic marginalization, and political disenfranchisement were reality for most African-Americans in the 1950s as they had been since the collapse of Reconstruction in the 1870s and 1880s. However, the African-American community never accepted segregation or second-class citizenship, and in the 1950s, it seemed as if African-American resistance to "___" burst forth in many different places at about the same time. Legal challenges to school segregation that had been building for decades achieved a major victory in 1954. Soon thereafter, long-simmering opposition to segregation in public transportation led to a year-long bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. Meanwhile, young African-Americans and some white supporters sat in at segregated lunch counters, organized voter registration drives, and found themselves considering significant alternatives to American culture. (778) 1

ABC concert

Some of the earl television programs were impressive. *Playhouse 90*, the *Goodyear Television Playhouse*, and the *Kraft Television Theater* brought serious drama to the television screen. Talented young actors, including *Grace Kelly*, *Paul Newman*, *Joanne Woodward*, and *Eva Marie Saint*, were seen by wider audiences than ever before. The ___ carried weekly concerts by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra around the country. (770) 2

Edward Murrow

Television news, though generally limited to a 15 minute program, included the *Camel News Caravan with John Cameron* and the CBS *Television News with Douglas Edwards* and brought current events into living rooms. Beginning with *Truman's* inauguration and *Eisenhower's* 1952 campaign commercials, television changed politics; people felt a new intimacy with candidates and leaders. ___'s *See it Now *programs brought investigative journalism to television, including coverage of Senator *McCarthy's* hearings. (770) 3

$64,000 Question

Television was rocked by not only a series of scandals in the late 1950s but also significant criticism The most popular quiz show, the ___, turned out to be rigged. *Charles Van Doren*, a major winner on the show, had been given answers in advance. As commercial stations focused on advertising revenue, they became increasingly cautious. One advertiser reminded the station owners, "A program that displeases any substantial segment of the population is a misuse of the advertising dollar." Since showing Americans in all of their diversity could displease some, television became bland. Even President *Eisenhower* said, "If a citizen has to be bored to death, it is cheaper and more comfortable to sit at home and look at television than it is to go outside and pay a dollar for a ticket." It was hardly a ringing endorsement of the new medium. *The Kennedy* administration would not be any more positive in its appraisal. (772) 1

Ho Chi Minh Bao Dai Dien Bien Phu

The *Eisenhower* administration also found itself caught up in other world crises that could not easily be handled by massive retaliation or *CIA* intervention. After *World War II*, France sought to reclaim control of its former colonies in Indochina, but many there wanted independence. In September 1945, with initial support from the United States, _(1)_ proclaimed Vietnamese independence using words familiar to the Americans, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." But the French were determined to reclaim Vietnam. They installed _(2)_, the former emperor of *Annam*, a part of Vietnam, as the leader in Vietnam. _(1)_'s forces attacked the French. The United States, fearing a communist government under _(1)_ and more worried about alienating France in *Cold War* Europe than events in Asia, sided with the French. By late 1953, the French were isolated in a fortified area, _(3)_, and facing defeat. Some, including Vice President *Nixon*, urged U.S. intervention, even the use of nuclear weapons. *Eisenhower* responded, "You boys must be crazy. We can't use those awful things against Asians for the second time in less than ten years. My God." There was no U.S. intervention at that time. (763) 4

Plessy v. Ferguson

The *Houston-Marshall* strategy at the *NAACP* was to chip away at segregation. In a 1938 case, *Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, Registrar of the University, et al*., the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that *Lloyd Gaines* could not be rejected by the University of Missouri Law School on the basis of his race unless the university could offer him an equally good legal education within the state of Missouri. To offer legal education to whites but not to blacks, or to force blacks to leave the state for their education, Chief Justice *Hughes* said, "is a denial of the equality of legal right." In *Alston v. School Board of the City of Norfolk* in 1940, the *NAACP* won a ruling that said separate salary schedules for black and white teachers violated the *Fourteenth Amendment*. In 1950, the court issued two rulings. In *Sweatt v. Painter*, it said that separate law schools for blacks and whites were not equal, and in *McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents*, it ruled that segregating graduate students violated their equal protection rights. With each case, segregation was becoming more expensive for states to maintain and the arena in which it could be exercised smaller. The time was coming for a direct challenge to ___, the 1896 decision by which the Supreme Court has originally approved "separate but equal" arrangements. (779) 1

Fannie Hammer Bob Moses

The *MFDP* succeeded in raising the denial of voting rights in Mississippi to national attention even though its delegation was not seated at the national convention. The convention made _(1)_, a 47-year-old Mississippi sharecropper and spokeswoman for *MFDP*, a national voice. _(2)_ described the *MFDP* delegates as "sharecroppers, domestic workers, and farmers" who were asking the national Democratic Party to truly be the party of such people while also "taking the first step toward gaining control over their lives." (787) 6

Anne Moody

The *National Association for the Advancement of People*, though founded in 1909, was often only whispered in black communities in the South throughout the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. In the early 1950s, ___, then a high school student in Centerville, Mississippi, asked her homeroom teacher what *NAACP* meant. The teacher said, "You see the *NAACP* is trying to do a lot for the Negroes and get the right to vote for Negroes in the South." She also warned ___, "I shouldn't be telling you all of this.... It could cost me my job." The teacher was gone the following year. (778) 3

Richard Nixon John Kennedy

The Republican Party nominated Vice President _(1)_ as their presidential candidate. The Democratic race was contested between several candidates, including Senators *Lyndon B. Johnson* of Texas, *Hubert Humphrey* of Minnesota, *Stuart Symington* of Missouri, and _(2)_ of Massachusetts. Many remembered the defeat of *Al Smith* in 1928—the last time a major party had nominated a Catholic—and wondered if _(2)_, a Catholic, could be successful. Liberals also worried about _(2)_. *Eleanor Roosevelt* remembered how slow he had been to attack *McCarthy* and how little he had done for civil rights. She preferred *Adlai Stevenson*. But _(2)_ had several important strengths. He had extraordinary personal charisma, charming most everyone he met. He also had virtually unlimited campaign funds because of the wealth of his father, Joseph P. _(2)_, and could far outspend his opponents. Under the leadership of his brother Robert ___, he had a superb campaign team. He won the Democratic nomination on the first ballot, asked *Lyndon Johnson* to be his running mate, and entered the general election as a strong candidate. (768) 6

U 2 incident U 2

The _(1)_ dominated the Paris summit. *Khrushchev* insisted that *Eisenhower* condemn the _(2)_ flights and punish those responsible, which *Eisenhower* could not do, though he did agree to suspend the flights. *Khrushchev* withdrew the invitation for *Eisenhower* to visit the Soviet Union, There would be little talk of friendly coexistence in the next 2 years. (768) 4

National Defense Education Act

The fears that resulted from the Soviet launch of *Sputnik* also had a major impact on American education. Many saw the Soviet advances in space as the result of superior Soviet education. *Eisenhower* proposed the ___, which was passed by Congress in September 1958. After many failed efforts to get federal aid for the nation's schools, funding was approved because of *Sputnik*. The ___ provided funds to improve science education, provided scholarships, and created an education division within the *National Science Foundation*. (767) 3

John Davis

The five states whose policies were challenged in the NAACP suit hired the 1924 Democratic presidential nominee ___ as their attorney to defend the separate but equal policies. However, the Supreme Court agreed with the NAACP's argument that separate education always violated the 14th amendment's guarantee of "the equal protection of the laws." The unanimous 1954 decision said, "We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other 'tangible' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of the equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does." (779) 4

Martin Luther King Jr

The keynote address of the March on Washington was delivered by ___. In words that have become immortal, ___ declared his hope for America in spite of all the injustice that the *Civil Rights Movement* was encountering. In spite of all the setbacks, ___ said "I still have a dream," that the situation in America could change. In the cadences of traditional black preachers, using words from *Katherine Lee Bates*, *Thomas Jefferson*, and the biblical prophet *Isaiah*, ___ preached the hope that, in America, black people and white people could, indeed, be sisters and brothers. (786) 2

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

The leading clergy-led voice of the southern, nonviolent *Civil Rights Movement*, founded in 1957 by *Martin Luther King, Jr*., and some 60 other black ministers, many veterans of the *Montgomery Bus Boycott*. (782)

Roy Wilkins Thurgood Marshall

The nation's black leadership was not enthusiastic about events in Montgomery. The *Montgomery bus boycott* was a spontaneous outburst that national leaders had played no role in organizing. _(1)_, the long-time national leader of the NAACP invited *King* to address the NAACP convention in San Francisco, but also expressed deep doubts about the boycott. _(2)_ openly criticized *King*, preferring to stick with court cases. "All that walking for nothing. They might as well have waited for the court decision," _(2)_ said of the boycott. (782) 4

Malcolm X

The new ___ was willing to accept white coworkers, but not to be led or controlled. He dreamed that the day might come when, "In our mutual sincerity we might be able to show a road to the salvation of America's very soul." ___ was assassinated by *Nation of Islam* followers in February 1965. But he would continue to inspire great hopes long after he was gone. (791) 3

Quemoy Matsu

The next crisis also occurred in Asia. *Chiang Kai-shek's* Nationalist government had been defeated on the Chinese mainland in 1949 and was ensconced on heavily fortified offshore islands, the largest of which was Taiwan, then known as *Formosa*. In 1954, the Communist government of China began shelling two tiny Nationalist-held islands, _(1)_ and _(2)_, just off the Chinese coast. *Eisenhower* wanted to protect *Chiang's* government, but _(1)_ and _(2)_ were small islands that were much closer to mainland China than to Taiwan. Having seen the war in Korea, *Eisenhower* was determined not to fight Communist China over _(1)_ and _(2)_, Eventually, both sides tired of the conflict and the islands remained under Nationalist rule, Nevertheless, the incident pointed to larger possible threats. (764) 1

Central Intelligence Agency Office of Strategic Services

The second element in Eisenhower's foreign policy depended on secret activities organized by the _(1)_. During *World War II*, the United States developed the capacity to spy on and disrupt the *Axis* countries through the _(2)_. At the end of the war, President *Truman* disbanded that office. Two years later, he received congressional authorization to recreate it, now as the _(1)_, to spy and conduct covert operations in foreign countries that the United States feared might become communist. (763) 1

Herbert Brownell

The students, the mob, and the *National Guard* were all recorded on national television.While President *Eisenhower* was no advocate of school integration, he was not about to allow an order of the U.S. Supreme Court to be flouted. He told his Attorney General ___, "Well, if we have to do this, and I don't see any alternative, than let's apply the best military principles to it and see that the force we send there is strong enough that it will not be challenged, and will not result in any clash." *Eisenhower* sent riot-trained units of the *101st Airborne*. Before nightfall, a thousand U.S. soldiers were in Little Rock, securing the high school and ensuring the safety of the students. (780) 3

Hydrogen Bomb NATO Warsaw Pact

The successful test of a U.S. _(1)_ in November 1952, followed only months later by the successful test of a similar bomb by the Soviet Union (United Soviet Socialist Republic, or U.S.S.R.) in August 1953, meant that Eisenhower and every subsequent president would govern in a world, that was quite different from any of their predecessors. While alliances like the U.S.-led _(2)_ and the Soviet-led _(3)_ might position ground forces, the reality was that each of the superpowers had the capacity to destroy the other in a single stroke, and probably, for the first time in history, to destroy all life on earth. The *Cold War* between the United States and the Soviet Union was a daunting reality for every person on the planet in the 1950s and for a long time thereafter. (762) 1

Jacob Guzman Fidel Castro

Then in June 1954, the *CIA* helped overthrow the democratically elected government of _(1)_ in Guatemala. _(1)_ was promoting land reform by expropriating land owned by the U.S. based *United Fruit Company*. Although the _(1)_ administration had compensated *United Fruit* for the land, the company was angry and the U.S. government feared a communist movement until *CIA* operatives, working with local insurgents, drove _(1)_ from office. Neither action received much publicity in the United States, but the not-very-secret U.S. involvement built up significant anti-U.S. sentiment in the Middle East and Latin America. Later, in 1958, the *CIA* tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the government of Indonesia. In 1959, it played a role in installing a new pro-Western government in Laos. While *Eisenhower* knew of those actions, he may not have known about plans to assassinate the popular elected leader of the Congo, *Patrice Lumumba* (who was killed by dissidents before the *CIA* reached him), and the new leader of Cuba, _(2)_. (763) 3

Kenneth Clark

There were those who thought that with the Brown decision the battle was over. Many years later, ___, whose testimony was central to the case, recalled ruefully, "How naive I was!.. .I thought that within ten years or so, America would be free of it....I expected southern states to resist, but I thought that their resistance Would decrease and that we were on the road to some sort of functional democracy." It would take much more. (779) 5

Elvis Presley Sam Phillips

These groundbreaking dissidents, however, seemed tame to many compared with the influence of rock 'n' roll, and no rock 'n' roll figure got more attention, or worried more people in the 1950s, than _(1)_. _(1)_ grew up poor in Mississippi and Tennessee, learning to sing and play a guitar in his Assembly of God congregation. Music producer _(2)_ knew that although many young white Americans loved black music, even the best of black entertainers could not break through the culture's rigid color barrier. "If I could find a white man with a Negro sound," _(2)_ said, "I could make a billion dollars." With _(1)_ he came close. With _(2)_ handling the marketing, _(1)_ became a star. The music in "Hound Dog" and "Heartbreak Hotel" represented a new amalgam of rhythm and blues, jazz, and pop as well as the earlier rock 'n' roll of groups like *Bill Haley* and the *Comets* whose "Rock Around the Clock" sold 16 million records. (776) 3

Taxis

Ultimately, it took a year long boycott of the Montgomery buses to win the victory the black community wanted, and it took a combination of careful planning and inspirational preaching to get there. People needed courage and inspiration, but they also needed ___ and car pools to get them to work. Black-owned ___ offered reduced fares. The ministers organized car pools to help people who needed to go the longest distances. (782) 3

Nikita Khrushchev

When a new crisis arose over *Berlin* in early 1959, *Eisenhower* and ___ managed to avoid escalation. Each of the two leaders agreed to invite the other to visit his respective country in the next year. ___`s tour of the United States in September 1959 was a major success in spite of ___'s ill-timed boast that "We will bury you." The two leaders agreed to another summit in Paris in May 1960. Progress seemed to be in the air. (768) 2

Malcolm X

When he returned to New York in 1964, ___ explained his new beliefs. He said of his experience in Mecca, "In the past, yes, I have made sweeping indictments of all white people. I never will be guilty of that again—as I know now that some white people are truly sincere, that some truly are capable of being brotherly toward a black man." He was willing to join interracial coalitions to achieve immediate goals and would work within as well as against the political system. (789) 5

Ngo Dinh Diem South East Asian Treaty Organization

When the French were defeated in 1954, an international conference temporarily divided Vietnam into North Vietnam, to be led by *Ho Chi Minh*, and South Vietnam, to be led by *Bao Dai* and a pro-Western nationalist _(1)_. Elections to unify the country were scheduled for 1956. When _(1)_ refused to participate in the 1956 elections, knowing that *Ho*, a national hero would win, the United States did not intervene. The United States relied on the _(2)_, a much weaker version of *NATO* that it had helped to create in 1955, to keep Communists out of Southeast Asia, but the organization had little effect. (763) 5

James Farmer Interstate Commerce Commission

When the new *Kennedy* administration called for a "cooling-off" period, _(1)_ responded that "blacks have been cooling off for 150 years. If we cool off any more, we'll be in a deep freeze." Finally in the fall, Attorney General *Robert Kennedy* convinced the _(2)_ to order that any bus or train that crossed a state line (and thus under the Constitution became subject to federal rules) could not use any segregated facilities. (785) 2

Oral Roberts Peter Marshall

While *Graham* was by far the best known and most successful revivalist of the 1950s, many others, black and white and increasingly Latino evangelists, conducted their own religious revivals in churches, tents, and fields across the United States. _(1)_, a Pentecostal Holiness revivalist and faith healer, built up his own media empire that rivaled *Graham's*. Less emotional versions of religion, including the sermons of the Presbyterian minister _(2)_, published in 1949 as *Mr. Jones Meet the Master* also attracted a wide audience. (774) 4

Abraham Heschel

While 66 percent of Americans identified themselves as Protestant and 26 percent as Catholic, only 3 percent were Jews, but Jews also participated in the religious upsurge of the 1950s. Before *World War II*, secularism and assimilation seemed to go hand in hand among many Jewish immigrants. Although a growing awareness of the Holocaust brought despair and cynicism to some, it brought a renewed interest in their faith to others. A new generation of leaders like Rabbi ___ spoke of the need to link modern thinking with traditional Jewish practices and inner piety. Many American Jews wanted to rediscover their faith. The children of parents who had argued over politics now argued over theology. Attendance at synagogues reached peaks never seen before. The Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative branches of Judaism all grew. (755) 2

Malcolm X Nation of Islam Detroit Temple Number One Malcolm Little

While he was in prison, _(1)_ experienced a religious conversion and joined the _(2)_, or the Black Muslims as they were commonly known. When he was released in 1952, he moved to Detroit and was soon named assistant minister at _(3)_. The Black Muslims believed that it was important to reject traditional last names—which they saw as slave names since many came from former slave owners—and so _(4)_ became _(1)_. His message as a minister was, "we didn't land on Plymouth Rock, my brothers and sisters—Plymouth Rock landed on us!...it was a mix of pride and separation from white people— the "white devils"—along with a call for total allegiance to Allah and Allah's Messenger *Elijah Muhammad*. (789) 3

Legal Defense Fund

While many of *King's* peers were not sure what to make of the sit-ins, and the *NAACP* ___ was not willing to defend those arrested, *King* endorsed them, seeing the sit-ins as a way to confront segregation nonviolently and directly. He continued to defend the sit-ins to an older and very wary civil rights community, and the sit-ins continued to grow in significance. (784) 3

Alka Seltzer

While some of the first programs had a single sponsor—such as the *Goodyear Television Playhouse*, the *Kraft Television Theater*, and the *Camel News Caravan*, broadcasters quickly discovered that they could make higher profits with multiple advertisers, and 30-second commercials urged Americans (always seen as white and middle class) to "see the USA in your Chevrolet," or "move up to Chrysler," and handle their indigestion with "Speedy" ___. (771) 2

R R Morton High School

While the *NAACP* lawyers were winning cases, students at the all-black ___ in Farmville, Virginia, called a strike to protest conditions at their school in 1951. Although the white school in Farmville had comfortable facilities, some classes at ___ were held in tar-paper shacks, students had to wear coats to keep warm, and the teachers had to gather wood for the wood stoves. The authorities had long promised new facilities, but construction was continually postponed. (779) 2

Adlai Stevenson

While the Suez crisis and the Hungarian uprising were taking place, the United States was in the midst of a presidential election. The Democrats again nominated ___. Although *Eisenhower* had a serious heart attack in 1955 and was hospitalized for 6 weeks, he had recovered fully. The Republicans again nominated their highly popular president and his not-very-popular running mate. The Democrats ran anti-*Nixon* television ads that they thought might be more effective than any attack on *Eisenhower*. *Eisenhower* was well liked, the country was at peace, and prosperity was evident. *Eisenhower* won 57 percent of the popular votes, but the outcome rested on *Eisenhower's* personal popularity; the Democrats carried both houses of Congress. Neither the country nor the president expected any major change of course in the next 4 years. However, new developments on the international front presented not only new crises but also an opportunity unimagined when Ike's second term began. (766) 4

Dwight Eisenhower

While the administration dealt with the *U-2 incident*, the United States was in the midst of the 1960 presidential election. ___'s popularity was high, and if the Constitution had allowed it and he had wanted it, he could easily have won a third term. But the Constitution had been changed and ___ at 70, the oldest serving president, had no interest in a third term. (768) 5

Boynton v Virginia James Farmer Congress of Racial Equality

While the sit-ins continued, the U.S. Supreme Court in a 1960 ruling, _(1)_ declared that any segregation in interstate transportation was unconstitutional. _(2)_ and others in the _(3)_ decided to test the decision with "freedom rides" to hasten integration of interstate bus service and terminals through the South. They warned the Attorney General and the FBI in advance. When the seven blacks and six whites on the two buses began their trip in May 1961, they encountered violence first in Rock Hill, South Carolina, where *John Lewis* was beaten when trying to enter a white rest room, then in Anniston, Alabama, where one of the buses was burned and most of the riders beaten. All of the riders were beaten again when a bus reached Birmingham, Alabama—one white rider so badly he suffered permanent brain damage. An FBI informer had reported *Ku Klux Klan* plans to attack the *Freedom Riders*, but at no point did they get any federal protection. New riders who joined the effort were also beaten and arrested. Eventually, 328 freedom riders were arrested in the summer of 1961. (785) 1

A Randolph

Widespread television coverage brought an international outcry about the violence in Birmingham, including criticism by the Soviet Union. President *Kennedy*, who had been slow to act on civil rights, but feared bad publicity especially in the context of the *Cold War*, introduced his long-promised civil rights bill in June 1963. *Kennedy* told Congress that "The heart of the question is whether all Americans are to be afforded equal rights and equal opportunities." To support the proposed civil rights bill, civil rights leaders ___ and *Bayard Rustin* called for a March on Washington. On August 28, 1963, more than 20 years after ___ first proposed a march on Washington, and 100 years after *Abraham Lincoln* signed the *Emancipation Proclamation*, over 200,000 Americans marched in the nation's capital and listened to speeches at the *Lincoln Memorial*. (786) 1

The Catcher in the Rye Allen Ginsberg Jack Kerouac Beat Generation

Within this context of breaking from traditional cultural norms, other artists explored their own alienation in a conformist society. In *J.D. Salinger's* novel, _(1)_, the book's teenage hero, *Holden Caulfield* saw adults as "phonies" who kept up pretenses that did not fit reality. Novelists like *Ralph Ellison*, *Flannery O'Connor*, *Saul Bellow*, *Bernard Malamud*, *James Baldwin*, *John Updike*, *Mary McCarthy*, and *Philip Roth* explored America's racism and the quiet desperation of many. In the late 1950s, poets and political radicals like _(2)_ and _(3)_ took dissent to new levels. The "_(4)_" challenged not only cultural pretentious of *Eisenhower's* America, but the artistic pretentions of its major critics. In "*Howl*," *_(2)_'s* 1950 poem, he wrote, "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness." It was _(2)_'s good luck that police in San Francisco seized *Howl and Other Poems* as obscene and forced a trial that brought _(2)_ to national attention. _(3)_'s *On the Road*, published in 1957, glorified escape from expectations and conventions. Some in the 1950s found themselves embracing _(3)_'s belief that, "The only people for me are the mad ones, the ones who are mad to live, mad to talk, mad to be saved, desirous of everything at the same time, the ones who never yawn or say a commonplace thing, but burn, burn, burn like fabulous yellow roman candles exploding like spiders across the stars." (777) 6

Bob Moses Amzie Moore

_(1)_ arrived in Atlanta in the summer of 1960 to volunteer with *SNCC* during his vacation from his job as a teacher in New York City. As _(1)_ traveled through the rural South, he met some amazing people like _(2)_ who lived far from the centers of civil rights activity. _(1)_ described meeting _(2)_: He was the only adult I met on this trip who had clearly fixed the students in his sights. It was as if he had been sitting there in Cleveland [Mississippi] watching the student movement unfold, waiting for it to come his way, knowing it had to eventually come, and planning ways to use it in light of his fifteen year effort, since *World War II*, at making changes in the cotton plantation land of the Mississippi delta. _(1)_ would encounter more people like _(2)_ on his travels, and they changed him. (787) 1

Malcolm X Nation of Islam Hajj

_(1)_ disdained integration and the southern *Civil Rights Movement*. While he was gaining fame as "the fiery Black Muslim," _(1)_ was also starting to have his doubts about *Elijah Muhammad*. Early in 1964, he broke with the _(2)_ and set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca as is required of every devout Muslim man. In Mecca, _(1)_ found himself among Muslims from all over the world. He was transformed by the experience. When a fellow pilgrim asked him what about the _(3)_ had impressed him the most, _(1)_ answered, "The brotherhood! The people of all races, colors, from all over the world coming together as one! It has proved to me the power of the One God." No longer would he preach separation for its own sake. He was not any less militant, but _(1)_ returned from Mecca as *El-_(3)_ Malik El-Shabazz*, a devout traditional Muslim. (789) 4

Hugh Hefner Playboy

_(1)_ played into that mentality when he first published _(2)_ magazine in December 1953, which represented pure hedonistic pleasure...for men. _(2)_ linked sexuality with upward mobility and defined the good life as enjoying sex, liquor, smoking, and consumer products, without restraint. When _(1)_ published the first issue, with *Marilyn Monroe* as the centerfold, he was deeply in debt but sold enough copies that he could issue another, and by 1960, _(2)_ sold over a million copies a month. (777) 4

Malcolm X Malcolm Little

_(1)_ was born _(2)_ in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1925. He remembered the grinding poverty, racism, and violence of Depression Era America. As a young adult, _(1)_ pursued a life of crime and in February 1946, just before his 21 birthday, received a 10-year sentence for a string of burglaries. In his Autobiography he said, "I had sunk to the very bottom of the American white man's society." (789) 2

Dwight Eisenhower Korea New Deal

_(1)_ was the *U.S. Supreme Commander* in Europe when *Harry Truman* became president in the spring of 1945. In that role, he worked for *Truman* as he had for *Roosevelt*. But when _(1)_ decided to enter the Republican race for the White House and attacked *Truman* and the Democrats during the campaign, the relationship between the two men was deeply strained. Between _(1)_'s election victory in November 1952 and inauguration in 1953, the outgoing *Truman* administration had little to do with the new one. Nevertheless, once in office, _(1)_ made surprisingly few changes to *Truman's* policies. The Republican _(1)_ ended the war in _(2)_, mostly with a veiled threat to use atomic weapons, and surprisingly, solidified core _(3)_ policies and the Cold War. (761) 1

Richard Nixon John Kennedy

_(1)_, having been vice president for two terms, was the better known. For the first time in American politics, the two candidates held a series of television debates. Those who listened to the debates on radio thought _(1)_ had won due to the clarity of his argument. For the much larger television audience, however, _(1)_ seemed tired and haggard while _(2)_ who arrived from California well rested and with a tan seemed at the height of new youthful vigor. In response to _(2)_'s charisma, Newsweek reported that there were "jumpers" who leapt to see him, "runners" who chased his car, and others who simply screamed themselves hoarse. People applauded politely for _(1)_. (769) 1

Rosa Parks

___ had a long history as a civil rights activist. She first tried to register to vote in 1943 when only a very tiny percentage of Alabama blacks voted. She was told she did not pass the literacy test. The same thing happened in 1944. In 1945, she hand-copied every question on the literacy test while she was taking it, in an obvious first step toward a legal challenge. Apparently the authorities wanted to avoid a legal challenge more than they wanted to avoid her vote. She received her registration in the mail and began voting in Alabama elections in 1946. In the summer of 1955, ___ attended a desegregation workshop at Highlander. "I was forty-two years old, and it was one of the few times in my life up to that point when I did not feel any hostility from white people," ___ said. (781) 4

Bob Moses

___ learned that while *Moore* appreciated the legal work of the *NAACP*, integration was not his priority. His passion was the vote. Living in a congressional district that was two-thirds black, it was obvious to *Moore* what the vote could do. ___ wrote to the *SNCC* office in Atlanta, "*Amzie* thinks, and I concur, the adults here will back the young folks but will never initiate a program strong enough to do what needs to he done." Thus was born *SNCC's* locus on a massive student led campaign for the vote. In 1961, ___ returned to Mississippi to work full time on voter registration for SNCC. (787) 2

Elvis Presley

___ sold more than his music. His alienated look and his gyrating sexuality connected with young audiences who loved what he represented. Critics were appalled. One said that his performances were "strip-teases with clothes on...not only suggestive but downright obscene." Exactly that sultry suggestiveness is just what made him so popular to a generation tired of conformity. When __ appeared on the *Ed Sullivan* show, 54 million people watched, the largest television audience in history. (777) 1

Billy Graham

___ was immensely successful in bringing out thousands of people night after night. At the end of each event, individuals were invited to come forward and make a personal confession of faith to counselors who were waiting for them, as the audience sang, "Just as I Am Without One Plea." Although he was a Baptist, ___ did not worry about religious denominations and urged the converted to attend any church that appealed to them. ___'s success was such that he also became a religious advisor to several U.S. presidents. (774) 3

Malclom X

___ was not willing to adopt *King's* nonviolence and believed African-Americans needed to defend themselves. In 1964, he met Fannie Lou Hamer. When he heard her describe the beating she had received, he said, "When I listened to Mrs. Hamer, a black woman—could be my mother, my sister, my daughter—describe what they had done to her in Mississippi, I asked myself how in the world can we ever expect to be respected...and we do nothing about it?" He was not the advocate of violence that others portrayed him to be, but at one point he said, "Let sincere whites go and teach non-violence to white people!" (787) 6

Automobile

___s had been invented before 1900, mass-produced in the 1910s, and had a significant impact by the 1920s. Nevertheless, the ___, like the TV, came to dominate American culture in the 1950s as never before. Once wartime shortages ended, the sales of private ___s grew rapidly. By 1960, 80 percent of American families owned an ___ (the same percentage as owned televisions). The total number of ___s registered at the end of the decade was 74 million, almost double the 39 million registered in 1950. In addition, the ___s were becoming larger, faster, more powerful, and much flashier. In an era of cheap gasoline, the symbolism of power, sexiness, and speed was far more important than fuel efficiency. (772) 2

Orval Faubus

some governors began massive resistance to school integration. The most dramatic took place in Little Rock, Arkansas, in the fall of 1957. Rather than allow the racial integration of previously all-white Central High School, the state's segregationist governor ___ ordered the Arkansas *National Guard* to stop nine African American students from enrolling in the school. In a speech the night before school was scheduled to begin, ___ said he was making the move because of a fear of violence, "Blood will run in the streets," he said, if black students tried to enter Central High. (780) 1