APUSH EXAM TERMS

Lincoln's Spot Resolution

Abraham Lincoln, introduced certain resolutions that requested information as to the precise "spot" on American soil where American blood ad been shed. He pushed his spot resolutions which such persistence that he came to be known as the "spotty Lincoln," who could die of "spotted fever."

Force Acts

Acts passed to promote African American voting and mainly aimed at limiting the activities of the Ku Klux Klan. Through the acts, actions committed with the intent to influence voters, prevent them from voting, or conspiring to deprive them of civil rights, including life, were made federal offenses. Thus the federal government had the power to prosecute the offenses, including calling federal juries to hear the cases.

American Temperance Society

After earlier and feebler efforts, the American Temperance Society was formed in Boston in 1826. Within a few years, about a thousand local groups spans into existence. They implored drinkers to sign the temperance pledge and organized children's clubs, known as the "Cold Water Army." Temperance crusaders also made effective use of pictures, pamphlets, and lurid lecturers, some of whom were reformed drunkards.

mining

After gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Nevada, and other western territories in the second half of the nineteenth century, fortune seekers by the thousands rushed to the West to dig. These metals were essential to US industrial growth and were also sold into world markets. After surface emetics were removed, people sought ways to extractor rom underground, leading to the development of heavy mining machinery. This, in turn, led to the consolidation of the mining industry, because only big companies could afford to buy and build the necessary machines.

Pearl Harbor December 7, 1941

"Black Sunday" morning Japanese bombers, winging in from distant aircraft carriers, attacked Hawaii without warning. Which forced the US to declare war on Japan first.

white flight

"White Flight" to the leafy green suburbs left the inner cities- especially those in the Northeast and Midwest- black, brown, and broke. Migrating blacks from the South filled up the urban neighborhoods that were abandoned by the departing white middle class.

Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) Spain secured its claim to Columbus's discovery in the Treaty of Tordesillas, the gold and silver of the advanced Indian civilizations in Mexico and Peru. It divided with Portugal the "heathen lands" of the New World.

Carter's "malaise" speech

(1779) National address by Jimmy Carter in July 1997 in which the President chided American materialism and urged a communal spirit in the face of economic hardships. Although Carter intended the speech to improve both public morale and his standings as a leader, it had the opposite effect and was widely perceived as a political disaster for the embattled president.

Proclamation of Neutrality

- 1793 shortly after the outbreak between British and French, not nobly proclaimed the governments official neutrality in widening conflict.Sternly warned Americans to be impartial towards both camps. Pro-French-Jefferson was enraged.

Federalism

- A system of government in which there is a large, ruling democratic federal government. Were proponents of the 1787 Constitution . They favored a strong national government arguing that the checks and balances in the new Constitution would safeguard the people's liberties.

Sam Houston

- After a promising career in Tennessee as a soldier, lawyer, congressman, and governor, Houston became the chief leader and hero of the Texas rebels. Elected to the U.S. Senate and the governorship of Texas, was forced into retirement when his love for the Union cause him to spurn the Confederacy in the Civil War.

Bank of the United States (BUS)

- Created by Congress in 1791 was chartered for 20 years. In Philadephia- have a capital of 10 million. One-fifth was to be owned by the government. Stocks were opened for public sales.

. Royal Governors-

- In 1775 eight of the colonies had royal governors. Three colonies were under proprietors and two elected their own self government.

Indian Removal Act

- In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, providing for the transplanting of all the Indian tribes then resident east of the Mississippi. The heaviest blows fell on the Five Civilized Tribes.

Congregational [Puritan] Church-

After the arrival of the men, the franchise was extended to all "freemen." The "freemen" were adult men who belonged to the Puritan congregations, which was called the Congregational Church. Unchurched men were unable to vote in elections, same for women. About two fifths of the men were able to enjoy the rights they were given with the franchise. That was a much larger number than in England.

Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton

- One of the firsts members of the cabinet along with Jefferson 1789. Federalist.

Whiskey Rebellion

- Rose up in the South 1794. Sharply challenged the new national government. The uprising of whiskey distillers in the Southwestern Pennsylvania in opposition to whiskey tax. Washington put down rebellion with militia from several states.

Pinchney's Treaty

- Signed in 1795 with Spain granted the Americans virtually everything they demanded, including free navigation of the Mississippi, the right of deposit (warehouse rights) at New Orleans, and the large dispute territory of western Florida.

"Declaration of Rights"-

- The Declaration of Rights was written when John Adams convinced his colleagues that a revolutionary course was the best way to go. The Congress drew up many important papers and the Declaration of Rights was one of them.

Supreme Court decision [Worcester v. Georgia]

- The supreme court upheld the rights of the Native Americans, but Jackson wanted the Indians off their lands to create more space for the white men. - Marshall still alive; Georgia found gold

non-importation agreements-

- Was boycott against the British goods. Nonimporta-tion agreements were in fact a promising stride toward union. they spontaneously united the American people for the first time in common action. It gave ordinary American men and women new opportunities to participate in colonial protest.

Declaratory Act-

- When Parliament withdrawn the Stamp Act, they provocatively passed the Declaratory Act. It reaffirmed Parliament's right "to bind" the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." The British government thereby drew its line in the sand.

"the power of the purse"-

- a power committees hold to add money for certain programs ,cutting spending on others, or completely end funding for some.

ratification

-the confirmation or validation of an act (such as a constitution) by authoritative approval

List the first 10 Amendments and the major provision of each.

1.Freedom of religion, speech, assembly, petition 2. well regulated militia, right to bear arms 3.no quartering soldiers in time of peace in private homes without consent of owner 4.the right to secure their possessions, house, papers. no searching unless a valid warrant 5.you cannot be tried twice for the same crime 6.all accused shall have the right to a speedy and public trial 7.all cases must take place in a court recognized by government 8.no cruel or unusual punishment 9.nothing in the constitution should be against the people 10.powers not specified in the constitution are in the hands of the state government

Oklahoma City bombing

1995- truck-bomb explosion that killed 168 people in a federal office building on April 19, 1995. the attack was perpetrated by right-wing and anti-governemt militant Timothy McVeigh, later executed by the U.S. government for the crime.

Espionage Act; Sedition Act

A law passed in 1917, prohibiting interference with the draft and other acts of national "disloyalty." Together with the Sedition Act of 1918, which added penalties for abusing the government in writing, it created a climate that was unfriendly to civil liberties.

D-Day, June 6, 1944

A massive military operation led by the American forces in Normandy beginning on June 6, 1944. On this day, the enormous operation, which involved some fort six hundred vessels, unwound.Stiff resistance was encountered by a feint from the Germans, who had been misled by a feint into expecting the blow to fall farther north. After desperate fighting, the invaders finally broke out of the German iron ring that enclosed the Normandy landing zone. This battle led to the liberation of Paris, and the pivotal battle led to the eventual liberation of all of France and brought on the final phases of World War II in Europe.

migration to the South and West

A momentous shift of the American population was under way, as inhabitants from the Northeast and the Rustbelt Midwest moved southward and westward to job opportunities and the sun. The great plains faced the sharpest decline, with 60% of all counties were losing their population.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

A mother of seven who had insisted on leaving "obey" out of her marriage ceremony ,shocked fellow feminists by going so far as to advocate suffrage for women.

Grange Laws and Wabash court decision

A number of the Grange Laws were poorly drawn, and they were bitterly fought through the high courts by the lawyers of the "interests." In the Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois case, it was decreed that individual states had no power to regulate interstate commerce. If the mechanical monster were to be corralled, the federal government would have to do the job. This and other judicial reverses led to the fading of the Granger's influence.

political boss-

A political boss was someone who took care of immigrants (traded jobs and services, gifts of food, clothing, recreational improvements, etc.) for the claim of loyalty and support at the pools. Reformers hades this business, but gave assistance to immigrants that was forthcoming from no other source.

Redeemers

A political coalition in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era, who sought to oust the Republican coalition of freedmen, carpetbaggers and scalawags. They were the southern wing of the Bourbon Democrats, who were the conservative, pro-business wing of the Democratic Party.

Ku Klux Klan

A secret organization in the southern U.S., active for several years after the Civil War, which aimed to suppress the newly acquired powers of blacks and to oppose carpetbaggers from the North, and which was responsible for many lawless and violent proceedings.

Roosevelt Panic of 1907 655

A short panic descended on Wall Street, creating "runs" on bank and causing criminal blame against speculators. The financial world blamed Roosevelt and his boat-rocking tactic of industry nicknaming him "Theodore the Meddler" and the panic the "Roosevelt Panic." He lashed back accusing his critics of having created the monetary crisis to force the government to relax its assaults on trusts. It led to fiscal reforms and the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.

Monroe Doctrine

A statement of foreign policy which proclaimed that Europe should not interfere in affairs within the United States or in the development of other countries in the Western Hemisphere.

Teapot Dome scandal

A tawdry affair involving the illegal lease of riceless naval oil reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming and Elk Hills, California. The scandal, which implicated President Harding's Secretary of the Interior, was one of several that gave his administration a reputation for corruption. In 1921, the slippery secretary of the interior had induced his careless colleague, the secretary of the navy, to transfer these valuable properties to the interior department. Harding indiscreetly signed the secret order. Fall then quietly leased the lands to oilmen Sinclair and Dohen, but not until he had received a bribe of $100,000 from Doheny and about three times that amount in all from Sinclair. Eventually, the scandal was discovered and Fall was found guilty of taking a bribe and was sentenced to one year and jail, but the bribe givers were acquitted.

trust; Standard Oil Company

A trust is a mechanism by which one company grants control over its operations, through ownership of its stock, to another company. The Standard Oil Company became for this practice in the 1870s as it eliminated its competition by taking control of smaller oil companies.

David Walker's Appeal

Black abolitionists distinguished themselves as living monuments to the cause of African American freedom. Their ranks included David Walkers. whose incendiary Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829) advocated a bloody end to white supremacy.

Socialists

Caustic critics of social injustice issued from several other corners. Socialists, many of whom were European immigrants inspired by the strong movement for state socialism in the Old World, began to register appreciable strength at the ballot box.

Korean 38th Parallel

Divides North and South Korea.

Selma march

Early in 1965 Martin Luther King Jr., resumed the voter-registration campaign in Selma, Alabama, where blacks made up 50 percent of the population but only 1 percent of the voters. State troopers with tear gas and whips assaulted King's demonstrators as they marched peacefully to the state capital at Montgomery. A Boston Unitarian minister was killed, and a few days later a white Detroit women was shotgunned to heath my Klansmen on the highway near Selma.

the fall of South Vietnam

Early in 1975 the Northern Vietnamese gave full throttle to their long-expected drive southward. President Ford urged Congress to vote still more weapons for Vietnam, but his plea was in vain, and without the crutch of massive American aid, the South Vietnamese quickly and ingloriously collapsed.

savings and loan (S&L) collapse

Falling oil prices blighted the economy of the southwest, slashing real-estate values and undermining hundreds of loan and savings institutions. The damage was so massive that federal rescue operation was eventually estimated to carry a price tag of well over $500 billion. Many American banks found themselves holding near-worthless loans they had unwisely foisted upon Third World countries, especially in Latin America. More banks and savings were folding than at any time since the Great Depression of 1930s.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Free trade zone encompassing Mexico, Canada, and the united states. A symbol of the increased reality of a globalized market place, the treaty passed despite opposition from protectionists and labor leaders.

gated communities

Gated communities were set up in some affluent suburban neighborhoods, where the people walled themselves off behind elaborate security systems, making it harder, perhaps, to sustain a sense of larger and inclusive national community. But by the first decade of the 21st century, the suburban rings around big cities were becoming more ethnically diverse.

capture of Richmond

Grant captured Richmond, leading to the surrender of the Confederates in the Appomattox Courthouse

Santa Anna

He was dethroned Mexican dictator, then exiled with his teenage wife to Cuba, let it be known that if the American blockade squadron would permit him to slip into Mexico, he would sell out his country.

Ida B. Wells anti-lynching crusade-

Ida B. Wells was a journalist and teacher that, unlike most women's rights activists, inspired black women to mount a nationwide antilynching crusade. She also helped launch the black women's club movement, which culminated in the establishment of the National Association of Colored Women in 1896.

dry farming; Dust Bowl

In the wake of the devastating six year drought in the 1880s, the new technique of dry farming took root on the plains. Its methods of frequent shallow cultivation supposedly were adapted to the arid western environment, but over time dry farming created a finely pulverized surface soil that contributed to the notorious Dust Bowl several decades later.

isolation in world affairs

Isolation was enthroned in Washington. The Harding administration, with the Senate, "irreconcilables" holding a hatchet over its head, continued to regard the League of Nations as a thing unclean. Harding at first refused even to support the League's world health program. But the new world body was much too important to be completely ignored. "Unofficial observers" were sent to its seat in Geneva, Switzerland, to hang around like detectives shadowing a suspected criminal.

America First Committee

Isolationists determined to avoid American bloodshed at all costs, organized this committee and proclaimed, "England Will Fight to the Last American". They contended that America should concentrate what strength it had to defend its own shores, lest a victorious Hitler, after crushing Britain, plot a transoceanic assault.

Stonewall Jackson

Jackson's Confederate soldiers stood like a stone wall against the North until reinforcements came.

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong was the communist leader in China who led the Civl War that resulted in the collapse of Nationalist China. His takeover of China meant the transfer of 1/4 of the world's population to Communism, which was devastating for America and its allies during the Cold War.

International Style

Massive corporate high rises were essentially giant steel boxes wrapped in glass.

V-E Day May 8, 1945

May 8th was officially proclaimed V-E Day (Victory in Europe) and was greeted with frenzied rejoicing in the Allied countries.

Religious revivals

Methodists and Baptists reaped the most abundant harvest of souls from the fields fertilized by revivalism. Both sects stressed personal conversion (contrary to predestination), a relatively democratic control of church affairs, and a rousing emotionalism. As a frontier jingle ran, The devil hates the Methodists Because they sing and shout the best.

Texas annexation

Mexico saw Texas as a province in revolt, promised war if the Americans touched Texas, Texas wondered when Mexico would strike again, Britain and France were both looking at Texas to get american resources and check on american power and the monroe doctrine, would free slaves, Britain wouldn't worry about having to ever lose a cotton supply during embargoTexas became a leading issue in the presidential campaign of 1844. The foes of expansion assailed annexation, while southerners hotheads cried "Texas or Disunion." The pro-expansion Democrats under James K. Polk finally triumphed over the Whigs under Henry Clay, the hardy perennial candidate. President Tyler thereupon interpreted the narrow Democratic victory, with dubious accuracy, as a "mandate" to acquire Texas.

Border States

Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware; they were all slave states; were crucial to the Union because if the North had fired the first shot they too would have seceded and because having Kentucky and Ohio meant complete control of the Ohio River

minstrel shows

Music was slowly shaking off the restraints of colonial days, when the prim Puritans had frowned upon nonreligious singing. Rhythmic and nostalgic "darky" tunes, popularized by whites, were becoming immense hits by midcentury. Special favorites were the uniquely American minstrel shows, featuring white actors with blackened faces playing stock plantation characters.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

NATO was a military alliance of Western European powers and the US and Canada established in 1949 to defend against the common threat fro the Soviet Union, marking a giant stride forward for european unity and American internationalism. It was originally formed between Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, but it later added the US and other countries, bringing the count to 15.

Francis Scott Key and the Star Spangled Banner

National anthem of the US; lyrics come from "Defense of Fort McHenry" written by Francis Scott Key after witnessing bombardment of Fort McHenry by the British Royal Navy ships in Chesapeake Bay during the Battle of Fort McHenry in the War of 1812.

national parks

National parks were established when the citizens realized that their fabled free land was going or had gone. The government first set aside land for national parts in Yellowstone in 1872, and later in Yosemite and Sequoia in 1890.

natural selection and evolution

Natural selection was a doctrine/idea coined by English Naturalist Charles Darwin. Darwin said that nature blindly selected organisms for survival or death based on random, inheritable variations that they happened to possess. This survival of the fittest, evolutionary idea sparked much controversy and rejection, by both churches and scientists of the time (although it would grow to become the commonly accepted idea decades later).

Baby Boom

Of all the upheavals in postwar America, none was more dramatic than the baby boom- the huge leap in the birthrate in the decade and a half after 1945. Confident young men and women tied the nuptial knot in record numbers at war's end, and they began to immediately to fill the nations empty cradles. they thus touched off a demographic explosion that added more than 50 million bawling babies to the nation's population by the end of the 1950s. The soaring birthrate finally crested in 1957 and was followed by a deepening birth dearth.

People's Party (Populists)

Officially known as the People's party, the populists represented Westerners and Southerners who believed that US economic policy inappropriately favored Eastern businessmen instead of the nation's farmers. Their proposals included nationalizing the railroads, creating a graduated income tax, and most significantly the unlimited coinage of silver. (How much more do we need to know about them?)

Ulysses S. Grant

Ohio-born Union general and eighteenth president of the United States. During the war, Grant won Lincoln's confidence for his boldness and his ability to stomach the steep casualties that victory required. First assigned to the West, Grant attained Union victories at Fort Donelson, Shiloh and Vicksburg, seizing control of the Mississippi River and splitting the South in two. After taking command of the Union Army, he fought Lee in a series of bloody battles in Virginia, culminating in Lee's surrender at Appomattox. As President, he took a hard line against the South, but economic turmoil and waning support for Reconstruction undermined his efforts.

Saturday Night Massacre

On October 20,1973 Nixon ordered the "Saturday Night Massacre," firing his own special prosecutor appointed to investigate the Watergate Scandal, as well as his attorney general and deputy attorney general because they had refused to go along with firing the prosecutor.

2003 invasion of Iraq

On march 19,2003 the US invaded Iraq. In less than a month Baghdad fell and Saddam was being driven from power and hounded into hiding. He was found and arrested, 9 months later he was executed. Bush announced on May 1st 2003 that the major combat operations in Iraq had ended.

Israel; Six-Day War

Overcommitment in Southeast Asia also tied America's elsewhere. Attacked by Soviet-backed Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, a beleaguered Israel stunned the world with a military triumph in June 1967. When the smoke cleared after the Six-Day War, Israel expanded to control new territories in the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of the Jordan River, including Jerusalem.

Molasses Act-

Parliament passed the Molasses Act, aimed at slow down North American trade with the French West Indies. If successful, this scheme would have struck a standstill to American international trade and to the colonists' standard of living. American merchants responded to the act by bribing and smuggling their way around the law. Thus was foreshadowed the impending imperial crisis, when headstrong Americans would revolt rather than submit to the dictates of the far-off Parliament, apparently bent on destroying their very livelihood.

rationing

Rationing held down the consumption of critical goods such as meat and butter, though some "black marteteers" and "meatleggers" cheated the system.

Union League

Reconstruction-Era African American organization that worked to educate Southern blacks about civic life, built black schools and churches, and represented African American interests before government and employers. It also campaigned on behalf of Republican candidates and recruited local militias to protect blacks from white intimidation.

Tydings-McDuffie Act

Remembering the earlier promises of freedom for the Philippines, Congress past the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934. The act provided for the independence of the Philippines after a twelve year periods of economic and political tutelage- that is, by 1946. The United States agreed to relinquish its army bases, bu naval bases were reserved for future discussion- and retention.

Second Battle of Bull Run, 1862

Robert E Lee defeated the Union troops under Pops's command. After this defeat, he went to Maryland in hopes to strike a blow that would encourage foreign intervention and seduce the Border States and its sisters from the Union. However Maryland did not respond, and the presence of the Confederate's military dampened the states' passion.

The 3 R's

Roosevelt's New Deal programs aimed at three R's- relief, recovery, and reform. Short-range goals were two years. Long-range goals were permanent recovery and reform of current abuses, particularly those that had produced the boom-or-bust catastrophe. The three R objectives often overlapped and got in one another's way. But amid all the topsy-turvy haste, the gigantic New Deal program lurched forward.

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)

Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran joined with Venezuela in 1960 to form OPEC. In the next two decades, OPEC's stranglehold on the western economies would tighten to a degree that even Nasser (Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser) couldn't have imagined.

Scientific Management

Scientific management is a system of industrial management created and promoted in the early twentieth century by Frederick W. Taylor, emphasizing stopwatch efficiency to improve factory performance. The system gained immense popularity across the US and Europe. Taylor's epitaph reads, "Father of Scientific Management."

Lincoln Douglas debates

Series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during the U.S. Senate race in Illinois. Douglass won the election but Lincoln gained national prominence and emerged as the leading candidate for the 1860 Republican nomination. - Running for Senate in 1858 - Douglas would win but Lincoln would become a well known name

settlement houses

Settlement houses were mostly run by middle-class naive born women. They were in immigrant neighborhoods and they provided housing, food, education, child care, cultural activities, and social connections for the new arrivals to the US. Many women, both native born and immigrant, developed life long passions for social activism in the settlement houses. Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago and Lilian Wald's Henry Street Settlement in New York City were two of the most prominent.

Hoovervilles

Shanty towns that the unemployed built in the cities during the early years of the Depression; the name given to them shows that the people blamed Hoover directly for the Depression.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890-

Sherman's Anti-Trust Act was a law that forbade trusts or combinations in business, this was landmark legislation because it was one of the first Congressional attempts to regulate big business for the public good. At first the law was mostly used to restrain trade unions as the courts tended to side with companies in legal cases. In 1914 the Act was revised so it could more effectively be used against monopolistic corporations.

Anglo American Convention Treaty of 1818

Signed by Britain and the United States, the pact allowed New England fisherman access to Newfoundland fisheries, established the northern border of Louisiana territory and provided for the joint occupation of the Oregon country for 10 years.

Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)

Signed in 1990 was a landmark law prohibiting discrimination against the 43 million US citizens why physical or mental disabilities.

Treaty of Ghent

Signed on December 24, 1814, in Ghent (modern day Belgium), it was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Sitting Bull

Sitting Bull was the Native American chief under whom the Sioux tribes united in their struggle for survival on the North American Great Plains. He inspired the rest of the Sioux to launch further uprisings, like that of the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism was the idea that people gained wealth by "survival of the fittest." Therefore, the wealthy had dimly won a natural competition and owed nothing to the poor, and indeed service to the poor would interfere with this organic process. Some social Darwinists also applied this theory to whole nations and races, explaining that powerful peoples are naturally endowed with gifts that allowed them to gain superiority over others.

Democrat "boll weevils"

Southern conservative democrats who abandoned their own party's leadership to follow the president. The new president seemed strong and motivated, all the more so after a failed assassination attempt in March 1981 brought an outpouring of sympathy and support.

Sputnik I; Sputnik II

Soviet scientists astounded the world on October 4,1957, by lofting into orbit around the globe a beep-beeping "baby moon" (Sputnik I) weighing 184 pounds. A month later they topped their own ace by sending aloft a larger satellite (Sputnik II) weighing 1,120 pounds and carrying a dog.

Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 (Adams-Onis Treaty)

Spain ceded Florida as well as shadowy Spain claims to Oregon in exchange for Americas abandonment of equally murky claims in Texas soon to become part of independent Mexico.

American Federation of Labor (1886)

The American Federation of Labor was a national federation of trade unions that included only skilled workers. It was led by Samuel Grompers for nearly four decades, and the AFL sought to negotiate with employers for a better kind of capitalism that rewarded workers fairly with better wages, hours, and conditions. The AFL's membership was almost entirely white and male until the middle of the twentieth century.

Flint sit-down strike (1936)

The CIO resorted to a revolutionary technique known as the sit down strike: they refused to leave the factory building of General Motors at Flint, Michigan, and thus prevented the importation of strikebreakers. Conservative respecters of private property were scandalized. The CIO finally won a resounding victory when its union, after heated negotiations, was recognized by General Motors as the sole bargaining agency for its employees.

Chinese Exclusion Act

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a federal legislation that prohibited most further Chinese immigration to the US. This was the first major legal restriction on immigration in US history.

Dawes Severalty Act

The Dawes Severalty Act was an act that broke up Indian reservations and distributed land to individual households. Leftover land was sold for money to fund US government efforts to "civilize" Native Americans. Of 130 million acres held in Native American reservations before the act, 90 million were sold to non-Native buyers. If the Indians "behaved", they would eventually get full title to their holdings, as well as citizenship in 25 years. The probationary period was later extended.

Department of Homeland Security

The Department of Homeland Security is a Cabinet level agency created in 2003 to unify and coordinate public safety and anti-terrorism operations within the federal government.

Equal rights Amendment

The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution won congressional approval in 1972. It declared, "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." 28 of the necessary 38 states quickly ratified the amendment, first proposed by suffragists in 1923. Hopes rose that the ERA might soon become the law of the land.

Grand Army of the Republic (GAR)

The GAR was an important bloc of Republican ballots. This group was a politically potent fraternal organization of several hundred thousand Union veterans of the Civil War.

Gilded Age

The Gilded Age was a term given to the period 1865-`896 by Mark Twain, indicating both the fabulous wealth and widespread corruption of the era.

Hudson River School of arts

The Hudson River School of Arts of the 1820s and 1830s excelled in this type of romantic art. . Its leading lights, British-born Thomas Cole and New Jerseyan Asher Durand, celebrated the raw sublimity and grand divinity of nature.

Jones Act

The Jones Act was a law according territorial status to the Philippines and promising independence as soon as a stable government could be established.

Panic of 1873

The Panic of 1873 was a world-wide depression that began in the US when one of the nation's largest banks abruptly declared bankruptcy, leading to the collapse of thousands of banks and businesses. The crisis intensified debtors' calls for inflationary measures such as the printing of more paper money and the unlimited coinage of silver. This panic was important to history because conflicts over the monitor policy greatly influenced politics in the last quarter of the 19th century.

1939 Nazi-Soviet; Non-Aggression Pact

The Soviet Union astounded the world when they, on August 23, 1939, signed a nonaggression treaty with the German dictator. This Hitler-Stalin pact meant that Nazi German leader now had a green light to make war on poland and the Western democracies, without fearing a stab in the back from the Soviet Union.

Statue of Liberty 1886

The Statue of Liberty arose in New York Harbor, after it was given as a gift from France. The statue of liberty says a statement at the bottom:"Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shores" that offended many nativists, because the noble words described the" scum" that had just arrived.

Truman Doctrine

The Truman Doctrine was President Truman's universal pledge of support for any people fighting any communist or communist inspired threat. Truman presented the doctrine to Congress in 1947 in support of his request for $400 million to defend Greece and Turkey against Soviet-backed insurgencies. This doctrine provoked much controversy in America.

Amendment Twenty-four

The Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in January 1964, abolished the poll tax in federal elections.

U.S. embargoes against Japan

The US restricted trade on gasoline and other sinews of war. This was because Japan relied heavily on the US for steel, scrap iron, oil, and aviation gasoline, which their war machine was fatally dependent on immense shipments from the United States.

USA Patriot Act

The USA Patriot Act was legislation passed shortly after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 that granted broad surveillance and detention authority to the government. It also authorized the detention and deportation of immigrants suspected of terrorism.

United Nations

The United Nations was a successor to the old League of Nations, but it differed from its predecessor in significant ways. Born in a moment of idealism and designed to prevent another great-power war, the League had adopted rules denying the veto power to any party to a dispute. The U.N, by contrast, more realistically provided that no member of the Security Council could have action taken against it without its consent.

Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact- The Warsaw Pact was an agreement signed by the Eastern European counties and the soviets, that created a red military counterweight to the newly bolstered NATO forces in the west.

Wilson-Gorman Tariff

The Wilson-Gorman Tariff was a bill that was sent with the intention of lowering tariffs, but by the time the bill made it through Congress, it had been so loaded with special interest protection that it barely made a dent in the McKinley Tariff rates. This bill caused Cleveland to suffer even further embarrassment.

New Right

The conservative cause drew added strength from the emergence of a "New Right" movement, partly in response to the countercultural protests of the 1960s. Spearheading the New Right were evangelical Christian groups such as the Moral Majority, dedicated believers who enjoyed startling success as political fundraisers and organizers.

McCulloch v. Maryland

The courts ruled that the states cannot tax the federal government, i.e. the Bank of the United States; the phrase "the power to tax is the power to destroy"; federal government is supreme to the states (supremacy clause); confirmed the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States (elastic clause).!

Yalta Conference

The final conference of the big three (FDR, Churchill, and Stalin) took place February 1945 on the shores of the Black Sea. They reached momentous agreements, after pledging their faith with vodka. Final plans were laid for smashing the buckling German lines and assigning occupation ones in Germany to the victorious powers. Poland (with revised boundaries), Bulgaria, and Romania were said to have a representative government which was soon broken. They also discussed fashioning a new international peacekeeping organization (the UN). The most controversial decision made at Yalta concerned the Far East. Stalin agreed to attack Japan within three months of the fall of Germany. In return the Soviet Union was promised the southern half of Sakhalin Island, Japan's Kurile Islands, joint control over the railroad's in China's Manchuria and special key privileges in the two key seaports in that area, Darien and Port Author.

Smith Act

The first peacetime anti sedition law since 1789. If convicted of advocating to overthrow the American government by force, the defendants were sent to prison. Eleven communists were brought before a New York jury for violating it. The Supreme Court upheld their convictions in Dennis v. United States (1951).

Cult of Domesticity

The home was a woman's special sphere, the centerpiece of the "cult of Domesticity." Even reformers like Catharine Beecher, who urged her sisters to seek employment as teachers, endlessly celebrated the role of row food homemaker. But some women increasingly felt that the glorified sanctuary of the home was in fact a gilded cage. They yearned to tear down the bars that separated the private world of women from the public world of men.

massacre at Wounded Knee

The massacre at wounded knee was provoked by the government's action to outlaw the Indian ritualistic Sun (Ghost Dance). The massacre resulted in the deaths of two hundred Indian men, women and children, as well as 29 invading soldiers.

Progressives

The new crusaders, who called themselves "progressives," waged war on many evils, notably monopoly, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice. The progressive army was large, diverse, and widely deployed, but it had a single battle cry: "Strengthen the State." The "real heart of the movement," explained one of the progressive reformers, was "to use government as an agency of human welfare."

interchangeable parts

The principle of interchangeable parts was widely adopted by 1850. It gave rise to a host of other innovations, including Samuel Colt's fabled revolver, and it ultimately became the basis of modern mass-production, assembly-line methods. It gave to the North the vast industrial plant that ensured military preponderance over the South.

Closed shop; open shop

The red scare was a godsend to conservative businesspeople, who used it to break the backs of the fledgling unions. Labor's call for the "closed", or all-union, shop was denounced as "Sovietism in disguise." Employers, in turn, hailed their own anti-union campaign for the "open" shop as the American plan.

Office of Price Administration

The wonders of production also brought economic strains. Full employment and scarce consumer goods fueled a sharp inflationary surge in 1942. The Office of Price Administration (OPA) eventually brought ascending prices under control with extensive regulations.

Forts Henry, Donelson; Shiloh; 1862

Ulysses S. Grant first success for the Union was capturing of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson on Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, where he demanded immediate surrender. This success riveted Kentucky more securely to the Union and opened the gateway to the important region of Tennessee and Georgia. He attempted to capture Shiloh but confederates defeated him, showing there would be no quick end to the war for the North.

"silent majority"

Undaunted, Nixon launched a counteroffensive by appealing to the silent majority who presumably supported the war. Though ostensibly conciliatory, Nixon's appeal was in fact deeply divisive. His intentions soon became clear when he unleashed tough-talking Vice President Agnew to attack the "nattering nabobs of negativism" who demanded a quick withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon himself in 1970 sneered at the student antiwar demonstrators as "bums."

Seneca Falls Women's Rights Convention

Unflinching feminists met in 1848 in a memorable Women's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls, New York. The defiant Stanton read a "Declaration of Sentiments." The Seneca Falls meeting launched the modern women's rights movement.

Peninsula Campaign (Seven Days')

Union General George McClellan's failed effort to seize Richmond, the Confederate Capital. If succeeded, the Union would have been restored, however slavery would have survived.

CIA coup in Iran

When the government Iran (supposedly influenced by the Soviets) began to resist the power of the gigantic Western companies that controlled Iranian petroleum, the CIA helped engineer a coup in 1953 that installed the youthful shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as a dictator. This action would later be avenged by the Iranian people.

Suez Crisis

When the government Iran (supposedly influenced by the Soviets) began to resist the power of the gigantic Western companies that controlled Iranian petroleum, the CIA helped engineer a coup in 1953 that installed the youthful shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as a dictator. This action would later be avenged by the Iranian people.

Cold War

When the hated Hitler fell, suspicion and rivalry between communistic, despotic Russia and capitalistic, democratic America were all but inevitable. In a fateful progression of events, marked often by misperceptions as well as by genuine conflicts of interest, the two powers provoked each other into a tense standoff known as the Cold War. Enduring four and a half decades, the Cold War not only shaped Soviet-American relations; it overshadowed the entire postwar international order in every corner of the globe. The Cold War also molded societies and economies and the lives of individual people all over the planet.

William Jennings Bryan "Cross of Gold"

William Jennings Bryan was a thirty six year old candidate that nominated for the presidency by the Democrats (due largely in part to his Cross of Gold speech). In his cross of Gold speech, he said to his audiences, "We will answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to them: crowns of throne, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold."

Committee on the Conduct of the War

established by Congress during the Civil War late 1861 to oversee military affairs. Largely under the control of Radical Republicans, the committee urged for a more vigorous war effort and actively pressed Lincoln on the issue of emancipation.

Homestead Act

land grants of 160 acres for very cheap price as long as you improved the land someway

"Lost Cause" of the South

many Americans believe the Lost cause of the south was for the better. Slavery was rided of, African Americans could now claim rights to life liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, the nation was united politically.

Copperhead (Peace Democrats)

named after poisonous snake. They openly obstructed the war through attacks against the drat, Lincoln, and emancipation. They denounced Lincoln as the "Illinois Ape" and condemned the "****** War". Supporters were in southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

Reconstruction Act of 1867

passed by the newly elected Republican Congress, it divvied the South into five military districts, disfranchised former confederate, and required that Southern states both ratify the 14th Amendment and write state constitutions guaranteeing freedmen the franchise before gaining readmission to the Union.

Thirteenth Amendment

prohibits all forms of slavery and involuntarily servitude. Former Confederate states were required to ratify the amendment priori to gaining reentry into the Union.

Emancipation Proclamation

put in place because of a successful "draw" at the Battle of Antietam. It declared all slaves in rebelling states to be free but id did not affect slavery in the NON rebelling Border States. It closed the door on possible compromise with the South and it encouraged thousands of Southern slaves to flee to the North.

The Battle of Tippecanoe

resulted in the defeat of the Shawnee chief Tenskwatawa, "the Prophet" at the hands William Henry Harrison in the Indian wilderness. After the battle, the prophets brother, Tecumseh, forged an alliance with the British against the United States.

ironclads, steam power

steam powered boats were sided with railroad rails (ironclad). The Confederate boat was the Merrimack, or Virginia, and the Union ironclad boat was the Monitor.

Alabama Issue

the Alabama was a British built commerce-raiding ship; it had loop-holed British law by leaving port without guns and picking them up elsewhere; it flew the Confederate flag but was manned by British men; this "British pirate" captured over 60 vessels; finally accepted a challenge from a Union vessels off the coast of France and was destroyed

conscription; draft riots

the Federal army was mostly manned by volunteer soldiers, each state had been assigned a quota based on population; a lack of volunteers lead to the passing of the federal conscription law- for the first time on a nationwide scale in the US because it basically demanded volunteers of the payment of $300 for man to take your place in the army; notably New York City was unhappy with this law; riots were run by anti-black Irish-Americans who were underprivileged

Judicial review

the idea that the Supreme Court alone had the last word on the question constitutionality.

Impeachment

the presentation of formal charges against a public official by the lower house, trial to be before the upper house.

Disenfranchisement

to deprive someone the right to vote, Southerners often denied blacks the right to vote

total war

unrestricted war. no rules. Northern's total war plan: 1.blockade southern coasts 2. free slaves, undermining economic foundation of south 3.control Mississippi River, cutting south in half 4.send troop through Georgia and Carolinas 5.capture capital, Richmond 6.engage their main strength and grind it into submission

Chesapeake Affair

was a conflict between Britain and the United States that precipitated the 1807 embargo. The conflict started when a British ship (the Leopard) was searching for deserters fired on the American Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia

Revolution of 1800

was an electoral victory of Democratic Republicans over the Federalists, who lost their Congressional majority and the presidency. The peaceful transfer of power between rival parties solidified faith in America's political system

General John J. "Blackjack" Pershing

was ordered to break up the Villa's. took several thousand troops not Mexico with speed. They clashed with Carranzas forces and mauled the Villistas but did not capture Villa himself. army was withdrawn 1917.

Charles Grandison Finney

was the greatest of the revival preachers. Trained as a lawyer, Finney abandoned the bar to become an evangelist anger a deeply moving conversion experience as a young man. Tall and athletically built, Finney held huge crowds spellbound with the power of his oratory and pungency of his message. He led massive revivals in Rochester and New York City in 1830 and 1831. Finney preached a version of the old-time religion, but he was also an innovator. He devised the "anxious bench," where repentant sinners could sit in full view of the congregation, and he encouraged women to pray aloud in public. Holding out the promise of a perfect Christian kingdom on earth, Finney denounced both alcohol and slavery. He eventually served as president of Oberlin College in Ohio,, which he helped to make a hotbed of revivalist activity and abolitionism.

surrender Appomattox Courthouse 1865

where Lee surrendered to Grant in April 1865 after almost a year of fighting through out Virginia in Wilderness Campaign.

Satellite States, "Iron Curtain"

Along with Austria, Germany had been divided into four military occupation zones, each assigned to one of the Big our powers (France, Berlin, America, and the USSR).The Western Allies refused to allow Moscow to bleed their zones of the reparations insisted he had been promised at Yalta. Before long, it was apparent that Germany would remain indefinitely divided. West Germany eventually became an independent country. East Germany became a part of the USSR.

Treaty of 1846

Although America was caught up in getting all of Oregon all the way up to the 54 parallel in quebec, polk was offered the 49 the parallel compromise from England and put it in the hands of the senate, the senate agreed since England was very strong and they were already in a month of war with Mexico.

Aroostook War

An explosive controversy of the early 1840s involved the Maine boundary dispute. Tough-knuckled lumberjacks from both Maine and Canada entered the disputed no-man's-land of the tall-timbered Aroostook River valley. Ugly fights flared up, and both sides summoned the local militia. The small-scale lumberjack class, which is known as the Aroostook War, threatened to widen into a full-dress shooting war.

FDR's "Quarantine Speech"

An important speech in which he called for "positive endeavors" to quarantine" land hungry dictators, presumably through economic embargos. The speech flew in the face of isolationist policies. Given in Chicago in the autumn of 1937, FDR was addressing recent aggressions of Italy and Japan.

"spheres of influence" in China

Areas of the Country, Particularly in China during the late 1800's, where Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France controlled much of the trade and natural resources

Havana Conference 1940

At the Havana Conference, the US agreed to share with its twenty New World neighbors the responsibility of upholding the Monroe Doctrine. This ancient dictum, hitherto unilateral, had been a bludgeon brandished only in the hated Yankee fist. Now multilateral, it was to be wielded by twenty one pairs of American hands.

Meat Inspection Act

Backed by a nauseated public, Roosevelt induced Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. It decreed that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection from oral to can. Although the largest packers resisted certain features of the act, they accepted it as an opportunity to drive their smaller, fly-by-night competitors out of business. At the same time, they could receive the government's seal of approval on their exports.

barbed wire

Barbed wire was put up by sheepherders ad homesteaders, and they built too many to be torn down by the cowboys. This led to the eventual unmaking of the Long Drive.

social gospel

High-minder messengers of the social gospel promoted a brand of progressivism based on Christian teachings. They used religious doctrine to demand better housing and living conditions for urban poor.

Popé's Rebellion 1680

It was an Indian uprising. The Pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic Church in the province and killed a score of priests and hundreds of Spanish settlers. In a reversal of Cortés's treatment of the Aztec temples more than a century earlier, the Indians rebuild a kiva, or ceremonial religious chamber, on the ruins of the Spanish plaza at Santa Fe. It took nearly half a century for the Spanish fully to reclaim New Mexico from the insurrectionary Indians.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act

The Sherman silver purchase act was an act that was passed as a compromise between silver agitators and eastern protectionists. The Westerners consented to support a higher tariff and the projectionists this bill. It ordered the federal Treasury to purchase 4.5 million oz. of silver monthly. The repeal of this act only temporarily stopped the hemorrhaging of gold from the treasury.

Spoils system (patronage)

- rewarding political supporters with public office. It was introduced into the federal government on a large scale. "The basic idea was as old as politics." Its name came later from the Senator William Marcy's classic remark in 1832, "To the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." The system had already secured a firm hold in New York and Pennsylvania, were well-greased machines ladled out the "gravy" of the office.

Roe v. Wade

(1973) Landmark Supreme Court decision that forbade states from barring abortion by citing a woman's constitutional right to privacy. Seen as a victory of feminism and civil liberties by some, the decision provoked a strong counter-reaction by opponents to abortion, galvanizing the Pro-Life movement.

Ronald Reagan

40th president of the United States. A former actor and California governor, he was elected in 1980 with a pronounced conservative mandate to fix the American economy by scaling back taxes and the role of government in business. Reagan was a staunch Cold Warrior whose massive defense spending added stress to the Soviet Union's military budget and may ultimately have contributed to the end of the Cold War.

Oregon Trail

People in the willamette valley majorly increased in the early 1840s, people moving to Oregon trekked the 2,000 mile trail in covered wagons that was known as the Oregon trail, took about 5 months for the entire journey, 17 deaths per mile, traveled 1-2 mph, missionaries were popular there, british could not get so many out there.

petroleum

Petroleum (Gasoline) made enormous impacts on various aspects of American life. Employing directly or indirectly 6 million, it was a major wellspring of the nation's prosperity. Thousands of new jobs were also created by supporting industries including rubber, glass fabrics, highway construction and thousands of service stations and garages. As a result, America's standard of living increased. New industries boomed, including the oil business, but railroads were hit by the successful automobile forms of transportation. Speedy marketing of perishable foodstuffs, including fresh fruits, was accelerated, and this meant that city dwellers were provided with produce at attractive prices.

affirmative action; reverse discrimination

Philadelphia plan altered the meaning of "affirmative action." Lyndon Johnson had intended affirmative action to protect individuals against discrimination. Nixon now transformed and escalate affirmative action into a program that conferred privileges on certain groups. Nixon and the Court opened Pandora's box of protest from critics who assailed the new style of affirmative action as "reverse discrimination," imposed by executive order and judicial decision, not by democratically elected representatives.

Welfare Reform Bill

legislation that made deep cuts in welfare grants and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find employment. Part of Bill Clinton's campaign platform in 1992, the reforms are widely seen by liberals as an abandonment of key New Deal/Great Society provisions to care for the impoverished.

Korematsu v. United States

the wartime Supreme Court in 1944 upheld the constitutionality of the Japanese relocation in Korematsu v. United States. But more than four decades later, in 1988, the U.S. government officially apologized for its actions and approved the payment of reparations of $20,000 to each camp survivor.

Louisiana Purchase

Was Jefferson's bargaining with Napoleon and avoided a possible rupture with France and the consequent entangling alliance with England. The Purchase was when America secured at one bloodless stroke the western half of the richest river valley in the world and further laid the foundations of a future major power. The purchase more than doubled the territory of the United States which opened vast tracts for the settlements.

Doughboys

Was a nickname for the inexperienced but fresh American soldiers that went into battle in WW1. They were inexperienced because they went into the war at such a crucial time time and had no time to get trained.

World Bank

Was created by the IMF. It is to promote economic growth in war-ravaged and underdeveloped areas. In contrast to its behavior after World War I, the United States took the lead in creating these important international bodies and supplied most of their funding.

Sir Walter Raleigh and Roanoke

Was inspired by his half-brother Sir Humphrey Gilbert, after he died at sea in 1583. Sir Walter Raleigh tried to do what his half-brother did but in a warmer climate. He organized an expedition that would land in 1585 on North Carolina's Roanoke Island, off the coast of Virginia. After many false starts the colony of Roanoke disappeared.

Trent Affair; Late 1861

Union warship north of Cuba stopped a British mail steamer the Trent and forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats bound for Europe; the prisoners were reluctantly released; "One war at a time" - Lincoln

Schenck v. United States

Virtually any criticism of the government could be censored and punished. Some critics claimed the new laws were blending, if not breaking, the First Amendment. But in Schenck v. United States (1919), the Supreme Court affirmed their legality, arguing that freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech posed a "clear and present danger" to the nation. These prosecutions form an ugly chapter in the history of American civil liberty. With the dawn of peace, presidential pardons were rather freely granted, including President Harding;s to Eugene Debs in 1921. Yet a few victims lingered behinds bars into the 1930s.

W.E.B. DuBois; NAACP

WEB Du Bois was the first of his race to achieve a PhD at Harvard (mix of African, French, Dutch, and Indian blood). He demanded complete equality for blacks and helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people. He argued that the "talented tenth" of the black community should be given full and immediate access to the mainstream of American life. He died in self exile in Ghana in 1963. His differences with Washington reflected the contrasting life experiences of southern and northern blacks.

weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

WMD's refers to weapons, nuclear, biological, and chemical, that can kill large numbers of people an dod great damage to the built and natural environment. The terms was used to refer to nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The Bush administration's claim that Saddam Hussein had developed WMD provided the rationale for the US's invasion of Iraq in 2003.These weapons were never found after the invasion.

War of 1812

War between US and Britain; America declared war in 1812 because of trade restrictions, impressments, British support of American Indian tribes against American expansion, and humiliation of American honor. The war ended in a relative draw, but it demonstrated America's willingness to defend its interests militarily.

Sharecropping

A system of farming that developed in the South after the Civil War, when landowners, many of whom had formerly held slaves, lacked the cash to pay wages to farm laborers, many of whom were former slaves. The system called for dividing the crop into three shares — one for the landowner, one for the worker, and one for whoever provided seeds, fertilizer, and farm equipment.

Loyalty Program

Another red scare was in full cry. Many citizens feared that there were communist spies that were undermining the government and treacherously misdirecting foreign policy. In 1947 Truman launched the loyalty program where the attorney general drew up a list of 90 supposed disloyal organizations (none given the opportunity to prove their innocence). The Loyalty Review Board investigated more that three million federal employees (3,000 of whom either resigned or were dismissed, none under formal indictment). Loyalty oaths were increasing in numbers and were demanded of employees, especially teachers.

debtors, inflation

Debtors, along with agrarian groups clamored for a resistance of greenbacks, reasoning that more money meant cheaper money, and thus, rising prices and easier-to-pay debts. Unfortunately, they had no understanding that this would cause serious inflation.

Lost Generation

Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and many other American writers and painters formed an artistic "Lost Generation" as expatriates in postwar Europe. They found shelter and inspiration in the Paris salon of their brainy and eccentric countrywomen, Gertrude Stein. A literary innovator in her own right, Stein had studied at Radcliffe College at Harvard University under the famed philosopher William James; her early works apply his theory of "stream of consciousness" to literature.

Farragut's navy New Orleans 1862

Farragut's flotilla command joined with the Northern army to strike against the south by seizing New Orleans. Union gunboats ascended and descended along Mississippi River, leaving a jeopardizing back door for the Confederacy in the east.

Nat Turner's Rebellion

In 1831, the semiliterate Nat Turner, a visionary black preacher, lead an uprising that slaughtered about 60 Virginians, mostly women and children. Reprisals were swift and bloody, and Nat Turners Rebellion was soon extinguished.

Charles Lindbergh

In 1927, modest and skillful Charles A. Lindbergh, the so called Flyin' Fool electrified the world with the first solo west to east conquest of the Atlantic. Seeking a prize of $25,000, the lanky stunt flier courageously piloted his single engine plane, The Spirit of St. Louis from NY to Paris in a grueling thirty three hours and thirty nine minutes. Lindbergh soon became a public hero, and his achievement did much to dramatize and popularize flying while giving a strong boost to the infant aviation industry.

HUAC ( House Un-American Activities Committee)

In 1938 the House of Representatives established this to investigate "subversion". One of the most notable members is Richard Nixon.

Manhattan Project

In 1940 after Hitler's wanton assault on Poland, Roosevelt was persuaded by American and exiled scientists, notably German-born Albert Einstein, to push ahead with preparations for unlocking the secret of an atomic bomb. Congress, at Roosevelt's blank-check request, blindly made available nearly $2 billion. Many military minds were skeptical but fears of the Germans beating them to it provided a powerful spur to action. Ironically, Germany abandoned its own atomic project because it was too costly. The war with Germany had ended before they were finished so Japan now suffered the fate of being the first nation subjected to this bomb.

Martial law

Lincoln in Maryland declared martial law where needed and sent in troops because it had threatened to cut off Washington from the North - Military is there; limited freedom of press to limit the people in Maryland to keep it in the Union (D.C.). - Lincoln disobeys Constitution to keep the Union together.

writ of habeas corpus

Lincoln suspended this so that anti-Unionists might be arrested; he defied the ruling by the chief justice that the safeguards of habeas corpus could be set aside only by the authorization of Congress

Head Start

Medicare made especially dramatic reductions in the incidence of poverty among them Project Head Start, sharply improved the educational performance of underprivileged youth. Infant mortality rates also fell in minority communities as general health conditions improved. Lyndon Johnson was not fully victorious in the war against poverty, but he did win several noteworthy battles.

Quebec-1608-

- After the rocky start in the New World, France finally was rewarded in 1608 with Quebec. It was a permanent beginning of a vast empire. Quebec was a granite sentinel commanding the St. Lawrence River.

St. Lawrence River-

- The French used it when they settled in Quebec. The French commanded the St. Lawrence River because it was a granite sentinel.

"Bread" colonies-

Agriculture was the leading industry in the colonies. It involved about 90 percent of the people. Tobacco was still the leading crop in Massachusetts and Virginia. The fertile middle colonies or the "bread" colonies produced large amounts of grain, and by 1759 New York alone exported 80,000 barrels of flour.

"Fundamental orders" of Connecticut-

In 1639, the settlers of the new Connecticut River colony prepared in an open meeting a trailblazing document known as the Fundamental Orders. It was in effect of the modern constitution, which established a regime democratically controlled by the "substantial" citizens. Essential features of the Fundamental Orders were later borrowed by Connecticut for its colonial charter and ultimately for its state constitution.

Renaissance

In the fourteenth century nurtured an ambitious spirit of optimism and adventure. Printing presses, introduced about 1450 facilitated the spread of scientific knowledge. The mariner's compass possibly borrowed from the Arabs, eliminated some of the uncertainties of sea travel. Meanwhile, across the ocean, the unsuspecting New World innocently awaited its European "discoveries."

Regulator Movement-

The Regulator Movement in North Carolina, a small but nasty insurrection against eastern domination of the colony's affairs. Many of these hotheads-including the young Andrew Jackson- eventually joined the embattled American revolutionaries. All told, about a dozen future presidents were of Scots-Irish descent.

Governor William Berkley-

Virginia's Governor William Berkley mourned for his group of people as the ruler of the crowd. His misery soon increased about 1000 Virginians broke out of control in 1676. They were led by Nathaniel Bacon. Berkeley's shortcomings led to the Bacon's Rebellion.

Woman's Loyal League

(1863-1865) Women's organization formed to help bring an end to the Civil War and encourage Congress to pass a constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Among Nixon's legacies was the creation of 1970 of the Environmental Protection Agency, which climaxed two decades of mounting concern for the environment. Scientist and author Rachel Carson gave the environmental movement a huge boost in 1962 when she published Silent Spring.

Freedom Summer

Beginning in 1964, opening up the polling booths became the chief goal of the black movement in the South. Blacks joined hands with white civil rights workers-many of them student volunteers from the North- in massive voter-registration drive in Mississippi during the Freedom Summer of 1964. Singing "We Shall Overcome," they zealously set out to soothe generations of white anxieties and black fears.

John Brown Pottawatomie Creek Massacre

Brown, a radical abolitionist, and a band of followers resentful of what happened at Lawrence found supposedly five proslavery men in May 1856 at Pottawatomie Creek and jacked them into pieces. P!roslavery forces would of course retaliate.

contraction, deflation

Contraction was a policy exercised by the Federal Treasury in which they began to reduce the number of greenbacks in circulation. This lead to deflation because the amount of money per capita decreased, and the value of the greenback eventually returned to its former full value.

McCarthyism

McCarthy-and what became known as McCarthyism- flourished in the seething Cold War atmosphere of suspicion and fear. The senator was neither the first nor the most effective red-hunter, but he was surely the most ruthless, and he did the most damage to American traditions of fair play and free speech. The careers of countless officials, writers, and actors were ruined after "Low-Blow Joe" had "named" them, often unfairly, as communists or communist sympathizers. Politicians trembled in the face of such onslaughts, especially when opinion polls showed that a majority of the American people approved of McCarthy's crusade.

New Netherlands-

New Netherlands was in the Hudson River area, and was planted in 1623-1624 for a permanent basis. It was established by the Dutch West India Company for its quick-profit fur trade. It was never more than a second interest for the founders.

Poland's Solidarity Movement

Poland's Solidarity Movement to overthrow its Communist government was successful in August of 1989. This monuments success marked the beginning of a series of other overthrows within the USSR, including the collapse of Communist regimes in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania. These other toppling regimes also led to the destruction of the Berlin Wall and the eventual end to the Cold War.

Battle of Antietam, MD ,1862

battle that ended in a draw but demonstrated the skill of the Union, stalling foreign intervention with France and Britain and giving Lincoln the "victory" needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.

Radical Republicans

believed that the South had legally succeeded from the Union. They wanted the South to suffer for the "sins" they committed against the Union. They wanted it to be difficult for them to re-enter the Union.

Pickett's Charge

called the "high tide of the Confederacy". It defined both the northernmost point reaches by any significant Southern force and the last real chance for the Confederates to win the war.

Balance-budget

is a constitutional rule requiring that the state cannot spend more than its income. It requires a balance between the projected receipts and expenditures of the government.

War Democrats

supporters of Lincoln

intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)

"Rocket Fever" swept through the nation after the Soviets launched their objects into outer space. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile. They have the power to shoot a missile from one country to another. This makes it easier to attack a country without getting to close to them.

George Washington election

- 1789, George Washington was unanimously the first President of the United States by the Electoral College. 6'2, tall broad and sloping shoulders, strongly pointed chin, preferred to live in quiet Mount Vernon rather than the turmoil politics. He commanded his followers by strength of character rather than by the arts of the politician. He took office on April 20, 1789 after solemnly taking the Oath of the Office

Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans

- 2 party system had existed in the United States since the 1790s. Federalists (against government) and the Democratic-Republicans were passed on popular consent (for government). 2 parties were enemies. Hamilton-Federalists.

Federalists

- A United States political party consisting of the more respectable citizens of the time; Federalists lived along the eastern seaboard in the 1790's; believed in advocating a strong federal government and fought for the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1787-1788.

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom-

- A long-lasting fight for separation of church and state resulted in notable gains. Although the well-entrenched Congregational Church continued to be legally established in some New England states, the Anglican Church, tainted by association with the British crown, was humbled. De-anglicized, it re-formed as the Protestant Episcopal Church and was everywhere disestablished. The struggle of divorce between religion and government proved fiercest in Virginia. It was prolonged to 1786, when freethinking Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers, including the Baptists, won a complete victory with the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom.

national nominating conventions

- A political convention held every four years in the United States by most of the political parties who will be fielding nominees in the upcoming U.S. presidential election.

Great Compromise

- After bitter and prolonged debate, the Great Compromise of the convention was hammered out and agreed upon. A cooling of tempers came coincidentally with a cooling of the temperature. The larger states were conceded representation by population in the House of Representatives, and the smaller states were appeased by equal representation in the Senate. Each state, no matter how poor or small, would have two senators. The big states obviously yielded more. As a sop to them the delegates agreed that every tax bill or revenue measure must originate in the House, where population counted more heavily. this critical compromise broke the logjam and from then on success seemed within reach.

Insular Cases

- Beginning in 1901 with the Insular Cases, a badly divided Supreme Court decreed, in effect, ,that the flag did outrun the Constitution, and that the outdistanced document did not necessarily extend with full force to the new windfall. Puerto Ricans (and Filipinos) might be subject to American rule, but they did not enjoy all American rights.

Constitutional Convention 1787

- It was called together because of Shay's Rebellion. It was to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great Britain. Although the Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution. A convention raised in Philadelphia to rewrite the constitution. 12 of 13 states were represented, not Rhode Island. Created 2 plans for independence and used a compromise of the two in the end.

Battle of Yorktown 1780

- One of the darkest periods of the war was 1780-1781, before the last decisive victory. The government, virtually bankrupt, declared that it would spay many of its debts at the rate of only 2.5cents on the dollar. Despair prevailed, the sense of unity withered, and mutinous sentiments infected the army. Meanwhile, the British general Cornwallis was blundering into a trap. After futile operations in Virginia, he had gone back to Chesapeake Bay Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. He assumed Britain would continue to control the seas. But these few fateful weeks happened to be one of the brief periods during the war when British naval superiority slipped away . The French were now prepared to cooperate energetically in a brilliant stroke. Admiral de Grasse advised the Americans that he was free to join with them in an assault on Cornwallis at Yorktown. Quick to seize this opportunity, General Washington made a swift march of more than 300 miles to the Chesapeake from the New York area. Accompanied by Rochambeau's French army, Washington beset the British by land, while Grasse blockaded them by sea after beating off the British fleet. Completely corners, Cornwallis surrendered his entire force of 7000 men on Oct. 19,1781, as his band appropriately played "The World Turn'd Upside Down." The triumph was no less French than American: the French provided essentially all the sea power and about half of the regular troops in the begging army of some 16000 men. Fighting happened for more than a year after Yorktown.

Secretary of State Jefferson

- One of the first members of the Cabinet along with Hamilton 1789. Democratic-Republican

Rachel Carson's Silent Spring; Earth Day

- Silent Spring was an enormously effective piece of latter-day muckraking that exposed the poisonous effects of pesticides. On April 22, 1970, millions of environmentalists around the world celebrated the first Earth Day to raise awareness and to encourage their leaders to act.

royal veto (nullification)-

- The British crown held the right to nullify any legislation passed by the colonial assemblies if such law worked mischief with the mercantilist. The royal veto was used rather sparingly- just 469 times in connection with 8563 laws. But the colonists fiercely resented its very existence- another example of how principle could weigh more heavily than practice in fueling colonial grievances.

Platt Amendment

- The United States, honoring its self-denying Teller Amendment in 1898, withdrew from Cuba in 1902. Old World imperialists could scarcely believe their eyes. But the Washington government could not turn this rich and strategic island completely loose on the international sea; a grasping power like Germany might secure dangerous lodgment near America's soft underbelly. The Cubans were therefore forced to write into their own constitution of 1901 the so-called Platt Amendment. The Cubans loathed the amendment, which served McKinley's ultimate purpose to bringing Cuba under American control.

The Lone Star Rebellion of 1836

- The pioneer individualists who came to Texas were not easy to push around. Friction rapidly increased between Mexicans and Texans over issues such as slavery, immigration, and local rights. Slavery was a particularly touched topic. Mexico emancipated its slaves in 1830 and prohibited the further colonization by troublesome Americans. The Texans refused to honor these decrees. They kept their slaves in bondage, and new American settlers kept bringing more slaves into Texas. When Stephen Austin went to Mexico City in 1833 to negotiate these differences with the Mexican government, the dictator Santa Anna clapped him in jail for eight months. The explosion finally came in 1835, when Santa Anna wiped out all local rights and started to raise an army to suppress the upstart Texans.

Strict versus loose interpretation

-Strict- the constitution should be interpreted "literally." Jefferson and his states' rights disciples zealously embraced the theory of strict construction. Loose- Hamilton and his followers invoked the elastic cause of the Constitution.- precedent for enormous federal powers.

National War Labor Board

-The National War Labor Board was wartime agency that was chaired by former President Taft and aimed to prevent labor disputes by encouraging high wages and an eight hour day. While granting some concessions to labor, it stopped short of supporting labor's most important demand: a government guarantee of the right to organize into unions. This board also worked to head off labor disputes that might hamper the war effort.

"Solid South" Democrats

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Mexican-American War 1846-1848

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African Slave Trade-

10 million Africans were carried in chains to the New World in the three centuries or so following Columbus's landing. About 400,000 of them ended up in North America, but the majority coming in the 1700. Most of them were sent to Spanish and Portuguese South America or to the sugar-rich West Indies. Africans were brought to Jamestown as early as 1619, but as late as 1670 they only counted about 2,000 in Virginia (out of the population of 35,000) an about 7 percent of the 50,000 people in the southern plantations colonies as a whole. By the mid 1680s, black slaves outnumbered to white servants among the plantation colonies.

House of Burgesses

1619- Representative self-government. The London Company authorized the settlers to call an assembly, known as the House of Burgesses. For this assemblage was the first of many small parliaments to flourish in the soil of America. James I branded the House of Burgesses as a "seminary of sedition."

Vicksburg 1863

2 and a half month siege of Confederate fort on Mississippi River in Tennessee. Vicksburg finally fell to Grant in July 1863, giving Union control of the Mississippi River and splitting the south in two.

Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act

2010, which pointed the way to a major overhaul of the nation's financial regulatory system. The act aimed to curb the risky, high-flying practices that had contributed to the debacle of 2008 with new controls on banks, investment houses, and stock markets, and with new truth-in-lending rules to protect consumers.

September 11, 2001; "9/11"

9/11 common shorthand for the terrorist attacks that occurred on Sept. 11 2001, in which nineteen militant Islamist men hijacked and crashed four commercial aircrafts. Two planes hit the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, causing them to collapse. One plane crashed into the Pentagon in Washington D.C., and the fourth, overtaken by passengers, crashed into a field in rural Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people were killed in the worst case of domestic terrorism in American History.

1914-1918 World War I

A Serbian patriot killed the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. The outraged government, who was backed by Germany, presented a stern ultimatum to Serbia. Following this was an explosive reaction. Serbia was backed by its powerful Slav neighbor Russia and refused to give in. The tsar started mobilizing his army, threatening Germany on the west while France, an ally, confronted Germany on the east. The Germans struck back, invading through neutral Belgium to get to the French. Their goal was to defeat France then focus all their efforts on the Russians. Great Britain whose coastline was now threatened by the assault joined the side of France. In a very short time almost all of Europe was split into two sides: the Central Powers and the Allies. Americans, meanwhile, felt relief that they were an ocean away. This security was short-lived.

A. Philip Randolph, Double V campaign

A black leader, who was head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Cars Porters, threatened a massive "Negro March in Washington" in 1941 to demand equal opportunities for blacks in war jobs and in the armed forces. Roosevelt's response was to issue an executive order forbidding discrimination in defense industries. Roosevelt also established the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to monitor compliance with his edict. In general the war helped to embolden blacks in their long struggle for equality. They rallied behind the slogan "Double V"- victory over the dictators abroad and over racism at home.

hydrogen bomb ("H-Bomb")

A city smashing thermonuclear weapon that was a thousand times more powerful than the atomic bomb. J Robert Oppenheimer (former scientific director of the manhattan project) now chair of the Atomic Energy Commission, led a group of scientists into the crash program. The H-bomb, these scientists warned, was so deadly that "it becomes a weapon which in practical effect is almost one of genocide". Einstein declared that "annihilation of any life on earth has been brought within the range of technological possibilities". The US first hydrogen device was exploded on a South Pacific atoll in 1952.

credibility gap; hawks and doves

A constant thorn in the side of the president, he staged a series of widely viewed televised hearings in 1966 and 1967, during which prominent personages aired their views, largely antiwar. Gradually the public came to feel that it had been deceived about the causes and "winnability" of the war. A yawning "credibility gap" opened between the government and the people. New flocks of antiwar "doves" were hatching daily. Doves were antiwar and hawks were pro-war.

"peculiar institution"

A euphemism for slavery and the economic ramifications of it in the american south. It aimed to explain away the seeming contradiction of legalized slavery in a country whose declaration of independence states that "all men are created equal." It was one of the key causes of the civil war.

Sojourner Truth

A freed black women in New York who fought tirelessly for black emancipation and women's rights.

transcendentalism

A golden age in American literature dawned in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, when an amazing outburst shook New England. One of the mainsprings of the literary flowering was transcendentalism, especially as "the Athens of America." This movement of the 1830s resulted in part from a liberalizing of the straight-jacket Puritan theology. It also owed much to foreign influences, including the German romantic philosophers and the religions of Asia. The transcendentalists rejected the prevailing empiricist theory, derived from John Locke, that all knowledge comes to the mind through the senses.

Civilian conservation Corps CCC

A government program created by Congress to hire young unemployed men to improve the rural, outdoor environment with such work as planting trees, fighting fires, draining swamps, and maintaining National Parks. The CCC proved to be an important foundation for the post World War II environmental movement. This law provided employment in fresh air government camps for about 3 million uniformed young men, many of whom might have otherwise have been driven by desperation into criminal habits. These recruits were required to help their parents by sending home most of their pay.

Ku Klux Klan

A new Ku Klux Klan, spawned by the postwar reaction, mushroomed fearsomely in the early 1920a. Despite the familiar sheets and hoods, it more closely resembled the antiforeign "nativist" movement of the 1850s than the antiblack nightriders of the 1860s. It was antiforgein, anti-Catholic, antiblack, anti-Jewish, antipacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, antibootleggers, antigambling, anti-adultery, and anti-birth control. It was also pro-Anglo-Saxon, pro-"native" American, and pro-Protestant. In short, the besheeted Klan betokened an extremist, ultroconservative uprising against many of the forces of diversity and modernity that were transforming American culture. As reconstituted the Klan spread with astonishing rapidly, especially in the Midwest and the Bible Belt South where Protestant Fundamentalism thrived.

Whitewater; Lewinski affair

A series of scandals during the Clinton Administration that stemmed from a failed real estate investment from which the Clintons were alleged to have illicitly profited. The accusations prompted the appointment of a special federal prosecutor, though no indictments. Political sex scandal that resulted in Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial by Congress. 1998, Clinton gave sworn testimony in a sexual harassment case that he had never engaged in sexual activity with a White House intern named Monica Lewinsky. When prosecutors discovered evidence that the President had lied under oath about the affair, to which Clinton admitted, Republicans in Congress began impeachment proceedings. Although Clinton was ultimately not convicted by the Senate, the scandal put a lasting blemish on his presidential legacy.

American Relief and Recovery Act

A stimulus bill that contained nearly a trillion dollars for tax cuts, as well as new spending for jobs, infrastructure projects, and relief to state and bankrupt automakers General Motors and Chrysler, as well as threatened banks and insurance companies.

Helms-Burton Act (1996)

A strict embargo placed between CUba and the US. This has remained in place even since Castro's departure from power in 2008.

Jewish state of Israel

Access to Middle Eastern oil was crucial to the European recovery program and increasingly to the health of the US economy, given finite American oil reserves. Yet the Arab oil countries adamantly opposed the creation of the Jewish state of Israel in the British mandate territory of Palestine. Defying these warnings and those of his advisors, tTruman officially recognized the state of Israel on the day of its birth, May 14, 1948 (done largely in part for sympathy of Holocaust survivors and American Jewish voters).

Hitler suicide; Roosevelt's death

Adolf Hitler, after a hasty marriage to his mistress, committed suicide in an underground bunker on April 30, 1945. President Roosevelt, while relaxing at Warm Springs, Georgia, suddenly died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945. The crushing burden of twelve depression and war years in the White House had finally taken its toll. Knots of confused, leaderless citizens gathered to discuss the future anxiously, as a bewildered, unbriefed VP Truman took the helm.

Secession

After Lincoln was elected, South Carolina met at a special convention in Charleston in December 1860 and unanimously decided to secede. In the next six weeks, six states of the lower south followed: Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Four more joined later, becoming the Confederate States of America. - Deep South leaves on Lincoln's Election - Higher South would leave due to Fort Sumter

Harlem Renaissance

After the war a black cultural renaissance also took root uptown in Harlem, led by such gifted writers as Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston, and by jazz artists like Louis Armstrong and Eubie Blake. In an outpoorong of creative expression called the Harlem Renaissance, they proudly exulted in their black culture and argued for a "New Negro" who was a full citizen and a social equal to whites. Adopting modernist techniques, Hughes and urston captured the oral and improvisational traditions of contemporary blacks in dialect-filled poetry and prose.

Federal Reserve Act 1913

Again appealing the the sovereign people, Wilson scored another triumph. In 1913 he signed the epochal Federal Reserve Act, the most important piece of economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal. The new Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the president, oversaw a nationwide system of twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank.

Paxton Boys-

Aggressive, lawless, and individualistic, the Scots-Irish brought with them the Scottish secrets of whiskey distilling and dotted the Appalachian hills and hollows with their stills. They cherished their hatred for the British government that had expelled them and still lorded over them- or for any other government, it seemed. They led the armed march of the Paxton Boys on Philadelphia in 1764, protesting the Quaker oligarchy's lenient policy toward the Indians, and a few years later spearheaded the Regulator movement in North Carolina.

Alexander Graham Bell

Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. His invention resulted in a large communications network that was built on this invention. Bell was important to history because his invention led to a system that lured women away from the home to work the switchboard (men where too vulgar).

popular sovereignty

Although the Democrats party remained silent over the issue of slavery in 1848, their nominee did not. Lewis Cass made his own plan for the expansion of slavery: popular sovereignty. It was the doctrine that the sovereign people of a given territory under the principles of the Constitution should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, which appealed to the people as democratic since it was self-determination. Politicians viewed it as a far compromise between the freesoilers' push for a ban on slavery in the territories, and the southern demands that Congress protect it. The people of the territories decided, relieving the burden from Congress and dissolving it into a local issue instead of national. Although seemingly a fair compromise, it was largely opposed by Northern abolitionists who feared it would spread slavery. - people could choose to become slave or not -abolitionist did not like it

Jim Crow

America counted some 15 million black citizens in 1950, two-thirds of whom still made their homes in the South. There they lived bound by the iron folkways of a segregated society. A rigid set of antiquated rules known as Jim Crow laws governed all aspects of their existence,from the schoolroom to the restroom. Every day of their lives, southern blacks dealt with a bizarre array of separate social arrangements that kept them insulated from whites, economically inferior, and politically powerless. Blacks in the South not only attended segregated schools but were compelled to use separate public toilets, drinking fountains, restaurants, and waiting rooms. Trains had "white only" and "colored only" seating. Only 20% of southern blacks were registered to vote, and fewer than 5% were registered in some Deep Sought states like Mississippi and Alabama.

Upton Sinclair The Jungle

American consumers hungered for safer canned products. Their appetite for reform was whetted by Upton Sinclair's sensational novel The Jungle, published in 1906. Sinclair, a dedicated Socialist, intended his revolting tract to focus attention on the plight of the workers in the big canning factories, but instead he appalled the public with his description of disgustingly unsanitary food products. The book described in noxious detail the filth, disease, and putrefaction in Chicago's damp, ill-ventilate slaughterhouses. Many readers, including Roosevelt, wee so sickened that for a time they found meat unpalatable.

American "jingoes"; Hearst

American jingoes (people who fought for aggressive action with foreign policies) and William Randolph Hearst (a newspaper publisher) wanted war with Mexico, after Mexico had a bloody revolution. It was thought that Hearst wanted a war because he owned a large estate in Mexico, that would be put in jeopardy by the instability of the new Mexican government.

Oliver Hazard Perry

American naval officer who managed a fleet on the shores of Lake Erie in 1813. He captured a British fleet on Lake Erie at the Battle of Lake Erie between the United States and England which was trying to interfere with American trade with France. His victory slogan "We have met the enemy and they are ours" brought new life and inspiration to the American troops. Perry was a hero during the war.

California Bear Flag Republic

American operations in the Southwest and in California were completely successful. In 1846 General Stephen W. Kearny led a detachment of seventeen hundred troops over the famous Santa Fe Trail from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe. This sunbaked outpost, with tis drowsy plazas, was easily captured. But before Kearny could reach California, the fertile province was won. When war broke out, Captain John C. Frémont, the dashing explorer, just "happened" to be there with several dozen well-armed men. In helping to overthrow Mexican rule in 1846, he collaborated with American naval officers and with the local Americans, who had hoisted the banner of the short-lived California Bear Flag Republic.

Black Codes

Among the first acts of the new Southern regimes sanctioned by Johnson was the passage of the Black Codes. These laws were designed to regulate the affairs of the emancipated blacks, much as the slave statues had done in the pre-Civil war days. Mississippi passed the first such law in November 1865, and other Southern states soon followed suit. The Black Codes varied in severity from state to state (Mississippi's was the harshest and Georgia's the most lenient), but they had much in common. They aimed to ensure a stable and subservient labor forced. Many whites wanted to make sure they retained the tight control they had excessed over black field hand plow drivers in the days of slavery. Dire penalties were imposed on blacks who "jumped" their labor contracts, which usually committed them to work for the same employer for one year, and generally at pittance wages. Violators could be made to forfeit back wages.

Dawes Plan of 1924

An arrangement to reschedule German reparations payments. It stabilized the German currency and opened the way for further American private loans to Germany. Negotiated by Charles Dawes, it further complicated the financial cycle, as US bankers loaned money to Germany, Germany paid reparations to France and Britain, and the former Allies paid war debts to the US. As a result of this system, the US never did get all of its money, but it harvested a bumper crop of ill will.

The Amistad

An especially dramatic episode involved the enslaved Africans who rebelled abroad the Spanish slave ship Amistad in 1839. They seized command of the vessel off the coast of Cuba and attempted to sail back to Africa, but were driver ashore on Long Island. After two years of imprisonment and several trials, former president John Quincy Adams finally secured their freedom in a brilliant, moving argument before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1841, and the Africans returned to the British colony of Sierra Leone, in West Africa.

Battle of New Orleans and Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson was a general and political leader of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He was a general in the Battle of New Orleans, a battle during the War of 1812 where the British army attempted to take New Orleans. Due to a foolish frontal attack, Jackson defeated them, which gave him an enormous popularity boost was called "Old Hickory." He was elected president after John Quincy Adams as a candidate of the common man, and his style of government came to be known as Jacksonian democracy. He rewarded his political supporters with positions once he became president. A Democrat, he was widely criticized for expanding the power of the presidency beyond what was customary before his time.

Kent State and Jackson State shootings

Angry students nationwide responded to the Cambodian invasion with rock throwing, window smashing, and arson. At Kent State University in Ohio, jumpy members of the National Guard fired into a noisy crowd, killing four and wounding many more; at historically black Jackson State College in Mississippi, the highway patrol discharged volleys at a student dormitory, killing two students. The nation fell prey to turmoil as rioters and arsonists convulsed the land.

Sacco and Vanzetti trial

Anti-redism and antiforeignism were reflected in a notorious case regarded by liberals as a "judicial lynching." Nicola Sacco, a shoe-factory worker, and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, a fish peddler, were convicted in 1921 of the murder of a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard. The jury and judge were prejudiced in some degree against the defendants because they were Italians, atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers. The case dragged on for six years until 1927, when the condemned men were electrocuted. Communists and other radicals were thus presented with two martyrs in the class "struggle," while many American liberals hung their heads. The evidence against the accused, though damaging, betrayed serious weaknesses. If the trial had been held in an atmosphere less charged with anti-redism, the outcome might well have been only a prison term.

Munich Conference 1938; appeasement

Appeasement was the policy followed by leaders of Britain and France at the 1938 conference in Munich. Their purpose was to avoid war, but they allowed Germany to take the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. They did this hoping that this would "appease" Hitler's thirst for land. However, this was unsuccessful.

President Carter's "human rights" foreign policy

As a committed Christian, President Carter displayed from the outset an overriding concern for "human rights" as the guiding principle of his foreign policy. In the African nations of Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) and South Africa, Carter and his eloquent U.N. ambassador, Andrew Young, championed the oppressed black majority.

Pure Food and Drug Act, 1906

As a companion to the Meat Inspection Act, the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was designed to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals.

Johnson Debt Default Act

As early as 1934, a spiteful Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act, which prevented debt-dodging nations from borrowing further in the United States. If attacked again by aggressors, these delinquents could "stew in their own juices."

Root- Takahira Agreement

As events turned out, an overwhelming reception in Japan was the high point of the trip. Tens of thousands of kimonoed schoolchildren, trained o wave tiny American flags, movingly sang "The Star-Spangled Banner." In the warm diplomatic atmosphere created by the visis of the fleet, the U.S. signed the Root-Takahira agreement with Japan in 1908. It pledged both powers to respect each other's territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door in China. For the moment, at least, the two rising rival powers had found a means to maintain the peace.

Wesbster-Ashburton Treaty 1842

As the Aroostook River valley crisis deepened in 1842, the London Foreign Office sent to Washington a nonprofessional diplomat, the conciliatory financier Lord Ashburton. He speedily established cordial relations with Secretary Webster, who had recently been lionized during a visit to Britain. The two statesmen agreed t compromise on the Maine boundary. On the basis of a rough, split-the-difference arrangement, the Americans were to retain some 7,000 square miles of the 12,000 square miles of wilderness in dispute. The British got less land but won the desired Halifax-Québec route. During the negotiation the Caroline affair, malingering since 1837, was patched up by an exchange of diplomatic notes. An overlook bonus sneaked by in the small print of the same treaty: the British, in adjusting the U.S.-Canada boundary farther west, surrendered 6,500 square miles. The area was later found to contain the priceless Mesabi iron ore of Minnesota.

Enclosing (enclosure)

As the seventeenth century opened up, it throbbed with social and economic changes. It population grew from some 3 million in 1550 to about 4 million in 1600. In the English countryside, the land owners were "enclosing" their lands for sheep to graze, forcing many small farmers into dangerous lands or none at all. It was no accident that the woolen districts of eastern and western England- were Puritanism was very strong- supplied many of the earliest immigrants to America. Economic depression hit the wool trade in the late 1500s; thousands of farmers took to the roads. They drifted around England, chronically unemployed, often ending up as beggars in cities like London and Bristol.

International Monetary Fund- IMF

At the Bretton Woods Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, the Western Allies established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates. They also found the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank).

INF Treaty

At the third summit meeting in Washington DC, in December 1987, Gorbachev and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. This treaty was an arms limitation agreement that banned all intermediate range nuclear missiles form Europe and marked a significant thaw in the Cold War.

Dingley Tariff bill

At the time the Dingley Tariff Bill was about to be passed, the current Wilson Gorman law was not raising enough revenue to cover the annual Treasury deficits, and the Republican trusts thought that they had purchased the right to additional tariff protection by the ir contributions to Hanna's War chest. Therefore, the Dingley Tariff Bill was passed through the house. The proposed rates were high, but not high enough to satisfy the lobbyists, who descended upon the Senate. Over 850 amendments were added onto the overburdened bill. The resulting piece was average rates of 46.5%, which was much higher than the McKinley Act of 1890-and Wilson Gorman Act of 1894.

Joint-Stock Company

Bad luck condemned the lone-wolf enterprises, but in the early 1600s, the joint-stock company, the forerunner of modern corporation, was perfected. It set up a huge number of investors called "adventurers" to pool their capital. These companies provided financial means. This stage was now set to make a historic effort to establish an English beachhead in the still uncharted North American wilderness.

Civil Rights Bill

Because Republicans in Congress were disagreeing with Johnson, a political battle broke out. In February of 1866 Johnson vetoed a bill that extended the life of the controversial Freedmen's Bureau. As a response, the Republicans passed the Civil Rights Bill, which conferred on blacks the privilege of American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes. Johnson vetoed this forward-looking measure on constitutional grounds, but in April congressmen passed it.

American Colonization Society

Because of the widespread loathing of blacks, some of the earliest abolitionist efforts focused on transporting blacks bodily back to Africa. The American Colonization Society was founded for this purpose in 1817.

suburbs

Because the cities were dangerous and filthy, the wealthiest began to move to semi rural suburbs. These "bedroom" communities eventually rings teh brick and concrete cities with a greenbelt of affluence.

First Families of Virginia (FFV)-

Before the Revolutionary War, 70 percent of the leaders of the Virginia legislature came from families established in Virginia before 1690- the famed "first families of Virginia" or "FFVs"

Slave Code-

Beginning in Virginia in1662, statues decreed the iron conditions of slavery for blacks. These earliest "slave codes" make blacks and their children the property of their owners. Some colonies even made it illegal to teach a slave how to read or write. Not even converting to Christianity could allow a slave to become free. Slavery might have started in America for economic reasons, but by the end of the seventeenth century it was clear that racial discrimination also powerfully molded the American slave system.

Booker T. Washington

Booker T. Washington wrote the biography Up from Slavery which tells how he slept under a board sidewalk to save pennies for his schooling. Later in life, he taught black students useful trades so that they could gain self respect and economic security. He avoided the issue of social equality but fought for educational equality. His training of young blacks guided the Curriculum at Tuskgee Institute.

Destroyer Deal

Britain got four-funnel destroyers left over from WWI and in return the US got eight valuable defensive base sites, stretching from Newfoundland to South America.

No Child Left Behind Act

Bush championed this In 2002 mandated sanctions against schools against schools that failed to meet federal performance standards

Fair Deal (1949)

Called for improving housing, full employment, a higher minimum wage, better farm price supports, new TVAs, and an extension of Social Security. Most of the Fair Deal fell victim to the opposition from congressional southern Democrats and Republicans. The only major success was raising minimum wage, providing for public housing in the Housing Act of 1949, and extending old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries in the Social Security Act of 1950.

Panama Canal Treaty

Carder successful pushed through two treaties to turn over the Panama Canal to the Panamanians. Although these treaties were decried by conservatives such as Ronald Reagan- who stridently declared, "We bought it, we paid for it, we built it, and we intend to keep it!"- the United States gave up control of the canal on December 31,1999.

Carrie Chapman Catt

Catt was the most effective leader of the NAWSA. Catt was a pragmatic and businesslike reformer of relentless dedication, and under her, the suffragists deemphasized the argument that women deserved the vote as a matter of right, because they were equals of men. Instead, Catt stressed the desirability of giving women the vote if they were to continue to discharge their traditional duties as homemakers and mothers in the increasingly public world of the city.

modernism

Central to modernism was its questioning of social conventions and traditional authorities, considered outmoded by the accelerating changes of twentieth-century life. No one personified this iconoclasm better than H.L. Mencken, the "Bad Boy of Baltimore." As the era's most influential critic, Mencken promoted modernist causes in politics and literature.

Chief Justice Earl Warren

Chief Justice Earl Warren, former governor of California, shocked traditionalists with his active judicial intervention in previously taboo social issues. Publicly snubbed and privately scorned by President Eisenhower, Warren courageously led the Court to address urgent issues that Congress and the president preferred to avoid, as "impeach Earl Warren" signs blossomed along the nation's highways.

Treaty of Kanagawa, 1854

Commodore Matthew C. Perry, accompanied by four ships arrived in Edo (later Tokyo) Bay on July 8, 1853. The shocked Japanese accustomed to isolationism had to be coaxed by threats in negotiations to allow Perry ashore. After making a big show out of arriving on shore, he presented letters requesting free trade and friendly relations. Withdrawing he promised to come back the following year. He fulfilled his word in February 1854 when he arrived with seven ships. He combined power and grace, presenting the Japanese with many gifts. On March 31, 1854, the Japanese signed the Treaty of Kanagawa, giving the U.S. proper treatment of shipwrecked sailors, American coaling rights in Japan, and the establishment of consular relations. All ending Japan's two-hundred year period of economic isolation. The "Meiji Restoration" occurred only a little more than a decade later, driving Japan into the modern world and an eventual military clash with the United States. -asking Japan to have a formal relationship

Great Lakes; St. Lawrence Seaway

Constructed jointly with Canada and completed in 1959, had turned the cities of the Great Lakes into bustling ocean seaports.

Wilmot Proviso

David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, fearful of the southern "slavocracy," introduced a fateful amendment. It stipulated that slavery should never exist in any of the territory to be wrestled from Mexico. The disruptive Wilmot amendment twice passed the House, but not the senate. Southern members, unwilling to be robbed of prospective slave states, fought the restriction tooth and nail. Antislavery men, in Congress and out, battled no less bitterly for the exclusion of slaves. The Wilmot Proviso never became federal law, but it was eventually endorsed by the legislatures of all but one of the free states, and it came to symbolize the burning issue of slavery in the territories.

My Lai Massacre

Domestic disgust with the war was further deepened in 1970 by revelations of the MY Lai Massacre, in which American troops had murdered innocent women and children in the village of My Lai two years earlier. Increasingly desperate for a quick end to the demoralizing conflict, Nixon widened the war in 1970 by ordering an attack on Vietnam's neighbor, Cambodia.

supply-side economics

Economic theory that underlay Ronald Reagan's tax and spending cuts. Contrary to Keynesianism, supply-side theory declared that government policy should aim to increase the supply of goods and services, rather than the demand for them. It held that lower taxes and decreased regulation would increase productivity by providing increased incentives to work, thus increasing productivity and the tax base.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Eisenhower established NASA and directed billions of dollars to missile development. After humiliating and well-advertised failures- notably the Vanguard missile, which blew up on national television. just a few feet above the ground in 1957- in Feb. 1958 the US managed to put into orbit a grapefruit-sized satellite weighing 2.5 pounds. By the end of the decade the US launched several satellites successfully that were ICBMs.

"southern strategy"

Elected as a minority president, with only 43 percent of the vote in 1968, Nixon devised a clever but cynical plan-called the southern strategy- to achieve a solid majority in 1972. Appointing conservative Supreme Court justices, soft-pedaling civil rights, and opposing school busing to achieve racial balance were all parts of the strategy.

Tenure of Office Act

Enacted over the veto of President Andrew Johnson, it denied the President of the United States the power to remove anyone who had been appointed by a past President without the advice and consent of the United States Senate, unless the Senate approved the removal during the next full session of Congress.

Protestant Reformation

English efforts in competing with Spain. England was not interested in started an overseas colony. Conflict over religion was a big problem for England in the middle of the fifteenth century. Started when King Henry VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic Church in 1530. Protestants and Catholics battled for many years, and the religious power went back and forth between the Catholics and Protestants.

muckrakers

Enterprising editors financed extensive research and encouraged pugnacious writing by their bright young reporters, whom President Roosevelt branded as muckrakers in1906. Annoyed by their excess of zeal, he compared the mudslinging magazine dirt diggers to the figure in Bunyan's Pilgrim Progress who was so intent on raking manure that he could not see the celestial crown dangling overhead.

sunbelt; "Rustbelt"

Especially striking was the growth of the Sunbelt-a fifteen-state area stretching in a smiling crescent from Virginia through Florida and Texas to Arizona and California. This region increased its population at a rate nearly double that of the old industrial zones of the Northeast. In the 1950s California alone accounted for one-fifth of the entire nation's population growth and by 1963 had outdistanced New York as the most populous state. A new economic war between the states seemed to be shaping up. Northeasterners and their allies from the hard-hit heavy-industry region of the Ohio Valley (Rustbelt) tried to rally political support with the sarcastic slogan "The North shall rise again."

Indentured Servants

Families procreated too slowly to provide labor by natural population increase. Indians died too quickly and Africans were two expensive. England still had many displaced farmers desperate for employment. Many of them, as "indentured servants." They voluntarily mortgaged the sweat of their bodies for several years to Chesapeake masters. In exchange they would receive transatlantic passage and eventual "freedom dues," including a few barrels of corn, a suit of clothes, and perhaps a small parcel of land.

Federal Highway Act 1956

Federal Legislation signed by Eisenhower to construct thousands of miles (42,000 miles for $27 billion) of modern highways in the name of national defense. Officially called the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, this bill dramatically increased the move to the suburbs, as white middle class people could more easily commute to urban jobs. The Highway Act offered its benefits to the trucking, automobile,, oil, and travel industries, while at the same time robbing the railroads, especially passenger trains, of business. The act also exacerbated the problems of air quality and energy consumption.

Betty Friedan The Feminine Mystique

Feminist Betty Friedan gave focus and fuel to women's feelings in 1963 when she published The Feminine Mystique, a runaway best seller and a classic feminist protest literature that launched the modern women's movement. Friedan spoke in rousing accents to millions of able, educated women who applauded her indictment of the stifling boredom of suburban housewifery. Many of those women were also struggling against the guilt and frustration of leading an "unfeminine" life as defined by the post war "cult of domesticity."

Mary Mcleod Bethune; "Black Cabinet"

First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt may have been the most visible woman in the Roosevelt White House, but she was hardly the only female voice. Secretary of Labor Perkins became America's first woman cabinet member. Mary McLeod Bethune director of the Office of Minority Affairs in the National Youth Administration, served as the highest ranking African American in the Roosevelt administration.

Phyllis Schlafly

For many feminists the most bitter defeat was the death of the ERA. Antifeminists, led by conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly, argued that the ERA would remove traditional protections that women enjoyed by forcing the law to see them as men's equal. They further believed that the amendment would threaten the basic family structure of American society. Schlafly charged that the ERA's advocates were juts "bitter women seeking a constitutional cure for their personal problems." In 1979 Congress extended the deadline for ratification of the amendment, but opponents dug in their heels. The ERA died in 1982, three states short of success.

Hundred Days

For the so-called Hundred Days (March 9- June 16, 1933), members of hastily cranked out an unprecedented basketful of remedial legislation some of it derived from earlier progressivism, but these new measures mostly sought to deal with a desperate emergency. (Table p. 755)

Southeast Asia (Vietnam)

For years, countries like Vietnam had fought to overthrow French colonial rule. HoChi Minh, the Vietnamese leader and originally appealed to Wilson to support self determination, but nothing really happened out of this meeting. But as the cold war raged, the southeastern asian leaders became increasingly communist. By 1954, American taxpayers were financing nearly 80% of the costs of the colonial war in Indochina. But despite this aid, French forces continued to crumble under the guerrilla forces of the Viet Minh. In March 1954, the Battle of Dien Bein Phu resulted in the victory for the nationalists. The victorious Ho Chi Minh consented to an arrangement on the assurance that Vietnam-wide elections would be held within two years, and a pro-Western government was entrenched at Saigon. These elections were never held, and the country remained dangerously divided.

Ford Model T, assembly line

Ford's T model was cheap, rugged, and reasonably reliable, though rough and clattering. The parts of Ford's "flivver" were highly standardized, but the behavior of this rattling good car was so eccentric that it became the butt of numberless jokes.Fordism is a system of assembly line manufacturing and mass production named after Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company and developer of the Model T car. It cranked out cars efficiently and quickly, and increased the popularity of cars around the world.

John Kennedy's New Frontier

From the outset Kennedy inspired high expectations, especially among the young. His challenge of a New Frontier quickened patriotic pulses. He brought a warm heart to the Cold War when he proposed the Peace Corps.

"Sunbelt"

Franklin Roosevelt called the South "the nation's number one economic problem" in 1938; when war came, he siezed the opportunity to accelerate the region's economic development. The states of the old Confederacy a disproportionate share of defense contracts, including nearly $6 billion of federally financed industrial facilities. Here were seeds of the postwar blossoming of the "Sunbelt" (map 35.1).

Turner's frontier hypothesis

Fredrick Johnson Turner wrote one of the most influential essays ever written about American history- "The Significance of the Frontier in American History." Hi hypothesis was, American history has been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West. He claims the story of settling and taming the trans-Mississippi West in the late nineteenth century was but the last chapter in the saga of colonizing various American "wests: since Columbus's day, from the West Indies toe he Chesapeake shore, from the valleys of the Tennessee and Ohio Rivers, and so on and so forth.

gasoline engine, automobile

Gasoline Americans adapted rather than invented the gasoline engine; Europeans can claim the original honor. BY the 1890s a few daring American inventors and promoters, including Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds were developing the infant automotive industry. By 1910 sixty nine car companies rolled out a total annual production of 181,000 units. The early contraptions were neither speedy nor reliable. Many a stalled motorist, profanely cranking a balky automobile, had to endure the jeer "Get a horse" from the occupants of a passing dobbin drawn carriage. Henry Ford became more highly known than any other individual who put America on rubber tires.

aviation; the Wright Brothers

Gasoline also provided the power that enabled humans to fulfill the age old dream of sprouting wings. After near successful experiments by others with heavier than air craft, the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, performed the miracle at Kitty Hawk, NC. One Dec. 17, 1903, Orville WRight took aloft a feebly engined plane that stayed airborne for 12 seconds and 120 feet. Thus the air age was launched by two obscure Ohio bicycle repairmen. As aviation grew, the world shrank. Airplanes "flying coffins" were used with marked success for various purposes during the Great War of 1914-1918. Shortly thereafter private companies began to operate passenger lines with airmail contracts, which were in effect a subsidy from Washington. The first transcontinental airmail route was established from NY to San Francisco in 1920.

James I and royal company

Gave a charter to start the Virginia Company of London to go to the New World. In 1619 he grew bitter towards Virginia and despised tobacco, and he did not trust the House of Burgesses. He said that it was a "seminary of sedition." In 1624, he took away the charter of the Virginia Company. This made Virginia a royal colony under his rule.

George Washington Carver

George Washington Carver taught at Tuskgee Institute, and this agricultural chemist boosted the southern economy through his discovery of new uses for the peanut (shampoo and axle grease) sweet potato (vinegar) and soybean (paint).

Battle of Gettysburg 1863

Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Union victory, doom for Confederates because they were never able to invade the North again.

Bill Clinton; Hillary Clinton

Governor William Jefferson ("Bill") Clinton of Arkansas weathered blistering accusations of womanizing and draft evasion to emerge as his party's standard-bearer. He selected a fellow forty-something southern white male Protestant moderate, Senator Albert GORe of Tennessee, as his vice-presidental running mate.

Grant Republican, 1868, 1872

Grant was the most famous Northern war hero that emerged out of the Civil War. He was nominated by the Republican party who played on the public belief that a war hero president would be the best option. Unfortunately, he was incredibly unprepared for the politics and duties he would later assume. He refused to believe that his own party mates were involved in numerous scandals, and he often let his advisors coerce him into making decisions that benefitted them. Grant won narrowly in both elections, and he is important to history because his incompetence made him a poor leader, and let the country (especially economy) run out of control.

greenbacks

Greenbacks were the northern issued currency that was released during the Civil War. About $450 million of this money had been issued, and it caused hyper-inflation (which led it to be regarded with much suspicion). Unfortunately, with the panic of 1873, the debtors called for the printing of even more of these greenbacks, which would have caused even more inflation. However, as the Federal Treasury went throughout contraction, the face value of the greenback returned and (it was important to history because) money could now be used in economics.

Dust Bowl

Grim nickname for the Great Plains region devastated by drought and dust storms during the 1930s. The disaster led to the migration into California of thousands of displaced "Okies" and "Arkies." Some citizens believed it would be the second coming of Christ. Dry farming techniques, the steam tractor, and high grain prices during World War I caused this Dust Bowl.

Warren G. Harding; the "Ohio Gang"

Harding, like Grant, was unable to detect moral halitosis in his evil associates, and he was soon surrounded by his poker-playing shirt-sleeved cronies of the "Ohio Gang." "A good guy," Harding was "one of the boys." He hated to hurt people's feelings, especially those of his friends, by saying no, and designing political leeches capitalized on this weakness. The difference between George Washington and Warren Harding, ran a current quip, was that while Washington could not tell a lie, Harding could not tell a liar. He "was not a bad man," said one Washington observer. "He was just a slob."

Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe

Harriet Beecher Stowe's widely read novel that dramatized the horrors and wickedness of slavery, especially in splitting up families. It heightened Northern support for abolition drastically and even helped the North win the Civil War. It escalated the sectional conflict. Abroad Britain and France were held back f!rom helping the South by the citizens who felt for Tom and wanted freedom for all of the slaves.

Nazi Party

Hitler had secured control of the Nazi party by making political capital of the Treaty of Versailles and Germany's depression-spawned unemployment. He was thus misbegotten child of the shortsighted postwar polices of the victorious Allies, including the United States.

public works, Hoover Dam

Hoover at last recommended that Congress vote immense sums for useful public works. Though at heart an antispender, he secured from Congress appropriations totaling 2.25 billion for such projects. Intended both for industrial recovery and for unemployment relief. The most imposing of the public enterprises was the gigantic Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. Voted by Congress in the days of Coolidge, it was begun in 1930 under Hoover and completed in 1936 under Roosevelt. It succeeded in creating a huge man-made lake for purposes of irrigation, flood control, and electric power. But Hoover sternly fought all schemes that he regarded as "socialistic".

Tallmadge Amendment

House of Representatives slowed the plans of the Missourians of becoming a state by passing the Tallmadge Amendment. It called for no more slaves to be brought into Missouri and called for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there. The amendment was later defeated by the slave states in Congress.

assimilate

Humanitarians and Christian missionaries fought for assimilation opposed to direct removal from land. However, the missionaries were often cruel and would withhold food to force the Indians to give up their tribal religions and assimilate to white society (wanted them to abandon former cultural and religious practices like the Ghose Dance)

Bolshevik revolution; red scare

Hysterical fears of red Russia continues to color American thinking for several years after the Communists came to power in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, which spawned a tiny Communist party in America. The big red scare of 1919-1920 resulted in a nationwide crusade against left-wingers whose Americanism was suspect.

jazz

If the flapper was the goffess of the "era of wonderful nonsense," jazz was its sacred music. With its virtuoso wanderings and tricky syncopation, jazz moved up from New Orleans along with the migrating blacks during World War I. Tunes like W.C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues" (1914) became an instant classic, as the wailing saxophone became the trumpet of the new era.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Immigration reform was the third of Johnson's Big Four feats. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished at last the "national-origins" quota system that had been in place since 1921. The act also doubled the number of immigrants allowed to enter annually, while for the first time setting limits on immigrants from the Western Hemisphere. The new law further provided for the admission of close relatives of United States citizens, outside those numerical limits. To the surprise of many of the act's architects, more than 100,000 persons per year took advantage of its "family unification" provisions in the decades after 1965, and the immigrant stream swelled beyond expectations.

Royal charter/Mass. Bay Company-

In 1629, an energetic group of non-Separatist Puritans, concerned for their faith and England's future, got a royal charter to form the Massachusetts Bay Company. They suggested building a sizeable settlement in the infertile Massachusetts area, with Boston soon becoming its hub. Gaining an advantage on king and church, they brought the charter with them. For a long while, they used it as a form of constitution, out of reach of royal authority. The group constantly denied wanting to separate from the Church of England, only its impurities.

Lancaster Turnpike

In 1790, a private company completed the Lancaster Turnpike in Pennsylvania. It was a broad, hard-surfaced highway that thrust sixty-two miles westward from Philadelphia to Lancaster. As drivers approached the tollgate, they were confronted with a barrier of sharp pikes, which were confronted with a barrier of sharp pikes, which were turned aside when they paid their toll. Hence the term turnpike. The Lancaster Turnpike proved to be a highly successful venture, returning as high as 15 percent annual dividends to its stockholders. It attracted a rich trade to Philadelphia and touched off a turnpike-building boom that lasted about twenty years. It also stimulated western development. The turnpikes becloud to the canvas-covered Conestoga wagons, whose creaking heralded a westward advance that would know no real retreat.

Liberia

In 1822 the Republic of Liberia, on the fever-stricken West African coast was established for former slaves. IT s capital, Monrovia, was named after President Monroe. Some fifteen thousand freed blacks were transported there over the next four decades. But most blacks had no wish to be transplanted into a strange civilization after becoming Americanized.

Mormon migration

In 1830, Joseph Smith reported that he had received some golden plates from an angel. When, deciphered, they constituted the Book of Mormon, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints was launched. It was a native American product, a new religion, destined to spread its influence worldwide. After establishing a religious oligarchy, Smith ran into serious opposition from his non-Mormon neighbors, first in Ohio, and the non Missouri and Illinois. His cooperative sect antagonized rank-and-file Americans, who were individualistic and dedicated to free enterprise. The Mormons aroused further anger by voting as a unit and by openly but understandably drilling their militia for defensive purposes. Accusations of polygamy likewise arose and increased in intensity, for Joseph Smith was reputed to have several wives. Continuing hostility finally drove the Mormons to desperate measures. In 1844, Joseph and his brother were murdered and Brigham Young took control. Stern and austere in contrast to Smith's Charm and affability, the barrel-chested Young had received only eleven days of formal schooling Determined to escape further persecution, Young in 1846-1847 led his oppressed and despoiled Latter-Day Saints over vast rolling plains to Utah as the cant "Come, Come, Ye Saints."

Sand Creek massacre

In 1864, Colonel JM Civingston's militia massacred in cold blood some four hundred Indians who apparently though they had been promised immunity. The women and children were murdered, while the braves were tortured, scalped, and mutilated.

Stimson Doctrine

In 1932 declared that the United States would not recognize any territorial acquisitions achieved by force.

Stokely Carmichael, Black power

In 1966 Trinidad-born Stokely Carmichael, a leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), began to preach the doctrine of Black Power, which he said, "will smash everything Western civilization had created." Some advocates of Black Power insisted that they simply intended the slogan to describe a broad-front effort to exercise the political and economic rights gained by the ccivil rights movement and to speed the integration of American society. Other African Americans breathed a vibrant separatist meaning into the concept of Black Power. They emphasized African American distinctiveness, promote "Afro" hairstyles and dress, shed their "white" names for new African identities, and demanded black studies programs in schools and universities.

Title IX of the educational amendments

In 1972 Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments, prohibiting sex discrimination in any federally assisted educational program or activity. This act's biggest impact was to create opportunities for girls' and women's athletics at schools and colleges, giving birth to a new "Title IX generation" that would reach maturity in the 1980s and 1990s and help professionalize women's sports as well.

Panay Incident

In December 1937, Japanese aviators bombed and sank an American gunboat, the Panay, in Chinese waters, with a loss of two killed and thirty wounded. In the days of the Maine, this outrage might have provoked war. But after Tokyo hastened to make the necessary apologies and pay a proper indemnity, Americans breathed a deep sigh of relief. Japanese militarists were thus encouraged to vent their anger against the "superior white race" by subjecting American civilians in China to humiliating assaults.

Little Rock Central High School

In September 1957, Ike was forced to act. Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine black students from enrolling in Little Rock's Central High School. Confronted with a direct challenge to federal authority, Eisenhower sent troops to escort the children to their classes.

Stalingrad

In September 1942, the Russians stalled the German steamroller at rubbled strewn Stalingrad, graveyard of Hitler's hopes. More than a score of invading divisions, caught in an icy noose, later surrendered. In November 1942, the resilient Russians unleashed a crushing counter offensive, which was never seriously reversed.

New York City's "Boss" Tweed

In an event known as the "Tweed Ring," Boss Tweed and his deputies ran the New York City Democratic party in the `860's and swindled $200 million from the city through bribery, graft, and vote-buying. Boss Tweed was eventually jailed for his crimes and died behind bars.

Free Soil party

In the election of 1848 Democrats nominated Cass. The Whigs nominated Taylor. Cass was distrusted by some zealous antislavery men for his stance of popular sovereignty. Although Taylor had not taken a stand on the expansion of slavery, as a slaveowner, he was also not trusted. The group of radical northerners gathered together to form their own party. They made a very clear platform unlike the other two parties. They endorsed the Wilmot Proviso, proclaimed against slavery in the territories, advocated federal aid for internal improvements, and urged free government homesteads for settlers. The wide range of members of the party united under Martin Van Buren

Muller v. Oregon

In the landmark case Muller v. Oregon, (1908), crusading attorney Louis D. Drandeis persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers by presenting evidence of the harmful effects of factor labor on women's weaker bodies. Although this argument calling for special protection for women seemed discriminatory by later standards and closed many "male" jobs to women, progressives at the time hailed Brandeis's achievement as a triumph over existing legal doctrine, which afford employers total control over the workplace.

Roe v. Wade modification

In the original Roe v. Wade case of 1973, the Supreme Court had prohibited the states from making laws that interfered with a woman's right to an abortion during the early months of pregnancy. This decision had been the bedrock principle for almost two decades on which pro choice advocates built their case for abortion rights. However, in Webster v. Reproductive Health Services of 1989, the court compromised Roe's protection of abortion rights. By approving a Missouri law that imposed certain restrictions on abortion, the Court signaled that it was inviting the states to legislate in an area in which Row had previously forbidden them to legislate.

"Declaration of Sentiments"

In the spirit of the Declaration of Independence declared that "all men and women are created equal." One resolution formally demanded the ballot for women.

Algonquians

Indians along the seaboard were the most affected by the European contact. Farther inland, native people had the advantages of time, space, and numbers as they tried to adapt the European way. The Algonquians of the Great Lakes area was a substantial regional power. Their population grew by absorbing the various surrounding bands and dealt from a position of strength with the few Europeans who managed to get there. As a result, British and French traders wanting to do business with the Indians they had to follow the Indian ways, but marrying an Indian woman.

Irish immigration

Ireland was becoming overgrown by British overlords. It was prostrated in the mid-1840s. A terrible rot attacked the potato crop, on which the people had become dangerously dependent on, about one-fourth of them were swept away by disease and hunger. Starved badges were found dead by the roadsides with grass in their mouths. All told, about 2 million perished. Tens of thousands of destitute souls, fleeing the Land of Famine for the Land of Plenty, flocked to America in the "Black Forties." Ireland's great export has been population, and the Irish take their place beside the Jews and the Africans as a dispersed people. These uprooted newcomers- too poor to move west and buy the necessary land, livestock, and equipment- swarmed to the larger sea boarder cities. Boston and New York were becoming the largest Irish cities in the world. The luckless Irish immigrants received no red-carpet treatment. Forced to live in squalor, they were rudely crammed into the already vile slums. they were scorned by the older American stock, especially "proper" Protestant Bostonians, who regarded the scruffy Catholic arrivals as a social menace. As wage-depressing competitors for jobs, the Irish were hated by native workers. - poorest -jobs- dock workers, factories, ditch digging (for canals)

Amendment 20 (1933)

It swept away the post election lame duck session of Congress and shortened by six weeks the awkward period before inauguration.

Rush

It was the attraction of thousands of miners to northern California after reports of the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in January of 1848 had spread. The thousands of migrants poured in to the Golden State. Many migrants were lawless. The law-abiding citizens quickly realized the need for an adequate state government. Privately encouraged by President Taylor, the Californians drafted a constitution in 1849 and applied to Congress, bypassing the territorial stage. The excluding of slavery in the Constitution would not be able to be blocked by southern congressman because of this. Southerners were enraged.

Michael Harrington's The Other America

It was written in 1962. It revealed that in affluent America 20 percent of the population- over 40 percent of the black population-suffered in poverty.

National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) (1935)

Its Congressional sponsor was New York senator Robert F. Wagner. This trail-blazing law created a powerful new National Labor Relations Board for administrative purposes and reasserted the right of labor to engage in self-organization and to bargain collectively through representatives of its own choice. Considered the Magna Carta of American labor.

abstract expressionism

Jackson Pollock pioneered this in the 1940s and 50s, flinging paint on huge flats stretched out across his studio floor. Realistic representation wnet out the window as artists like Pollock and Willem de Kooning strove to create spontaneous "action paintings" that expressed the painter's individuality and made the viewer a creative participant in defining the painting's meaning.

James Monroe

James Monroe He was the fifth President of the United States. He is the author of the Monroe Doctrine. Proclaimed that the Americas should be closed to future European colonization and free from European interference in sovereign countries' affairs. It further stated the United States' intention to stay neutral in European wars.

Tripartite Pact

Japanese navalists were not to be denied. Determined to find a place in the Asiatic sun, Tokyo gave notice in 1934 of the termination of the twelve-year-old Washington Naval Treaty. A year later in London the Japanese torpedoed all hope of effective naval disarmament. Upon being denied complete parity, they walked out of the multipower conference and accelerated their construction of giant battleships. By 1935 Japan, too, had quit the League of Nations. Five years later it joined arms with Germany and Italy in the Tripartite Pact.

kamikazes

Japanese suicide pilots in an exhibition of mass hara-kiri for their god-emperor, crashed their bomb laden planes onto the decks of invading fleets. All told, the death squads sank over thirty ships and badly damaged scores more.

John Winthrop-

John Winthrop was a well-to-do pillar of English society. He then became the first governor of the colony. He was a successful attorney and manor lord in England. He gladly accepted the offer to become the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He believed that it was a "calling" from God to lead the new religious experiment. He served as a governor for nineteen years. With the resources and talent of skillful settlers, Winthrop helped the colony prosper, in fur trade, fishing, and shipbuilding. These became some of the important industries in the colony.

"war on poverty"

Johnson also rammed Kennedy's stalled tax bill through Congress and added proposals of his own for a billion-dollar. "War on Poverty." Johnson voiced special concern for Appalachia, where the sickness of the soft-coal industry had left tens of thousands of mountain folk on the human slag heap.

Cuban Missile Crisis naval quarantine

Kennedy and Khrushchev now began a nerve-racking game of "nuclear chicken." The president rejected air force proposals for a "surgical" bombing strike against the missile-launching site. Instead, on October 22, 1962, he ordered a naval "quarantine" of Cuba and demanded immediate removal of the threatening weaponry. He also served notice on Khrushchev that any attack on the United States from Cuba would be regarded as coming from the Soviet Union and would trigger nuclear retaliation against the Russian heartland. On October 28 Khrushchev agreed to a partially face-saving compromise, by which he would pull the missiles out of Cuba. The United States in return agreed to end the quarantine and not invade the island. The American government also quietly signaled that it would remove from Turkey some of its own missiles targeted at the Soviet Union.

Morrill Act land-grant colleges

Land Grant Colleges were colleges and universities created from allocations of public land through the Morrell Tariff Act of 1862 and the Hatch Act of 1887. these grants helped fuel the boom in higher education in the late nineteenth century, and many of today's public universities derive from these grants. (Do we need to know college names?) Cornell, University of Chicago, and Johns Hopkins.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

Launched in youthful idealism, many of the cultural "revolutions" of the 1960s sputtered out in violence and cynicism. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), once at the forefront of the antipoverty and antiwar campaigns, had by decade's end spawned an underground terrorist called the Weathermen.

Primogeniture

Laws of primogeniture said that only eldest sons were eligible to inherit landed estates. Landowners' younger sons, among them Gilbert, Raleigh, and Drake, were forced to seek their fortune elsewhere.

John Audubon

Lovers of American bird lore owed much to the French-descended John J. Audubon, who painted wildfowl in their natural habitat. His magnificently illustrated Birds of America attained considerable popularity. The Audubon Society for the protection of birds was named after him, although as a young man he shot much feathered game for sport.

Medicare; Medicaid

Medicare for the elderly, accompanied by Medicaid for the poor, became a reality in 1965. Like the New Deal's Social Security program, Medicare and Medicaid created "entitlements." That is , they conferred rights on certain categories of Americans virtually in perpetuity, without the need for repeated congressional approval. These programs were part of a spreading "rights revolution" that materially improved the lives of millions of Americans- but also eventually undermined the federal government's financial health.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev was the last Soviet leader, who imposed the new policies of Glasnost (openness, introduction to free speech and a little bit of political liberty) and Perestroika (reviving of the Soviet economy through many free market practices). This redirection of funds from military to economical necessitated an end to the Cold War. As a result, in a series of four meetings with Reagan, Gorbachev and Reagan eventually ended the Cold War.

Creel's Committee on Public Information

Mobilizing people's minds for war, both in America and abroad, was an urgent task facing the Washington authorities. For this purpose the Committee on Public Information was created. It was headed by a youngish journalist, George Creel, who, though outspoken and tactless, was gifted with zeal and imagination. His job was to sell America on the war and sell the world on Wilsonian war aims. The Creel organization, employed some 150,000 workers at home and overseas, proved that words were indeed weapons. It sent out an army of 75,000 "four-minutes men"- often longer-winded than that- who delivered countless speeches containing much "patriotic pep." Creel's propaganda took varied forms. Posters, Leaflets and pamphlets,and Propaganda booklets.

Modernization theory

Modernization theory provided the theoretical underpinnings for an activist U.S. foreign policy in the "underdeveloped" world. Its proponents believed that the traditional societies of Asia, Africa, and Latin America could develop into modern industrial and democratic nations by following the West's one path. Noted economic historian Walt Whitman Rostow, one of the route from traditional society to "the age of high mass—consumption" in his book, The Stages of Economic Growth(1960). Though it would later come under attack for its Eurocentric bias, modernization theory offered a powerful intellectual framework for policymakers ensnared in the Cold War.

Warren Court; Miranda warning

More controversial than the Gideon v. Wainwright decision was the decision of Miranda (1966)- that ensured the right of the accused to remain silent and enjoy other protections. The latter case gave rise to the Miranda warning that arresting police officers must read to suspects. These several court rulings sought to prevent abusive police tactics, but they appeared to conservatives to coddle criminals and subvert law and order.

Stono Rebellion-

More than fifty resentful South Carolina blacks along the Stono River exploded in revolt in 1739 and tried to march to Spanish Florida, only to be stopped by the local militia. In the end, the slaves in the South proved to be a more manageable labor force than the white indentured servants they gradually replaced.

Physicians ("bleeding")-

Most Physicians were poorly trained and no high esteemed. Not until 1765 was the first medical school established. Potential young doctors were apprentices to older doctors and were then turned loose on their "victims." Bleeding was a favorite and frequently fatal remedy; when the physician was not available a barber was often called upon.

Middle Passage-

Most of the slaves that came to North America came from present-day Senegal to Angola. They were captured by African coastal tribes, who traded them in crude markets. Usually branded and bound, the gruesome "middle passage" which had a death rate that ran as high as 20 percent. Survivors were eventually shoved onto auction blocks in the New World ports.

Auction Block-

Most slaved that reached North America came from the west coast of Africa. They originally were captured by coastal tribes, who traded them in crude markets. Whoever survived the trip over to the New World was thrown onto auction blocks. There, a giant slave market traded in human misery for over 100 years.

Republican "Contract with America"

Multi-point program offered by Republican candidates and sitting politicians in the 1994 midterm election. The platform proposed smaller government, Congressional ethics reform, term limits, great emphasis on personal responsibility and a general repudiation of the Democratic Party. This articulation of dissent was a significant blow to the Clinton Administration and led to the Republican party's takeover of both house of Congress for the tine in half a century.

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

Native Americans also felt the far-reaching hand of New Deal reform. Commissioner of Indian Affairs Collier ardently sought to reverse the forced-assimilation policies in place since the Dawes Act 1887. This was seen as the "Indian New Deal". The new law encouraged tribes to establish local self-government and to preserve their native crafts and traditions. The act also helped to stop the loss of Indian lands and revived tribes' interest in their identity and culture. Not all Indians applauded it, and some denounced the legislation as a "back to the blanket" measure that sought to make museum pieces out of Native Americans. Seventy-seven tribes refused to organize under the provisions but nearly two hundred others did establish tribal governments.

nativism

Nativism, also known as Anti-foreignism, was touched off by the Irish and German arrivals in the 1840s and 1850s, but was brought to a head again in the 188-s with the incoming of New Immigrants. The most notorious nativists were the American Protective Association. Strike breakers and labor leaders often turned against the immigrants. These groups/feelings were important because they led to the passing of the restrictive immigration laws that would eventually be passed by Congress.

Veterans Bureau

Needy veterans were among the few nonbusiness groups to reap lasting gains from the war. Congress in 1921 generously created the Veterans Bureau, authorized to operate hospitals and provide vocational rehabilitation for the disabled.

New Immigrants

New Immigrants were immigrants from southern and eastern Europe who formed a recognizable wave of immigration from the 1880s until 1924, in contrast to the immigrants from western Europe who had come in before them. These new immigrants congregated in ethnic urban neighborhoods, where they worried many native-born Americans, some of whom responded with nativist anti-immigrant campaigns and others of whom introduced urban reforms to help the immigrants assimilate. These immigrants were often Jew, Croats, Slovaks, Greeks and Poles, and they came from countries with little history of democratic government (often created large sub towns like Little Italy and Little Poland).

Pentagon Papers

New combustibles fueled the fires of antiwar discontent in June 1971, when a former Pentagon official leaked to the New York Times the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study that documented the blunders and deceptions of the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, especially the provoking of the 1964 North Vietnamese attack in the Gulf of Tonkin.

Détente

Nixon's visits to China ushered in an era of détente, or relaxed tension, with the two communist powers and produced several significant agreements in 1972, including a three-year arrangement by which the food-rich United States agreed to sell the Soviets at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals.

Amendment 22 (1951)

No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once.

Operation Desert Storm

On Feb. 23 the dreaded and long-awaited land war began, it was dubbed operation desert storm. It lasted only four days- "the hundred hour war". UN forces penetrated deep into Iraq, outflanking the occupying forces in Kuwait and blocking the enemy's ability either to retreat or to reinforce. Allied casualties were amazingly light, whereas much of Iraq's remaining fighting force was quickly destroyed or captured. On Feb. 27 Saddam accepted a cease-fire, and Kuwait was liberated.

Boston Massacre 1770-

On March 5, 1770, a crowd of sixty towns-people began taunting and throwing snowballs at squad of ten redcoats. They towns-people were angry over the death of the ten year old who was shot earlier during a protest. Acting apparently without orders, the troops opened fired and killed or wounded eleven citizens.

Jamestown 1607

On May 24, 1607, about 100 English settlers, all were men, arrived. They called it Jamestown. The early years of Jamestown proved to be a nightmare- except the buzzards. Forty would-be colonists died on the journey in 1606-1607. Another journey in 1609 lost its leaders and many of its supplies in a shipwreck in the Bermuda. Once ashore in Virginia, the people died by the dozens due to disease, malnutrition, and starvation. Ironically, the woods had plenty of wild animals to hunt, the river had plenty of fish, but the settlers wasted valuable time grubbing for nonexistent gold when they should have been gathering provisions.

William Lloyd Garrison; The Liberator

On New Year's Day, 1831, a shattering abolitionist blast came from the bugle of William Lloyd Garrison, a mild-looking reformer of twenty-six. The emotionally high-strung son of a drunken father and a spiritual child of the Second Great Awakening. Garrison published in Boston the first issue of his militantly anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator. With this mighty paper broadside, Garrison triggered a thirty-year war of words and in a sense fired one of the opening barrages of the Civil War.

John Deere steel plow

One of the first obstacles that frustrated the farmers was the thickly matted soul of the West, which snagged and snapped fragile wooden plows. John Deere of Illinois in 1837 finally produced a steel plow that broke the stubborn soul. Sharp and effective, it was also light enough to be pulled by horses, rather than oxen.

U-2 spy plane

On the eve of a conference with Soviet Khrushchev an American U-2 spy plane was shot down deep in the heart of Russia. After bungling bureaucratic denials in Washington, "honest Ike" took the unprecedented step of assuming personal responsibility. Khrushchev stormed into Paris filling the air with invective, and the conference collapsed before it could get off the ground. The concord of Camp David was replaced with the grapes of wrath.

Amendment 18; Volstead Act

One of the last peculiar spasms of the progressive reform movement was prohibition, loudly supported by crusading churches and by many women. The arid new order was authorized in 1919 by the Eighteenth Amendment , as implemented by the Volstead Act passed by Congress later that year. Together these laws made the world "safe for hypocrisy." The legal abolition of alcohol was especially popular in the South and West.

Social Security Act (list parts) (1935)

One of the most complicated and far reaching laws to pass Congress. To cushion future depressions, the measure provided for federal-state unemployment insurance. Security for old age was in specified categories of retired workers were to receive regular payments from Washington. These payments ranged from $10- $85 dollars a month (raised periodically) and were financed by a payroll tax on both employers and employees. Provision was also made for the blind, physically handicapped, delinquent children, and other dependents. Republican opposition was bitter "Social Security" insisted Hoover "must be bellied upon a cult of work, not a cult of leisure." The GOP national chairman falsely charged that every worker would have to wear a metal dog tag for life. Social Security was largely inspired by the example of some of the more highly industrialized nations of Europe. The government was now recognizing its responsibility for the welfare of its citizens. In further years other categories were added including: belatedly, farm and domestic workers. For decades poor men and women were excluded from Social Security in contrast to Europe where welfare programs generally were universal, American workers had to be employed and in certain types of jobs to get coverage.

Boxer Rebellion

Open Door or not, patriotic Chinese did not care to be used as a doormat by the Western powers. In 1900 a superpatriotic group, known as the "Boxers" for their training in the martial arts, broke loose with the cry "Kill Foreign Devils." In what became known as the Boxer Rebellion, they murdered more than two hundred foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians and besieged the foreign diplomatic community in the capital, Beijing.

"Operation Wetback"

Operation wetback was a government program to roundup and deport as many as one million illegal Mexican migrant workers in the US. The program was promoted in part by the Mexican government and reflecting the burgeoning concerns about non-European immigration to America.

Bleeding Kansas 1856

Ordinary pioneers and northern abolitionists supported a free state. The South was angered. They had thought that Kansas would be theirs, but now the abolitionists were trying to steal it from them. The South rallied slaveowners to come to Kansas, but owners were reluctant to bring slaves with them where fighting was and where the possibility of a free state existed. In 1855 the voting day of the first territorial legislature, proslavery men form Missouri came. They all voted multiple times and were able to set up a government at Shawnee Mission, one won by fraud. The Free-soilers established their own illegal government in Topeka. Settlers fought over land claims and tension mounted. In 1856 proslavery raiders shot up and burned the free-soil town of Lawrence. Civil War erupted in 1856 and merged with the nationwide Civil War from 1861-65.

American Anti-Slavery Society

Other dedicated abolitionist rallied to Garrison's standard, and in 1833 they founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. Prominent among them was Wendell Phillips, a Boston patrician known as "abolition's golden trumpet." A man of strict principle, he would eat no cane sugar and near no cotton cloth, since both were produced by southern slaves.

Lend-Lease Act

Patriotically entitled "An Act Further to Promote the Defense of the United States". Sprung on the country after the election was safely over, it was praised by the administration as a device that would keep the nation out of war rather than drag it in. "Send guns not sons" "Billions, not bodies". America would be an arsenal for democracy and would send a limitless supply of arms to the victims of aggression, who in turn would finish the job and keep the war on their side of the Atlantic. Accounts would be settled by returning the used weapons or other equivalents to the US when the war was ended.

patronage

Patronage is the practice of rewarding political support with special favors, often in the form of public office. Upon assuming office, Thomas Jefferson demised few Federalist employees, leaving scant openings to fill with political appointees.

Gag Resolution

Piles of petitions poured in upon Congress from the antislavery reformers, and in 1836 sensitive southerners drove through the House the so-called Gag Resolution. It required all such antislavery appeals to be tabled without debate. This attacked on the right of petition aroused the sleeping lion in the age ex-president, Representative John Quincy Adams, and he waged a successful eight-year fight for its repeal.

Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896

Plessy v. Ferguson was a supreme court case that upheld the constitutionality of segregation laws, saying that as long as blacks were provided with "separate but equal" facilities,these laws did not violate the Fourteenth amendment. This decision provided legal justification for the Jim Crow system until the 1950s.

Powhatan and Pocahontas

Powhatan subjected John Smith into execution because his daughter Pocahontas had "saved" him by putting her head in between him and his enemy. This symbolized that Powhatan had power and that the Indians' desire for peace with the colonist. Pocahontas became the mediator between the Indians and the settlers, helping keep peace, and to provide needed foodstuff.

Bay of Pigs Invasion

President Kennedy also struck below the border with the mailed fist. He had inherited from the Eisenhower administration a CIA-backed scheme to topple Fidel Castro from power by invading Cuba with anti-communist exiles. On April 17, 1961, some twelve hundred exiles landed at Cuba's Bay of Pigs. When the ill-starred Bay of Pigs invasion bogged down, Kennedy stood fast in his decision to keep hands off, and the bullet-riddled hand of anti-Castroites surrendered. President Kennedy assumed full responsibility for the failure, remarking that "victory has a hundred fathers, and defeat is an orphan."

American neutrality

President Wilson issued the neutrality proclamation and called on Americans to be neutral in thought as well as deed. Both sides wanted American to be on their side and tried to woo The US. Britain enjoyed being very similar in almost every aspect and had economic ties with America. Their censors sheared away war stories harmful to the allies and drenched the US with tales of German bestiality. The Germans counted on sympathies of their transplanted countrymen in America. Some immigrants from Germany felt bad for the people in their motherland but most were just happy to be distant from the fray. Most Americans were already Anti Germany but when a German briefcase was left on an elevator in America with plans for industrial sabotage Americans for sure were further inflamed.

Sussex Pledge

Prior to this ship being taken down Wilson had made some diplomatic progress. After another British liner was sunk with the loss of two American lives, Berlin reluctantly agreed not to sink unarmed and unresisting passenger ships without warning. This pledge appeared to be violated in March 1916 when a French passenger steamer the Sussex was torpedoed by the Germans.Wilson informed the Germans that unless they renounced they inhuman practice of sinking merchant ships without warning he would break diplomatic relations (an almost certain prelude to war).

Philadelphia plan

Program established by Richard Nixon to require construction trade unions to work toward hiring more black apprentices. The plan altered Lyndon Johnson's concept of "affirmative action" to focus on groups rather than individuals.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Reagan administration plan announced in 1983 to create a missile-defense system over American territory to block a nuclear attack. Derided as "Star Wars" by critics, the plan typified Reagan's commitment to vigorous defense spending even as he sought to limit the size of government in domestic matters.

National Security Council Memorandum 68 (NSC-68)

Recommended that the US quadruple its defense spending. At first it seemed politically impossible to implement but the Korean War gave it a new lease on life. Truman now ordered a massive military buildup, well beyond what was necessary for Korea. The US had 3.5 million men under arms and was spending $50 billion per year on the defense budget - some 13% of the GNP. This marked a major militarization of American foreign policy, but it also reflected the sense of almost limitless possibility that pervaded postwar American society.

redeemers

Redeemers were white Democrats who reassumed political power in the South, thus returning the South to its former oligarchical system.

New Deal; "Brain Trust"

Roosevelt consistently preached a New Deal for the "forgotten man," but he was annoyingly vague and somewhat contradictory. Many of his speeches were "ghostwritten" by the "Brains Trust", a small group of reform-minded intellectuals. They were predominantly youngish college professors who, as a kind of kitchen cabinet, later authored much of the New Deal legislation. Roosevelt rashly promised a balanced budget and berated heavy Hooverian deficits, amid cries of "Throw the Spenders Out!" and "Out of the Red with Roosevelt." All of this was to make ironic reading in later months.

nationwide banking "holiday"

Roosevelt moved decisively. Now that he had full responsibility, he boldly declared a nationwide banking holiday, March 6-10, as a prelude to opening the banks on a sounder basis. He then summoned the overwhelmingly Democratic Congress into special session to cope with the national emergency.

Sandra Day O'Connor

Sandra Day O'Connor was one of the three conservative justices that Reagan appointed to the Supreme Court. Sworn in on September 25, 1981, this brilliant, public spirited Arizona judge became the first womb to ascend to the high bench in the Court's nearly two hundred year history.

Battles of the Alamo & Goliad

Santa Anna, at the head of about six thousand men, swept ferociously into Texas. Trapping a band of nearly two hundred pugnacious Texans at the Alamo in San Antonio, he wiped them out to a man after a thirteen day siege. The Texans' commander, Colonel W. B. Travis, had declared, "I shall never surrender nor retreat... Victory or Death." A short time later, a band of about four hundred surrounded and defeated American volunteers, having thrown down their arms at Goliad, were butchered as "pirates." All the operations further delayed the Mexican advance and galvanized American opposition.

Captain John Smith

Saved Jamestown from collapsing. Taking over in 1608, he placed the gold hungry colonist back in line by one rule: "He who shall not work shall not eat." He was kidnapped in December 1609 and subjected to a mock execution by the chieftain Powhatan.

The "starving time"

Settlers died in large amounts, and living skeletons were driven to desperate acts. They were reduced to eating "dogges, Catts. Ratts. And Myce" and they even dug up old corpse and ate it for food. One hungry man killed, salted, and ate his wife. For his behavior and crime he was executed. Of the four hundred settlers who made it to Virginia only sixty were left by the end of the "starving time" winter of 1609-1610.

Panic at 1819

Severe depression that followed the economic boom of the post-War of 1812 years. The Second National Bank, trying to dampen land speculation and inflation, called loans, raised interest rates, and received the blame for the panic. All this helped divide commercial interests of the East from the agrarian interests of an expanding West. Considered the end of the Era of Good Feelings.

skyscrapers, elevators, commuters

Skyscrapers were invented by Chicago architect Louis Sullivan, with the purpose of maximizing workspace on the smallest parcel of land. It first appeared a ten story building, which was made usable by the perfecting of the elevators. These skyscrapers also allowed for the development of commuters-people who carted daily between home and job on the mass-transit lines that radiated out from central cities to surrounding suburbs. Many of the commuters would take the electric trolley.

Slave revolts-

Slaves helped mightily to build the country with their labor. Few became skilled artisans- carpenters, bricklayers, and tanners. But they mostly had to clear the swamps, grubbing out tress, and other menial tasks. Since they were condemned to life under the lash, all they wanted was freedom. A slave revolt happened in New York in 1712 that cost the lives of many whites. That caused the twenty-one blacks to be executed. Some even at the stake over a slow fire. Another revolt were the Stono Rebellion.

Merchant-planters-

Some men who had modest financial means risked their investments in servants into holdings in real estate. They became the great merchant-planters, lords of large river fronts estates that came to dominate the agriculture of the southern colonies. They brought around 100,000 indentured servants to the region by 1700.

Eisenhower, Nixon (Checkers Speech)

Striking a grandfatherly, nonpartisan pose, Eisenhower left the rough campaigning to Nixon, who relished bare-knuckle political combat. Nixon himself faltered late in the campaign amid accusations that he had accepted illegal donations. Responding with a self-pitying live address on television, Nixon denied the charges and solemnly declared that the only campaign gift he had ever received was the family cocker spaniel, Checkers. The shameless and mawkish Checkers Speech saved Nixon's spot on the ticket and spotlighted a fundamental change in American politics.

Robert E. Lee , Jeb Stuart

Stuart was leader of Confederate calvary that rode completely around a stalled McClellan at Richmond (Peninsula campaign). Then Robert E Lee of the North led a counter attack, (seven days battle) diving the Confederates back to the sea. Union forces abandoned the Peninsula campaign as a costly failure. By failing to seize Richmond, Lee was making sure slavery would be totally uprooted and the Old South destroyed.

German U-boats

Submarines called U-boats, from the German Unterseeboot, or undersea boat began their deadly work. In the first months of 1915, they sank about ninety ships in the war zone.

Gibbons v Ogden

Suit over whether New York could grant a monopoly to a ferry operating on interstate waters. The ruling reasserted that congress had the sole power to regulate interstate commerce.

"Yuppies"

Symbolic of the new income stratification was the emergence of "yuppies," or young, urban professionals. Sporting Rolex watches and BMW sports cars, they made a near-religion out of conspicuos consumption. Though something of a stereotype and numbering only about 1.5 million people, yuppies showcased the values of materialism and the pursuit of wealth that came to symbolize the high-rolling 1980s.

textile mill towns

Textile mill towns are created in response to tax benefits and the prospect of cheap and non unionized labor. They slowly wove an industrial thread into the fabric of southern life, but this cheap labor was easy to keep so the people were constantly depressed at these low wages. These southerners are paid half of what their northern counterparts were paid, yet some enjoyed this as being the first steady job for many in a long time.

Rush Bagot Agreement of 1817

The 1817 Treaty which, after a heated naval arms race in the Great Lakes, the world's largest unfortified boundary, running between the U.S. and Canada, was established. The treaty established strict limits on naval armaments in the Great Lakes, a first step in the full demilitarization of the U.S.-Canadian border, completed in the 1870s.

1877 railway strike

The 1877 railway strike was a group of strikes that occurred from Baltimore to ST. Louis. They were initially caused when the presidents of the four largest railroads decided to cut employee's wages by 10%. The strikes initially began with the workers affected, but eventually spread to many more working-class people who showed their support. When the strikes ended, over one hundred were dead. The failure of the strike exposed the weaknesses of the labor movement in the face of massive government intervention on the side of the railroads.

Fetterman massacre

The Fetterman massacre occurred when in 1876, a Sioux war party attempting to block construction of the Bozeman trail to the Montana goldfields ambushed Captain William J. Fetterman's command of eighty one soldiers and civilians in Wyoming's bighorn Mountains. Not one survivor was left and the corpses were found mutilated.

Stonewall Rebellion

The 1960s also witnessed a "sexual revolution," though its novelty and scale are often exaggerated. The Mattachine Society, founded in Los Angeles in 1951, was a pioneering advocate for gay rights, as gay men and lesbians increasingly demanded sexual tolerance. A brutal attack on gay men by off-duty police officers at New York's Stonewall Inn in 1969 proved a turning point when the victims fought back in what became known as the Stonewall Rebellion.

Iranian Hostage Crisis

The 444 days, from November 1979 to January 1981, in which American embassy workers were held captive by Iranian revolutionaries. The Iranian Revolution began in January 1979 when young Muslim fundamentalists overthrew the oppressive regime of the American-backed shah, forcing him into exile. Deeming the United States, "the Great Satan," these revolutionaries triggered an energy crisis by cutting of Iranian oil. The hostage crisis began when revolutionaries stormed the American embassy, demanding that the United States return the shah to Iran for trial. the episode was marked by botched diplomacy and failed rescue attempts by the Carter Administration. After permanently damaging relations between the two countries, the crisis ended with the hostages' release the day Ronald Reagan became president, January 20, 1981.

buffalo soldiers-

The African American frontier soldiers made up 1/5 of the US frontier army. They were dubbed Buffalo soldiers by the Indians, because of the resemblance of their hair to the bison's furry coat.

Bessemer-Kelly steel process

The Bessemer-Kelly steel process was a process in which cold air blown on red hot iron caused the metal to become white hot by igniting the carbon and thus eliminating impurities. This process, also known as air boiling, was important because it ultimately made possible the present steel civilization.

sinking of the Lusitania

The British passenger liner was torpedoed and sank off the coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915, with the loss of 1,198 lives, including 128 Americans. The liner was carrying forth-two hundred cases of small-arms ammunition, a fact that Germans used to justify the sinking. But Americans were swept by a wave of shock and anger at this act of "mass murder" and "piracy". Eastern United States stirred with talks of fighting but the rest of the country showed a strong distaste for hostilities.

Civil Works Administration CWA

The CWA was established by FDR in November of 1933. AS a branch of the FERA, it also fell under the direction of Hopkins. Designed to provide purely temporary jobs during the cruel winter emergency, it served a useful purpose. Tens of thousands of jobless were employed as leaf raking and other make-work tasks , which were dubbed boondoggling. As this kind of labor put a premium on shovel leaning slow motion, the scheme was widely criticized.

Dutch West India Company-

The Dutch Republic became a leading colonial power. Much less powerful then the Dutch East India Company was the Dutch West India Company. It maintained profitable enterprises in the Caribbean. At some points it was less interested in trading than in raiding. At one point it captured a fleet of Spanish treasure ships with $15 million in 1628. The company also established outposts in Africa and a thriving sugar industry in Brazil. For several years that was the center of activity in the New World.

Eisenhower Doctrine

The Eisenhower Doctrine was proclaimed in 1957, and it pledged US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression.

Farmers Alliance

The Farmers Alliance was founded in Texas in the late 1870s. Farmers came together to socialize and break the strangling grip of the railroads and manufacturers through cooperative buying and selling. Local chapters spread throughout the South and Great plains and numbered over one million members. The Alliance weakened itself by ignoring the plight of landless tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and farmworkers, along with the exclusion of blacks (who made up almost half the agricultural population of the South). Later, the Populist party was born out of this party.

Iroquois Confederacy

The Iroquois Confederacy developed the political and organizational skills to sustain a robust military alliance that menaced its neighbors. It bonded together five Indian nations- Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. According to the Iroquois legend the Confederacy was founded by two leaders, Hiawatha and Deganawidah, and was founded in the late 1500s. This league was initially made for the neighboring Indians then later came together with the French, English, and Dutch for control of the fur trade.

Knights of Labor

The Knights of Labor was the second national labor organization, organized in 1869 as a secret society and opened for public membership in 1881. The Knights were known for their efforts to organize all workers, regardless of skill level, gender or race. After the mid 1880's, their membership declined for a variety of reasons, including the Knights' participation in violent strikes and discord between skilled and unskilled members.

Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan was a massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power. The plan was first announced by Secretary of State George Marshall at Harvard's commencement in June 1947. The aid offered in this plan was extended to the Soviet Union and its allies, if they would make political reforms and accept certain outside controls, but they refused.

National Security Council (NSC); CIA

The National Security Council was also established to advise the president on security matters and the CIA was also established to coordinate the government's foreign fact gathering.

"wildcat" strikes; National War Labor Board

The National War Labor Board (NWLB) imposed ceilings on wage increases. Labor unions, whose membership grew from about 10 million to more than 13 million workers during the war, fiercely resented the governments dictated wage ceilings. Despite the no-strike pledges of most of the major unions, a rash labor walkouts plagued the war effort. Prominent among the strikers were the United Mine Workers, who several times were called off the job by their crusty and iron-willed chieftain, John L. Lewis. Threats of lost production through strikes became worrisome that Congress, in June 1943, passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act. This act authorized the federal government to seize and operate tied-up industries. Strikes against any government-operated industry were made a criminal offense. Under the act, Washington took over the coal mines and for a fired period, the railroads. UEt work stoppages, although the total working hours of the United States' Wartime laboring force- a record better than blockaded Britain's. American workers on the whole, were commendably committed to the war effort.

fall of the Philippines; Bataan Death March

The Philippines was one of the few factors that slowed Japanese domination across the Pacific. A small but effective army was landed in the Philippines, who fought General Douglas MacArthur, who had withdrawn to a strong defensive position at Bataan, not far from Manilla. The defenders were able to hold off Japanese attacks until April 9, 1942. Before this surrender, General McArthur was secretly evacuated, but he promised to return. After this surrender, the remnants of MacArthur's army were treated with cruelty in the Bataan Death march (80 miles long) to prisoner of war camps.

William Bradford

The Pilgrims were very lucky with their leaders. One of them was William Bradford. He was a self-taught scholar who read Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and Dutch. He was picked to be governor thirty times in the annual elections. One of his major worries was his fear that independent, non-Puritan settlers would ruin his godly experiment in the wilderness. Fishing villages and other settlements did appear up north of Plymouth. The little colony of Plymouth's population was only seven thousand people by 1691. Then it merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Berlin Wall

The Soviets backed off from their most bellicose threats but suddenly began to construct the Berlin Wall in August 1961. A barbed-wire and concrete barrier, it was designed to plug the heavy population drain from East Germany to West Germany through the Berlin funnel. But to the free world, the "wall of shame" looked like a gigantic enclosure around a concentration camp. The wall stood for almost three decades as an ugly scar symbolizing the post-World War II division of Europe into two hostile camps.

ABM Treaty, SALT Treaty

The United States and the USSR agreed to an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) treaty, which limited each nation to two clusters of defensive missiles, and to a series of arms-reduction negotiations known as SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), aimed at freezing the numbers of long-range nuclear missiles for five years. The ABM and SALT accords constituted long-overdue first steps toward slowing the arms race. the ABM treaty forbade elaborate defensive system, the United States forged ahead with the development of "MIRVs" (multiple independently targeted retry vehicles), designed to overcome any defense by "saturating" it with large numbers of warheads, several to a rocket.

War Refugee Board

The War Refugee Board was a US agency formed to help rescue Jews from German-occupied territories and to provide relief to inmates of Nazi concentration camps. The agency performed noble work, but it did not begin operations until very late in the war, after millions had already been murdered.

Ministry (clergy)-

The most honored of the professions was the Christian ministry. In 1775, the clergy controlled less influence than in the past, when faith had burned more openly. The clergy held very prestigious positions.

fall of the Berlin Wall

The communist regimes were falling at dizzying speeds, first in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany and even Romania. In December 1989, jubilant Germans danced atop the hated Berlin Wall, symbol of the division of Germany and all of Europe into two armed hostile camps. The wall itself soon came down, heralding the imminent end of the 45 year long Cold War. Chunks of the wall's concrete became instant collectors' items- gray souvenirs of a grim episode in Europe's history. The two Germany's were at last reunited in October 1990.

liberation of concentration camps

The conquering Americans were horrified to find blood-spattered and still-stinking concentration camps, where the German Nazis had engaged in the scientific mass murder of "undesirables", including an estimated 6 million Jews. The Washington government had long been informed of the genocide against the Jews but were terribly slow acting to take steps against it. The Roosevelt administration had even bolted the door against large numbers of Jewish refugees. Military commanders even refused to bomb rail lines that carried the victims to the camps.

Rome-Berlin Axis (Axis Powers)

The desperate German people had fallen in behind the new Pied Piper, for they saw no other hope of escape from the plague of economic chaos and national disgrace. Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations in 1933 and began clandestinely (and illegally) rearming. In 1936 the Nazi Hitler and the Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.

Berkeley Free Speech movement; Hippies

The disaffection of the young reached crisis proportions in the tumultuous 1960s. One of the first organized protests against established authority broke out at the University of California at Berkeley in 1964, in the aptly named Free Speech Movement. Students objected to an administrative ban on the use of campus space for political debate. During months of protest, they accused the cold War "megaversity" of promoting cop orate interests rather than humane values. But in a few years, the clean-cut Berkeley activists and their sober-minded sit-ins would seem downright quaint. Fired by outrage against the war in Vietnam, some sons and daughters of the middle class became radical political rebels. Others turned turned to mid-bending drugs, and dropped out of "straight" society. Others "did there own thing" in communes or "alternative" institutions.

Chattel

The earliest "slave codes" make blacks and their children the property, or "chattels" for life of their white masters. Some colonies made it illegal to teach slaves to read or write.

mass production; consumerism

The economy kicked off its war harness in 1919, faltered a few steps in the recession of 1920-1921, and then sprinted forward for nearly seven years.Both the recent war and Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon's tax policies favored the rapid expansion of capital investment. Ingenious machines, powered by relatively cheap energy from newly tapped oil fields, dramatically increased the productivity of the laborer. assembly line production reached such perfection in Henry Ford's famed Rouge River plant near Detroit that a finished automobile emerged every ten seconds. As a result, Great new industries suddenly sprouted forth, including the electricity, automobile, and advertising industries.

Freedmen's Bureau

The emancipators were faced with the brutal reality that the freedmen were overwhelmingly unskilled, unlettered, without property or money, and with scant knowledge of how to survive as free people. To cope with this problem throughout the conquered South, Congress created the Freedmen's Bureau on March 3, 1865. On paper at leas the bureau was intended to be a kind of primitive welfare agency. It was to provide food, clothing, medical care, and education to both freed slaves and white refugees. Heading the agency was Union general Oliver O. Howard. The bureau achieved its greatest success in education. It taught an estimated 200,000 blacks how to read. The bureau was supposed to give the freed blacks land from the Confederates, but this rarely happened.

Yalta Conference 1945 (See ch. 36)

The final conference of the big three (FDR, Churchill, and Stalin) took place February 1945 on the shores of the Black Sea. They reached momentous agreements, after pledging their faith with vodka. Final plans were laid for smashing the buckling German lines and assigning occupation ones in Germany to the victorious powers. Poland (with revised boundaries), Bulgaria, and Romania were said to have a representative government which was soon broken. They also discussed fashioning a new international peacekeeping organization (the UN). The most controversial decision made at Yalta concerned the Far East. Stalin agreed to attack Japan within three months of the fall of Germany. In return the Soviet Union was promised the southern half of Sakhalin Island, Japan's Kurile Islands, joint control over the railroad's in China's Manchuria and special key privileges in the two key seaports in that area, Darien and Port Author.

Nixon's "Vietnamization" Policy

The first burning need was to quiet the public uproar over Vietnam. President Nixon's announced policy, called Vietnamization, was to withdraw the 540,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam over an extended period. The South Vietnamese-with American Money, weapons, training, and advice-could then gradually take over the burden of fighting their own war.

movies, Hollywood

The flickering movie was the fruit of numerous geniuses, including Thomas A. Edison. As early as the 1890s, this novel contraption, though still in crude form, had attained some popularity in the naughty peep-show penny arcades. The real birth of the movie came in 1903, when the first story sequence reached the screen. A fascinating industry was thus launched. Hollywood, in southern California, quickly became the movie capital of the world, for it enjoyed a maximum of sunshine and other advantages. Early producers featured nudity and heavy-lidded female vampires, and an offended public forced the screen magnates to set up their own rigorous code of censorship. The motion picture really arrived during World War I, when it was used as an engine of anti-German propaganda. Specially prepared "hang the kaiser" films aided powerfully in selling war bonds and in boosting morale.

Paris Conference "Big Four"

The four main powers on the side of the ally powers: England (Under David Lloyd George), France (Georges Clemenceau), Italy (Vittorio Orlando), and the US (Woodrow Wilson). They converged in Paris for the Paris Conference, mostly lead by the idealism of Wilson. The conference created the Treaty of Paris and began the idea of the League of Nations. The sessions did have to act quickly, to stop the spread of communism from Russia.

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

The greatest of the black abolitionists was Fredrick Douglass. Escaping from bondage in 1838 at the age of twenty-one, he was "discovered" by the abolitionists in 1841 when he gave a stunning impromptu speech at an antislavery meeting in Massachusetts. Thereafter he lectured widely for the cause, despite frequent beatings and threats against his life. In 1845 he published his classic autobiography. It depicted his remarkable origins as the son of a black slave women and a white father, his struggle to learn to read and write, and his eventual escape to the North.

Taft-Hartley Act

The growing muscle of organized labor deeply annoyed many conservatives. They had their revenge against labor's New Deal gains in 1947, when a Republican-controlled Congress (the first in fourteen years) passed the Taft-Hartley Act over President Truman's vigorous veto. Labor leaders condemned the Act as a "slave-labor law." It outlawed the "closed" (all-union) shops, and unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required union leaders to take a noncommunist oath.

Japanese-Americans U.S. internment camps

The internment camps deprived these uprooted Americans of dignity and basic rights; the internees also lost hundreds of millions of dollars in property and foregone earnings.

island-hopping strategy

The island hopping strategy was one employed by the US in their comeback in the Pacific theater. The US Navy would now bypass some of the most heavily fortified Japanese posts, capture nearby islands, set up airfields on them, then neutralize the enemy bases through heavy bombing. Deprived of essential supplies from the homeland, Japan's outposts would slowly wither away. This very successful strategy contributed largely to Japan's downfall.

Missouri Compromise of 1820

The issue was that Missouri wanted to join the Union as a slave state, therefore unbalancing the Union so there would be more slave states then free states. The compromise set it up so that Maine joined as a free state and Missouri joined as a slave state. Congress also made a line across the southern border of Missouri saying except for the state of Missouri, all states north of that line must be free states or states without slavery.

The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne-

The laws of Puritan New England wanted to defend the integrity of marriages. Divorce was very rare, and the authorities would force separated couples to reunite. Adultery was a reason for divorce. Convicted adulterers- especially women- were whipped in public and forced forever to wear a cloth capital "A" sewed onto their clothes. This was the basis of The Scarlet Letter written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1850.

English Navigation Laws-

The laws that reflected the growing rivalries between the colonies. They were to stitch England's overseas land more tightly to the motherland. They would do this by controlling American trade with countries that were not ruled by Britain. Smuggling became an increasingly common and honorable job.

veteran bonus bill

The legion became notorious for its aggressive lobbying for veterans' benefits. The chief grievance of the former "doughboys" was monetary- they wanted their "dough." The former servicemen demanded "adjusted compensation" to make up for the wages they had "lost" when they turned in their factory overalls for military uniforms during the Great War. Critics denounced this demand as a holdup "bonus," but the millions of veterans deployed heavy political artillery. They intimidated Congress into passing a bonus bill in 1922, which Harding promptly vetoed. Re-forming their lines, the repulsed veterans gathered for a final attack. In 1924, Congress then again passed another law called Adjusted compensation Act. IT gave every former soldier a paid-up insurance policy fue in twenty years-adding about $3.5 billion to the total cost of the war.

Ben Franklin-

The most representative American personality of his era. He was born in the middle colonies. He was born in a Yankee (Boston), went to Philadelphia when he was 17 in 1720 with a loaf of bread under each arm and immediately found a home. By the time he made it to The City of Brotherly Love, the colonies were coming "alive." Population was growing rapidly. Transportation and communication were slowly improving.

Encomienda

The loosely organized and vulnerable native communities of the West Indies also provided laboratories for testing the techniques that would eventually subdue the advanced Indian civilizations of Mexico and Peru. The most important such technique was the institution known as the encomienda. It allowed the government to "commend," or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to try to Christianize them. In all but name, it was slavery. Spanish missionary Bartolomé de Las Casas, appalled by the Encomienda system in Hispaniola, called it "a moral pestilence invented by Satan."

railroads

The most significant contribution to the development of such an economy proved to be the railroad. It was fast, reliable, cheaper than canals to construct, and not frozen over in the winter. Able to go almost anywhere, even through the Allegheny barrier, it defied terrain and weather. The first railroad appeared in the United States in 1828, and new lines spread with amazing swiftness. Andrew Jackson rode to his first presidential inauguration in 1829 in a horse0drawn carriage. At the end of his second term, eight years later, he departed from Washington in a railway car. By 1860, on the eve of the Civil War, the United States boasted thirty thousand miles of railroad track,, three-fourths of it in rapidly industrializing North. Early railroads were also considered a dangerous public menace, for flying sparks could set fire to nearby haystacks and houses, and appalling railway accidents could turn the wooden "miniature hells" into flaming funeral pyres for their riders.

"Known—Nothing" party; nativists

The noisier American "nativists" rallied for political action. In 1849 they formed the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, which soon developed into the formidable American party, more commonly known as the Know-Nothing party, a name derived from its secretiveness. "Nativists agitated for rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization and for laws authorizing the deportation of alien paupers. They also promoted a lurid literature of exposure, much of it pure fiction. The authors, sometimes posing as escaped nuns, described the schooling sins they imagined the cloisters concealed, including the secret burial of babies. One of these sensations books- Maria Monk's Awful disclosers (1836)- old over 300,000 copies. - nativist- hated foreigners

"Dixiecrat" Democrats

The nomination of Truman split the Democratic party wide-open. Embittered southern Democrats from thirteen states, like fire eating forbears of 1860, met in their own convention, in Birmingham, Alabama, with confederate flags brashly in evidence. Amid scenes of heated defiance, these "Dixecrats" nominated Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina on a States' Rights party ticket.

Russo-Japanese War

The outbreak of war between Russian and Japan in 1904 gave Roosevelt a chance to perform as a global statesman. The Japanese attacked a Russian fleet at Port Arthur. The Japanese proceeded to administer a humiliating series of beatings to the inept Russians- the first serious military setback to a major European power by a non-European force since the Turkish invasions of the sixteenth century. But as the war dragged on, Japan began to run short of men and yen- a weakness it did not want to defray to the enemy. Tokyo officials therefore approached Roosevelt in the deepest secrecy and asked him to help sponsor peace negotiations.

American Party (Know-Nothings)

The party, known as Know-Nothings because of its secretiveness) feared slavery and sectional issues were distracting the nation from uncontrolled immigration from Germany and Ireland and foreign influence. In 1856 they nominated Millard Fillmore. They used the slogan "Americans Must Rule America." T!heir campaign took voters form the Republicans.

England's "Glorious Revolution"-

The people of old England soon taught the people of New England a few lessons in opposing abuse. In 1688-1689 they created the Glorious (or Bloodless) Revolution. They dethroned King James II and put The Dutch-born William III in throne. When the new of the revolution reached America, the Dominion of New England collapsed. The revolution was heard around the colonies. The colonist found inspiration from old England, and decided to strike against the royal authority in America. Fighting happened in New York and Maryland from 1689-1691 until new governors were appointed. The most important thing is that the new monarch loosened the grip on trade. This started a period of "salutary neglect" on the Navigation Acts.

monopoly, combination, pool

The railroad owners had a complete monopoly over the system. They often used special techniques to inflate their company's values and to sell stock at an incredibly high price. The company owners often trampled the interests of the people and bent the legal system in their favor. The form of combination was the pool-which was an agreement to divide the business in a given area and share the profits. The railway owner's abilities to manipulate social and economic culture in America led to the rise of a millionaire class and legal conflict.

House impeachment hearings

The public's wrath proved to be overwhelming. Republican leaders in Congress concluded that the guilty and unpredictable Nixon was a loose cannon on the deck of the ship of state. They frankly informed the president that his impeachment by the full House and removal by the Senate were foregone conclusions and that the would do best to resign.

Greensboro lunch counter sit-ins

The sit in movement was launched on February 1, 1960, by four black college freshmen in Greensboro, NC. Without a plan or institutional support, they demanded service at a white's only restaurant. The embarrassed black waitress refused to serve them, but they returned day after day with more and more people (up to 1,000). The sit in movement rolled swiftly across the South, swelling into a wave of wade ins, lie ins, and pray ins to compel equal treatment in restaurants, transportation, employment, housing, and voting registration

outsourcing of American jobs

The speed and efficiency of the new communications tools threatened to wipe out entire occupational categories, and even ways of life. Postal carriers, and travel agents, store clerks, bank tellers, stockbrokers, and all kinds of other workers whose business it was to mediate between product and client were in danger of becoming road kill on the information superhighway. White-collar jobs in financial services and high-tech engineering, once thought securely anchored in places like Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York, could now be "outsourced" to countries such as IReland and India, where employees could help keep a company's global circuits firing twenty-four hours a day.

stock exchange speculation

The stock exchange provided even greater sensations. Speculation ran wild, and an orgy of boom-or-bust trading pushed the market up to dizzy peaks. "Never sell America short" and "Be a bull on America" were favorite catchwords, as Wall Street bulls gored one another and fleeced greedy lambs. The stock market became a veritable gambling den.

zoot suit riots; Detroit race riots

The sudden rubbing against one another of unfamiliar peoples produced some distressingly violent friction. In 1943, young "zoot suit" clad Mexican and Mexican Americans in Los Angeles were viscously attacked by Anglo sailors who cruised the streets in taxicabs searching for victims. Order was restored only after the Mexican ambassador made an emotional plea, pointing out that such outbreaks were grist for Nazi propaganda mills. At almost the same time, an even more brutal race riot that killed twenty five blacks and hie whites erupted in Detroit.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

The unanimous decision of the Warren Court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in May 1954 was epochal. In a forceful opinion, the learned justices ruled that segregation in the public schools were "inherently unequal" and thus unconstitutional. The uncompromising sweep of the decision startled conservatives like an exploding time bomb, for the reversed the Court's earlier declaration of 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson that "separate but equal" facilities were allowable under the Constitution. That doctrine was now dead. Desegregation, the justices insisted, must go ahead with "all deliberate speed."

Cult of Domesticity

The vast majority of workingwomen were single. Upon marriage they left their paying jobs and took up their new work as wives and mothers. In the home they were enshrined in a cult of domesticity, a widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary functions of the house maker. From their pedestal, married women commanded immense moral power, and they increasingly made decisions that altered the character of the family itself.

Amendment Twenty-Six

The youth of America, still aroused, were only slightly mollified when the government reduced draft calls and shortened the period of draft-ability, on a lottery basis, from eighty years to one year. They were similarly pleased, though not pacified, when the Twenty-sixth Amendment in 1971 lowered the voting age to eighteen.

Gentlemen's Agreement

Theodore Roosevelt finally broke the deadlock, but not until he had brandished his big stick and bared his big teeth. The Californians were induced to repeal the offensive school order and to accept what came to be known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement." By this secret understanding, worked out during 1907-1908, Tokyo agreed to stop the flow of laborers to the American mainland by withholding passports.

T. Roosevelt "Big Stick" policy

Theodore Roosevelt's method for achieving American goals in the Caribbean; it featured the threat and use of military force to promote America's commercial supremacy, to limit European intervention in the region, and to protect the Panama Canal. Come in politely but threaten with force if necessary.

Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936,1937

These were shortsighted acts passed ot prevent American participation in a European War. Among other restrictions, they prevented Americans from selling munitions to foreign belligerents. When taken together, they stipulated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect. This legislation in effect marked an abandonment of the traditional policy of freedom of the seas, but they were specifically tailored to keep the nation out of a conflict like a world war.

Sea dogs

They were English pirates who were encouraged by the queen's ambition. They were to spread out upon the shipping lanes. They had two main goals: seize Spanish treasure ships and raid the Spanish settlements. Most Famous Francis Drake. Returning in 1580, he went around the world and got Spanish booty. This profit was about 4600% of his financial backers, among whom, was Queen Elizabeth.

Agricultural Marketing Act

This Act established the Federal Farm Board, a lending bureau for hard pressed farmers.The act also aimed to help farmers help themselves through new producers cooperatives. As the depression worsened in 1930, the Board tried to bolster falling prices by buying up surpluses, but it was unable to cope with the flood of farmer produce to market. See below in questions for effects of the board and act.

business doctrine of laissez-faire

This new Old Guard hoped to improve on the old business doctrine of laissez-faire. Their plea was not simply for government to keep its hands off business, but for government to help guide business along the path to profits. They subtly and effectively achieved their ends by putting the courts and the administrative bureaus into the safekeeping of fellow stand-patters for the duration of the decade.

Thomas Edison's inventions

Thomas Edison (Wizard of Menlo Park) invented the phonograph, the mimeograph, the dictaphone, and the moving picture. His best known invention was the lightbulb, which revolutionized history by bringing light to night, and transformed accent human habits (sleep schedules-people on average slept two hours less).

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Title VII of the act barred employers from discriminating based on race or national origin in hiring and empowered the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC, a body Kennedy had created in 1961) to enforce the law. When conservatives tried to derail the legislation by adding a prohibition on sexual, as well as racial, discrimination, the tactic backfired. The bill's opponents cynically calculated that liberals would not be able to support a bill that threatened to wipe out laws that singled out women for special protection because of their sex.

massive retaliation

Through the new policy of boldness in early 1954, Eisenhower would relegate the army and the navy to the backseat and build up an air fleet of super bombers equipped with city flattening nuclear bombs. These weapons would inflict massive retaliation on the Soviets or the Chinese. However, the rigid futility of the massive retaliation doctrine was exposed throughout the lack of involvement in the aid of the Hungarian uprising, because the American's thought the help would be too expensive.

Half-way Covenant-

Troubled ministers in 1662 announced a new formula for church membership. It was called the Half-way Covenant. The agreement between the church and its adherents, to admit to baptism- but not "full communion"- the unconverted children of existing members. It weakened the distinction between the "elect" and others, further diluting the spiritual purity of the original settlers' godly community. The Half-Way Covenant dramatized the difficulty of maintaining at fever pitched the religious devotion of the founding generation.

multiple use resource management 655

Under Roosevelt professional foresters and engineers developed a policy of "multiple-use resource management." They sought to combine recreation, sustained-yield logging, watershed protection, and summer stock grazing on the same expanse of federal land. The largest ranches and timber companies especially worked well with conservation programs, and single-person enterprises were shouldered aside in the new resources bureaucracy in the interest of efficiency.

Bacon Rebellion-

Twenty-nine year old planter, Nathaniel Bacon, led a revolt on thousands of people in Virginia in 1676. Many of the rebels were frontiersmen who had been forced into the untamed backcountry in search of fertile land. They fiercely resented Berkley's policies towards the Indians, whose fur trade the governor monopolized. When Berkley refused to retaliate after a several Indian attacks, Bacon and his followers took matters into their own hands. They fell murderously upon the Indians, friendly and hostile like, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and put the torch to the capital. Chaos swept through the colony as frustrated men and resentful servants went on a rampage of plundering and pilfering. Bacon died of disease, like so many of his followers. Berkley then stopped the uprising with cruelty, even hanging more than twenty rebels.

Amendment 16 Income Tax

Under authority granted by the recently ratified Sixteenth Amendment, Congress enacted a graduated income tax, beginning with a modest levy on incomes over $3,000. By 1917 revenue from the income tax shot ahead of receipts from the tariff. This gap has since been vastly widened.

McCarran Internal Security bill

Vetoed by Truman in 1950, this among other provisions authorized the president to arrest and detain suspicious people during an "international security emergency". Its critics protested that the bill smacked police-state, concentration camp tactics. But the congressional guardians of Republic's liberties enacted the bill over Truman's veto.

Kennedy assassination

Violence haunted America in the mid-1960's, and it stalked onto center stage on November 22, 1963. while riding in an open limousine in downtown Dallas, Texas, President Kennedy was shot in the brain by a concealed rifleman and died within seconds.As a stunned nation grieved, the tragedy grew still more unbelievable. The alleged assassin, a furtive figure named Lee Harvey Oswald, was himself shot to death in from of television camera by a self-appointed avenger, Jack Ruby.

Headright System-

Virginia and Maryland employed the "headright" system to encourage the importation of servant workers. Under its terms, whoever paid the passage of a laborer received the right to acquire fifty acres of land. Masters then reap the benefits of landownership from the headright system. Some masters parlayed their investments in servants into vast holdings in real estate.

Dorothea Dix

Was a formidable New England teacher-author. 1802-1887. A physically frail woman afflicted with persistent lung trouble, she possessed infinite compassion and will-power. She traveled some sixty thousand miles in eight years and assembled he damning reports on insanity and asylums from firsthand observations. Though she never raised her voice, her message was loud and clear. Her classic petition of 1843 to the Massachusetts legislature, describing cells so foul that visitors were driven back by the stench, turned legislative stomachs and hearts. Her persistent prodding resulted in improved conditions and in a gain for the concept that the demented were not willfully perverse but mentally ill.

Samuel F.B. Morse's telegraph

Was among the inventions that tightened the sinews of an increasingly complex business world. A distinguished but poverty-stricken portrait painter, Morse finally secured from Congress, to the accompaniment of the usual jeers, an appropriation of $30,000 to support his experiment with "talking wires." In 1844 Morse strung a wire forty miles from Washington to Baltimore and tapped out the historic message, "What hath God wrought?" The invention brought fame and fortune to Morse, as he put distantly separated people in almost instant communication with one another. By the eve of the Civil War, a web of singing wires spanned nearly the entire continent, revolutionizing news gathering, diplomacy, and finance.

National (Cumberland) Road

Westerners scored a notable triumph in 1811 when the federal government started construction of the National Road, also known as the Cumberland Road, in honor of its starting point in Cumberland, Maryland. Although construction was interrupted by the War of 1812 and by states' righters' complaints about federal grants for internal improvements, the road reached Vandialia, Illinois, 591 miles to the west, in 1839. Later extensions brought it from Baltimore, on Chesapeake Bay, to the banks of the Mississippi River in St. Louis.

Ballinger-Pinchot scandal 658

When Secretary of Interior Richard Ballinger opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate development, he was sharply criticized by Gifford Pinchot, chief of the Agricultural Department's Division of Forestry and a loyal Rooseveltian. Taft took of Ballinger and dismissed Pinchot on the narrow ground of insubordination. Conservationists and Roosevelt's friends were enraged. This incident did much to divide the Republican party.

Hiroshima, Nagasaki

With Japan still refusing to surrender the Potsdam threat was fulfilled. On August 6, 1945 a lone American bomber dropped one atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, Japan. About 180,000 people were left killed, wounded, or missing. Some 70,000 of them dies instantaneously. Sixty thousand more soon perished from burns and radiation disease. Fanatically resisting Japanese, though facing atomization, still did not surrender. American aviators on August 9th dropped the second atomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki. The explosion took about 80 thousand people killed or missing.

Bracero program

With some exemptions, the draft left the nation's farms and factories so short of personnel that new workers had to be found. An agreement with MExico in 1942 brought thousands of MExican agicultural workers, called braceros, across the border to harvest the fruit and grain crops of the West. The Bracero program outlive dthe war by some twenty years, becoming a fixed feature of the agricultural economy in many western states.

The Great White Fleet

Worried that his intercession might be interpreted in Tokyo as prompted by fear, Roosevelt hit upon a dramatic scheme to impress the Japanese with the heft of his big stick. He daringly decided to send the entire battleship fleet on a highly visible voyage around the world. Late in 1907 sixteen sparkling-white, smoke-belching battleships started from Virginia waters. Their commander pointedly declared that he was ready for "a feast, a frolic, or a fight." The Great White Fleet- saluted by cannonading champagne corks- received tumultuous welcomes in Latin America, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Australia (though it ended up having to borrow coal from British to complete the voyage).

Wyoming suffrage-

Wyoming, also known as the equality state, granted the first unrestricted suffrage to women in 1869. They set the trend for otter states, who many of which had passed laws that at least permitted wives to own or control their property after marriage.

yellow journalism

Yellow journalism is a scandal-mongering practice of journalism that emerged in New York during the Gilded Age out of the circulation battles between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal. The expression has reined a pejorative term referring to sensationalist journalism practiced with unethical, unprofessional standards.

Carl Schurz

Zealous German liberals like the lanky and public-spirited Carl Schurz, a relentless foe of slavery and public corruption, contributed richly to the elevation of American political life.

Pancho Villa

combination of bandit and robin hood. became chief rival to President Carranza. challenged Carranza's authority and punished the jingoes. Villa's men hauled 16 you American mining engineers off a train and killed them in January 1916. month later Villa and followers wanted to provoke a war between wilson and carranza went to New Mexico and murdered another 19 americans

Era of Good Feelings

a time of peace and national expansion, which took place during James Monroe 's two terms serving as President of the United States. Monroe's general purpose for the country was to create a national unity to be proud of. He then set forth to nullify political rivalry and feuding. Following the war of 1812, the people of the United States didn't worry as much about foreign affairs as they did over American Individualism and Nationalism.

War of Independence (American Revolution)

a war fought over the colonists independence against Britain and was a minority movement where many people stayed neutral.

Old Ironsides

an American warship in 1812 the Americans created the super frigate which had thicker sides, heavier fire power, and a larger crew than the original British frigate, was a notable ship in the war of 1812 against the British Navy

free enterprise system

an economic system where few restrictions are placed on a business activities and ownership. In this system governments generally have minimal ownership of enterprises in the market place. This system aims for limited restrictions on trade and minimal government intervention

World Trade Organization (WTO)

an international body to promote and supervise liberal trade among nations. The successor to the General Agreement on tariffs and trade, it marked a key world trade policy achievement of the Clinton administration.

assassination of Lincoln

april 14 1865 at Ford's Theater in Washington. John Wilks Booth slipped behind Lincoln as he sat in his box and hot him in the head. This dramatic death helped ti erase the memory of his shortcomings and caused his nobler qualities to stand out. Some southerners cheered, increasing bitterness in the north

National Banking System

authorized by Congress in 1863; launched partly as a stimulant to the sale of bonds and it was designed to establish a standard currency; was the first step towards a unified banking network since 1836 when Jackson had killed the monster bank; banks that joined the NBS could buy bonds and issue greenbacks

nationalism

bi-product of the war, included North American view of publication in 1815, year of the triumph at New Orleans

General George McClellan

commender of the Union army of the Army of the Potomac, the major union army preoccupied near Washington. HE was a good organizer and drillmaster, and injected splendid moral into the Army of the Potomac. Idolized by his men. He was a perfectionist, not realizing that wars are won by taking risks. He was unhopeful and overcautious, believing the confederates outnumbered him. He never advanced until Lincoln ordered him to.

Marbury v. Madison

controversy had concluded the question of who had the final authority to determine the meaning of the Constitution. Jefferson had tried to allot that right to the individual states but now his cousin promoted the contrary principle of judicial review.This case established that the Supreme Court had the final authority to determine constitutionality.

petroleum

discovered in 1859; led to the rush of "fifty-niners" to Pennsylvania -Rockefeller

Morrill Tariff Act

early 1861 after the south had seceded; this law superseded the low Tariff of 1857 and increased the tax by 5-10%;

consumer capitalism

easy credit, high-volume "fast food" production, , and new forms of leisure marked an emerging affluent lifestyle that soon moved beyond America's borders. Manufacturers, retailers, and advertisers spread American-style consumer capitalism throughout much of the noncommunist world.

First Battle of Bull Run

first major battle in the Civil War and a victory for the South, it dispelled northern illusions of an easy victory

U.S. Sanitary Commission

first organized by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell during the war; trained nurses; collected medical supplies; equipped hospitals; commission work helped many women to acquire the organizational skills and self0confidence that would propel the women's movement forward after the war

Toussaint L'Ouverture

was a self-educated ex-slave and military genius who was betrayed by the French who imprisoned him in a dungeon in France. He did there because it was so cold and made him cough. Before he died he did a lot to set up the sale of Louisiana to the United States. When he was a slave he rebelled which established the first black government in the New World which scared slave owners in the Western Hemisphere.

Macon's Bill No. 2

was aimed at resuming peaceful trade with Britain and France, the act stipulated that if either Britain or France repealed its trade restrictions the United States would reinstate the embargo against the non repealing nation. When Napoleon offered to lift his restrictions on British ports the United States was forced to declare an embargo on Britain which punished the two nations closer to war.

Impressment

was an act of forcibly drafting an individual into military service, employed by the British navy against American seamen in times of war against France. It was a continual source of conflict between Britain and the United States in the early national period.

Embargo Act of 1807

was hastily passed by the Congress that was responding to the presidential lash. This law forbade the export of all goods from the United States whether in American or foreign ships. The embargo embodied Jeffersons ideas of peaceful coercion. If the embargo worked it would vindicate the rights of neutral nations and point to a new way of conducting foreign affairs but if it failed Jefferson feared the Republic would perish. The act placed great strains on the American economy while only marginally affecting its European targets and therefore repealed in 1809

William Henry Harrison

was the governor of Indian territory in 1811. He later became the president. He gathered an army and advanced on Tecumseh's headquarters at the junction of the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers in present-day Indiana.

Andrew Jackson Seminole Attacks

were three conflicts in Florida between various groups of native Americans, collectively known as Seminoles, their allies, and the United States Army. The First Seminole War was from 1817 to 1818. The first conflict with the Seminoles arose out of tension relating to Andrew Jackson's attack on Negro Fort in 1816.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

(RFC) Established in early 1932 by Congress with the initial working capital of half a billion dollars, this agency became a government lending bank. It was designed to provide indirect relief by assisting insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads, and even hard-pressed state and local governments. But to preserve individualism and character, there would be no loans to individuals from this "billion dollar soup kitchen". "Pump-priming" loans by the RFC were no doubt of widespread benefit, through the organization was established many months too late for maximum usefulness.

Cabinet

- A group of the head executive departments (State, Treasury, War, Attorney General) working to help the president make decisions. Meetings gradually involved in Washington administration, secretary of state, treasury, war, navy, interior, agriculture, commerce and labor, defense, health, education, welfare, housing and urban development, transportation, energy, health and human services, education, veteran's affairs, homeland security, attorney general, and postmaster general.

Stephen Austin and Texas settlers

- A new regime in Mexico City thereupon concluded arrangements in 1823, for granting a huge tract of land to Stephen Austin, with the understanding that he would bring into Texas three hundred American families. Immigrants wee to be of the established Roman Catholic faith, get rid of their slaves and upon settlement were to become properly Mexicanized.These two stipulations were largely ignored. Hardy Texas pioneers remained Americans at heart, resenting the trammels imposed by a "foreign" government. They were especially annoyed by the presence of Mexican soldiers, many of whom were ragged ex-convicts.

Sam Adams-

- A second cousin of John Adams, he contributed a potent pen and tongue to the American Revolution as a political agitator and organizer of rebellion. He was the leading spirit in hosting the Boston Tea Party. A failure in the brewing business, he was sent by Massachusetts to the First Continental Congress of 1774. He signed the Declaration of Independence and served in Congress until 1781.

mercantilism-

- A theory that the British authorities embraced. It justified their control over the colonies. Mercantilists believed that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold and silver in its treasury.

John Adams

- Adams was a statesman, diplomat, and a leading advocate of American independence from Great Britain. Well educated, he was an Enlightenment political theorist who promoted republicanism, as well as a strong central government, and wrote prolifically about his often seminal ideas—both in published works and in letters to his wife and key adviser Abigail Adams. Adams was a lifelong opponent of slavery, having never bought a slave.] In 1770 he provided a principled, controversial, and successful legal defense to the British soldiers accused in the Boston Massacre, because he believed in the right to counsel and the "protect[ion] of innocence".

XYZ Affair

- Adams's envoys, reaching Paris in 1797, hoped to meet with Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, the crafty French foreign minister. They were secretly approached by three go-betweens, later referred to as X, Y, and Z in the published dispatches. The French spokesmen, among other concessions, demanded an unneutral loan of 32 million florins, plus what amounted to a bribe of $250,000, for the privilege of merely talking with Talleyrand. These terms were intolerable. The American trio knew that bribes were standard diplomatic devices in Europe, but they gagged at paying a quarter of a million dollars for mere talk, without any assurances of a settlement. Negotiations quickly broke down, and John Marshall, on reaching New York in 1798, was hailed as a conquering hero for his steadfastness. It sent a wave of way hysteria sweeping through the United States, catching up even President Adams. The slogan of the hour became "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." The Federalists were delighted at this unexpected turn of affairs, whereas all expect the most rabid Jeffersonians hung their heads in shame over the misbehavior of their French friends.

Thomas Jefferson

- After Richard Henry Lee made his memorable motion of June 7, Congress appointed a committee to prepare a more formal statement of separation. The task of drafting it fell to Thomas Jefferson, a tall, freckled, sandy-haired Virginia lawyer of thirty-three. Despite his youth, he was already recognized as a brilliant writer, and he measured up splendidly to the awesome assignment.

Declaration of Independence

- After some debate and amendment, the Declaration of Independence was formally approved by the Congress of July 4, 1776. IT might better have been called "the Explanation of Independence" or as one contemporary described it, "Mr. Jefferson's advertisement of Mr. Lee's resolution." The formal Declaration of Independence cleared the air. As Paine predicted, and as events were to proved, foreign assistance could now be solicited with greater hope of success.

Townshend Acts 1767-

- Charles Townshend, man who seized by the control of the British ministry. He persuaded Parliament in 1767 to pass the Townshend Acts. The most important regulations was a light import duty on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. Townshend, seizing on a dubious distinction between internal and external taxes, made this tax, unlike the stamp tax an indirect customs duty payable at American ports.

Washington's Farewell Address

- After the diplomatic and partisan battles of his second term, President Washington decided to reitre. His choice contributed powerfully to establishing a two-term tradition for American presidents. In his Farewell Address to the nation in 1796 (never delivered orally just in newspapers), Washington strongly advised the avoidance of "permanent alliances" like the still-vexatious Franco-American Treaty in 1778. Washington did not oppose all alliances, but favored only "temporary alliances" for "extraordinary emergencies." This was admirable advice for a weak and divided nation in 1796.

Alien Laws and Sedition Act

- Alien laws gave the president the power to deport dangerous foreigners in time of peace and to deport or imprison them in time of hostilities. The Sedition Act was a direct slap at two priceless freedoms guaranteed by the Bill of Rights- freedom of speech and freedom of the press. This law provided that anyone who impeded the policies of the government or falsely deframed its officials, including the president, would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment.

"privateer" ships

- America's infant navy had been laying the foundations of a brilliant tradition. The naval establishment consisted of only a handful of nondescript ships, commanded by daring officers, the most famous Scotsman, John Paul Jones. As events turned, this tiny naval force never made a real dent in Britain's thunderous fleets. Its chief contribution was in destroying British merchant shipping and thus carrying the war into the waters around the British Isles. More numerous and damaging that ships of the regular American navy were swift privateers. These craft were privately owned small ships-legalized pirates in a sense- specifically authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping. Altogether over a thousand American privateers, responded to the call of patriotism and profit, sallied forth with about seventy thousand men (:sailors of fortune"). They captured some six hundred British prizes, while British warships captured about as many American merchantmen and privateers. British shipping was so badly riddled by privateers and by the regular American navy that insurance skyrocketed. Merchant ships were compelled to sail in convoy, and British shippers and manufacturers brought increasing pressure on Parliament to end the ward on honorable terms.

Patriots

- American rebels who defied the king are now Patriots, not loving subjects shooting their way into reconciliation. They must all hang together, Franklin is said to have grimly remarked, or they would all hang separately. They were called "Whigs" after the opposition factions in Britain.

Shays' Rebellion

- An alarming uprising flared up in western Massachusetts in 1786. Impoverished backcountry farmers, many of them Revolutionary War veterans, were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. Led by Captain Daniel Shays, a veteran of the Revolution, these desperate debtors demanded that the state issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspen property takeovers. Hundreds of angry agitators, again seizing their muskets, attempted to enforce their demand. Massachusetts authorities responded with drastic action. Supported partly by contributions from wealthy citizens, they raised a small army. Several skirmishes occurred- at Springfield three Shaysites were killed, and one was wounded- and the movement collapsed. Daniel Shay, who believed that he was fighting anew against tyranny, was condemned to death but was later pardoned.

Denmark Vesey slave rebellion

- Anxiety was growing over the federal interference with the institution of slavery. the congressional debate on the Missouri Compromise had kindled those anxieties, and they were further fanned by an aborted slave rebellion in Charlestown in 1822. It was led by a free black named Denmark Vesey. The South Carolinians, still closely tied to the British West Indies, also knew full well that their slaveowning West Indian cousins were feeling the mounting pressure of British abolitionism on the London government.

daguerreotype

- At the same time, new technologies reframed the artistic landscape. Portrait painters gradually encountered some unwelcome competition from the invention of a crude photograph known as the daguerreotype, perfect about 1839 by a Frenchman, Louis Daguerre. Cheap and easily reproducible lithographs, most notably from the New York City firm of Currier and Ives. offered picturesque scenes and city views to millions of consumers.

List the major parts of the Treaty of Paris of 1783.

- Britain recognized the United States independence - granted generous boundaries -Yankees were to retain fisheries in Newfoundland - Loyalists were to bot be further persecuted and Congress was to recommend that Loyalist property be restored - States vowed to not put lawful obstacles in the way of the collection to long owed debts to British creditors.

King George III-

- By 1770, King George III, was only thirty-two years old, was strenuously attempting to assert the power of the British monarchy. He was a good man in his private morals, but he proved to be a bad ruler. Earnest, industrious, stubborned, and lustful for power, he surrounded himself with cooperative "yes men," notably his corpulent prime minister, Lord North.

theory of nullification

- Calhoun developed a theory of nullification in response to the tariff. He believed that since the states had created the federal government, they had the final authority over the constitutionality of laws!

civic virtue

- Central to republican ideology was the concept of civic virtue- the notion that democracy depend on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good. And who could better cultivate the habits of a virtuous citizenry than mothers, to whom society entrusted the moral education of the young. The selfless devotion of a mother to her family was often cited as the very model of proper republican behavior.

Checks and Balances

- Checks and Balances "is the principle of government under which separate branches are employed to prevent actions by the other branches and are induced to share power." The framers of the constitution for the U.S. saw the policy of checks and balances necessary for the government to run smoothly. Third principle has prevented anyone Branch from taking over the government and making all the decisions.(Having a dictatorship.)

Stamp Act Congress-

- Colonial outcries against the hated stamp tax took various forms. The Stamp Act Congress of 1765, which brought together in New York City twenty-seven distinguished delegates from nine colonies. After dignified debate the members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and beseeched the king and Parliament to repeal the repugnant legislation. The Congress, that was ignored in England, made little splash at the time in America. It brought together around the same table leaders from the different and rival colonies. It was one more halting but significant step toward intercolonial unity.

Loyalists (Tories)

- Colonists loyal to the king. Loyalists were derisively called "Tories," after the dominant political factions in Britain. A popular definition of a Tory among the Patriots betrayed bitterness: " A tory is a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched." Loyalists, numbering 16 percent of the American people, remained true to the king. Families often split over the issue of independence (Example- Ben Franklin and his son William Franklin). Many people of education, wealth, or culture and caution, remained loyal. Loyalists were often more numerous among the elderly. Loyalists also included the king's officers and other beneficiaries of the crown.The Loyalists were most numerous in the Anglican Church. A notable exception was Virginia, where the debt-burdened aristocrats flocked into the rebel camp.The kings followers were in aristocratic New York City and Charleston, and also in Quaker Pennsylvania and New Jersey, where General Washington felt that he was fighting in "the enemy country." While Washington's men were freezing at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania farmers were selling their products to the British for the king's gold. Loyalists were less numerous in New England, where self-government was strong and mercantilism was weak. After the Declaration of Independence the rebels and the Loyalist were separated. Some Loyalist were imprisoned, but there was no reign of terror. About eighty thousand loyal supporters of George III were driven out or fled, but several hundred thousand Loyalists stayed. Some loyalist even offered to fight against the rebels, they were spies, inciting the Indians, and by keeping Patriot soldiers at home to protect their families..

Battle of Trenton

- Disaster came before the Americans in the summer and fall of the 1776. At the Battle of Long Island, General George Washington was lucky for fog and wind his troop and himself made their way to Manhattan Island. He went northward where he crossed the Hudson to New Jersey and finally reached the Delaware River with the British close on his heels. On December 26, 1776, George Washington, who was now almost counted out, recrossed the Delaware River. At Trenton, he surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping off the effects of their Christmas celebration. A week later, leaving his campfires burning as a ruse, he slipped away and inflicted a sharp defeat on a smaller British detachment at Princeton. This brilliant New Jersey campaign, crowned by these two lifesaving victories, revealed "Old Fox" Washington at his military best.

sinking of the Maine

- Early in 1898, Washington sent the battleship Maine to Cuba, ostensibly for a "friendly visit" but actually to protect and evacuate Americans if a dangerous flare-up should occur and to demonstrate Washington's concern for the island's stability. Tragedy struck on February 15,1898, when the Maine mysteriously blew up in Havana harbor, with a loss of 260 sailors. Two investigations of the iron coffin ensured, one by U.S. naval officers and the other by Spanish officials. The Spaniards concluded that the explosion had been internal and presumably accidental; The Americans argued that the blast had been cause by submarine mine. Not until 1976 did the U.S. Navy admiral H.G. Rickover confirm the original Spanish finding with overwhelming evidence that the initial explosion had resulted from spontaneous composition in one of the coal bunkers adjacent to a powder machine.

Bunker (Breed's) Hill

- In June 1775 the colonists seized a hill from which they menaced the enemy in Boston. The British, instead of cutting off the retreat of their foes by flanking them, blundered bloodily when they launched a frontal attack wit three thousand men. Sharpshooting Americans mowed down the advancing redcoats with frightful slaughter. But the colonists' scanty store of gunpowder fin gall gave out, and they were forced to abandon the hill in disorder. With to more such victories, remarked the French foreign minister, the British would have no army left in America.

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

- Fateful 1777 was known as "the bloody year" on the frontier. Although two nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras, sided with the Americans, the Senecas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and Onondadas joined the British. They were urged one by Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, a convert to Anglicanism who believed, not without reason, that a victorious Britain would restrain American expansion into the West. Brant and British ravaged the backcountry of Pennsylvania and New York until checked by an American force in 1779. In 1784 the pro-British Iroquois were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. The first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation.Under its terms the Indians ceded most of their lands.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

- Fearing prosecution for sedition, Jefferson secretly penned a series of resolutions, which the Kentucky legislature approved in 1798 and 1799. His friend James Madison did the same thing in Virginia in 1798. Both Jefferson and Madison stressed the compact theory- a theory popular among English political philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As applied to America by the Jeffersonians, this concept meant that the thirteen sovereign states, in creating the federal government, had entered into a "compact" or contract, regarding its jurisdiction. The Virginia and Kentucky resolutions were a brilliant formulation of the extreme states' rights view regarding the Union. They were later used by southerners to support nullification. Yet neither Jefferson nor Madison, as Founding Fathers of the Union, had any intention of breaking it up; they were groping for ways to preserve it. Their resolutions were basically campaign documents designed to crystallize opposition to the Federalist party and the unseat it in the upcoming presidential election of 1800.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

- General Anthony Wayne routed the Miamis at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The British Refused to shelter Indians fleeing from battle. Abandoned when it counted by their red-coated friends, the Indians soon offered Wayne a peace pipe.

Battle of Saratoga

- General John Burgoyne a British soldier leading a force to separate New England from the rest of the colonies. He was starting to come upon Albany, when he was surrounded by the a host of American militiamen, ready to kill. Burgoyne was unable to advance or retreat, so he was forced to retreat his entire command at Saratoga on October 17,1777, to American general Horatio Gates. Saratoga ranks high among the decisive battles of both American and world history. The victory immensely revived the faltering colonial cause. Even more important, it made possible the urgently needed foreign aid from France, which in turn helped ensure American Independence.

1828 "Old Hickory" Jackson

- He was the first President from the west elected in 1828 over Adams. He did not have a college education. He was a planter who owned many slaves and lived in one of the largest mansions in the nation.

Hamilton's Financial plan

- His plan was to favor the wealthier group to make them lend money to the government and support then, new federal regime would thrive the propertied classes would fatten and the prosperity would trickle down to the masses. Proposed a bank as the capstone.

Thomas Paine's "Common Sense

- In 1776 came the publication of Common Sense, one of the most influential pamphlets ever written. Its author was the radical Thomas Paine, once an impoverished corset-maker's apprentice, who had come over from Britain a year earlier. He began his incendiary tract with a treatise on the nature of government and eloquently anticipated Thomas Jefferson's declaration that the only lawful states were those that derive "their just powers from the son sent of the governed." As for the king, whom the Americans professed to revere, he was nothing but " the Royal Brute of Great Britain," Common Sense became a whirlwind best seller. Within a few months the astonishing total of 120,000 copies were sold.

"Minute Men"-

- In April 1775 the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to Lexington and Concord. There were to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and also to bag the "rebel" ringleaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock. At Lexington the colonial "Minute Men" refused to disperse rapidly enough, and shots were fired that killed eight Americans and wounded several more. The affair was more the "Lexington Massacre" than a battle.

"Olive Branch Petition"

- In July 1775, the Continental Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition. It professed American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities. But following Bunker Hill, King George III slammed the door on all the hope of reconciliation. In August 1775 he formally proclaimed the colonies in rebellion; the skirmishes were now out-and-out treason, a hanging crime. The next month he widened the chasm when he sealed arrangements for rebellious subjects.

Treaty of Greenville

- In the Treaty of Greenville, signed in August 1795, the confederacy gave up vast tracts of the Old Northwest, including most of present-day Indiana and Ohio. In exchange the Indians received a lump-sum payment of $20,000, an annual annuity of $9,000 the right to hunt the lands they had ceded, and most important, what they hoped was recognition of their sovereign status. Although the treaty codified an unequal relationship, the Indians felt that it put some limits on the ability of the United States to decide the fate of Indian peoples.

Trail of Tears

- In the ensuing decade, countless Indians died on force marches- notably the Cherokees along the notorious Trail of Tears- to the newly establish Indian Territory, where they were to "permanently" free of white encroachments.

George Rogers Clark in the Ohio Valley

- In wild Illinois country, the British were especially vulnerable to attack, for they held only scattered posts that they had captured from the French. George Rogers Clark, came up with the idea of seizing the forts by surprise. In 1778-1779 he floated down the Ohio River with about 175 men and captured in quick succession the Forts Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes. Clark's admirers have argued, without positive proof, that kid success force the British to cede the region north of the Ohio River to the United States at the peace table in Paris.

"Mad" Anthony Wayne

- Internet- Anthony Wayne (1 January 1745 - 15 December 1796) was a United States Army officer, statesman, and member of the United States House of Representatives. Wayne adopted a military career at the outset of the American Revolutionary War, where his military exploits and fiery personality quickly earned him promotion to brigadier general and the sobriquet Mad Anthony. He later served as General in Chief of the Army and commanded the Legion of the United States.

Land Ordinance of 1787

- It provided that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. The vast area was to be surveyed before sale and settlement, thus forestalling endless confusion and lawsuits.It was divided into townships, six miles square, each of which in turn was to be split into thirty-six sections of one square mile each. The sixteenth section of each township was set aside to be sold for the benefit of the public schools- a priceless gift to education in the Northwest. The orderly settlement of the Northwest Territory, where the land was methodically surveyed and titles duly recorded, contrasted sharply with the chaos south of the Ohio River , where uncertain ownership was the norm and fraud was rampant. You could not own slaves.

Bureau of Indian Affairs

- It was established in 1836 to administer relations with America's original inhabitants. Nut as the land-hungry "palefaces" pushed west faster than anticipated, the government's guarantees went up in smoke. the "permanent" frontier lasted about fifteen years.

Stamp Act of 1765-

- It was to raise revenues to support the new military force. The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped papers or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment in tax. Grenville regarded all of these measures as reasonable and just. He was asking Americans to pay their share of the costs for their own defense; through taxes that were already familiar in Britain. the British people for two generations had endured a stamp tax far heavier then the one passed for the colonies.

Separation of powers

- It was when constitutional government put three separate branches of government. Each of the three branches would have defined abilities to check the powers of the other branches. This idea was called separation of powers. This philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the United States Constitution, according to which the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of the Unites States government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of the power.

Specie Circular

- Jackson tried to rein in the runaway economy in 1836. "Wildcat" currency had become so unreliable, especially in the West, that Jackson authorized the Treasury to issue a Specie Circular- a decree that required all public lands to be purchases with "hard," or metallic, money. This drastic step slammed the brakes on the speculative boom, a new-snapping change of direction that contributed to a financial panic and crash in 1837. - gold and silver coins. Did not want monopoly money in the treasury.

Jay's Treaty

- John Jay went to London to win concessions with Britain. Britain promised to take troops out of U.S, soil; they also agreed to pay for damages for the recent seizures of American ships. Britain then said that America had to pay the debts still owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary accounts. Jay's Treaty had other unforeseen consequences. Fearing that the treaty foreshadowed an Anglo-American alliance, Spain moved hastily to strike a deal with the United States.

Committees of Correspondence-

- Local committees established across Massachusetts, and later in each of the thirteen colonies, to maintain colonial opposition to British policies through the exchange of letters and pamphlets. One critic referred to the committees as "the foulest, subtlest, and most venomous serpent ever issued from the egg of sedition."

Intolerable (Coercive) Acts 1774-

- Many of the chartered rights of Massachusetts were swept away. Restrictions were likewise placed on the precious town meetings. Contrary to previous practice, enforcing officials who killed colonists in the line of duty could now be sent to Britain for trial. there, they would be likely to get off scot-free. Practically intolerable to Bostonians was a new Quartering Act, which gave local authorities the power to lodge British soldiers anywhere, even in private homes.

Pan-American Conference 1889

- Meetings of the Pan-American Union, an international organization for cooperation on trade and other issues. They were first introduced by James G. Blaine of Maine in order to establish closer ties between the United States and its southern neighbors, specifically Latin America. Blaine hoped that ties between the USA and its southern counterparts would open Latin American markets to U.S. trade. Held in D.C.

Foraker Act

- Of 1900 accorded the Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government (and outlawed cockfighting, a favorite island pastime). Congress granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in 1917 but withheld full self-rule.

Teller Amendment

- On April 11, 1898, Mckinley sent his war message to Congress, urging armed intervention to free the oppressed Cubans. The legislators responded uproariously with what was essentially a declaration of war. In a burst of self-righteousness, they likewise adopted the hand-tying Teller Amendment. This proviso proclaimed to the world that when the United States had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give the Cubans their freedom- a declaration that cause imperialistic Europeans to smile skeptically.

Boston Tea Party-

- On December 16, 1773, roughly 100 Bostonians, loosely disguised as Indians, boarded the docked ships, smashed open 342 chests of tea, and dumped their contents into the Atlantic, and that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party. A crowd of several hundred watched approving from the shore as Boston harbor became a wast teapot.

Crispus Attucks-

- One of the first to die in the Boston Massacre. Described by contemporaries as a powerful built runaway "mulatto" and a leader of the mob.

Republicanism (Ch. 8)

- Paine's passionate protest was as compelling as it was eloquent and radical. It called not simply for independence, but for the creation of a new kind of political society, a republic, where power flowed from the people themselves, not from a corrupt and despotic monarch.

Antifederalists

- People against federalists in 1787; disagreed with the Constitution because they believed people's rights were being taken away without a Bill of Rights; also did not agree with annual elections and the non-existence of God in the government.

"monster" Bank of the United States

- President Jackson did not hate all banks and all businesses, but he distrusted monopolistic banking and overbig business, as did his followers. A man of virulent dislikes, he came to share the prejudices of his own West against the "moneyed monster" known as the Bank of the United States. He saw it as a monster because the national government minted gold and silver coins in the mid-nineteenth century but not issue paper money. Paper notes were printed in private banks. No bank in America had more power than the Bank of the United States. In many ways the bank acted like a branch of government. It was the principal depository for the funds of the Washington government and controlled much of the nation's gold and silver. Its notes, unlike those of many smaller banks, were stable in value. A source of credit and stability, the bank was an important and useful part of the nation's expanding economy.

Affirmative action

- Program designed to redress historic racial and gender imbalances in jobs and education. The term grew from an executive order issued by John F. Kennedy in 1961 mandating that projects paid for with federal funds could not discriminate based on race in their hiring practices. In the late 1960s, President Nixon's Philadelphia Plan changed the meaning of affirmative action to require attention to certain groups, rather than protect individuals against discrimination.

Quartering Act of 1765-

- Resentment kept burning when the Quartering Act was issued. This measure required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.

Valley Forge-

- Shortages bedeviled the rebels. At Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the Americans shivered and went without break for three successive days in the cruel winter of 1777-1778. At a frigid Valley Forge, twenty-eight hundred men were barefooted or nearly naked. Woolens were desperately needed against the wintry blasts, and in general the only real uniform of the colonial army was uniform raggedness. During a grande parade at Valley Forge, some of the officers appeared wrapped in woolen bedcovers.

Articles of Confederation

- Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation. The finished product was the Articles of Confederation. Adopted in 1777, it was translated into French after the Battle of Saratoga so as to convince France that America had a genuine government in the making. The Articles were not ratified by all thirteen colonies until 1781, less than eight months before the victory at Yorktown. The main discord was the western lands. Six of the states were jealous, including Pennsylvania and Maryland, had no holdings beyond the Allegheny Mountains. Seven states, notably New York and Virginia, were favored with enormous acreage, some based off the earlier charters. The states argued about land, and it would not have retained possession of the splendid prize if all the other states had not fought for it also. Unanimous approval of the Articles of Confederation by the thirteen states was required, and land-starved Maryland stubbornly held out until March 1, 1781. The Articles of Confederation provided for a loose confederation or "firm league of friendship." Thirteen independent states were thus linked together for joint action in dealing with common problems, such as foreign affairs, A clumsy Congress was to be the chief agency of government. There was no executive branch- George III and the vital judicial arm was left almost exclusively to the states. Yet the Articles of Confederation was weak, it proved to be a landmark in government. They were for those days a model of what a loose confederation could be. The Articles of Confederation were a significant stepping stone toward the present Constitution. They clearly outlined the general powers that were to be exercised by the central government. The Articles kept alive the flickering ideal of union and held the states together.

"The South Carolina Exposition"

- South Carolinians took the lead in protesting against the "Tariff of Abominations." Their legislature went so far as to publish in 1828, though without formal endorsement, a pamphlet known as The South Carolina Exposition. It had been secretly written by John C. Calhoun, one of the few topflight political theorists ever produced it America. The Exposition denounced the recent tariff as unjust and unconstitutional. Going a stride beyond the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, it blunt and explicitly proposed that the states should nullify the tariff- that is, they should declare it null and void within their borders.

Anti-Imperialist League

- Sprang into being to fight the McKinley administration's expansionist moves. The organization counted among its members some of the most prominent people in the United States, including the presidents of Stanford and Harvard Universities and the novelist Mark Twain. The anti-imperialist blanket even stretched over such strange bed followers as the labor leader Samuel Gompers and the steel titan Andrew Carnegie.

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

- Tariffs protected American industry against competition from European manufactured goods, but they also drove up prices for all Americans and invited retaliatory tariffs on American agricultural exports abroad. In 1824 Congress had increased the general tariff significantly, but wool manufacturers belated for still-higher barriers. Jacksonites promoted a high-tariff bill. The bill passed in 1828. Southerns, as heavy consumers of manufactured goods with little manufacturing industry of their own, were hostile to tariffs. They were particularly shocked by what they regarded as the outrageous rates of the Tariff of 1828. Hot-heads branded it the "Black Tariff" or the Tariff of Abominations. Several southern states adopted formal protests. In South Carolina flags were lowered to half-mast. "Let the New England beware how she imitates the Old."

General George Washington

- The Congress selected George Washington, one of its members already in an officer's uniform, to head the hastily improvised army besieging Boston. This choice was made with considerable misgivings. His largest command had numbered only twelve hundred men and that had been some twenty years earlier. Falling short of true military genius, Washington would actually lose more pitched battles than he won. But the distinguish Washington, was gifted with outstanding powers of leadership and immense strength of character. He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice. HE was a great moral force rather than a great military mind- a symbol and a rallying point.

Electoral College

- The Constitution as drafted was a bundle of compromises; they stand out in every section. A key compromise was the method of electing the president indirectly by the Electoral College, rather than by direct means. While the large states would have the advantage in the first found of popular voting, as a state's share of electors was based on the total of its senators and representatives in Congress, the small states would gain a larger voice if no candidate got a majority of electoral votes and the election was thrown to the House of Representatives, where each state would have, for this purpose only just a single vote. Although the framers of the Constitution expected election by the House to occur, it has happened just twice, in 1800 and 1824.

Articles of Confederation-

- The Continental Congress, which directed the conflict, was hardly mrs than a debating society, and it grew feebler as the struggle dragged on. "Their Congress now is quite disjoint'd." "Since Gibbits (gallows) [are] for them appointed." The disorganized colonists fought almost the entire war before adopting a written constitution- the Articles of Confederation.

Quebec Act 1774-

- The Intolerable Acts were followed by the Quebec Act; it was erroneously regarded in English-speaking America as part of the British reaction to the turbulence in Boston. For many years the British government was trying to decide on how they should deal with the French in Canada. The French were guaranteed their Catholic religion. They were also allowed to retain many of their old customs and institutions, which did not include a representative assembly or trial by jury in civil cases. In addition, the old boundaries of the province of Quebec were now extend southward all the way to the Ohio River.The Quebec Act, from the French viewpoint, was a shrewd and conciliatory measure. IF Britain had only shown as much foresight in dealing with its English-speaking colonies, it might not have lost them.

Second Continental Congress-

- The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, and this time the full slate of thirteen colonies was represented. The conservative element in Congress was still strong, despite the shooting in Massachusetts. There was still no well-defined sentiment for independence- merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances. Congress hopefully drafted new appeals that were spurned. Anticipating a possible measures to raise money and to create an army and a navy. The British and Americans now teetered on the brink of all-out war.

B-29 superbombers

- The US employed B29 Super bombers to carry out round trip bombing raids on Japan's home islands. The assault on the marinas opened in June of 1944, and eventually resulted in the destroying of nearly 250 Japanese aircraft.

Whig Party

- The Whigs- a name deliberately chosen to recollect eighteenth-century British and Revolutionary American opposition to the monarchy. It contained so many diverse elements that it was mocked at first as "an organized incompatibility." The Whigs first emerged as an identifiable group in the Senate, where Clay, Webster, and Calhoun joined forced in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his single-handed removal of federal deposits from the Bank of the United States. Whigs thought of themselves as conservatives, yet they were progressive in their support of active government programs and reforms. - started as anti-Jackson

Hessians (mercenaries)-

- The aroused Americans had brashly rebelled against a mighty empire. The population odds were about three to one against the rebels. The odds in monetary wealth and naval power overwhelmingly favored the mother country. Britain then boasted a professional army of some fifty thousand men. In addition George III also had a treasury of foreign soldiers. Some thirty thousand Germans- Hessians- were ultimately employed. The British enrolled about fifty thousand American Loyalists and enlisted the service of many Indians, who though unreliable fair-weather fighter, inflamed long stretches of the frontier. One British officer boasted that the war would offer no problems that could not be solved by an "experienced sheep herder."

pet bank

- The death of the Bank of the United States left a financial vacuum in the American economy and kicked off a lurching cycle of booms and bust. Surplus federal funds were placed in several dozen state institutions -the so-called pet banks, chosen for their pro-Jackson sympathies. Without a sober central bank in control, the pet banks and smaller "wildcat" banks- fly-by-night operations that often consisted of little more than a few chairs and a suitcase full of printed notes. These banks flooded the nation with paper money.

Election 1832, Jackson v. Clay

- The eclectic of 1832 Jackson v. Clay was a time when Clay was pushing for the bank of the united states charter to be renewed and trap Jackson into renewing it because if he didn't he would be alienating the wealthy and influential groups in the East. Jackson vetoed because the bank was unconstitutional. Henry Clay and Jackson were chief gladiators in the election. Henry Clay got support from the National Republicans and funds and life support of the Bank of the United States. Jackson won the election and a Jacksonian wave again swept over the West and South surged into Pennsylvania and New York and even into New England.

Treaty of Paris, 1783

- The hard-pressed British, eager to entice one of their enemies from the alliance, speedily came to terms with the Americans. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed in 1782; the final peace, the next year. By the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the British formally recognized the independence of the United States. In addition, they granted generous boundaries, stretching majestically to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. The Americans on their part, had to yield important concessions. Loyalists were not to be further persecuted, and Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored. As for the debts long owed to British creditors, the states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of their collection.

republican motherhood

- The idea of "republican motherhood" took root, elevating women to a newly prestigious role as the special keepers of the nation's conscience. Educational opportunities for women expanded, in the expectation that educated wives and mothers could better cultivate the virtues demanded by the Republic in their husbands, daughters, and sons. Republican women now bore crucial responsibility for the survival of the nation.

French "Declaration of the Rights of Man"

- The ideas that inspired the American and French revolutionaries grew from the common heritage of radical eighteenth-century Enlightenment thinking about equality, freedom, and the sovereignty of the people. The French "Declaration of the Rights of Man" deliberately echoed Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence when it said that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights," among which were "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.: Many French thinkers openly credited the American Revolution as the inspiration for their own.

Corrupt Bargain Election 1824

- The last old-style elections was marked by the controversial corrupt bargain in 1824. The woods were full of presidential timber as James Monroe, last of the Virginia Dynasty, completed his second term. Four candidates towered above the others: John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, Henry Clay of Kentucky, William H. Crawford of Georgia, and Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. All four were rivals professed to be "Republicans."

Three-fifths Compromise

- With in the House of Representatives, sectional jealousy happened. They wanted to know if the voteless slaves of the southern states count as a person in apportioning direct taxes and in according representation in the House of Representatives. The South said "yes", as the North replied "no." The North said that slaves were not citizens. As a compromise between total representation and none at all, it was declared that a slave might count as three-fifths of a person.

First Continental Congress 1774-

- The most memorable of the responses to the "Intolerable Acts" was the summoning of the First Continental Congress in 1774. It was to meet in Philadelphia to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances. Twelve of the thirteen colonies, with Georgia alone missing, sent 55 will-respected men, among them Samuel Adams, John Adams, George Washington, and Patrick Henry. Intercolonial frictions were partially melted away by social activity after working hours. The First Continental Congress deliberated for seven weeks from September 5 to October 26. It was not a legislative but a consultative body- a convention rather than a congress. John Adams played a superb role. He swayed his colleagues to a revolutionary course, he helped defeat by the narrowest of margins a proposal by the moderates for a species of American home rule under British direction. After prolonged argument the Congress drew up several dignified papers.

"The Federalists Papers"

- The papers were a collection of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison explaining how the new government/constitution would work. Their purpose was to convince the New York state legislature to ratify the constitution, which it did.

Theodore Roosevelt; Rough Riders

- The rough riders, a part of the invading army, now charged onto the stage of history. This colorful regiment of volunteers, short on discipline but long on dash, consisted largely of western cowboys and other hardy characters, with a prickling of ex-polo pliers and ex-convicts. Commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood, the group was organized principally by the glory-chasing Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned from the Navy Department to serve as lieutenant colonel. He was so nearsighted that as a safeguard he took along a dozen pairs of spectacles, cached in handy spots on his person or nearby.

Sarah and Angelina Grimké

- The talented Grimké sisters championed anti-slavery. - Released their slaves -married a black man - South Carolina had to leave. -Talked to mix gender groups (usually women wee only allowed to talk to women.)

republicanism (ch.9)

- The theory of Republicanism was that the government was under the authority of the people it governs. The power in the peoples hand's is the basis for Democracy. The writers of the constitution used the Republicanism theory.

Northwest Ordinance 1787

- This one relates to the governing of the Old Northwest. This law came to grips with the problem of how a nation should deal with its colonies- the same problem that had bedeviled the king and Parliament in London. The solution provided by the Northwest Ordinance was a judicious compromise: temporary tutelage, then permanent equality. First, there would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government. Then, when a territory would boast sixty thousand inhabitants, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the thirteen charter members. The ordinance also forbade slavery in the Old Northwest. Must be a republic. A republic is where you vote for one representative to be their representatives.

Force Bill

- To the Carolinians it is known as the "Bloody Bill." It authorized the president to use the army and navy, if necessary, to collect federal tariff duties.

Chief Little Turtle

- War chief of the Miamis, gave notice that the confederacy regarded the Ohio River as the United States' northwestern, and their own southeastern border. In 1790 and 1791, Little Turtle's braves defeated armies led by Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair, killing hundreds of soldiers and handing the United States what remained one of its worst defeats in the history of the frontier.

John Quincy Adams

- Was a chip off the family glacier. Short, thickset, and billiard-bald, he was even more frigidly austere than his presidential father, John Adams. Shunning people, he often went for early-morning swims. Essentially a closeted thinker rather than a politician, he was irritable, sarcastic, and tactless. Yet few individuals have ever come to the presidency with a more brilliant record in statecraft, especially in foreign affairs. He ranks as one of the most successful secretaries of state, yet one of the least successful presidents. His nationalistic views game him further woes. Much of the nation was turning away from post-Ghent nationalism and toward states' rights and sectionalism. But Adams went against that. Confirmed nationalist that he was, Adams in his first annual message, urged upon Congress that construction of roads and canals. He renewed George Washington's proposal for a national university and went so far to advocate federal support for an astronomical observatory.

Navigation Laws-

- Was a law passed to regulate the mercantilist system. In 1605, the Navigation Laws were aimed at rival Dutch shippers trying to elbow their way into the American carrying trade. Thereafter all commerce flowing to and from the colonies could be transported only in British (including colonial) vessels.

Panic of 1837

- Was a symptom of the financial sickness of the times. Its basic cause aaas pompano speculation prompted by a mania of get-rich-quickism. Gamblers in western lands were doing a "land-office business" on borrowing capital, much of it in the shaky currency of "wildcat banks." The speculative craze spread to canals, roads, railroads, and slaves. - started with Jackson with Species Circular; but Van Buren was president

nullies us. unionists

- the "nullies" of South Carolina tried strenuously to muster the necessary two-thirds vote for nullification of the tariff in the South Carolina legislature but were blocked by a determined minority of Unionists; they clashed head-on in the state election of 1832; "nullies" emerged with more than a two-thirds majority and the state legislature called for a special convention which solemnly declared the existing tariff to be null and void within South Carolina and even threatened to take South Carolina out of the Union.

Henry David Thoreau

- was Ralph Waldo Emerson's close associate- a poet, a mystic, a transcendentalist, and a nonconformist. Condemning a government that supported slaver, he refused to pay his Massachusetts poll tax and was jailed for a night. A gift prose writer, he is well known for Walden: Or Life in the Woods. The book is a record of his two years of simple existence in a hut that he built on the edge of Walden Pond, near Concord, Massachusetts. Walden epitomized the romantic quest for isolation from society's corruptions. A stiff-necked individualist,he believed that he should reduce his bodily wants so as to gain time to pursue truth through study and meditation. His writings later encourages Mahatma Gandhi to resist British Rule in India and, still later, inspired the development of American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.'s thinking about nonviolence.

French Revolution

-1789. A few weeks after Washington's inauguration, the French Revolution had started. American Revolution had influenced this- overthrowing Louis XVI. The French Revolution entered a more ominous phase in 1792, when France declared war on Austria. Reign of terror began in 1793.

Bill of Rights

-1791. First ten amendments to the constitution, some of the most precious American principles. Freedom of religion, speech, right to bear arms and to be tried, right to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievance, no unusual punishments and arbitrary government seizure of private property.

Spanish-American War, 1898

-Americans were extremely upset with the explosion of the Maine and were mad for war; national war fever burned ever higher, even though American diplomats had already gained Madrid's agreement to Washington's two basic demands" an end to the reconcentration camps and an armistice with Cuban rebels; Mckinley did not hostilities but also did not want Cuba to continue to possess Cuba nor did he want a fully independent Cuba; he eventually yielded and gave the people what they wanted; he also agreed to war because he had little faith in Spain's promises and was worried about Democratic reprisals in the upcoming election of 1900 if he continued to appear indecisive in a time of crisis; he also knew of America's commercial and strategic interests in Cuba; April 11, 1898 McKinley sent his war message to Congress who then declared war

Commodore Dewey; the Philippines

-Commodore Dewey was commanding the American Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong; while Navy Secretary John D. Long was away, assistant secretary Theodore Roosevelt ordered Dewey to descend upon the Spanish Philippines in the event of war; Pres. McKinley confirmed Roosevelt's instructions even though an attack in the distant Far East seemed like a strange way to free nearby Cuba; May 1, 1898- Dewey carried out his orders; he sailed 6 warships at night into the fortified harbor of Manila, trained his guns the next morning on the moldy ten ship Spanish fleet; the entire collection of antiquated and overmatched vessels was quickly destroyed with a loss of nearly 400 Spaniards and not a single loss of an American life; Dewey did not storm the dots of Manila right away and he waited for reinforcements; he captured the fort on August 13 with the Filipino insurgents commanded by their well-educated, part-Chinese leader Emilio Aguinaldo; through the events in the Philippines, it was a thought that Hawaii might be taken by Japan while America was distracted; a treaty of annexation was sent to DC and approved by McKinley on July 7, 1898; it granted Hawaiian residents US citizenship and Hawaii received full territorial status in 1900;

Cuba, "The Butcher" Weyler

-Cuba was highly misgoverned and the people revolted against Spain in 1895; the island's prosperity had been crippled by America's restoration of a high tariff; the insurgents sought to drive eon their Spanish overlords by adopting a scorched-earth policy; they torched cane fields, sugar mills, and dynamited passenger trains; this alarmed Americans as they had invested $50 million in Cuba and had an annual trade stake of about $100 million at risk; fuel was added to the aggravation when in 1896 General "Butcher" Weyler arrived; he undertook to crush the rebellion by herding many civilians into barbed wire reconcentration camps, where they could not tie assistance to the armed insurrectos; lacking proper sanitation the enclosures had turned into deadly pesthole where the victims died like dogs

Filipino insurrection, Emilio Aguinaldo

-February 4, 1899 under Emilio Aguinaldo; the US was now forced to deploy some 126,000 troops ten thousand miles away to rivet shackles onto a people who asked for nothing but freedom- in the american tradition; the Filipino rebels soon melted into the jungle to wage vicious guerrilla warfare; the Filipinos were now seen as dangerous enemies of the US; this shift contributed to eh race war which both sides perpetrated sordid atrocities; US soldiers adopted the water cure- forcing water down victims' throats until they yielded information or died; American-built reconcentration camps rivaled those of "Butcher" Weyler in Cuba; the Americans broke back the insurrection in 1901 went hey cleverly infiltrated a guerrilla camp and captured Aguinaldo; sporadic fighting dragged on for many dreary months after

Allied Powers

-France -Britain -Russia -Japan - then Italy changes after they notice Central powers won't win. - then America towards the end of the war.

Central Powers

-Germany -Austria-Hungary -Turkey -Italy

Hawaii, Pearl Harbor, Queen Liliuokalani

-Hawaii was a way station and provisioning point to Yankee shippers, sailors, and whales; Americans gradually came to regard the Hawaiian Islands as a virtual extension of their own coastline; 1887- US tightened their grip on Hawaii by a treaty with the native government guaranteeing priceless naval-base rights at spacious Pearl Harbor; after the McKinley Tariff raised barriers against the sugar crop in Hawaii, American planters renewed their efforts to secure the annexation but were blocked by the strong-willed Queen Liliuokalani, who insisted that native Hawaiians should control the islands; a small but successful revolt was organized in 1893 and illegally aided by American troops who went under orders of the expansionist American minister in Honolulu; they sent a treaty of annexation to Washington, but before it reached DC Harrison's term was up and Cleveland took office; he had thought that the Americans had wronged Queen Liliuokalani and withdrew the treaty; however, Hawaii was acquired in 1898

Sugar Act of 1764-

-Prime Minister George Grenville triggered resentment of the colonists in 1763 by ordering the the British to begin strictly enforcing the Navigation Laws. He also secured from Parliament the so-called Sugar Act of 1764. This was the first law ever passed by the crown. Among various provisions, it increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies. After bitter protest, the duties were lowered and the distressed settled down.

women's suffrage (Amendment 19)

-This Constitutional amendment, finally passed by Congress in 1919 and ratified in 1920, gave women the right to vote over seventy years after the first organized calls for womens suffrage in Seneca Falls, New York. This amendment came about due in large part to the increased role of women in the war effort. Some served in the armed services, others worked as nurses for the soldiers, and those that couldn't work overseas raised money and grew gardens at home. Wilson eventually endorsed women's suffrage, which was a major factor in the eventual ratification of this amendment.

Guam; Puerto Rico; the Philippines

-the Philippines: Guam had been captured early on in the conflict from the Spaniards who had not known war was on; Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the US as payment for war costs; the Philippines posed a problem; the islands embraced an area larger than the British Isles but also contained an ethnically diverse population of some 7 million souls; McKinley did not feel that America could honorably give the islands back to Spanish misrule; he also thought if they picked up the anchor and sailed away they would be giving up its responsibilities in a cowardly fashion; he did not want the Filipinos to fall into anarchy or have one of the major powers seize the islands; he decided the best way to was to acquire all the Philippines and maybe give them their freedom later; the armistice signed the day before Manila had been captured had caused the US to pay Spain $20 million for the islands and they were annexed

Hearst, Pulitzer, yellow journalism

-the horrors occurring in Cuba were influential on the yellow journalism of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer; they tried to outdo each other with screeching headlines and hair-raising scoops; some stories were invented; Hearst sent the gifted artist Frederic Remington to Cuba to draw sketches; Remington depicted Spanish customs officials brutally disrobing and searching an American woman; most readers of Hearst's Journal, their indignation soaring had no way of knowing that such tasks were performed by female attendants; he also sensationally publicized a private letter from the Spanish minister in DC, Dupuy de Lôme; his resignation and further infuriated the American public;

Agricultural Adjustment Act AAA

A New Deal program designed to raise agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm. It was based on the assumption that higher prices would increase farmers' purchasing power and thereby help alleviate the Great Depression. THe AAA would eliminate price depressing surpluses by paying growers to reduce their crop acreage. THe AAA's mass slaughter and misuse of pigs led to tension and the overall unhappiness with the act led to its end in 1936 when the Supreme Court declared its regulatory taxation provisions unconstitutional.

Ex parte Milligan

A United States Supreme Court case that ruled that the application of military tribunals to citizens when civilian courts are still operating is unconstitutional.

Second Great Awakening

A boiling reaction against the growing liberalism in religion set in about 1800. A fresh wave of roaring revivals, beginning on the southern frontier but soon rolling even into the cities of the Northeast, sent the Second Great Awakening surging across the land. Sweeping up even more people that the First Great Awakening almost a century earlier, the Second Great Awakening was one of the most momentous episodes in the history of American history. This tidal wave of spiritual fervor left in its wake countless converted souls, many shattered and reorganized churches, and numerous new sects. It also encouraged an effervescent evangelicalism that bubbled up into innumerable areas of American life- including prison reform, the temperance cause, the women's movement, and the crusade to abolish slavery.

Horace Mann

A brilliant and idealistic graduate of Brown University. As secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, he campaigned effectively for more and better schoolhouses, longer school terms, higher pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum. His influence radiated out to other states, and impressive improvements were chalked up. Yet education remained an expensive luxury for many communities. As late as 1860, the nation counted only about a hundred public secondary schools- and nearly a million white adult illiterates.

Black Monday

A cold spasm of fear struck the money markets on Black Monday, October 19,1987, when the leading stock market index plunged 508 points- the largest one day decline in history to that point. According to Newsweek this crash heralded the final collapse of the money culture, the death kennel of the 1980's. But the announcement proved premature.

Fordney-McCumber Tariff

A comprehensive bill passed to protect domestic production from foreign competitors. As a direct result, many European nations were spurred to increase their own trade barriers. Lobbyists once more descended upon Washington and helped boost schedules from the average of 27 percent under the Underwood Tariff of 1913 to an average 38.5 % which was almost as high as Taft's Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909. Duties on farm produce were increased, and the principle was proclaimed that the general rates were designed to equalize the cost of American and foreign production.

Hoover's "trickle down" policy

A compromise between the old hands-off philosophy and the "soul destroying" direct dole then being used in England. He would assist the hard-pressed railroads, banks, and rural credit corporations, in the hope that if financial health were restored at the top of the economic pyramid, unemployment would be relieved at the bottom on a trickle-down basis Hoover proved that the old bootstrap-pulling techniques would no longer work in a crisis of this magnitude, especially when people lacked boots.

suburbs

A migration from the cities to the suburbs was to swift and massive that by the mid-1990s a majority of Americans were suburban dwellers. Jobs too became suburbanized. Some suburbanized neighborhoods walled themselves behind elaborate security systems. They were becoming gradually more diverse though. Suburbs grew fastest in the West and Southwest. The outer orbits of Los Angeles, San Diego, Las Vegas, and Phoenix, builders of roads, water mains, and schools could barely keep up with the new towns sprouting across the hardscrabble landscapes. Newcomers came from nearby cities and from other regions of the US.

Scalawags and carpetbaggers

A native white Southerner who collaborated with the occupying forces during Reconstruction, often for personal gain; A Northerner who went to the South after the Civil War and became active in Republican politics, especially. so as to profiteer from the unsettled social and political conditions of the area during Reconstruction.

Republican Party

A new party organized by the opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It was founded by anti-slavery activists in 1854 in the Middle West, protesters of the gains of slavery. It spread with the swiftness of a religious crusade. Never being a third-party, it elected a Republican Speaker of the House of Representatives within two years. As a sectional party, it was not allowed south of the Mason-Dixie line where countless southern attitudes consisted of only digest for the party. The Union was in peril. -Jackson Michigan

Bakke Court decision

A white Californian made headlines when his application to medical school was denied because of an admissions program that favored minorities. With a close decision the Supreme Court ordered that the University of California at Davis medical school to admit Bakke and declared that preference in admissions could not be given to any group, minority, or majority, on the basis of ethnic or racial identity alone. At the same time the court said that racial factors may be taken into account in a school's overall admission policy for the purpose of assembling a diverse student body.

Rosa Parks

African Americans refused to suffer in silence. On a chilly day in December 1955, Rosa Parks, a college-educated black seamstress, made history in Montgomery, Alabama. She boarded a bus, took a seat in the "whites only" section, and refused to give it up. Her arrest for violating the city's Jim Crow statutes sparked a year-long black boycott of city buses and served notice throughout the South that blacks would no longer submit meekly to the absurdities and indignities of segregation.

romanticism

After 1820 a confident consort of young American authors finally began to answer the call of an authentic national literature. Their rise corresponded with the wave of nationalism rolling the War of 1812 and the arrival of romanticism on American shores. Conceived as a reaction against the hyper-rational Enlightenment, romanticism originated in the revolutionary salons of continental Europe and England. In direct contrast to neoclassicism, romanticism emphasized imagination over reaction, nature over civilization, intuition over calculations, and the self over society. Emotion, expression and experimentation were core values. Upsetting the restrained, clocklike universe of the eighteenth-century philosophes, nineteenth-century romantics elevated primal nature in all its sublime and picturesque glory. They celebrated human potential and prized the heroic genius of the individual artist. Infused with romantic energy, American literature flowered in the mid-nineteenth century as never before.

Freedom Riders

After he wave of sit-ins that surged across the South in 1960, groups of Freedom Riders fanned out to end segregation in facilities serving interstate bus passengers. A white mob torched a FreedomRude riot in Anniston, Alabama, in May 1961, and Attorney General Robert Kennedy's personal representative was beaten unconscious in another anti-Freedom Ride riot in Montgomery. When southern officials proved unveiling or unable to stem the violence, Washington dispatched federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders.

Treaty of Versailles

After many weeks of debate, the completed Treaty of Versailles was given to the Germans in June 1919. Germany had surrendered hopes of peace based on the Fourteen Points because they were excluded from negotiations in Paris. Only four of the original points were fully honored in the treaty, which was focused on vengeance in place of reconciliation. The attitudes of this treaty and the reaction of the Germans would later lead to the rise of Adolf Hitler. During the creation of the treaty, the Allies found themselves with conflicting interests and underlying complications due to secret treaties. Wilson was forced to compromise away some of the Fourteen Points to save the League. He was not pleased with the results, and was seen as a fallen idol. The treaty did succeed in liberating millions of minority peoples.

West Germany/East Germany

Along with Austria, Germany had been divided into four military occupation zones, each assigned to one of the Big our powers (France, Berlin, America, and the USSR).The Western Allies refused to allow Moscow to bleed their zones of the reparations that Stalin insisted he had been promised at Yalta. Before long, it was apparent that Germany would remain indefinitely divided. West Germany eventually became an independent country. East Germany became a part of the USSR.

Alliance of Progress

Although the United States regarded Latin America as its backyard, its southern neighbors feared and resented the powerful Colossus of the North. In 1961 Kennedy extended the hand of friendship with the alliance for Progress, hailed as a Marshall Plan for Latin America. A primary goal was to help the Good Neighbors close the gap between the callous rich and the wretched poor, and thus quiet communist agitation. But results were disappointing; there was little alliance and even less progress. American handouts had little positive impact on Latin America's immense social problems.

Compromise of 1850

Although this compromise was satisfactory to many southerners and northerners, more radical men of each side loudly denounced it. Although it provided a temporary peace and peace-loving unionists gladly accepted it, it did little to settle the escalating dispute over slavery. -5 separate bills passed

containment doctrine

America's strategy against the Soviet Union based on ideas of George Kennan, a brilliant t young diplomat and Soviet specialist. The doctrine declared that the Soviet Union and communism were inherently expansionist and had to be stopped from spreading through both military and political pressure. Containment guided American foreign policy throughout most of the Cold War.

Commodore Matthew Perry

American Naval Officer sent by Millard Fillmore to negotiate a trade deal with Japan. Backed by an impressive naval fleet, Perry showered Japanese negotiators with lavish gifts. Combining military boldness with diplomatic skill, he negotiated the landmark Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, ending Japan's two centuries of isolation. - Brother of... War 1812 -Japan is Xenophobia-hated foreigners

Food Administration

American needed to feed itself and its allies. Herbert C. Hoover, a hero because of his drive to feed the starving people of war-racked Belgium, was chosen to head the Food Administration. Hoover preferred to rely on voluntary compliance, rejecting ration cards which was a practice used in Europe. He waged a propaganda campaign with posters, billboards, newspapers, pulpits, and movies. He proclaimed wheatless Wednesdays and meatless Tuesdays on a completely voluntary basis. "Victory gardens" became widespread, and Congress restricted the use of food for manufacturing alcoholic beverages. Because of the patriotic spirit Americans had, Hoover's voluntary approach was successful. Farm production increased by one-fourth and food exports to the Allies tripled.

Anti-Semitism, Kristallnacht

Anti-Semitism is a feeling of hatred towards Jews. German for the "night of broken glass" Kristallnacht refers to the murderous pogrom that destroyed Jewish businesses and synagogues and sent thousands to concentration camps on the night of November 9, 1938. Thousands more attempted to find refuge in the US, but were ultimately turned away due to restrictive immigration laws.

Mason-Dixon Line (Dixe)

Antislavery sentiment was not unknown in the South, and in the 1820s antislavery societies were more numerous south of the Mason-Dixon Line than north of it. But after 1830, the voice of white southern abolitionism was silenced. In a last gasp of southern questioning of slavery, the Virginia legislature debated and eventually defeated various emancipation proposals in 1831-1832.

Osama bin Laden; Al Qaeda

Arabic for "the Base," an international alliance of anti-western Islamic fundamentalist terrorist organizations founded in the late 1980s. Founded by veterans of Afghan struggle against the Soviet Union, the group headed Osama Bin Laden and has taken responsibility for numerous terrorist attacks, especially after late 1990s. Al Qaeda organized the attacks of 9/11, in the U.S, from its headquarters in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Since the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the launch of the "Global War on Terror," the group has been weakened, but still poses significant threats around the world.

Article X (ten) of the League Covenant

Article X made by the league of Nations alarmed Senator Lodge and other critics because it morally bound the US to aid any member victimized by external aggression. A jealous Congress wanted to reserve for itself the constitutional war declaring power.

buying stock "on margin"

As the 1920s lurched forward, everybody seemed to be buying stocks "on margin"- that is, with a small down payment. BArbers, stenographers, and elevator operators cashed in on "hot tips" picked up while on duty. One valet was reported to have parlayed his wages into a quarter of a million dollars. "The cash register crashed the social register," as rags-to-riches Americans reverently worshiped at the altar of the ticker-tape machine. So powerful was the intoxicant of quick profits that few heeded the warnings raised in certain quarters that this kind of tinsel prosperity could not last forever.

Human Genome Project

As the curtain rose on the new century, scientists stood at the threshold of a revolution in biological engineering. The Human Genome Project established the DNA sequencing of the thirty thousand human genes, pointing the way to radical new medical therapies- and to mouthwatering profits for bioengineering firms.

Counterculture

As the decade flowed in to the 1970s, the flower children grew older and had children of their own, the civil rights movements fell silent, the war ended, and economic stagnation blighted the bloom of prosperity. Young people in the !970s seemed more concerned with finding a job in the system than with tearing the system down. But if the "counterculture" had not managed fully to replace older values, it had weakened their grip perhaps permanently.

Senator Nye committee

As the gloomy 1930s lengthed, an avalanche of lurid articles and books condemning the munitions manufacturers as war-fomenting "merchants of death" poured from American presses. A Senate committee, headed by Senator Gerald Nye of North Dakota, was appointed in 1934 to investigate the "blood business.: By sensationalizing evidence regarding America's entry into World War I, the senatorial probers tended to shift the blame away from the German submarines onto the American bankers and arms manufacturers.

Attorney General Palmer

Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, who "saw red" too easily, earned the title of the "Fighting Quaker" by his excess of zeal in rounding up suspects. They ultimately totaled about six thousand. this drive to root out radicals was redoubled in June 1919, when a bomb shattered both the nerves and the Washington home of Palmer. The "Fighting Quaker" was thereupon dubbed the "Quakering Fighter."

Emergency Banking Relief Act

Banking chaos cried aloud for immediate action. Congress pulled itself together and in an incredible eight hours had the Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933 ready for Roosevelt's busy pen. The new law invested the president with the power to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange and to reopen solvent banks.

Fourteenth Amendment

Because the three-fifths compromise was not in affect anymore, the South's representation in Congress and the Electoral College increased. Republicans now feared that the Southerners might one day win control of Congress and repeal the hated civil rights law. So the lawmakers passed all the ideas of the Civil Rights law into the 14th Amendment. The proposed amendment, approved by Congress and sent to the states in June of 1866, and ratified in 1868, was among the most sweeping amendments ever passed, and proved to be a major pillar of constitutional law ever after. It conferred civil rights, including citizenship but excluding the franchise, on the freedmen; reduced proportionally the representation of a state in Congress and the Electoral College if it denied blacks the ballot; disqualified from federal and state office former Confederates who as federal officeholders had once sworn "to support the Constitution of the US"; and guaranteed the federal debt, while repudiating all Confederate debts

oligarchy (planter aristocracy)

Before the Civil War, the South was in some respects not so much a democracy but an oligarchy- or a government by the dew, in this case heavily influenced by a planter aristocracy. In the 1850 only 1733 families owned more than one hundred slaves each, and this select group provided the cream of the political and social leadership of the section and nation. Here was the mint-julep South of the tall-columned and white-painted plantation mansions-the "big house," where dwelt the "cottonocracy." The planters aristocrats, with their blooded horses and Chippendale chairs, enjoyed a lion's share of southern wealth. They could educate their children in the finest schools, often the the North or abroad. Their money provided the leisure for study, reflection, and statecraft, as was notably true of men like John C. Calhoun and Jefferson Davis. They felt a keen sense of obligation to serve the public. It was no accident that Virginia and the other southern states produced a higher proportion of front-rank statesmen before 1860 than the "dollar-grubbing" North. - 1/4 owned slaves

Korean War

Began in 1950 when the Soviet Union approved of North Korea's strike plan and the Security Council called upon all U.N members including the US to "render every assistance" to restore peace. Two days later Truman, without consulting Congress ordered American air and naval units to support South Korea. Before the week was out Truman also ordered General MacArthur's Japan-based occupation troops into action alongside the South Koreans. Officially the US was participating in a UN "police action" but in fact the US made up the overwhelming bulk of UN contingents. General MacArthur was appointed UN commander of the entire operation and took orders from Washington, not from the Security Council.

utopian movement

Bolstered by the utopian spirit of the age, various reformers, ranging from the high-minded to the "lunatic fringe," set up more than forty communities of a cooperative, communistic, or "communitarian" nature. In 1825 a communal society of about a thousand people at New Harmony, Indiana was founded by Robert Owen. Little harmony prevailed in the colony, which, in addition to hard-working visionaries, attracted a sprinkling of radicals, work-shy theorists, and outright scoundrels. The colony sank in a morass of contradiction and confusion. Brook Farm in Massachusetts, comprising two hundred acres of grudging soil, was started in 1841 with the brotherly and sisterly cooperation of about twenty intellectuals committed to the philosophy of transcendentalism. They prospered reasonably well until 1846, when they lost by fire a large new communal building shortly before its completion. The whole venture in "plain living and high thinking" then collapsed in debt. The Brook Farm experiment inspired Nathaniel Hawthorne's classic novel The Blithedale Romance. The Oneida Community was founded in New York in 1848. It practiced free love, birth control, and the eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring. This curious enterprise flourished for more than thirty years, largely because its artisans made superior steel traps and Oneida Community (silver) Plate.

transcontinental railroad

British encroachment in Central America led America and New Granada (later Columbia) to make a treaty in 1848. Washington received the right of transit across the isthmus in return to pledge "perfect neutrality" of the route so that the "free transit of traffic might not be interrupted." This treaty led to the first "transcontinental" railroad. It was finally completed in 1855 with loss of many workers lives to the pestilence of the jungle and accidents caused by the building. It ran forty-eight miles from coast to coast through the Panamanian jungle.

Atlantic Charter

British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly met with Roosevelt on a war ship off the fogs coast of Newfoundland. this was where the first series of history-making conferences between the two statesmen for the discussion of common problems (including the menace of Japan in the Far East). An eight point charter was formally accepted by Roosevelt and Churchill and endorsed by the Soviet Union later that year. It was condemned by isolationists and others hostile to Roosevelt. What right, they charged, had "neutral" America to confer with belligerent Britain on common policies? Such critics, issued the point: the nation was intact no longer neutral.

Soviet Union "sphere of influence"

By maintaining an extensive Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern and Central Europe, the USSR could protect itself and consolidate its revolutionary base as the world's leading communist country. To many Americans, that "sphere of influence" looked like an ill-gained "empire." Doubting that Soviet goals were purely defensive, they remembered that earlier Bolshevik call for world revolution. Stalin's emphasis on "spheres" also clashed with Franklin Roosevelt's Wilsonian dream on an "open world," decolonized, demilitarized, with strong international organization to oversee global peace.

sweatshops; Florence Kelly

Campaigns for factory reform and temperance particularly attracted women foot soldiers. Unsafe and unsanitary sweatshops- factories where workers toiled long hours for low wages- were a public scandal in many cities. Florence Kelley, a former resident of Jane Addam's Hull House, became the State of Illinois's first chief factory inspector and one of the nation's leading advocates for improved factory conditions. In 1899 Kelley took control of the newly founded National Consumers League, which mobilized female consumers to pressure for laws safeguarding women and children in the workplace.

Carnegie's gospel of wealth

Carnegie believed that the wealthy entrusted with society's riches had to prove themselves morally responsible according to a "Gospel of Wealth". This moral conduct that he expected wasn't really reciprocated.

Carnegie, Morgan, United States Steel

Carnegie was a man who worked his way out of poverty into creating a company that produce one fourth of the nations steel. JP Morgan was a man who plunged away at manufacturing steel pipe tubing. Carnegie threatened to invade the same business, in hopes of selling his holdings. After agonizing debates, Carnegie won over $400 million of which only $50 million he did not give away. Using the Carnegie holdings, Morgan launched the United States Steel Corporation. This was important to history because it was America's first billion dollar corporation (1.4 billion).

Camp David Agreement 1978

Carter's most spectacular foreign-policy achievement came in September 1978 when he invited President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel to a summit conference at Camp David, the woodsy presidential retreat in the Maryland highlands. Skillfully serving as go-between, Carter persuaded the two visitors to sign an accord that held considerable promise of peace. Israel agreed in principle to withdraw from territory conquered in the 1967 war, and Egypt in return promised to respect Israel's borders. Both parties pledged themselves to sign a formal peace treaty within three months.

cash crops

Cash crops became the concentration for farmers. These farmers would use their profits from the cash crops to buy foodstuffs from a general store and manufactured goods in town or by mail order. Farmers were now beaching both consumers an producers in the world economy, as their crops journeyed by rail and ship to distant parts of the globe.

Fidel Castro

Castro engineered a revolution that ousted Batista, Castro then denounced the Yankee imperialists and began to expropriate valuable American properties in pursuing a land-distribution program. Washington, losing patience finally released Cuba from "imperialistic slavery" by cutting off the heavy US imports of Cuban sugar. Castro retaliated with further wholesale confiscations of Yankee property and in effect made his left-wing dictatorship an economic and military satellite of Moscow, to the Kremlin's delighted surprise. An exodus of anti-Castro Cubans headed for the US espically Florida.

Prohibition; Amendment 18

Caught up in the crusade, some states and numerous counties passed "dry" laws, which controlled, restricted, or abolished alcohol. The big cities were generally "wet," for they had a large immigrant vote accustomed in the Old Country to the free flow of wine and beer. When World War I erupted in 1914, nearly one-half of the population lived in "dry" territory, and nearly three-fourths of the total area had outlawed saloons. Demon Rum was groggy and about to be floored- temporarily- by the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919.

United Farm Workers, Cesar Chavez

Cesar Chavez was a soft spoon and charismatic fame laborer who headed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee. This organization worked to improve working conditions for the mostly Chicano (Mexican American) stoop laborers who followed the cycle of planting and harvesting across the American West (Chicanos were often taken advantage of and used as cheap labor).

Christian Fundamentalism

Christian Fundamentalism is a Protestant Church movement emphasizing the literal truth of the Bible and opposing religious modernism, which sought to reconcile religion and science. It was especially strong in the Baptist Church and the Church of Christ, first organized in 1906. Fundamentalists originated out of the birthing of the science and progressive education movement in the 1920s. These devoted religionists charged that the teaching of Darwinian evolution was destroying faith in God and the Bible, while contributing to the moral breakdown of youth in the jazz age. The made numerous attempts to secure laws prohibiting the teaching of evolution. The absurdity of the "monkey trial" may have cast shame and ridicule on to their organization, but Fundamentalism continued to play a strong part in American spiritual life.

Clays "American System"

Clay was a Political Scientist during the 1820's. He was also a Congressman from Kentucky. He developed the American System which US adopted after the War of 1812. The American System created a protective tariff to American Markets. It also used the tariff to build road and canal for better transportation. (The American System started a cycle to trading for US market)

Navajo code talkers

Code Talkers were Native American men who served in the military by transmitting radio messages in their native languages, which were undecipherable by German and Japanese spies.

Colonel Custer's 7th Cavalry

Colonel Custer's 7th Cavalry (nearly half of them immigrants) set out to suppress the Indians and to return them to the reservation. Attacking a superior force of some 2500 well armed warriors at Little Bighorn River. Colonel Custer's cavalry failed, along with two other sets of reinforcements that were sent.

Amendment 18 (Prohibition)

Congress restricted the use of foodstuffs for the manufacturing of alcoholic beverages. This and the war spirit of self-denial accelerated the movement for prohibition that was spreading across the nation. Also, since many leading brewers were German-descended, the drive against alcohol gained even more popularity. The reformers temporarily had their dream when in 1919 the Eighteenth Amendment was passed, prohibiting all alcoholic drinks.

Securities and Exchange commission SEC (1934)

Congress took further steps to protect the people against fraud, (previously the Federal Securities Act) deception, and inside manipulation. It authorized the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which was designed as a watchdog administrative agency. Stock markets henceforth were to operate more as trading marts and less as gambling casinos.

War Powers Act

Congressional opposition to the expansion of presidential war-making powers by Johnson and Nixon led to the War Powers Act in November 1973. Passed over Nixon's veto, it required the president to report to Congress within forty-eight hours after committing troops to a foreign conflict or "substantially" enlarging American combat units in a foreign country. Such a limited authorization would have to end within sixty days unless Congress extended it for thirty more days.

conscription; "doughboys"

Conscription was the only answer to the need for raising an immense army with all possible speed. Wilson (as did many other Americans) disliked a draft but eventually accepted it and eloquently supported conscription as a disagreeable and temporary necessity. The proposed draft bill immediately ran into a barrage of criticism in Congress. A Missouri congressman cried out in protest that there was "precious little difference between conscription and a convict". Prophets of doom predicted that on draft-registration day the streets would run red with blood. After six weeks since declaring war gradually got around to passing conscription. Required all males between 18-45, no "draft dodger" could purchase his exemption or hire a substitute. No blood-shed took place on that day and rather a patriotic pilgrimages to flag-draped registration centers. Despite precautions many did escape the draft and other conscientious objectors excused. For the first time women were admitted into the armed forces and blacks also served but in strictly segregated units and usually under white officers. Military authorities also hesitated to train blacks for combat and they often were assigned to "construction battalions" or unloaded ships.

"Silent Cal" Calvin Coolidge

Coolidge was sworn in by his father after receiving news of Harding's death. He embodied the New England virtues of honesty, morality, industry, and frugality. He became to be known Silent Cal after his practices of a rigid economy in both money in words, and his brilliant flashes of silence in Washington conversational circles. He may have been shy, but he was blessed with mediocre powers of leadership, which eventually led him to stick with the status quo.

King Cotton in the South

Cotton became very high in demand after the creation of the cotton gin, and the South was tied down. The southern blacks were forced into the tedious job of picking cotton and using the cotton gin. Slave-driving planters are clearing more land for cotton growing. Would lead to the start of the Industrial Revolution.

Lyndon Johnson (LBJ)

Craggy faced Lyndon Baines Johnson, a Texan who towered six feet three inches. The new president hailed fron the populist hill country west of Austin, Texas, whose people had first sent him to Washington as a twenty-nine-year-old congressman in 1937. FDR was his political "Daddy," Johnson claimed, and he had supported New Deal measures down the line. But when LBJ lost a Senate race in 1941, he learned the sobering lesson that liberal political beliefs did not necessarily win elections in Texas. He trimmed his sails to the right and squeezed himself into a Senate seat in 1948 with a questionable eighty-seven-vote margin-hence the ironic nickname "Landslide Lyndon."

urban crime

Crime was a major problem in the cities The rate of violent crimes committed in cities reached an all time high in the drug infested 1980s and then leveled off in the early 1990s. Nevertheless, murders, robberies, and rapes continued to be shockingly common. This contributed to the continued migration into the suburbs.

German Kaiser Wilhelm II

Crowned in 1888, he dismissed the Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose "New Course" in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914 that led in a matter of days to the First World War. Bombastic and impetuous, he sometimes made tactless pronouncements on sensitive topics without consulting his ministers, culminating in a disastrous Daily Telegraph interview that cost him most of his power in 1908. His top generals dictated policy during the First World War with little regard for the civilian government. An ineffective war leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in November 1918, and fled to exile in the Netherlands

Battle of the Bulge (Map on pg. 816)

December 1944-January 1945 Hitler secretly concentrating one last throw of his reserves hurled it on December 16, 1944, against the thinly healed American lines in the heavily befogged and snow-shrouded Ardennes Forest. His objective was the Belgian port of Antwerp, key to the Allied supply operation. Caught off guard the outmanned Americans were driven back, creating a deep "bulge" in the Allied line. The ten day penetration was finally halted after the 101st Airborne Division had stood firm at the vital bastion of Bastogne. The commander Brigadier General A. C. McAuliffe, defiantly answered the German call to surrender with one word: "Nuts." Reinforcements were rushed up, and the last-gasp Hitlerian offensive was at length bloodily stemmed in this battle.

Malcolm X; Nation of Islam

Deepening division among black leaders was highlighted by the career of Malcolm X. Born Malcolm Little, he was at first inspired by the militant black nationalists in the Nation of Islam. Like the Nation's founder, Elijah Muhammed, Malcolm changed his surname to advertise his lost African identity in white America. A brilliant and charismatic preacher, Malcolm X trumpeted black separatism and inveighed against the " blue-eye white devils." Eventually Malcolm distanced himself from Elijah Muhammed's separatist preachings and moved toward mainstream Islam. In early 1965 he was cut down by rival Nation of Islam gunmen while speaking to a large crowd in New York City.

Nelson Mandela

Democracy marched forward in other parts of the world. In 1990 African leader Nelson Mandela, who has served 27 years in prison to conspiring to overthrow the government was finally freed. Four years later Mandela was elected South Africa's president.

department stores-

Department stores like Macy's (New York) and Marshall Fields's (Chicago) were important because they provided urban working class jobs, many of them for women. These stores also heralded a dawning era of consumerism and accentuated widening class divisions (see Sister Carrie).

"irreconcilables"

Domestic duties called Wilson back to America from Europe to attend to arguments in the Senate. Republican senators led by Lodge were ready to attack Wilson on the League of Nations. They thought that the League was a useless "sewing circle" or an overbearing super-state" and were lead by a dozen or so militant Isolationists including William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California. These senators were known as the "irreconcilables" or "the Battalion of Death". They proclaimed that the Senate would not approve the League of Nations in its existing form, delighting Wilson's Allied adversaries in Paris.

March on Washington 1963

Drawing on the same spiritual traditions as Martin Luther King Jr., Kennedy declared that the principle at stake "is as old as the Scriptures and is as clear as the American Constitution." He called for new civil rights legislation to protect black citizens. In August King led more than 200,000 black and white demonstrators on a peaceful March on Washington in support of the proposed legislation. In an electrifying speech from the Lincoln Memorial, King declared, "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character."

slums, "dumbbell" tenements

Dumbbell Tenements were the standard architectural plan for the human warehouses on New York's Lower East side. Despite the innovation of an air shaft ot bring light and ventilation to the middle of the building, only one room in each of the apartments was directly exposed to sunlight and open air. jAll families on a floor shared the toilet in the hallway. These slums were crowded, filthy, eight story buildings where the tenants were prone to vermin and death (coughs caused by lack of ventilation).

Good Neighbor Policy

Established to create a better relationship with Latin America. Hoover went on a tour of Latin America.

Eugene V. Debs; American Railway Union

Eugene V. Debs, had organized the American Railway Union of about 150,000 people. The Pullman Palace Car company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages by about one third, while holding the line on rent for the company houses. This strike was also important because American Federation of Labor's decision not to support weakened the labor cause.

Lincoln's "10 Percent" Plan (Reconstruction)

Even before the actual war had ended, the political war on Reconstruction had already begun. Lincoln believed that the Southern states had never legally withdrawn from the Union in the first place. Their formal restoration to the Union would therefore be relatively simple. In 1863 Lincoln proclaimed this plan. It decreed that a state could be reintegrated into the Union when 10 percent of the voters of the presidential election of 1860 had taken an oath of allegiance to the US and pledged to abide by emancipation. The next step would be formal erection of a state government. Lincoln would then recognize the purified regime.

Roosevelt's Square Deal

Everybody's interest was nobody's interest, Roosevelt decided to make it his. His sportsman's instincts spurred him info demanding a "Square Deal" for capital, labor, and the public at large. Broadly speaking, the president's program embraced three C's: control of the corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources. The Square Deal for labor received its acid test in 1902, when a crippling strike broke out in the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania. Some 140,000 besotted workers, many of them illiterate immigrants, had long been frightfully exploited and accident-plagued. They demanded, among other improvements, a 20 percent increase in pay and a reduction of the working day from ten to nine hours.

Austro Hungarian Franz Ferdinand

Ferdinand was the Austria-Hungary heir to the throne who was assassinated by a Serbian patriot, Gavrilo Princip in the summer of 1914. His wife and he were visiting the Bosnian city of Sarajevo. Conspirators of the Black Hand society waited in the streets to kill him because they wanted Bosnia to be free of Austria-Hungary and to become part of a large Serbian kingdom. This was ultimately a very influential short term cause of the war. What was a local issue quickly escalated to an almost worldwide issue because of the alliances that had been made.

Progressive Roosevelt "Bull Moose"

Fired-up progressives entered the campaign with righteousness and enthusiasm. Roosevelt boasted that he felt "as strong as a bull moose," and the bull moose took its place with the donkey and the elephant in the American political zoo.Roosevelt and his "bull moosers" also campaigned for women suffrage and a broad program of social welfare, including minimum wage laws and "socialistic" social insurance. Clearly, the bull moose Progressives looked forward to the kind of activist welfare state the Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal would one day make a reality.

information age

Following WWII, the rise of IBM and, later, Mircosoft Corporation symbolized yet another momentous transformation, to the fast-paced "information age," when the storing, organizing, and processing of fata became an industry in its own right. The pace of the information age soon accelerated. As the 21st century opend, the phenomenal growth of the Internet heralded an explosive communications revolutions.

Georgia- buffer colony; charity colony

Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies to be planted in 1733. The English crown wanted Georgia to be a buffer colony. It would be there to protect the more valuable Carolinas against vengeful Spaniards from Florida and against the French in Louisiana. Georgia indeed suffered especially when wars broke out between Spain and England.

German U-boat "wolf packs"

German submarine groups who sunk other ships forcing the US to have a convoy around British ships to get the supplies to Britain. Submarines were told by Hitler to attack US ships in self-defense.

Middle East oil

Harding could not completely turn his back on the outside world, especially in the Middle East, where a sharp rivalry developed between America and Britain for oil-drilling concessions. Remembering that the Allies had floated to victory on a flood of oil, experts recognized that liquid "black gold" would be as necessary as blood in the battles of tomorrow. Secretary Hughes eventually secured for American oil companies the right to share in the exploitation of the sandy region's oil riches.

Marcus Garvey, UNIA

Harlem in the 1920s also spawned a charismatic political leader, Marcus Garvey. The Jamaican-born Garvey founded the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) to promote the resettlement of American blacks in their own "African homeland." Within the United States, the UNIA sponsored stores and other businesses, like the Black Star Line Steamship Company, to keep blacks; dollars in black pockets. Most of Garvey's enterprises failed financially, and Garvey himself was convicted in 1927 for alleged mail fraud and deported by a nervous U.S. government. But the race pride that Garvey inspired among the 4 million blacks who counted themselves UNIA followers at the movement's height helped these newcomers to northern cities gain self-confidence and self-reliance. And his example proved important to the later founding of the Nation of Islam (Black Muslim) movement.

Samuel Slater

Has been acclaimed the "Father of the Factory System" in America, and seldom can the paternity of a movement more properly be ascribed to one person. A skilled British mechanic of twenty-one, he was attracted by bounties being offered to British workers familiar with the textile machines. After memorizing the plans for the machinery, he escaped in disguise to America, where he won the backing of Moses Brown, a Quaker capitalist in Rhode Island. Laboriously reconstructed the essential apparatus with the aid of a blacksmith and a carpenter, he put into operation in 1791 the first efficient American machinery for spinning cotton thread.

Tet offensive

Hawkish illusions that the struggle was about to be won were shattered by a blistering communist offensive launched in late January 1968, During Tet, the Vietnamese cities, including the capital, Saigon. Although eventually beaten off with heavy losses, they demonstrated anew that victory could not be gained by Johnson's strategy of gradual escalation. The Tet offensive ended in a military defeat but a political victory for the Viet Cong. With an increasingly insistent voice, American public opinion demanded a speedy end to the war. Opposition grew so vehement that PresidentJohnson could feel the very foundations of government shaking under his feet.

Helen Jackson's A Century of Dishonor

Helen Hunt was a Massachusetts children's author, who pricked the moral sense of Americans in 1881 when she published A Century of Dishonor. The book chronicled the sorry record of government ruthlessness and chicanery in dealing with the Indians. Her later novel Ramona was also very successful and further inspired sympathy for the Indians.

Nuremburg war crimes trial

Hitler's ruined Reich posed especially thorny problems for all the wartime Allies. They agreed only that the cancer of Nazism had to be cut out of the German body politic, which involved punishing Nazi leaders for war crimes. The Allies joined in trying wenty-two top culprits at the Nuremberg war crimes trial during 1945-1946. Accusations included committing crimes against the laws of war and humanity and plotting aggressions contrary to solemn treaty pledges. Twelve of them hung from the gallows, seven were sentenced to long jail terms, "Foxy Hermann" swallowed poison in a capsule before his execution.

Horatio Alger stories

Horatio Alger was a Puritan-reared New Englander, who in 1866 left the pulpit for the pen. He wrote more than one hundred volumes of juvenile fiction that sold over 17 million copies. his stock formula depicted a poor boy new to the city who, through a combination of virtue, hard work, and bravery, achieved success, honor and middle-class respectability-a kind of survival of the purest, especially nonsmokers, nondrinkers, no swears, and non-liars. Alger implanted in his readers moral lessons and conviction that there is always room at the top.

nuclear bomb

In 1940 after Hitler's wanton assault on Poland, Roosevelt was persuaded by American and exiled scientists, notably German-born Albert Einstein, to push ahead with preparations for unlocking the secret of an atomic bomb. Congress, at Roosevelt's blank-check request, blindly made available nearly $2 billion. Many military minds were skeptical but fears of the Germans beating them to it provided a powerful spur to action. Ironically, Germany abandoned its own atomic project because it was too costly. The war with Germany had ended before they were finished so Japan now suffered the fate of being the first nation subjected to this bomb.

Berlin Blockade, Berlin Airlift

In 1948, following controversies over German currency reform and four power control, the Soviets abruptly choked off all rail and highway access to Berlin. They evidently reasoned that the Allies would be starved out. The Berlin airlift was an American year long mission of flying food and supplies to blockaded Western Berliners. This "calling of the bluff" led the Soviets to finally lift their locked in May of 1949.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

In 1953, Eisenhower pledged a philosophy of dynamic conservatism. "In all those things which deal with people, be liberal, be human," he advised. But when it came to "people's money or their economy, or their form of government, be conservative." This balanced, middle of the road course harmonized with the depression daunted and war weary mood of the times. Some critics called Eisenhower's presidency a case of the "bland leading the bland."

Los Angeles riots

In 1992 a mostly white jury exonerated white police Los Angeles police officers who had been videotaped ferociously beating a black suspect, the minority neighborhoods of South and Central LA erupted into rage. Arson and looting laid waste entire city blocks, and scores of people were killed. Many black rioters vented their anger at the white police and the judicial system by attacking Asian shopkeepers, who in turn formed armed patrols to protect their property. These riots vividly testified to blacks skepticism of the American system of justice.

China's Tienanmen Square massacre

In China hundreds of thousands of prodemocracy demonstrators thronged through Beijing's Tiananmen Square in the Spring of 1989. The proudly flourished "Goddess of Democracy" which was 30ft high and modeled on the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of their aspirations. China's aging and autocratic rulers brutally crushed the prodemocracy movement. Tanks rolled over the crowd, and machine gunners killed hundreds of protestors. World opinion condemned the bloody supression of the prodemocracy demonstrators.

Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin

In George Eli Whitney was told that the poverty of the South would be relieved if someone could only invent a workable deceive for separating the seed from the short-staple cotton fiber. Within three days, in 1793, he build a crude machine called the cotton gin that was fifty times more effective than the handpicking process. Few machines have ever wrought so wondrous change. The gin affected not only the history of America but that of the world. Almost overnight the raising of cotton became highly profitable, and the South was tied hand and foo tot the throne of King Cotton.

Axis of Evil

In January of 2002 (months after 9/11), Bush claimed that Iraq, along with Iran and North Korea constituted an "axis of evil" that menaced American security. This "axis of evil" had access to nuclear weapons and posed a future threat to American citizens.

War Industries Board

In March 1918 Wilson appointed long-eagle stock speculator Benard Baruch to head the War Industries Board. Although the War Industries Board had only feeble formal power's it set a precedent for the federal government to take a central role in economic planning in moments of crisis. It was disbanded just days after the armistice, and Americans returned to their preference for laissez-faire and a weak central government. But in the midst of the Great Depression of the 1930s, policymakers would look back to the World War I agencies like this one as models.

National Defense and Education Act

In late 1958 this was passed by Congress authorized $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the improvement of teaching sciences and languages.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

In march 2010, the new healthcare law mandated all Americans to purchase health insurance starting in 2014, required states to establish "exchanges" whereby individuals and small business owners could purchase health insurance at competitive rates, prohibited insurers from denying coverage to anyone with a preexisting medical condition, and allows children up to the age to 26 to remain covered by their parent's health plans. It is estimated to cost $940 billion over ten years, but the cost citing measures would reduce the federal deficit by more than $1 trillion over 20 years.

Congress' Wade-Davis Bill

In response to Lincoln's bill, Republicans dressed this bill. They feared the restoration of the planter aristocracy to power and the possible re-enslavement of the blacks. The bill required that 50 percent of a state's voters take the oath of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation than Lincoln's as the price of readmission to the Union.

Lodge reservations; "reservationists"

In response to the Treaty of Versailles Senator Lodge penned twelve reservations to the proposed post war agreements. These reservations essentially gave a lot of power back to the United States in how it interacts with other nations. Also, the reservations granted the United States more authority over its place within the league of nations. or when the league of nations was allowed to make decisions involving the US.

British blockade; German war zone

In retaliation for The British blockade Berlin announced a submarine war area.

McCormick Reaper

In the 1830s Virginia-born Cyrus McCormick contributed the most wondrous contraption of all: a mechanical mover-reaper. The clattering cogs of McCormick's horse-drawn machine were to the western farmers what the cotton gin was to the southern planters. Seated on his red-chariot reaper, a single husbandman could do the work of five men with sickles and scythes. No other American invention cut so wide a swath as the McCormick Reaper. It made ambitious capitalists out of humble plowmen, who now scrambled for more acres on which to plant more fields of billowing wheat.

abolition movement

In the 1830s the abolitionist movement took on new energy and momentum, mounting to the proportions of a crusade. American abolitionists took heart in 1833 when their British counterparts, inspired by the redoubtable William Wilberforce, a member of Parliament and an evangelical Christian reformer whose family had been touched by the preaching of George Whitefield unchained the slaves in the West Indies.

Clipper ships and Far East Trade

In the 1840s and 1850s, a golden age dawned for American shipping. Yankee naval yarded, notably Donald McKay's at Boston, began to send down the ways sleek new craft called clipper ships. Long, narrow, and majestic, they glided across the sea under towering masts and clouds of canvas. In the fair breeze, they could outrun any steamer. The stately clippers sacrificed cargo space for speed, and their captains made killings by hauling high-value cargoes in record times. They wrested much of the tea-carrying trade between the Far East and Britain from their slower-sailing British competitors, and they sped thousand s of impatient adventurers to the goldfields of California and Australia.

the Internet

In the 21st century, the phenomenal growth of the Internet heralded an explosive communications revolution. New corporate giants live Google redefined the ways that people knew about the world, while social networking services like Facebook and Twitter redefined the ways they knew each other. Businesspeople could now instantaneously girdle the planet with transactions of prodigious scope and serpentine complexity.

Election 1932; Franklin D. Roosevelt

In the Election of 1932 voters were unhappy. Countless factories remained closed and more than 11 million unemployed workers and their families sank even deeper into the pit of poverty. Hoover was renominated by the Republican party. The rising star of the Democratic firmament was Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York, a fifth cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. He was born to a wealthy family, had graduated from HArvard, had been elected as a kid-glowed politician to the New York legislature, had served as governor of New York, had been nominated for the vice presidency (though not elected), and had served capably as assistant secretary of the navy.

Panama Canal Zone

In the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty Great Britain recognized U.S. Sphere of Influence over the Panama canal zone provided the canal itself remained neutral U.S. given full control

Hay's Open Door Note

In the summer of 1899, Hay dispatched to all the great peers a communication soon known as the Open Door Note. He urged them to announce that in their leaseholds or spheres of influence they would respect certain Chinese rights and the ideal of fair competition. Tellingly Hay did not bothered to consult the Chinese themselves. The phrase open door quickly caught the American public's fancy. But Hay's proposal caught much squirming in the leading capitals of the world, though all the great powers save Russia, wit covetous designs on Manchuria, eventually agreed to it.

Clean Air Act 1970; Endangered Species Act, 1973

In the wake of what became a yearly event, the U.S. Congress passed the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The EPA now stood on the frontline of the battle for ecological sanity and made notable progress in reducing automobile emissions and cleaning up waterways and toxic waste sites.

Native American takeovers Alcatraz and Wounded Knee

Indians used the tactic of Civil Rights movement to assert their status as separate semi-sovereign peoples. Indians activist caught the attention of the nations by capturing the island of Alcatraz in 1970, and the village of Wounded Knee in 1972. A series of victories in the courts consolidated the decade's gains.

"Reaganomics"

Informal term for Ronald Reagan's economic policies, which focused on reducing taxes, social spending, and government regulation, while increasing outlays for defense.

Kansas Nebraska Act

It proposed that the issue of slavery should be decided by popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, thus revoking the 1820 Missouri Compromise. It was introduced by Stephen Douglass to satisfy the North by bringing Nebraska into the Union and pave the way for a northern transcontinental railroad and to satisfy the South by allowing Kansas the option of becoming a slave state. It prepared the way for the Civil War. Compromise became more and more difficult, and without compromise between the sections, conflict was bound to arrive. The Compromise of 1850 was indirectly wrecked by the northerners complete unwillingness to follow the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850; it went completely unenforced, angering the South. The southerners were further irritated by the free-soilers attempts to control Kansas despite the "deal."

Haymarket Square riot 1886-

It was a May Day rally that turned violent when someone threw a bomb into the middle of the meeting, killing several dozen people. Eight anarchists were arrested for conspiracy contributing to to the disorder, although evidence linking them to the bombing was thin. Four were executed, one committed suicide, and three were pardoned in 1893.

Confederate States of America

It was the government established after seven Southern states seceded from the Union in February 1861 in Montgomery, Alabama. Jefferson Davis was chosen president. Later joined by four more states from the Upper South. President Buchanan, the lame duck in office, did nothing except wait-and-see since there was still a chance for peace.

Jane Addams and Hull House

Jane Addams was middle class women who was born into a prosperous Illinois family. She graduated from college, and after being inspired by a visit to England, she establishedHull House, the most prominent American settlement house. She was a broad gauge reformer who courageously condemned war and poverty, and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. Her pacifism upset many, including the Daughters of American, who expelled her from membership in their organization.

Battle of Coral Sea, Midway, Guadalcanal

Japanese onrush was finally checked by a crucial naval battle fought in the Coral Sea, in May 1942. An American carrier task force, with Australian support, inflicted heavy losses on the victory flushed Japanese For the first time in history, the fighting was all done by carrier based aircraft and neither fleet saw or fired a shot directly at the other. The Battle of Midway was a pivotal naval battle fought near the island of Midway on June 3-6, 1942. The victory halted Japanese advances in the Pacific. Had the Japanese captured this island, they could have somewhat easily launched devastating assaults on Pearl Harbor. These two victories halted Japan's "juggernaut." Following the victory at Midway, the US for the first time was able to seize the initiative in the Pacific. In August 1942, American ground forces gained a toehold on Guadalcanal Island, in an effort to protect the lifeline from America to Australia throughout ht southwest Pacific. Even after early struggles, the US ended up with the win after the Japanese troops evacuated Guadalcanal in February of 1943.

"Jim Crow"

Jim Crow was a system of racial segregation in the American South from the end of Reconstruction until the mid-twentieth century. Based on the concept of "separate but equal" facilities for blacks and whites, the Jim Crow system sought to prevent racial mixing in public, including restaurants, movie theaters, and public transportation. An informal system, it was generally perpetuated by custom, violence, and intimidation, and was upheld by the Plessey v. Ferguson case.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Johnson declared to Congress, "could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the Civil Right Bill for which he fought so long." After a lengthy conservative filibuster, Congress at last passed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act banned racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public, including theaters, hospitals, and restaurants. It strengthened the federal government's power to end segregation in schools and other public places.

LBJ's "Great Society" program

Johnson dubbed his domestic program the Great Society- a sweeping set of New Dealish economic and welfare measures aimed at transforming the American way of life. Public support for LBJ's antipoverty war was aroused by Michael Harrighton's The Other America.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

Johnson nevertheless promptly called the attack of the two American Destroyers as "unprovoked" and moved swiftly to make political hay out of this episode. He ordered "limited retaliatory air raid against the North Vietnamese bases, loudly proclaiming that he sought "no wider war"- thus implying that the truculent Goldwater did. Johnson also used the incident to spur congressional passage of the all-purpose Tonkin Gulf Resolution. With only two dissenting votes in both houses, the land markers virtually abdicated their wait war-declaring powers and handed the president a black check to use further force in Southeast Asia. the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, Johnston boasted, was "like grandma's nightshirt- it covered everything."

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Johnson prodded Congress into creating two new cabinet offices: the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), to which he named the first black cabinet secretary in the nation's history, respected economist Robert C. Weaver. Other noteworthy laws established the National Endowments for the Arts and the Humanities, designed to lift the level of American culture.

Ohio's Oberlin College

Jolted traditionalists in 1837 when it opened its doors to women as well as men. (Oberlin had already created shock waves by admitting black students.)

Department of Commerce and Labor

Keenly aware of the mounting antagonisms between capital and labor, Roosevelt urged Congress to create the new Department of Commerce and Labor. This goal was achieved in 1903. (Ten years later the agency was split in two.) An important arm of the newborn cabinet body was the Bureau of Corporations, which was authorized to probe businesses engaged in interstate commerce. The bureau was highly useful in helping to break the stranglehold of monopoly and in clearing the road for the era of "trust-busting."

European Economic Community; Europe Union

Kennedy turned his attention to Western Europe, now miraculously prospering after the tonic of Marshall Plan aid and the growth of the American-encouraged European Economic Community (EEC), the free-trade area that later evolved into the European Union. He finally secured passage of the Trade Expansion Act in 1962, authorizing tariff cuts of up to 50% to promote trade with EEC countries. This act led to the so-called Kennedy Round of tariff negotiations, concluded in 1967, and to a significant expansion of European-American trade. These liberalized trade policies inaugurated a new era of such robustly invigorated international commerce that a new word was coined to describe it: globalization.

Nuclear test ban treaty

Kennedy, apparently sobered by the appalling risks he had just run, pushed harder for a nuclear test ban treaty with the Soviet Union. After prolonged negotiations in Moscow, a pact prohibiting trial nuclear explosions in the atmosphere assigned in late 1963. Another barometer indicating a thaw in the Cold War was the installation of a Moscow-Washington "hot-line," permitting immediate teletype communication in case of a crisis.

National Recovery Administration NRA

Known by its critics as the "National Run Around" the NRA was an early New Deal program designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed through centralized planning mechanisms that monitored workers' earnings and working hours to distribute work and established codes for "fair competition" to ensure that similar procedures were followed by all firms in any particular industrial sector. This was the most complex effort by the New Dealers and it was designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed.

Triangle Shirtwaist fire

Laws regulating factories were worthless if not enforced, a truth horribly demonstrated by a lethal fire in 1911 at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York City. Locked doors and other flagrant violations of the fire code turned the factory into a death trap. One hundred forty-six workers, wist of them young immigrant women, were incinerate or leapt from eight and ninth-story windows to their deaths. Lashed by the public outcry, including a massive strike by women in the needle trades, the New York legislature passed much stronger laws regulating the hours and conditions of sweatshop toil. Other legislatures followed, and by 1917 thirty state had put workers' compensation laws on the books, providing insurance to workers injured in industrial accidents. Gradually the concept of the employer's responsibility to society was replacing the old dog-eat-dog philosophy of unregulated free enterprise.

Nixon resignation 1974

Left with nothing better choice, Nixon choked back his tears and announced his resignation in a dramatic television appearance on August 8, 1974. Few presidents had flown so high, and none had sunk so low. In his Farewell Address, Nixon admitted having made some "judgements" that "were wrong" but instead that he had always acted "in what I believed at the time to be the best interests of the nation." Unconvinced, countless Americans would change the song "Hail to the Chief" to "Jail to the Chief."

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation pushed through Congress by President Johnson that prohibited ballot-denying tactics, such as literary tests and intimidation. The Voting Rights Act was a successor to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and sought to make racial disenfranchisement explicitly illegal.

General Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur was the general who slowed Japanese forces at Manilla, but was evacuated just prior to the surrender (promised that "I shall return"). Later, American and Australian forces, under MacArthur were hanging on dangerously to the southeastern tip of New Guinea, the last buffer protecting Australia. However, due in part to the recent successes of the American navy, MacArthur had fought his way to a complete conquest of the north coast of new Guinea. After conquering it all, he moved on to the Philippines and announced his return. In a gigantic clash with the Japanese at Leyte Gulf. After overrunning Leyte, he landed on the main Philippine island of Luzon and this victory made a major impact in the eventual fall of the Japanese in the Pacific theater.

Catholic parochial schools

Many Catholic Immigrants who came to America supported the spread of Catholic parochial schools for their children, with the intent of preserving their culture.

"Bonus Army"

Many veterans of WWI were numbered among the hard-hit victims of the depression. Industry has secured a "bonus" - though a dubious one- in the Hawley-Smoot Tariff. So the thoughts of the former soldiers naturally turned to what the government owed them for their services in 1917-1918, when they had "saved" democracy. A drive developed for the premature payment of the deferred bonus voted by Congress in 1924 and payable in 1945. Thousands of impoverished veterans, both of war and unemployment, were now prepared to move on Washington, their demand to Congress- the immediate payment of their entire bonus. The "Bonus Expeditionary Force" (BEF), which mustered about 20 thousand souls, converged on the capital in the summer of 1932. These supplicants promptly set up unsanitary public camps and erected shacks on vacant lots (a gigantic Hooverville). They thus created a menace to public health, while attempting to intimidate Congress by their presence in force. After the pending bonus bill failed in Congress by a narrow margin, Hoover arranged to pay the return fare of about 6 thousand bonus marchers. The rest refused to decamp, though ordered to do so. Following riots that cost two lives, Hoover responded to the demands of Washington authorities and ordered the army to evacuate the unwanted guests. Hoover charged that the Bonus Army was led by riffraff and reds, in fact many of them weren't. The eviction was led by General Douglas McAuthor with far more severity than Hoover planned.

"Declaration of Constitutional Principles"

More than a hundred southern congressional representatives and senators signed the "Declaration of Constitutional Principles" in 1956, pledging their unyielding resistance to desegregation. Several states diverted public funds to hastily create "private" schools, for there the integration order was more difficult to apply. Throughout the South white citizens' councils, sometimes with fire and hemp, thwarted attempts to make integration a reality. Ten years after the Court's momentous ruling, fewer than 2 percent of the eligible blacks in the Deep South were sitting in classrooms with whites.

Underwood Tariff

Moved by Wilson's aggressive leadership, the House swiftly passed the Underwood Tariff, which provided for a substantial reduction of rates. When a swarm of lobbyists descended on the Senate seeking to disembowel the bill, Wilson promptly issued a combative message to the people, urging them to hold their elected representatives in line. The tactic worked. The force of public opinion, aroused by the president's oratory, secured late in 1913 final approval of the bill Wilson wanted. The new tariff substantially reduced import fees. It also was a landmark in tax legislation.

Federal Trade Commission Act

Nine months and thousands of words later, Congress responded with the Federal Trade Commissions Act of 1914. The new law empowered a presidentially appointed commission to turn a searchlight on industries engaged in interstate commerce, such as the meat-packers. The commissioners were expected to crush monopoly at the source by rooting out unfair trade practices, including unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, and bribery.

Richard Nixon, Alger Hiss

Nixon an ambitious red catcher led the chase after Alger Hiss, a prominent ex-New Dealer and a distinguished member of the "eastern establishment". Hiss was accused of being a communist agent in the 1930s. Hiss demanded the right to defend himself. He dramatically met Nixon before HUAC in August 1948. Hiss denied everything but was caught in embracing falsehoods, convicted of perjury in 1950, and sentenced to 5 years in prison.

Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

Nixon presided over significant expansion of the welfare programs that conservative Republicans routinely denounced. While adding a generous new program, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), to assist the indigent aged, blind, and disabled. He signed legislation in 1972 guaranteeing automatic Social Security cost-of-living increases to protect the elderly against the ravages of inflation when prices rose more than 3 percent in any year.

Watergate Scandal

Nixon's electoral triumph in 1972 was almost immediately sullied-and eventually undone- by the so called Watergate Scandal. On June 17, 1972, five men were arrested in the Watergate apartment-office complex in Washington after a bungled electronic "bugs" in the Democratic party's headquarters. They were soon revealed to be working for the Republican Committee to Re-Elect the President-popularly known as CREEP. The Watergate break-in turned out to be just on in a series of Nixon administration "dirty tricks" that included forging documents to dis credit Democrats, using the Internal Revenue Service to harass innocent citizens named on a White House "enemies list," burglarizing the office of the psychiatrist who had treated the leaker of the Pentagon Papers, and preventing the FBI and the CIA to cover the tricksters' tracks.

Market Revolution

No less revolutionary than the political upheavals of the antebellum era was the market revolution that transformed a subsistence economy of scattered farms and tiny workshops into a national network of industry and commerce. Greater mechanization and a more robust market-oriented economy raised new legal questions about winners and losers.

Operation Rolling Thunder

North Vietnamese communists attacked an American air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam, in February 1965. The president immediately ordered retaliatory bombing raids against military installations in North Vietnam and for the first time ordered attacking U.S, troops to land. By the middle of March 1965, the Americas, had " Operation Rolling Thunder" in full swing- regular flu-scale bombing attacks against North Vietnam. Before 1965 ended, some 184,000 American troops were involved, most of them slogging through the jungles and rice paddies of South Vietnam searching for guerrillas.

Alaska "Seward's Folly"

Northernmost state in the United States purchased by William Seward in 1867 from Russia for $7.2 million. William Seward: Johnson's Secretary of State who engineered the purchase of Alaska from Russia.The nickname given to Alaska by Johnson's Secretary of States's critics.

Kellogg-Briand Pact; "defensive war"

Officially known as the Pact of Paris, it was a sentimental triumph of the 1920s peace movement, this 1928 pact linked 62 nations in the supposed outlawry of war. This new parchment was delusory in the extreme. Defensive wars were still permitted, and what scheming aggressor could not cook up an excuse of self defense? Lacking both muscle and teeth, the pact was a diplomatic derelict and virtually useless in a showdown. Yet it accurately reflected the American mind in the 1920s, which was all too willing to be lulled into a false sense of security.

Black Panther party

Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to protect black rights. The Panthers represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the civil rights movement, and signals a new direction to that movement after the legislative victories of 1964 an 1965.

Fugitive Slave Law

Passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, it set high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways. Strengthened the antislavery cause in the North. It was the South's biggest concession, but the northerners did not follow it, enraging the South. The law upset both sides. - slaves were only safe in Canada

Tennessee Valley Authority TVA (1933)

Passed by the Hundred Days Congress, this far-ranging enterprise was largely a result of the steadfast vision and unflagging zeal of Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska, after whom one of the might dams was named. From the standpoint of "planned economy" the TVA was by far the most revolutionary of all New Deal schemes. The new agency was determined to discover precisely how much the production and distribution of electricity cost, so that "yardstick" could be set up to test the fairness of rates charged by private companies. Utility corporations lashed back at this entering wedge of government control, charging that the low cost of TVA power was due to dishonest bookkeeping and the absence of taxes, critics complained that it was "creeping socialism in concrete". The new Dealers pointed out that the TVA brought not only full employment but blessings of cheap electric power, but low-cost housing, abundant cheap nitrates, the restoration of eroded soil, reforestation, improved navigation, and flood control. Rivers ran blue instead of brown and once poverty cursed areas were being transformed into one of the most flourishing regions of the United States.

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

Political party organized by civil rights activists to challenge Mississippi's delegation to the Democratic National Convention, who opposed the civil rights planks in the party's platform. Claiming a mandate to represent the true voice of Mississippi, where almost no black citizens could vote, the MFDP demanded to be seated at the convention but were denied by party bosses. The effort was both a setback to civil rights activism in the south and a motivation to continue to struggle for black voting rights.

General Zachary Taylor

Polk ordered 4,000 men under Taylor's order to march from the Neuces river to the rio grande, near Mexican forces, expected to hear a clash any moments, asked congress to declare war because of unpaid claims and slidell's rejection, but these were rather flimsy reason, gov felt more satisfies if Mexico shot first, which they did and attacked Taylor

"rock and roll"

Popular music was dramatically transformed in the fifties. The chief revolutionary was Elvis Presley, a white singer born in 1935 in Tupelo, Mississippi. Fusing black rhythm and blues with white bluegrass and country styles, Elvis created a new musical idiom known forever after as rock and roll. Rock was "crossover" music, carrying its heavy beat and driving rhythms across the cultural divide that separated black and white musical traditions. Listening and dancing to rock and roll became a rite of passage for million of young people around the world, from Japan to working-class Liverpool, England, where Elvis's music inspired teenagers John Lennon and Paul McCartney to form a band that would become the Beatles.

"blogs", blogosphere

Poses a major challenge to traditional media-newspapers espeically that had shaped American; understanding of the news for hundreds of years. This new media adds fresh voices and new perspectives, but opponents questioned bloggers' expertise and accused them of spreading misinformation.

"Burned Over District"

Revivals also furthered the fragmentation of religious faiths. Western New York, where many descendants of New England Puritans had settled, was so blistered by sermonizers preaching "hellfire and damnation" that it came to be known as the Burned-Over District. Millerites, or Adventists, who mustered several hundred thousand adherents, rose from the superheat soil of the Burned-Over District in the 1830s.

Totalitarianism

Post-1918 chaos in Europe, followed by the Great Depression, spawned the ominous spread of totalitarianism. The individual was nothing; the state was everything. The communist USSR led the way, with the crafty and ruthless Joseph Stalin finally emerging as dictator. In 1936 he began to purge his communist state of all suspected dissidents, ultimately executing hundreds of thousands and banishing millions to remote Siberian forced-labor camps. Blustery Benito Mussolini, a swaggering Fascist, seized the reins of power in Italy during 1922,. And Adolph Hitler, a fanatic with a toothbrush mustache, plotted and harangued his way into control of Germany in 1933 with liberal use of the "big lie."

standard of living-

Post-Civil War, the standard of living rose sharp, and well fed American workers enjoyed more physical comforts than their counterparts in any other industrial nation. The incase in the standard of living was important because urban centers mushroomed and the demand for American labor continued to rise.

political progressivism

Progressives was to regain the power that had slipped from the hands of the people into those of the "interests." These ardent reformers pushed for forest primary elections so as to undercut power-hungry party bosses. They favored the initiative so that voters could directly propose legislation themselves, thus by passing the boss-bought state legislatures. Progressives also agitated for the referendum. This device would place laws on the ballot for final approval by the people, especially laws that had been railroaded through a compliant legislature by free-spending agents of big business. The recall would enable the voters to remove faithless elected officials, particularly those who had been bribed by bosses or lobbyists.

"Fight Bob" La Follette

Progressivism naturally bubbled up to the state level, notably in Wisconsin, which became a yeasty laboratory of reform. The governor of the state, pompadoured Robert M. ("Fighting Bob") La Follette, was an undersized but overbearing crusader who emerged as the most militant of the progressive Republican leaders. After a desperate fight with entrenched monopoly, he reached the governor's chair in 1901. Routing the lumber and railroad "interests," he wrested considerable control from the crooked corporations and returned it to the people. He also perfected a scheme for regulating public utilities, while laboring in close association with experts on the faculty of the state university at Madison.

Gettysburg Address 1863

Prohibited debate or action on antislavery appeals. Driven through the House by pro-slavery Southerners, the gag resolution passed every year for eight uears, eventually overturned with the help of John Quincy Adams.

Fifteenth Amendment:

Prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on the account of race. It disappointed feminists who the amendment to guarantee women's suffrage.

Washington Disarmament Conference

Public agitation in America, fed by these worries, brought about the headline-making Washington "Disarmament" Conference in 1921-1922. Invitations went to all the major naval powers-except Bolshevik Russia, whose government the United States refused officially to recognize. The double agenda included naval disarmament and the situation in the Far East. At the outset Secretary Hughes startled the delegates, who were expecting the usual diplomatic fence-straddling, with a comprehensive, concrete plan for declaring a ten-year "holiday" on the construction of battleships and even for scrapping some of the huge dreadnoughts already built. He proposed that the scaled-down navies of America and Britain should enjoy parity in battleships and aircraft carriers, with Japan on the small end of a 5:5:3 ratio. This arrangement sounded to the sensitive Japanese ambassador like "Rolls-Royce, Rolls-Royce, Ford."

Susan B. Anthony

Quaker-reared, was a militant lecturer for women's rights, fearlessly exposed herself to rotten garbage and vulgar epithets. She became such a conspicuous advocate of female rights that progressive women everywhere are called "Suzy Bs."

John Brown's raid at Harper's Ferry

Radical abolitionist who launched an attack on a federal armory at Harper's Ferry in 1859, Virginia in an effort to lead slaves in a violent uprising against their owners. Brown, who first took up arms against slavery during the Kansas civil War, was captured shortly after he launched his ill-conceived raid on the armory and sentenced to hang. His raid alarmed Southerners who believed that Northerners shared in Brown's extremism. Brown became a martyr and a rallying point, but the South was angered that Brown was seen as a hero. - was charged with murder and treason

Election 1960: Kennedy-Nixon

Republican Nominee: Presidential nominee- Richard Nixon and Vice- Henry Cabot-Lodge Jr. of Massachusetts (grandson of Woodrow WIlson's arch-foe). To many Nixon was a gifted party leader, to others a ruthless opportunist. Nixon was represented as a mature, seasoned statesmen. He gained particular notice in a finger pointing kitchen debate with Khrushchev in Moscow in 1959, where Nixon extolled the virtues of American consumerism over Soviet economic planning. The next year he won the Republican nomination . Democratic Nominee: Presidential nominee: John F. Kennedy and Vice: (unknown rn) Kennedy a youthful, dark-haired, millionaire senator from Massachusetts - won impulsive victories in the primaries. His biggest rival was Senate majority leader from Texas Lyndon B. Johnson. Kennedy took the top spot on the ticket which some southerners were not completely appeased with. Kennedy called on the American people for sacrifices to achieve their potential greatness, which he hailed the "New Frontier" He was a Catholic and was criticized for his being Catholic. (more on page 879) Kennedy won

George H.W. Bush

Republican's nominated Reagan's vice president George H.W. Bush. He ran largely on the record of Reagan tax cuts, strong defensive policies, toughness on crime, opposition to abortion, and a long-running if hardly robust economic expansion. Bush got 47,946,422 votes and the Electoral college votes were 111-426 in Bush's favor. Bush was born with a silver ladle in his mouth, his father served as a US senator from Connecticut, and young George had enjoyed first rate education at Yale. After his service in WWII he amassed a modest fortune of his own in the oil business in Texas. His deepest commitment however was to public service, he left the business world to become a congressman and held various posts in several Republican administrations. These included: Emissary to China, ambassador of the UN, director of the CIA, and vice president. He became president in January 1989 promising to work for a kinder gentler America.

Clinton's "Big Ditch" Erie Canal

Resourceful New Yorkers, cut off from federal aid by states' righters, themselves dug the Erie Canal, linking the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. They were blessed with the driving leadership of Governor DeWitt Clinton, whose grandiose project was scoffingly called "Clinton's Big Ditch" or "the Governor's Gutter." Begun in 1817, the canal eventually ribboned 363 miles. On its completion in 1825, a garlanded canal boat glided from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Hudson River and on to New York Harbor. there, with colorful ceremony, Governor Clinton emptied a cask of water from the lake to symbolize "the marriage of the waters." -State payed for it. -Albany to Buffalo

Reciprocal Trade Agreement

Responding to the Hull-Roosevelt leadership, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934. Designed in part to lift American export trade from the depression doldrums ,this enlightened measure was aimed at both relief and recovery. At the same time, it activated the low-tariff policies of the New Dealers. The act avoided the dangerous uncertainties of a wholesale tariff revision, it merely whittled downs the most objectionable schedules of the Hawley-Smoot law by amending them. The Reciprocal Trade Agreement was a landmark piece of legislation. It reversed the traditional high-protective tariff policy that had persisted almost unbroken since the Civil War days and that had so damaged American and international economies following the World War I.

Roman Catholic Schools

Roman Catholic Churches were now on the move. Seeking to protect their children from Protestant indoctrination if the public schools, they began in the 1840s to construct an entirely separate Catholic education system- an enormously expensive undertaking for a poor immigrant community, but one that revealed the strength of its religious commitment. They had formed a negligible minority during the colonial days, and their numbers had increased gradually. But with the enormous influx of the Irish and the Germans in the 1840s and 1850s, the Catholics became a powerful religious group.

Treaty of Portsmouth

Roosevelt agreed to Japan's request, as he wanted to avoid a complete Russian collapse so that the tsar's empire could remain a counterweight to Japan's going power. At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905, Roosevelt guided the warring parties to a settlement that satisfied neither side and left the Japanese, who felt they had on the war, especially resentful. Japan was forced to drop its demands for a cash indemnity and Russian evacuation of Sakhalin Island, though it received some compensation in the form of effective control over Korea, which it formally annexed in 1910

Roosevelt Corollary

Roosevelt feared that if the Germans or British got their foot in the door as bill collectors, they might remain in Latin America, in flagrant violation of the Monroe Doctrine. He therefore declared a brazen policy of "preventive intervention," better known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. He announced that in the event of future financial malfeasance by the Latin American nations, the United States itself would intervene, take over the customshouses, pay off debts, and keep the troublesome Europeans on the other side of the Atlantic. In short, no outsiders could push around the Latin nations except Uncle Same, Policemen and of the Caribbean. This new brandishing of the big stick in the Caribbean became effective in 1905, when the United States took over the management of tariff collection in the Dominican Republic, an arrangement formalized in treaty with the Dominicans two years later.

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

Roosevelt moved rapidly to make steamy Panama a virtual outpost of the United States. Jost three days after the insurrection, he hastily extended the right hand of recognition. Fifteen days later, Bunau-Varilla, who was a Panamanian minister despite his French citizenship, signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in Washington.

fireside chats

Roosevelt, the master showman, next turned to the radio to deliver the first of his thirty famous "fireside chats." As some 35 million people hung on his soothing words, he gave assurances that it was now safer to keep money in a reopened bank than "under the mattress." Confidence returned with a gush, and the banks began to unlock their doors.

sharecropping/crop lien system

Sharecropping was an agricultural system that emerged after the Civil War in which black and white farmers rented land and residences from a plantation owner in exchange for giving him a certain share (lien) of each year's harvest. Sharecropping was the dominant form of southern agriculture after the Civl War, and landowners manipulated this system to keep tenants in a perpetual debt and unable to leave their plantations.

Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin

Slave auctions were brutal sights. The open selling of human flesh under the hammer, sometimes with cattle and horses, was among the most revolting aspects of slavery. On the auction block, families were separated with distressing frequency, usually for economic reasons such as bankruptcy or the division of "property" among heirs. The sundering of families in this fashion was perhaps slavery's greatest psychological horror. Stowe seized on the emotional power of this theme by putting it at the heart of the plot of her acclaimed 1852 novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin. - changed many peoples minds to become abolitionist

socialism

Socialism is a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. This idea was supported by journalist Henry George and Edward Bellamy, whose works were very popular due to the nation that was already alarmed by the trust evil.

"Solid South" Democrats

Solid South Democrats were more likely to adhere to faiths that took a less stern view of human weaknesses. Their religions professed toleration of differences in an imperfect world, and they spurned government efforts to impose f single oral standard on the entire society. These differences in temperament and religious values often produced a raucous political contests at the local level, where issues like prohibition and education loomed large.

Ostend Manifesto

Spain and America had poor relations. The Americans offered to buy Cuba, Spain refused, some southerners led a failed attack on Cuba, the southerners avenged their blood by sacking Spain's consulate in New Orleans. Spain seized and American Steamer, the Black Warrior. Pierce had his chance to declare war since other powers of Europe were occupied with the Crimean War. Secretly, the Franklin Pierce administration proposed to purchase or, that failing, to wrest militarily Cuba from Spain. Once the word leaked out, it was quickly abandoned due to vehement opposition from the North. Territorial expansion was checked by the slavery issue.

Decolonization

Special problems for U.S. foreign policy emerged from the worldwide decolonization of European overseas possessions after World War II. Sparsely populated Laos, freed of its French colonial overlords in 1954, was festering dangerously by the time Kennedy came onto office. The Eisenhower administration had drenched this jungle kingdom with dollars but failed to cleanse the country of an aggressive communist element.

Elkins Act; Hepburn Act

Spurred by Roosevelt, Congress passed effective railroad legislation, beginning with Elkins Act of 1903. This curb was aimed primarily at the rebate evil. Heavy fines could now be imposed both on the railroads that gave rebates and on the shippers that accepted them. Still more effective was the Hepburn Act of 1906, free passes with their hint of bribery, were severely restricted. The once-infantile Interstate Commerce Commission was expanded, and its reach was extended to include express companies, sleeping-car companies, and pipelines. For the first time, the commission was given real molars when it was authorized, on complaint of shippers to nullify existing rates and stipulate maximum rates.

personal liberty laws

States and northerners abhorred by slavery did not wish to return runaway slaves to their cruel masters. Some northern states passed laws such as the personal liberty laws to make the Fugitive Slave Law harder to exercise. It forbid federal officials from imprisoning fugitive slaves in local jails, hampering the enforcement of the law. The North's unwillingness to comply with these laws was a major factor for the Civil War. - state law over powered federal law.

Dred Scott v. Standford

Supreme Court decision that extended federal protection to slavery by ruling that Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in any territory. Also declared that slaves, as property, were not citizens of t!he United States, so therefore Scott was not even allowed to sue in courts. - 1857 - Congress not right to stop slaver, blacks were property and Constitution was white man document.

Taft's "Dollor Diplomacy"

Taft bestirred himself to use the lever of American investments to boost American political interests abroad, an approach to foreign policy that his critics denounced as dollar diplomacy. Washington warmly encouraged Wall Street bankers to sluice their surplus dollars into foreign areas of strategic concern to the United States, especially in the far East and in the regions critical to the security of the Panama Canal. By preempting investors from rival powers, such as Germany, New York bankers would thus strengthen American defenses and foreign policies, while bringing further prosperity to their homeland- and to themselves. The almighty dollar thereby supplanted the big stick

General Pershing; Meuse-Argonne

The Americans, dissatisfied with merely bolstering the British and the French, had meanwhile been demanding a separate army. General John J. (Black Jack) Pershing was finally assigned a front of eighty-five miles, stretching northwestward from the Swiss border to meet the French lines. As part of the last mighty Allied assault, involving several million men, Pershing's army undertook the Meuse-Argonne offensive, from September 26 to November 11,1918. One objective was to cut the German railroad lines feeding the western front. This battle, the most gargantuan thus far in American history, lasted forty-seven days and engaged 1.2 million American troops. With especially heavy fighting in the rugged Argonne Forest, the killed and wounded mounted to 120,000 or 10 percent of the Americans involved. The slow progress and severe losses from machine guns resulted in part from inadequate training, in part from dashing open-field tactics, with with the bayonet liberally employed. Barricading in the Germans they took away all the supplies for them. German allies were abandoning them, and the blockade, and the blows of the Allies pummeled the Germans.

Battle of Britain

The Battle of Britain was a debate in the United States over what policy to embrace. Sympathy for Britain grew as the dramatic news of the nightly German air raids were being broadcast into American homes. But it wasn't sufficient enough that the US wanted to go into war.

Battle of Little Big Horn

The Battle of Little Big Horn was a particularly violent example of the warfare between whites and Native Americans in the late nineteenth century (also known as Custer's Last Stand). In two days, June 25, and 26 1876, the combined forces of over 2,000 Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians defeated and killed more than 250 US soldiers, including Colonel George Custer. The battle came as the US government tried to compel Native Americans to remain on the reservations and natives tried to defend territory from white gold seekers. This Indian advantage did not last long however, however, as the union of these Indian fighters proved tenuous and the US army soon exacted retribution.

Carlisle Indian School

The Carlisle Indian school was funded by the funds from the Dawes Severalty act. In this school, Native American children, separated from their tribes, were taught English and inculcated with white values and customs. In the 1890s, the government expanded its network of Indian boarding schools and sent field matrons to the reservations to teach Native American women the art of sewing and to preach the virtues of chastity and hygiene.

Chautauqua Movement

The Chautauqua movement was launched in New York as a remedy for the exclusion of the education of millions of adults. The organizer sod this movement achieved success through public lectures that often had well known speakers (ex: Twain). The extensive courses of home study that were offered led to astounding participation.

1894 Chicago Pullman strike

The Chicago Pullman strike occurred in 1894. Eugene V. Debs, had organized the American Railway Union of about 150,000 people. The Pullman Palace Car company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages by about one third, while holding the line on rent for the company houses. The workers decided to strike back, in some places flipping Pullman cars, which paralyzed railway traffic from Chicago the Pacific coast. This strike was also eventually struck down by federal troops, because the legal grounds were that the strikers were interfering with the transit of the US mail. This strike was also important because Af or L's decision not to support weakened the labor cause.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act was a law extending the antitrust protections of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and exempting labor unions and agricultural organizations from antimonopoly constraints. The act conferred long overdue benefits on labor.

Colored Farmers' National Alliance

The Colored Farmer's National Alliance emerged in the 1880s to attract black farmers. The long history of racial division in the south however, made it difficult for white and black farmers to work together in the same organization.

Colored Farmers' National Alliance-

The Colored farmers' national alliance was an alliance that shared a host of complaints with poor white farmers, which allowed their common economic goals to overcome their racial differences.

Compromise 1877

The Compromise of 1877 was an agreement that finally resolved the 1876 election and officially ended Reconstruction. In exchange for the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, winning the presidency, Hayes agreed to withdraw the last of the federal troops from the former Confederate states. This deal was important to history because it effectively completed the southern return to white-only Democratic-dominated electoral parties.

Southern slavery; Cotton Kingdom

The Cotton Kingdom developed into a huge agricultural factory, pouring out avalanches of cotton. Quick profits drew planters to the loamy bottomlands of the Gulf States. Caught up in an economic spiral, the planters bought more slaves and land to grow more cotton, so as to buy still more slaves and land.

Immigration Act of 1924

The Emergency Quota legislation of 1921 was replaced by the Immigration Act of 1924. Quotas were cut from 3 percent to 2 percent. The national-origins base was shifted from the census of 1910 to that of 1890, by which time comparatively few southern Europeans had arrived. Great Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, were allowed to spend more than Italy. Southern Europeans bitterly denounced the device as unfair and discriminatory- a triumph for the "nativist" belief that blue-eyed and fair-haired northern Europeans were of better blood. The purpose was clearly to freeze America's existing racial composition, which was largely northern Europeans. A flagrantly discriminatory section of the Immigration Act of 1924 slammed the door absolutely against Japanese immigrants. The Immigration Act of 1924 marked the end of an era- a period of virtually unrestricted immigration that in the preceding century had brought some 35 million newcomers to the United States, mostly from Europe.

Civil Rights Act 1957

The First Civil Rights Act since Reconstruction days, the "mildest civil rights bill possible" set up a permanent Civil Rights Commission to to investigate violations of civil rights and authorized federal injunctions to protect voting rights.

free silverites v. gold bugs

The Free Silverites were the Democrats who nominated Bryan and had his platform demand inflation through the unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 ox of silver to 1 of gold. The Democratic Gold Bugs left their party over this issue. They vented their alarm in abusive epithets, ranging from fanatic and madman to traitor and murderer. The conflict and widespread fear caused by the gold bugs allowed Hanna, chairman of the Republican national committee to shine as a money raiser.

Armistice Day, November 11, 1918

The German were exhausted. They laid down their arms at eleven o'clock on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918, and an eerie, numbing silence fell over the western front. War-taut America burst into a delirium of around-the-clock rejoicing, as the world to end wars had ended. But the costs exceeded comprehensions: nearly 9 million soldiers had died, and more than 20 million had suffered grievous wounds. To make matters worse, some 30 million people perished in a worldwide influenza pandemic in 1918-1919. Over 550,000 Americans- more than ten times the number of U.S. combat casualties-died from the flu.

"Ghost Dance"

The Ghost Dance was the white name for the Indian ritual Sun Dance, that missionaries fought to get banned. It did later become outlawed by the federal government. This action provoked the Indians and led to a violent battle called the Battle of Wounded Knee.

Federal Deposit Insurance corporation FDIC

The Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act provided for the FDIC which insured individual deposits up to $5000 (later raised).

literacy tests, poll tax, grandfather clause

The Grandfather clause was a regulation established in many southern states in the 1890s that exempted from voting requirements any one who could prove that their ancestors had been able to vote in 1860. Since slaves could not vote before the civil war, these clauses guaranteed the right to vote to many whites while denying it to blacks. This, along with literacy tests and poll taxes kept blacks from voting in the south. This eventually failed because the populist inspired reminder of potential black political strength (when the Populists reached out to them for votes) led to the near total extinction of what little african american suffrage remained in the south.

Guantanamo Detention Camp

The Guantanamo Detention Camp was a controversial prison facility constructed after the US led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. Located on territory occupied by the US military but not technically part of the US, the facility serves as an extra legal holding area for suspected terrorists.

Hartford Convention

The Hartford Convention was a meeting of New England Federalists held in Hartford Connecticut in the winter of 1814-15. These Federalist opposed the War of 1812 and held the convention to discuss and seek redress by Washington for their complaints and wrongs that the felt had been done. Many of these complaints were manifestation of their fears of being overpowered by states in the south and west. The Hartford Convention was an example of the growing issue of Sectionalism and was another event in the approaching end of the Federalist Party.

Homestead Act of 1862

The Homestead Act of 1862 was a federal law that gave settlers 160 acres of land for about $30 if they lived on it for five years and improved it by, for instance, building a house on it. The act helped make land accessible to hundreds of thousands of westward moving settlers, but many people also found disappointment when their land was infertile or they saw speculators grabbing up the best land.

Homestead strike

The Homestead strike was a strike at a Carnegie steel plant in Homestead, PA, that ended in an armed battle between eh strikers, three hundred armed Pinkerton detectives hired by Carnegie, and federal troops, which killed ten people and wounded more than sixty. The strike was part of a nationwide wave of labor unrest in the summer of 1892 that helped the Populists gain some support from industrial workers.

Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act

The Hundred Days, or Emergency, Congress buttressed public reliance on the banking system by enacting the memorable Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act. This measure provided for the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insured individual deposits up to $5000 (later raised). Thus ended the disgraceful epidemic of bank failures, which dated back to the "wildcat" days of Andrew Jackson.

Indian Reorganization Act 1934

The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was an act that partially reversed the individualistic approach (of forced assimilation) and belatedly tried to restore the tribal basis of Indian life.

Interstate Commerce Act

The Interstate Commerce Act was a federal legislation that established the Interstate Commerce Commission. It compelled railroads to publish standard rates, and prohibited rebates and pools. This law was important to history because railroads quickly became adept at using the Act to achieve their own ends.

Iran-Contra affair

The Iran Contra Affair was a major political scandal of Reagan's second term. An illicit arrangement of selling "arms for hostages" with Iran and using money to support the contras in Nicaragua, the scandal deeply damaged Reagan's credibility (even though he claimed to be ignorant to what was going on).

V-J Day August, 1945

The Japanese nation could endure no more and on August 10, 1945, Tokyo sued for peace on one condition: that Hirohito, the bespectacled Son of Heaven, be allowed to remain on his ancestral throne as normal emperor. The allies accepted this condition on August 14, 1945. The formal end came, with dramatic force, on September 2, 1945. Official surrender ceremonies were conducted by General MacAuthor on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. At the same time,, Americans at home hysterically celebrated V-J (Victory in Japan) Day after the most horrible war in history had ended in mushrooming atomic clouds.

Land Act of 1820

The Land Act of 1820 was an act replacing the Land Act of 1800. It was a result of the depression, bank failures, bankruptcies, soup kitchens, unemployment, etc. of 1819. The original Land Act allowed Americans to buy 160 acres of land (minimum) at $2.00 an acre over a period of four years. The Land Act of 1820 offered less acreage, but it also cost less. It allowed Americans to buy 80 acres at $1.25 an acre. This helped to calm the westerners when they demanded cheaper land.

Latinos

The Latinos were Mexican immigrants, that made up 1/2 of the population in Texas, Arizona, and California, and 40% in New Mexico (amounting to almost a reconquista of the lands lost by Mexico in the war of 1846-1848. The size and concentration of the Latino population made it now possible to establish almost bicultural zone in the southwestern states (especially when Mexico lay right next door. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 was supposed to choke of illegal entry by penalizing employers of undocumented allies, but immigrants kept coming.

1973 Mid-East War; OPEC oil embargo

The Long-rumbling Middle East erupted anew in October 1973, when the rearmed Syrians and Egyptians unleaded surpass attacks on Israel in an attempt to regain the territory they had lost in the Six-Day War of 1967. with the Israelis in desperate retreat, Kissinger, who had become secretary of state in September, hastily flew to Moscow in an effort to restrain the Soviets, who were arming the attackers. America's policy of backing Israel against its oil-rich neighbors exacted a heavy penalty. Late in October 1973, the OPEC nations announced an embargo on oil shipments to the United States and severalEuropean allies supporting Israel, especially the Netherlands.

Charles Sumner; "The Crime Against Kansas"

The Massachusetts senator threw bitter insults at the Southern slaveocracy, singling out Brooks' South Carolina colleague, Senator Andrew Butler. He condemned the proslavery men and threw nasty insults. -beaten by a cane -bleeding Sumner

repeal of Missouri Compromise

The Missouri Compromise of 1820 had forbidden slavery in the proposed Nebraska Territory north of the 36 30' line. In order to open this region to popular sovereignty, the compromise would have to be repealed. Douglas sought to repeal the compromise, shaking the uneasy peaked made by the Compromise of 1850. He wanted to divide the territory into two territories Kansas and Nebraska. Northerners regarded the thirty-four year old Missouri Compromise almost as sacred as the Constitution. Free-soil Congress members argued in wrath, but Douglas with support from the southerners managed to get it through Congress at the verge of bloodshed between members of Congress. Northerners subsequently determined to resist new slave territory to the last trench.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Montgomery Bus Boycott

The Montgomery bus boycott also catapulted to prominence a young pastor at Montgomery's Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Barley twenty-seven years old, King seemed an unlikely champion of the downtrodden and disfranchised. Raised in a prosperous black family in Atlanta and educated partly in the North, he had for most of his life been sheltered from the grossest cruelties of devotion to biblical and constitutional conceptions of justice, and his devotion to the nonviolent principles of India's Mohandas Gandhi were destined to thrust him to the forefront of the black revolution that would soon pulse across the South and the rest of the nation.

National American Woman Suffrage Association

The NAWSA is an organization founded in 1890 to demand the vote for women. Its founders were Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, along with the most prominent leader Carrie Chapman Catt. NAWSA argued that women should be allowed to vote because their responsibilities in the home and family make them indispensable in the public decision making process. By the linking the ballot to a traditional definition of women's role, the suffragists registered encouraging gains as the new century opened.

NAACP; Sweatt v. Painter

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) pushed the Supreme Court in 1950 to rule in Sweatt v. Painter that separated professional schools for blacks failed to meet the test of equality. The national conscience was slowly awakening from its centuries-long slumber, but black suffering still continued, especially in the South.

Patrons of Husbandry, "The Grange"

The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry-also known as the Grange-was organized in 1867 under leader Oliver H. Kelly. He wanted to enhance the lives of isolated farmers through activities. Farm men and women found the Grange's picnics, concerts, and lectures to be a godsend. In these events, the Grangers gradually raised their goals from individual self improvement to improvement of the farmers' collective plight. They established cooperatively owned stores for consumers and cooperatively owned grain elevators and warehouses for producers (most ambitious experiment was a failed attempt to manufacture harvesting machinery). Grangers also went into politics, where they strove to regulate railway rates and the storage fees charged by railroads and by the operators of warehouses and grain elevators.

Neutrality Act of 1939, cash-and-carry

The Neutrality Act of 1939 provided that henceforth the European democracies might buy American war materials, but only on a cash and carry basis. This meant that they would have to transport the ammunitions in their own ships after paying for them in cash. This would avoid loans, war debts, and the torpedoing of American arms carriers (for America). While Congress thus loosened former restriction in response to interventionist cries, it added others in response to isolationist fears.

New South

The New South was the increasing encouragement of industrialists to bring southerners into the factories. This attempt at industrialization failed due to the paper barrier of regional rate setting systems and economic discrimination. The New South wasn't really new because it still continued to fall far behind the north in production.

Oklahoma sooners, boomers

The Oklahoma sooners were armed pioneers that had illegally entered the Oklahoma Territory. Many of these pioneers were forced by federal troops back into American territory. On April 22, 1889 (the legal opening of the Oklahoma Territory), 50,000 boomers were ready and as soon as allowed, they swarmed into the territory. By the end of the year, Oklahoma had 60,000 inhabitants, and in 1907, it became the Sooner State.

Peace Corps

The Peace Corps is an army of idealistic and mostly youthful volunteers to bring American shills to underdeveloped countries. Kennedy summoned citizens to service with his clarion call to "ask not what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country."

Pendleton (Civil Service) Act

The Pendleton Act was congressional legislation made compulsory campaign contributions from federal employees illegal, and it established the Civil Service Commission, which made federal government jobs on the basis of examinations instead of political patronage, thus reigning in the spoils system.

People's Party "Populists" 1892

The People's party was a group of frustrated farmers that demanded inflation through free and unlimited coinage of silver at the rate of sixteen ounces of silver to one ounce of gold; called for graduated income tax, government ownership of the railroads, telegraph and telephone; direct election of US senators; one term limit on the presidency; adoption of the initiative and referendum to allow citizens to shape legislation more directly; a shorter workday; and immigration restriction.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

The SCLC was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, that was formed by Martin Luther King Jr. in 1957. It aimed to mobilize the vast power of the black churches on behalf of black rights. This was an exceptionally shrewd strategy, because the churches were the largest and best organized black institutions that had been allowed to fourths in a segregated society.

Sandinistas; Contras

The Sandinistas were a left wing dictatorial regime that controlled Nicaragua during Reagan's presidency. These Sandinistas were accused by White House Administration of supplying aid to revolutionary rebels in El Salvador, which resulted in US military exports to the pro-American government in El Salvador. They were fought by a group of rebels, known as the Contras, that were aided by the US (resulting in the Iran-Contra affair). Although an American political fiasco, this aid was a major factor in the eventual development of free elections in Nicaragua in February 1990, which removed the Sandinistas from power.

Selective Service System

The Selective Service System was a military draft, providing for the conscription of selected young men from nineteen to twenty five years of age. The forbidding presence of this system shaped millions of young people's educational, marital, and career plans in the following quarter century.

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

The Six-Day War markedly intensified the problems of the already volatile Middle East, leading to an in tractable standoff between the Israelis and Palestinians, now led by Yasir Arafat, head of the Palestine Liberation Organization. For decades a return to the "pre-1967 boundaries" would be a key negotiating aim for Palestinians. The Middle East became an ever more dangerously packed powder keg that the war-plagued United States proved powerless to defuse.

Gadsden Purchase

The South wanted to build a transcontinental railroad through their territory to gain wealth, population, and influence. A chunk of Mexican land seemed the best route. The northerners resented paying money for the South's benefit, but the Senate approved it. This additional land cost $10 million. The North was deterred because their railroad would have to base through Nebraska. Since it was an unorganized territory, it lacked protection from Indians, bandits, and buffalo.

Underground Railroad

The South were irritated by their loss of slaves. Slaves that ran away were often assisted by the Underground Railroad, an informal network of volunteers that helped runaway slaves escape from the South and reach free-soil Canada. It was made up of "stations" (anti-slavery homes), "passengers" (runaway slaves), and "conductors" (usually white and black abolitionists). Seeking to halt the flow of runaway slaves to the North, Southern planters and congressmen pushed for a stronger fugitive slave law since the old ones were proving inadequate. Although there was not a significant amount of runaways, the slaveowners were more concerned with the loss of honor and the feelings the abolitionists implied of having superior moral values.

National Security Act

The Soviet menace spurred the unification of the armed services as well as the creation of a huge new national security apparatus. Congress in 1947 passed the National Security Act, creating the Department of Defense. The department was to be housed in the sprwawling Pentagon building on the banks of the Potomac and to be headed by a new cabinet officer, the secretary of defense. Under the secretary but now without cabinet status, were the civilian secretaries of the navy, the army, and the air force. The uniformed heads of each service were brought together as the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil

The Standard Oil Company was John D.Rockefeller's company, formed in 1870, which came to symbolize the trusts and monopolies of the Gilded Age. By 1877 Standard Oil controlled 95% of the oil refineries in the US. It was also one of the first multinational corporations, and at times distributed more than half of the company's kerosene production outside the US. By the turn of the century it had become a target for trust bursting reformers, and in 1911 the supreme Court ordered it to break up into several dozen smaller companies.

Liberty loans; Liberty bonds

The Treasury Department sponsored huge parades and invoked slogans like "Halt the Hun" to promote four great liberty loan drives, followed by a Victory Loan campaign in 1919 to get people to purchase war bonds. These efforts netted the then-fantastic sum of about $21 billion. The remainder was raised by increased taxes, which unlike loan subscriptions, were obligatory (required).

U.N. Security Council

The U.N Security Council was dominated by the Big Five Powers- the United States, Britain, the USSR, France, and China. It could have action taken against it without its consent.

Soviet atomic bomb test

The US was shocked to hear from president Truman that in September 1949, the Soviets had detonated an atomic bomb, approximately three years earlier than many experts had thought possible. To outpace the Soviets, the US created the controversial Hydrogen (H-bomb) and detonated in the South Pacific in 1952. Not to be outpaced, the Soviets did the same next year. The initial Soviet bomb test marked the beginning of a dangerous arms race that would emerge between America and the USSR, which would last throughout the duration of the Cold War.

Woman's Christian Temperance Union WCTU

The WCTU was founded in Ohio in the 1870s to combat the evils of excessive alcohol consumption. Its leader was Frances E. Willard, who also organized planned parenthood. The WCTU went on to embrace a broad reform agenda, including campaigns to abolish prostitution and gain the right to vote for women. Unfortunately, their campaign was brought considerable disrepute due to the violent actions of Carrie A. Nation, whose husband died of alcoholism.

War Production Board

The War crisis caused the drooping American economy to snap to attention. Massive military orders- over $100 billion in 1942 alone- almost instantly soaked up the idle industrial capacity of the still-lingering Great Depression. Orchestrated by the War Production Board (WPB), American factories poured forth an avalanche of weaponry: 40 billion bullets, 300,000 aircraft, 76,000 ships, 86,000 tanks, and 2.6 million machine guns. Miracle-man ship builder Henry J. Kaiser was dubbed "Sir Launchalot" for his prodigies of ship construction, one of his ships was fully assembled in fourteen days, complete with life jackets and coat hangers. The WPB halted the manufacture of nonessential items. It assigned priorities for transportation and access to raw materials.

YMCA, YWCA

The YMCA and YWCA=young mens and women's Christian associations. They grew by leaps and bound by combining physical and other kinds of education with religious instruction. These institutions appeared in almost every major American city by the end of the nine tenth century.

Zimmermann Note

The Zimmermann Note was intercepted and published on March 1,1917, infuriating Americans, especially westerners. German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann had secretly proposed a German-Mexican alliance, tempting anti-Yankee Mexico with veiled promises of recovering Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. On the heels of this provocation came the long dreaded "overt" acts in the Atlantic , where German U-Boats sank four unarmed American merchant vessels in the first two weeks of March. Simultaneously came the rousing news that a revolution in Russia had toppled the cruel regime of the tsars. America could now fight foursquare for democracy on the side of the Allies, without the black sheep of Russian despotism in the Allied fold.

"Federal Reserve Notes"

The board was also empowered to issue paper money-"Federal Reserve Notes"- backed by commercial paper, such as promissory notes of businesspeople. Thus the amount of money in circulation could be swiftly increased as needed for the legitimate requirements.

League of Nations

The brainchild of Woodrow Wilson, the League of Nations was first hinted at in Wilson's 14 point plan but became a real idea during the Paris Conference. The League of Nations was to serve as a world parliament that would address the issues of the world with words before with violence. It was also supposed to help the area that were now unclaimed after a countries defeat it war. But despite being created by Wilson, the US did not believe that is would be effective and therefore would not join the league. The league without wilson's passion did not succeed, but would lead later to the idea of the United Nations.

Executive Order No. 9066

The brutal precaution, authorized under the Executive Order No. 9066, was both unnecessary and unfair, as the loyalty and combat record of Japanese Americans proved to be admirable. But a wave of post-Pearl Harbor hysteria , backed by the long historical swell of anti-Japanese prejudice on the West Coast, temporarily robbed many Americans of their good sense- and their sense of justice.

Federal Housing Administration FHA (1934)

The building industry was to be stimulated by small loans to house-holders, both for improving their dwellings and for completing new ones. This was so popular that the FHA was one of the few "alphabetical agencies" to outlast the age of Roosevelt. congress bolstered the program in 1937 by authorizing the US Housing Authority (USHA) an agency designed to lend money to states or communities for low-cost construction.

Manifest Destiny

The campaign of 1844 was in part an expression of the mighty emotional upsurge known as the Manifest Destiny. Countless citizens in the 1840s and the 1850s, feeling a sense of mission, believed that Almighty God had "manifestly" destined the American people for a hemispheric career. The would irresistibly spread their uplifting and ennobling democratic institutions over at least the entire continent, and possibly over South America as well. Land greed and ideals- "empire" and "liberty"- were thus conveniently conjoined.

South Vietnam Coup

The corrupt, right-wing government of Ngo Dinh Diem in Saigon, despite a deluge of American dollars, had ruled shakily since the partition of Vietnam in 1954. Anti-Diem agitators noisily threatened to topple the pro-American government from power. In a fateful decision late in 1961, Kennedy ordered a sharp increase in the number of "military advisers" in South Vietnam. American forces allegedly entered Vietnam to foster politically stability- to help protect Diem from the communists long enough to allow him to enact basic social reforms favored by the Americans. The Kennedy administration eventually despaired of the reactionary Diem and encouraged a successful coup against him in November 1963. Ironically, the United States thus contributed to a long process of political disintegration that its original policy had meant to prevent. Kennedy still told the South Vietnamese that is was "their war," but he had made dangerously deep political commitments.

Exodusters

The decades following emancipation of the slaves proved to be confusing for everyone. They blacks wanted to start new lives with their newfound liberty. Tens of thousands of emancipated blacks took to the roads, some to test their freedom, others to search for long-lost spouses, parents, and children. Whole communities sometimes moved together in search of opportunity. From 1878 to 1880 about 25,000 blacks Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi surged in a mass exodus to Kansas.

Genocide, Holocaust

The deliberate killing of a large group of people, those of a particular ethnic group or nation (jews). The mass murder of Jews under the German Nazi regime during WWII.

popular sovereignty

The democratic concept of popular sovereignty was treasured by Douglas and his fellow westerners. The principle was included in Douglas' suggested Kansas-Nebraska Act. Kansas would probably choose slavery while Nebraska would most likely choose to be a free state. The only way to accomplish popular sovereignty was to repeal the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

Puritans and Separatists

The doctrines of Calvinist came into England when King Henry VIII was breaking away from the Catholic Church in the 1530s. He then made himself head of the Church of England. Many of these "Puritans" came from the commercially depressed woolen district. Calvinism lead to social unrest and provided spiritual comfort to the economically disadvantaged. The most dedicated Puritans believed only the "visible saints" should be admitted to the Church. They would have to enroll all the king's subjects, which would mean they would have to share pews and communion rails with the "damned." A tiny group of dedicated Puritans and they split from the Church of England and were called Separatists. King James I was head of both the church and the state in England from 1603 to 1625. His subjects resisted against him as a spiritual leader, they could resist against him as a political leader. He then threatened to harass the more bothersome Separatist out of the land. The most famous group of Separatist came from Holland in 1608.

Servicemen's Readjustment Act (GI Bill)

The passage of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act- better known as the GI Bill of Rights or GI Bill. Enacted partly out of fear that the employment markets would never be able to absorb 15 million returning veterans at war's end, the GI Bill made generous provisions for sending the former soldiers to school In the postwar decade, some 8 million veterans advanced their education at Uncle Sam's expense. the majority attended technical and vocational schools, but colleges and universities were crowded to the blackboards as more than 2 million ex-GIs stormed the halls of higher learning The Act also enabled the Veterans Administration (VA) to guarantee about $16 billion in loans for veterans to buy homes, farms, and small businesses.

phonograph

The phonograph is was invented by inventor Thomas Edison, that reproduced music by mechanical means.The phonograph, by 1900, had reached over 150,000 homes. Americans were rapidly being dosed with "canned music" as the "sitting room" piano increasingly became ignored.

German "Forty-Eighters"

The refugees from Germany between 1830 and 1860 was hardly less spectacular than that from Ireland. During these troubled years, over a million and a half Germans stepped onto American soil. The bulk of them were uprooted farmers, displaced by crop failures and other hardships. But a strong sprinkling were liberal political refugees. Saddened by the collapse of the democratic revolutions of 1848, they had decided to leave the autocratic fatherland and flee to America-the brightest hope of democracy. Germany's loss was America's gain.

Voter Education Project

The relationship between King and the Kennedys was a fruitful one. Encouraged by Robert Kennedy, and with financial backing from Kennedy-prodded private foundations, SNCC and other civil rights groups inaugurated the Voter Education Project to register the South's historically disfranchised blacks. Because of his support for civil rights, President Kennedy told a group of black leaders in 1963, "I may lose the next election,, I don't care."

Robert Fulton's steamboat—The Clermont

The steamboat craze , which overlapped the turnpike craze, was touched off by an ambitious painter-engineer named Robert Fulton. He installed a powerful steam engine in a vessel that posterity came to known as the Clermont but that a dubious public dubbed "Fulton's fully." On a historic day in 1807, the quaint little ship, belching sparks from its single smokestack, churned steadily from New York City up the Hudson River toward Albany. It made the run of 150 miles in 32 hours.

religious right, Moral Majority

The religious right was a coalition of conservative evangelical Christians known as the religious right. Members were often called movement conservatives (pro-life or "Christian voters"), and in many ways the religious right was a reflection of sixties radicalism. The Moral Majority was a political action committee founded by evangelical Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979 to promote traditional Christian values and oppose feminism, abortion, and gay rights (using radio, mail marketing, and TV), the group was a major linchpin in the resurgent religious right of the 1980s (even though several scandals concerning their leaders erupted in the latter part of the decade)

Amendment 21; repeal of prohibition

The repeal of prohibition afforded an opportunity to raise needed federal revenue and at the same time to provide a measure of employment. In the earliest acts, the Hundred Days Congress legalized light wine and beer with an alcoholic content not exceeding 3.2 percent by weight, and levied a tax of $5 on every barrel so manufactured. Amendment was passed in late 1933.

reservation system

The reservation system is the system that allotted land with designated boundaries to Native American tribes in the west, beginning in the 1850s and ending with the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887. Within these reservations, most land was used communally, rather than owned individually. The US government encouraged and sometimes violently coerced the Native Americans to stay on the reservations at all times. These reservations were originally established in an attempt to separate the Indians into two great colonies to the north and south of a corridor of intended white settlement, but the white treaty makers misunderstood both Indian government and Indian society.

Public Works Administration PWA

The same act of Congress that hatched the NRA eagle also authorized the PWA, likewise intended both industrial recovery and for unemploument relief. The agency was headed by secretary of the interior, Ickes, a free swinging former bull mooser. Long range recovery was the primary purpose of the new agency, and in time over $4 billion was spent on some 34,000 projects (mainly internal improvements). One of the achievements was the Columbia River, which now made irrigation possible for millions of other acres of farmland.

London Economic Conference

The sixty-six nation London Economic Conference, meeting in the summer of 1933, revealed how thoroughly Roosevelt's early foreign policy was subordinated to his strategy for domestic economic recovery. The delegates to the London Conference hoped to organize a coordinated international attack on the global depression. They were particularly eager to stabilize the values of the various nations; currencies and exchange rate. The stability of the exchange rate would ring back world trade, which had disappeared by 1933. Roosevelt was the first to send a delegate to the conference. But the president soon withdrew from the conference because he realized that stabilizing the prices would not create inflation that was needed to get out of the deflation.

Nixon Doctrine

The so-called Nixon Doctrine thus evolved. It proclaimed that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments but that in the future, Asians and others would have to fight their own wars without the support of large bodies of American ground troops.

Marconi and radio

The speed of the airplane was far eclipsed by the speed of radio waves. Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian, invented wireless telegraphy in the 1890s, and his brainchild was used for long-range communication during World War I. Next came the voice-carrying radio, a triumph of many minds. A red-letter day was posted in November 1920, when the Pittsburgh radio station KDKA broadcast the news of the Harding landslide. The earliest radio programs reached only local audiences. But by the late 1920s, technological improvements made long-distance broadcasting possible, and national commercial networks drowned out much local programming.

Scopes "Monkey Trial"

The stage was set for the memorable "Monkey Trial" at the bamlet of Dayton, in eastern Tennessee, in 1925. A likeable high-school biology teacher, John T. Scopes, was indicted for teaching evolution. Batteries of newspaper reporters, armed with notebooks and cameras, descended upon the quiet town to witness the spectacle. Scopes was defended by nationally known attorneys, while former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, an ardent Presbyterian Fundamentalist, joined the prosecution. Taking the stand as an expert of the Bible, Bryan was made to appear foolish by the famed criminal lawyer Clarence Darrow. Five days after the trial was over, Bryan died of a stroke.

Newlands Act of 1902

The thirst of the desert still unslaked, Congress responded to the whip of the Rough Riders by passing the landmark Newlands Act of 1902. Washington was authorized to collect money from the sale of public lands in the sun-baked western states and then use these funds for the development of irrigation projects. Settlers repaid the cost of reclamation from their now-productive soil, and the money was put into a revolving fund to finance more such enterprises.

transcontinental railroad line

The transcontinental railroad line was an attempt to unite the western and eastern states through transportation. The first was the Union Pacific Railroad was commissioned when the South seceded, and it was built at the hands of the uneducated Irish. By 1900, American railroads totaled 192,556 miles long (more than all of European ones combined). These railroads were built through federal loans and land grants, which the railroad owners often used to turn a profit. The transcontinental line was important to history because it promoted economic growth, increased immigration, led to the development of railroad cities, and led to the establishment of time zones.

nullification and states' rights

Theory promoted by John C. Calhoun and other South Carolinians that said states had the right to disregard federal laws to which they objected; doctrine and strategy in which the rights of the individual states are protected by the U.S. Constitution from interference by the federal government.

Hatch Act (1939)

This act barred federal administrative officials, except the highest policy-making officers, from active political campaigning and soliciting, It also forbade the use of government funds for political purposes, as well as the collection of campaign contributions from people receiving relief payments. It was broadened in 1940 to place limits on campaign contributions and expenditures, but such clever ways of getting around it were found that on the whole legislation proved disappointing.

Federal Emergency Relief Act FERA

This was the first major effort of the new Congress to grapple with the millions of unemployed adults. Its chief aim was immediate relief rather than long range recovery. The resulting FERA was handed over ot the zealous Harry L. Hopkins, a painfully thin, shabbily dressed, chain smoking NY social worker who had earlier won Roosevelt's friendship and who became one of his most influential advisers. Hopkins agency in all granted about $3 billion to the states for direct dole payments or preferably for wages on work projects.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff 1930

This was the highest protective tariff in the peacetime hisotry of the US, passed as a result of good old fashioned horse trading.To the outside world, it smacked of ugly economic warfare. It started out as a fairly reasonable protective measure, designed to assist the farmers. But by the time the high pressure lobbyists had pushed it through the Senate, it had acquired about a thousand amendments. It thus turned out to be the highest protective tariff in the nation's peacetime history. To foreigners, it seemed like a declaration of economic warfare on the entire outside world. It reversed a promising worldwide trend toward reasonable tariffs and widened the yawning trade gaps. It plunged both America and other nations deeper into the terrible depression that had already begun.

neoconservatives

Though Reagan was no intellectual, he drew on the ideas of a small but influential group of thinkers known as "neoconservatives." Their ranks included Norman Podhoretz, editor of Commentary magazine, and Irving Kristol, editor of The Public Interest. Reacting against what they saw as the excess of 1960s liberalism, the neoconservatives championed free-market capitalism liberated from government restraints, and they took tough, harshly anti-Soviet positions in foreign policy. They also questioned liberal welfare programs and affirmative-action policies and called for the reassertion of traditional vaules of individualism and the centrality of the family.

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo 1848

Trist signed the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, and forwarded it to Washington. The terms of the treaty were breathtaking. They confirmed the American title to Texas and yielded the enormous area stretching westward to Oregon and the ocean and embracing coveted California. This total expanse, including Texas, was about one half of Mexico. The United States agreed to pay $15 million for the land and to assume the claims of its citizens against Mexico in the amount of $3,250,000.

Point Four

Truman called it a "bold new program". The plan was to lend U.S. money and technical aid to underdeveloped lands to help them help themselves. Truman wanted to spend millions to keep underprivileged peoples from becoming communist rather than spend billions to shoot them after they become communist.This program was officially launched in 1950, and it brought badly needed assistance to impoverished countries, notably in Latin America, Africa, Near East, and the Far East.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Two American citizens that are notorious for being those who allegedly "leaked' atomic data to Moscow. In 1951 they were convicted of espionage and went to the electric chain in 1953 (they were the only people in American history ever executed in peacetime for espionage. Their sensational trial and electrocution, combined with sympathy for their two orphaned children, began to sour some sober citizens on the excesses of the red-hunters.

Crittenden Compromise

U.S. Senator John Jordan Crittenden from Kentucky who introduced a compromise in 1860 in an effort to avoid a civil war. Crittenden proposed to amend the constitution, prohibiting slavery in territories north of 36° 30' but expending federal protection to slavery in territories to the south. Proposed in an attempt to appease the South, the failed Constitutional amendments would have given federal protection for slavery in all territories south of 36°30' where slavery was supported by popular sovereignty. Lincoln rejected it on the matter of extension of slavery. Hope of compromise evaporated.

sewing machine

Was invented by Elias Howe in 1846 and perfected by Isaac Singer, gave another strong boost to northern industrialization. The sewing machine became the foundation of the ready-made clothing industry, which took root about the time of the Civil War. It drove many a seamstress from the shelter of the private home to the factory, where like a human robot, she tended the clattering mechanisms.

Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address

Was meant to help heal and restore the country after four years of Civil War. Some see this speech as a defense of his pragmatic approach to Reconstruction, in which he sought to avoid harsh treatment of the defeated South by reminding his listeners of how wrong both sides had been in imagining what lay before them when the war began four years earlier. Lincoln balanced that rejection of triumphalism, however, with a recognition of the unmistakable evil of slavery, which he described in the most concrete terms possible.

Wilson's "New Freedom"

When the Democrats met in Baltimore in 1912, Wilson was nominated on the forty-sixth ballot, aided by William Jennings Bryan's switch to his side. The Democrats gave Wilson a strong progressive platform to run on; dubbed the New Freedom program, it included calls for stronger antitrust legislation, banking reform, and tariff reductions.

the long drive; cowboys-

When transcontinental railroads made their way into the west, cattle could now be shipped alive to the stockyards. Th Long Drive was a path in which Texas cowboys (black, white, and Mexican) drove herds numbering from one thousand to ten thousand head slowly over the unfenced and unpeople plains until they reached a railroad terminal . The cows would then be put on train cars and sent to cow towns. The Long Drive was eventually unmade by the building of barbed wire fences blizzard, over-expansion and overgrazing.

destruction of the buffalo

When whites first arrived, tens of millions of buffalo roamed the plains of America. However,over time, their numbers severely dropped, to a point where they faced extinction. These animals were very useful (flesh-food, hides-clothing and harnesses, and dung-fuel). However, when the construction of the railroads occurred, they were always in the way of builders and were often killed as a source of food. Other times they were killed for tongues, choice cuts, or amusement. Some Indian tribes later would kill them so that other tribes couldn't use them.

suburbs, Levittown

While other industrial countries struggled to rebuild their war-ravaged cities, government policies in the United States encouraged movement away from the urban centers. Federal Housing Administration and Veterans Administration home-loan guarantees made it more economically attractive to own a home in the suburbs than to rent an apartment in the city. By 1960 one in every four Americans dwelt in suburbia, and a half-century later, more than half the nation's population did. The construction industry boomed in the 1950s and 1960s to satisfy this demand. Pioneered by innovators like the Levitt brothers, whose first Levittown sprouted on New York's Long Island in the 1940s, builders revolutionized the techniques of home construction. Erecting hundred or even thousands of dwellings in a single project, specialised crews working from standardized plans laid foundations ,while others raised factory-assembled framing modules, put on roofs, strung wires, installed plumbing, and finished the walls in record time and with cost-cutting efficiency.

Wilson's "Fourteen Points"

Wilson quickly came to be recognized as the moral leader of the Allied cause. He scaled a summit of inspiring oratory on January 8, 1918, when he delivered his famed Fourteen Points Address to an enthusiastic Congress. Although one of his primary purposes was to keep reeling Russia in the war, Wilson's vision inspired all the drooping Allies to make mightier efforts and demoralized the enemy governments by holding out alluring promises to their dissatisfied minorities. The first five of the Fourteen Points were broad in scope. (1) a proposal to abolish secret treaties pleased liberals of all countries. (2) Freedom of the seas appealed to the Germans, as well as to the Americans who distrusted British sea power. (3) A removal of economic barriers among nations had long been the goal of liberal internationalists everywhere. (4) A reduction of armament burdens was gratifying to taxpayers in all countries. (5) An adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and the colonizers was reassuring to the anti-imperialists. Other points among the fourteen proved to be no less seductive. They held out the hope of independence ("self-determination") to oppressed minority groups, such as the Poles, millions of whom lay under the hell of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The capstone point, number fourteen, foreshadowed the League of Nations- an international organization that Wilson dreamed earnestly prayed that this new scheme would effectively guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all countries, whether large or small.

patents

for the decade ending in 1800, only 306 patents were registered in Washington; but the decade ending in 1860 saw the amazing total of 28,000. Yet in 1838 the clerk of the Patent Office resigned in despair, complaining that all worthwhile inventions had been discovered.

Non-Intercourse Act

formally reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except Britain and France. The act continued Jeffersons policy of economic coercion still with little effect.

Attack of Fort Sumter, 1861

fort on the Charleston harbor; was one of the last forts standing from the south when Lincoln took office; the fort was running low on provisions; Lincoln knew if he sent reinforcements the south would attack; he wrote to South Carolina that he was sending provisions to the fort and did; the south still thought it was reinforcements; a Union naval force was sent to Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861; South Carolina open fired on the vessel; Fort Sumter surrendered

"Whitewashed rebels"

four former confederate generals, five colonels, various members of the Richmond cabinet and Congress who were reinstated into Congress, which infuriated the Republicans.

Lincoln, Republican 1860

in 1858 during the Lincoln-Douglas debates in the Illinois senate race and emerged as the leading contender for the Republican nomination in 1860. Lincoln's election in 1860 drove South Carolina from the Union, eventually leading to the Civil War. Lincoln won a sweeping victory. When Lincoln was elected, the South had the excuse they needed to succeed. - 1860 Republican Party Platform Handout - Election Map P.411 - Election Candidates - Lincoln- anti-spread - Douglas- pop. Sov - Bell- keep the Union together - Breckinridge- South slavery

"salutary neglect"-

is an American history term that refers to an unofficial and long-lasting 17th- & 18th-century British policy of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, meant to keep the American colonies obedient to england. Salutary neglect occurred in three time periods. From 1607 to 1696, England had no coherent imperial policy regarding specific overseas possessions and their governance, although mercantilist ideas were gaining force and giving general shape to trade policy. From 1696 to 1763, England (and after 1707 the Kingdom of Great Britain) tried to form a coherent policy through the Navigation Acts but did not enforce it. Lastly, from 1763 to 1775 Britain began to try to enforce stricter rules and more direct management, driven in part by the outcome of the Seven years war in which Britain had gained large swathes of new territory in North America at the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Successive British government passed a number of acts designed to regulate their American colonies including the Stamp Act and Quebec Act. The Quebec Act was not meant to oppress the colonists, but the colonists interpreted it as so because of the Intolerable Acts being passed at the same time.

Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell; Clara Barton

organized the US Sanitary Commission; transformed nursing form a lowly derive into a respected profession- specifically for women

Jefferson Davis

president of the confederate states of America he was also he had served in the Senate for Mississippi and served as a cabinet member. He had wide military and administrative experience however he had ill health. Sometimes his strategy wasn't the best

election 1864 Union Party

the Republicans joined forces with the War Democrats and declared themselves the Union Party because they feared Lincoln might lose re-election. The Republican party passed out of existence. Lincoln was elected again as president.

Wilderness Campaign 1864

various brutal battles between Grant and Lee in Virginia, leading to Grant's capture of Richmond in 1865. Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse. His plan of attack was to assail the Confederate's armies simultaneously so they could not assist each other.

James Madison

was a Virginian who was a friend of Jefferson who was strongly favored in the nomination and election. Madison took the presidential oath on March 4, 1809 as the awesome conflict in Europe was roaring to its climax. Madison was crippled by factors within his party and his cabinet. Since Madison was unable to dominate Congress as Jefferson had done Madison found himself holding the bag for risky foreign policies not of his own making.

Tecumseh's Indian Confederacy

was a group of Native Americans in the Old Northwest that began to form in the early 19th century around the teaching of Tenskwatawa. The confederation grew over several years and came to include several thousand warriors. Deemed a threat to the United States, a preemptive strike against the confederation was launched resulting in the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe. Under Tecumseh's leadership, the confederation went to war with the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. Following the death of Tecumseh in 1813 the confederation fell apart.

British Prime Minister William Pitt-

- A tall and imposing figure, whose flashing eyes were set in a hawklike face, he was popularly known as the "Great Commoner." He drew much of his strength from the common people, who admired him so greatly that on occasion they kissed his horse. In 1757, he became a foremost leader in the London government. Earned the title "Organizer of Victory."

Jonathan Edwards-

- An intelligent pastor from Northampton, Massachusetts. He was probably the deepest theological mind ever natured in America. He proclaimed with burning righteousness the folly of believing in salvation through good works and affirmed the need for complete dependence on God's grace. Warming to his subject, he painted in vivid detail the landscape of hell and the eternal torments of the damned. His preaching style was learned and closely reasoned, but his stark a warmly sympathetic reaction among his parishioners in 1736.

"Coureurs de bois" fur trade-

- Coureurs de bios also known as runners of the woods, were people who would run through the woods in search of beavers. Europeans loved beaver-pelt hats for their warmth and opulent appearance. They littered the land. Killing the beavers were violating many Indian religious beliefs and sadly demonstrated the shattering effect that contact with European wreak on traditional Indian ways of life.

George Whitefield-

- Four years after Edwards, George Whitfield loosened a different style of evangelical preaching on America. He touched off a conflagration of religious ardor that revolutionized the spiritual life of the colonies. His magnificent voice boomed sonorously over thousands of enthralled listeners in an open field. Touring the colonies, he trumpeted his message of human helplessness and divine omnipotence.

Jesuit missionaries-

- French Catholic missionaries labored to save the Indians for Christ and for the fur-trappers. Some of the Jesuits suffered unspeakable tortures at the hands of Indians. They made very few permanent coverts, the Jesuits played a virtual role as explorers and geographers.

Albany Congress (Albany Plan of Union)-

- In 1754 the British government called an intercolonial congress in Albany, New York. Only seven colonies out of the thirteen showed up. The long-range purpose at Albany was to achieve greater colonial unity and thus bolster the common defense against France. Benjamin Franklin was the leading spirit of the Albany Congress. The Albany delegates unanimously adopted the plan, but the individual colonies spurned it, as did the London regime. The colonists rejected it because the colonists thought it had to little independence and the British thought it gave to much independence.

John Peter Zenger-

- In a celebrated legal case in 1734-1735, involved John Peter Zenger, a newspaper printer. The case arose in New York, reflecting the tumultuous give-and-take of politics in the middle colonies. His paper had assailed the royal governor. He argued that he had printed the truth , but the be wiggled royal chief justice instructed the jury not to sandier the truth or falsity of Zenger's statements. Zenger decision was a banner achievement for freedom of the press and for the health of democracy.

French Protestant Huguenots-

- It was convulsed during the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife, including the frightful clashes between Roman Catholics and Protestant Huguenots. On St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572, over ten thousand Huguenots- men, women, and children- were butchered in cold blood. In 1598 the Edict of Nantes, published by the crown, granted limited toleration to French Protestants.

Republicanism-

- One of the ideas American colonists by the mid-eighteenth century had taken root in their minds. They looked to the models of the ancient Greek and Roman republics, exponents of republicanism defined a just society as one in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good. Both the stability of society and the authority of government depended on the virtue of the citizenry- its capacity for selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage, and especially its appetite for civic involvement. By its very nature, republicanism was opposed to hierarchical and authoritarian institutions such as aristocracy and monarchy.

Proclamation Line of 1763-

- Randomly the London government issued the Proclamation Line of 1763. IT flatly prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians, pending further adjustments. The truth is that this hastily drawn document was not designed to oppress the colonists at all, but to work out the Indian problem daily and prevent another bloody eruption like Pontiac's uprising.

The Great Awakening-

- The Great Awakening's emphasis on direct, delicate spiritually frustrated the older clergy, whose authority had deprived from their education and knowledge. The arguments it set off in many churches made the number of churches grow and the competitive side of the churches come out. It encouraged a new generation of missionary work with the Indians and the black slaves. It led to the founding of "new light" centers of high education. The Great Awakening was the first spontaneous mass movement of the American people

Ohio Country (Ohio Valley)-

- The Ohio Valley was the crucial area into which the westward-pushing of the British colonists would inevitably penetrate. For France it was also the key to the continent that the French had to retain, particularly if they were going to link their Canadian holdings with those in the lower Mississippi Valley. Rivalry for the lush lands brought tensions between to the breaking point.

Pontiac's Rebellion-

- The Ottawa chief Pontiac in 1763 led several tribes, aided by a handful of French traders who remained in the region, in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio Country. The British retaliated swiftly and cruelly. One commander ordered blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed among the Indians. These tactics stopped the uprising and brought an uneasy truce to the frontier. Pontiac himself perished in 1769 at the hands of a rival chieftain.

Catholic New France (Canada)-

- The government of New France fell under direct control of the king. This royal regime was almost completely dictatorial. The people then elected no representative assemblies, nor fig they enjoy the right to trial by jury, as in the English colonies. The population grew very slowly in New France. In 1750, only sixty thousand or so whites were there. Missionaries were also explorers because they tried to Christianize the Indians and they would tried to save them from fur-trappers.

radical Whig philosophy-

- The radical Whigs were a group of British political commentators. The Whigs feared the threat to liberty posed by the arbitrary power of the monarch and his ministers relative to elected representatives in Parliament. They mounted withering attacks on the use of patronage and bribes by the king's ministers. Together the republican and Whig ideas predisposed the American colonists to be on hair-trigger alert against any threat to their rights.

French-Indian War (Seven Years' War") 1754-

- Touched off by George Washington in the wilds of the Ohio Valley in 1754, it rocked along on an undeclared basis for two years and then widened into the most far-flung conflict the world had yet seen- the Seven Years War. It was fought not only in America but in Europe, in the West Indies, in the Philippines, in Africa, and on the ocean.

Samuel de Champlain-

- Was known as the leading figure; he was a intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy was leadership fairly earned him the title "Father of New France." He entered into friendly relations with the Huron Indian tribes. He even helped them fight the Iroquois tribes. After fighting the Iroquois tribes, New France started to head into the Ohio Valley.

Protestant Reformation (Ch.3)

Martin Luther, a German friar, in 1517 nailed his protest against the Catholic Church on the Wittenberg's cathedral. Martin Luther accusing the priests and popes, he said that the only source of God's Word was the Bible. He then lite the fire to the Protestant Reformation. It made its way across Europe from more than a century. This divided many people and also moved the spiritual fervor of millions of men and women-some whom helped found America.

"restoration" of Charles II

Charles II came to power in 1660 after his father was beheaded. During the "restoration" of Charles II colonization had stopped. Also the building of the empire intensified. Carolina, named after Charles II, was formed in 1670, after the king granted to eight of his favorite court people- the Lords Proprietors.

Titled Nobility-

Eighteenth century America seemed like a utopian society of equality and opportunity, No title nobility dominated society from on high, and no poor people who threatened it from below. Most white Americans and a small number of blacks were farmers. They owned equal and tended to them with their own hands and animals. They city held a small group of talented artisans. The most significant feature was the openness of the social ladder. Anyone could rise from a low rung to a higher one, which was highly uncommon in old England.

Epidemics, inoculation-

Epidemics were a constant nightmare. Especially smallpox, which burdened one out of five people, including the heavily pockmarked George Washington. A crude form of inoculation was intruded in 1721, despite the objections of many physicians and some of the clergy, who opposed tampering with the will of God. Powdered dried toad was a favorite prescription for smallpox. Diphtheria was also a deadly killer, especially in young people. One epidemic in 1730s took the lives of thousands.

Battle of Quebec-

In 1759 ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history. When Montreal fell in 1760, the French flag had fluttered in Canada for the last time. By the peace settlement at Paris (1763), French power completely off the continent of North America, leaving behind a fertile French population that is to this day a strong minority in Canada.

Catholic "mission" settlements

In 1769 Spanish missionaries led by Father Junipero Serra founded at San Diego the first of a chain of twenty-one missions that wound up the coast as far as Sonoma, north of San Francisco Bay. Father Junipero Serra's brown-robed Franciscan friars toiled with zealous devotion to Christianize the three hundred thousand native Californians. They gathered the semi-nomadic Indians into fortified missions and taught them horticulture and basic crafts. The "mission Indians" did adopt Christianity, but they also lost contact with their native cultures and often lost their lives as well because of the white man's diseases doomed these biologically vulnerable peoples.

Virginia Company of London

It was a joint-stock company that received a charter from King James I of England to settle in the New World. The main reason people would go was for the promise of gold, combined with the strong desire to find a passage through America to the Indies. Was intended to endure for only a few years. After the stockholders would then make profit. This put pressure of the colonists who might get abandoned in the wilderness if they were no fast enough to what they needed. Only a few investors of long term colonization. The carter of the Virginia Company is an important document of American history. Setting sail in late 1606, the Virginia Company's three ships landed in the Chesapeake Bay were they were attacked by the Indians. Going up the bay, the colonist eventually chose a location on the wooded and malarial banks of the James River. They named it in honor of King James I.

Henry VIII and Elizabeth I

King Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church in 1530 starting the Protestant Reformation. When Elizabeth came to power in 1558, Protestantism became the dominant religion in England. The rivalry between England and Spain intensified. Ireland went to Spain for help to overthrow Queen Elizabeth. In 1570 and 1580, the queen's troops crushed the Irish uprising. Queen Elizabeth took away the Catholic Irish lands and put in new Protestant landlords from Scotland and England. Encouraged by the queen English sailors went out upon the shipping lands, were they promoted the goals of Protestantism and plunder by seizing Spanish treasure ships and raiding Spanish settlements, even though England and Spain were at peace.

Lawyers-

Law profession was not favorably regarded. In the pioneering society, which required much honest manual labor, the parties to a dispute often presented their own cases in court. Lawyers were commonly regarded as noisy windbags or troublemaking rogues; an early Connecticut law classed them with drunkards and brothel keepers. When future president John Adams was a young law student, the father of his wife-to-be frowned upon him as a suitor.

Maryland and Catholic Lord Baltimore

Maryland was the second plantation colony, but was the fourth English colony to be planted. It was founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore. He was from a prominent English Catholic family. He went upon this venture because he wanted receive financial profits and to create a refuge for his fellow Catholics. At this time Protestant England was persecuting Roman Catholics. Lord Baltimore hoped that the two hundred settlers who found Maryland would be the founding of a new domain. Maryland prospered. Like Virginia, it blossomed many fields of tobacco. It was depended on the labor of servants. Lord Baltimore allowed unusual freedom of worship. Catholics formed the Act of Toleration which was passed in 1649 by the local representative assembly. Maryland's new religious statue guaranteed toleration of all Christians. But it also said that the death penalty for those, like Jew and atheists, who denied Jesus. Maryland ended up sheltering more Roman Catholics than any other English-speaking colony in the New World.

Dominion of New England-

Massachusetts suffered humiliation in 1686, when the Dominion of New England was created by the royal authority. It was not like the homegrown New England Confederation. It was appointed from London. Taking it in at first New England, it was expanded two years later to include New York and East and West Jersey. The dominion also was set to help the colonial defense in case of a war with Indians and from people trying to take the land. The Dominion of New England was designed to promote the critically needed efficiency in the administration of the English Navigation Laws.

Christian Crusaders

One of the must rank high indirect discoverers of America. Clad of shining armor, tens of thousands of these European warriors tried from the eleventh to the fourteenth century to wrest the Holy Land from Muslim control. Foiled in their military assaults, the crusaders nevertheless acquired a taste for the exotic delights of Asia. Goods that had been virtually unknown in Europe now were craved- silk for clothing, drugs for aching flesh, perfumes for unbathed bodies, colorful draperies for gloomy castles, and spices- especially sugar, a rare luxury in Europe before the Crusades- for preserving and flavoring foods. Europe's developing sweet tooth would have momentous implications for world history. The Luxuries of the East were prohibitively expensive in Europe. They had to be transported enormous distances from the Spice Islands (Indonesia), China, and India, in creaking ships and on swaying camelback, The journey led across the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea or along the tortuous caravan routes of Asia or the Arabian Peninsula, ending at the ports of the eastern Mediterranean. Muslim middlemen exacted a heavy toll en route. By the time the strange-smelling goods reached Italian merchants at Venice and Genoa, they were so costly that purchasers and profits alike were narrowly limited. European consumers and distributors were naturally eager to find less expensive route to the riches of Asia or to develop alternate sources of supply.

Mestizo

People mixed Indian and European heritage. Spanish soldiers intermarried with the surviving Indians, creating the Mestizo. To this day Mexican civilization remains a unique blend of the Old World and the New, producing both ambivalence and pride among the people of Mexican heritage.

Spanish Armada

Philip II of Spain self-anointed enemy of the Protestant Reformation used his imperial gains to assemble the "Invincible Armada" of ships for an invasion of England. In 15588, the lumbering Spanish flotilla, 130 boats, made their way into the English Channel. The English sea dogs fought back; they used craft that was swifter, easier to move, and more ably manned, they inflicted a lot of damage to the Spanish ships. The rout of the Spanish Armada marked the beginning of the end of the Spanish imperial dreams, even though Spain's New World colonies would not end for another three centuries.

Plantation system

Portuguese adopted the Arab and African practices. They built their own systematic traffic in slaves to work the sugar plantations. Africa was to be found the origins of the modern plantation system, based on large-scale commercial agriculture and the wholesale exploitation of slab labor. This kind of plantation economy would shape the destiny of much of the New World.

Spain and other national states

Spain was formed from the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. They got rid of the Muslims from Spain centuries after the Christian-Islamic warfare. Spain was starting to take shape with the unity, wealth, and power to shoulder the formidable tasks of discovery, conquest, and colonization.

"Salutary neglect" of Navigation Acts-

Started when the new monarchs loosened the grip on colonial trade. Residues of Charles II's effort to assert tighter administrative control over his empire. More English officials- judges, clerks, customs officials- now staffed everywhere in English America. Many knew little or cared less about the American affairs. Appointed by patrons in England, they blocked the rise of local leaders. Americans viewed them with mounting contempt and resentment as the eighteenth century wore on.

African slaves ["chattel"]

Sugar lords extended their dominion to the West Indies in the seventeenth century. To work on the plantations, the sugar lords would send over large numbers of African slaves. A quarter of a million in the five decades after 1640. In 1700, black slaves were four to one to the white settlers in the English West Indies.

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange started after Columbus' discovery in 1492. Columbus' discovery initiated the kind of explosion in international commerce that a later age would call "globalization." New World gave gold, silver, corn, potatoes, pineapple, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, and Syphilis. The Old World gave wheat, sugar, rice, coffee, horses, pigs, cows, smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, and scarlet fever. Africa brought slave labor.

Great Migration of the 1630's-

The Massachusetts Bay enterprise was blessed. The well-equipped expedition, with eleven ships carrying almost a thousand immigrants, started the colony off with more people than any other English settlement. During the "Great Migration" about seventy thousand refugees left England. Not all of them were Puritans. Only twenty thousand went to Massachusetts. The others went to the West Indies.

"Protestant ethic"-

The Puritans were a worldly lot because of their spiritual intensity. They believed in the doctrine of a "calling" to do God's work. They would share with John Winthrop a thing called the "Protestant ethic," which was a serious commitment to work and to engagement in worldly pursuits. They also enjoyed simple pleasures: Eating a lot, drinking a lot, sang songs, and made love monogamously. They would pass laws aimed at making sure these pleasures stayed simple by repressing certain human instincts.

Quakers and William Penn-

The Quakers is a remarkable group of dissenters that arose in England during the mid-1600s. Officially they were known as the Religious Society of Friends. They were very offensive to the authorities, both religious and civil. They would not support the established Church of England with taxes. They built meetinghouses and met without a paid clergy. They abhorred strife and warfare and refused military service. William Penn, a wellborn and athletic Englishman, was drawn to the Quaker faith in 1660, when he was 16. His thoughts turned to the New World, where few Quakers had already left, mostly to Rhode Island, North Carolina, and New Jersey. He was anxious to start an asylum for his people, and he wanted to experiment with liberal ideas in the government and make a profit from it. In 1681, he managed to secure from the king a plot of land. The king called it Pennsylvania. Penn launched his colony in 1681.

Conquistadores

The Spanish word for Conquers. In the service of God, as well in search of gold and glory, Spanish Conquistadores, fanned out across the Caribbean and eventually onto the mainland of the American continents. They swept across the Americas in two wide arcs of conquest- one driving from Cuba through Mexico into what is now the southwestern United States, the other starting in Panama and pushing south into Peru. Within half a century they had extinguished the great Aztec and Incan empires and claimed for church and crown a territory that extended from Colorado to Argentina, including much of what is now the continental United States. The military conquest of this vast region was achieved by just ten thousand men, organized in a series of private expeditions. Only a small amount of the conquistadores were nobility. About half were professional soldiers and sailors; the rest comprised of peasants, artisans, and members of the middling classes. Most were in their twenties and early thirties, and knew how to wield a sword. Diverse motives spurred these motley adventurers. Some hoped to win royal titles and favors by bringing new people under the Spanish flag, and others sought to ensure God's favor by spreading Christianity to the pagans.

Calvinist beliefs

The reform burned brightly in the eyes of John Calvin of Geneva. He elaborated Martin Luther's in a way that would affect the way Americans would think even though they are not born. Calvinism became a dominant religion not only of the New England Puritans, but with the American settlers, the Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, and communicants of the Dutch Reformed Church. Calvin wrote out his doctrine in 1536, Institutes of the Christian Religion, in Latin tome. Calvin's argument was very powerful and very good. Humans were fragile and evil due to original sin. God was all-knowing, so He knew who was going to heaven and who was going to hell. Good works could not save those who "predestination" had marked for the infernal fires. Gnawing doubts about their fate lead the Calvinist to doom. The were constantly looking to themselves and others for signs of "conversion." Conversion was the experience were God would reveal their heavenly destiny. After they were expected to lead "sanctified" lives, demonstrating by their holy behavior that they were among the "visible saint."

Triangular trade-

The triangular trade was infamously profitable, though small in relation to total colonial commerce. A skipper, for example, would leave a New England port with its cargo of rum and sail to the Gold Coast of Africa. Bartering the liquor with African chiefs for captured African slaves, he would proceed to the West Indies with his sobbing and suffocating cargo below deck. There he would exchange the survivors for molasses, which he would then carry to New England, where it would be distilled into rum. And then the process repeats, making profit every leg of the triangle.

Proprietors in Carolina

These landowners hoped to grow food for provision of sugar plantations in Barbados and to export non-English products, like wine, silk, and olive oil. Carolina prospered by developing close economic ties with the sugar islands of the English West Indies. Carolina settlers had emigrated from Barbados, bringing the slave system with them. They also established a slave trade in Carolina. The Lords Proprietors in London against Indian slave trade in their colony, but it was useless. Indians were then dispatched to lifelong labor in the West Indian canefields and sugar mills.

Praying towns-

White colonists alone were creating new societies out of diverse ethnic groups. The African slave trade long had mixed people from many different tribal backgrounds, giving birth to an African American community far more variegated in its cultural origins than anything to be found in Africa itself. In the New England "praying towns," where the Indians were gathered to be Christianized, and in Great Lakes villages such as Detroit, home to dozens of different displaced indigenous peoples, polyglot Native American communities emerged, blurring the boundaries of individual tribal identities.

Salem Witch Trials-

Witchcraft persecution was very common in Europe, and several outbreaks had happened in the colonies. The reign of horror in Salem grew not only from superstitions and prejudices of the age but also from the unsettled social and religious conditions of the rapid evolving of Massachusetts. Most of the witches who had been accused were from families were part of Salem's burgeoning market economy. This showed the fear of many religious traditionalists that the Puritans heritage was being eclipsed by Yankee commercialism. The witchcraft hysteria ended in 1693 when the governor, was shocked when his own wife was accused of witchcraft. The Salem witchcraft delusion marked an all-time high in the American experience of popular passion run wild.