APUSH Final Review

Socialist Labor Party

Founded in the 1870s and led by Daniel De Leon; broke in 1901 and formed American Socialist Party.

Standard Oil Company of Ohio

Created by John D. Rockefeller; dominated the oil refining industry.

Fur Trade

European fashion setters valued beaver pelts, causing French fur trappers to range across North America.

'Contact'

Europeans meeting the American Indians.

Yellow Journalism

Exploits, distorts, or exaggerates news.

National Consumers League

Group led by Florence Kelly to force retainers for better wages and working conditions during the movement of mass consumption.

Taft

Trustbuster; drew back some of TR's policies and fired some of his workers.

Greenbacks

Paper currency issued during the Civil War.

Urban Parks

Parks such as Central Park became popular.

William M. "Boss" Tweed

Politician who was convicted for stealing millions of dollars from NYC taxpayers through corruption; head of Tammany Hall.

Lost Cause Myth

Romanticism of the 'Old South' before the Civil War

Ironclads

Ships heavily armored with iron and thus greatly protected from cannon fire.

Explain the Sino-Japanese War. How did it lay the groundwork for the conflict with America in World War II?

Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7, 1937, to September 9, 1945. It began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 in which a dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops escalated into a battle. The conflict then escalated further into a full-scale war. It ended with the unconditional surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945, to the Allies of World War II. China fought Japan, with aid from the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged with other conflicts of World War II as a major sector known as the China Burma India Theater. Some scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II. The Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It accounted for the majority of civilian and military casualties in the Pacific War, with between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians and over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel dying from war-related violence, famine, and other causes. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to secure access to raw material reserves, food, and labor. The period after World War I brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity. Leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production. The Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction. This faction was led at its height by the Hideki Tojo cabinet of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association under edict from Emperor Hirohito. In 1931, the Mukden Incident helped spark the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Chinese were defeated and Japan created a new puppet state, Manchukuo; some historians, including the PRC government, cite 1931 as the beginning of the war. From 1931-1937, China and Japan continued to skirmish in small, localized engagements, so-called "incidents". Initially the Japanese scored major victories, capturing both Shanghai and the Chinese capital of Nanking in 1937. After failing to stop the Japanese in the Battle of Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing (Chungking) in the Chinese interior. By 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japan's lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, which waged a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the invaders. While Japan ruled the large cities, they lacked sufficient manpower to control China's vast countryside. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China by airlifting material over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road. In 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces. In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook West Hunan and Guangxi. Despite continuing to occupy part of China's territory, Japan eventually surrendered on September 2, 1945, to Allied forces following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Japanese-held Manchuria. The remaining Japanese occupation forces (excluding Manchuria) formally surrendered on September 9, 1945, with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29, 1946. At the outcome of the Cairo Conference of November 22-26, 1943, the Allies of World War II decided to restrain and punish the aggression of Japan by restoring all the territories that Japan annexed from China, including Manchuria, Taiwan/Formosa, and the Pescadores, to China, and to expel Japan from the Korean Peninsula. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of the Allies during the war and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.

How did Joseph McCarthy exploit the existing mood of hysteria? What sort of tactics did he use in his attacks on alleged subversion?

The atmosphere of fear and dread proved a ripe environment for the rise of a staunch anticommunist like Joseph McCarthy. At the time, McCarthy was a first-term senator from Wisconsin who had won election in 1946 after a campaign in which he criticized his opponent's failure to enlist during World War II while emphasizing his own wartime heroics. In February 1950, appearing at the Ohio County Women's Republican Club in Wheeling, West Virginia, McCarthy gave a speech that propelled him into the national spotlight. Waving a piece of paper in the air, he declared that he had a list of 205 known members of the Communist Party who were "working and shaping policy" in the State Department. The next month, a Senate subcommittee launched an investigation and found no proof of any subversive activity. Moreover, many of McCarthy's Democratic and Republican colleagues, including President Dwight Eisenhower, disapproved of his tactics ("I will not get into the gutter with this guy," the president told his aides). Still, the senator continued his so-called Red-baiting campaign. In 1953, at the beginning of his second term as senator, McCarthy was put in charge of the Committee on Government Operations, which allowed him to launch even more expansive investigations of the alleged communist infiltration of the federal government. In hearing after hearing, he aggressively interrogated witnesses in what many came to perceive as a blatant violation of their civil rights. Despite a lack of any proof of subversion, more than 2,000 government employees lost their jobs as a result of McCarthy's investigations. In April 1954, Senator McCarthy turned his attention to "exposing" the supposed communist infiltration of the armed services. Many people had been willing to overlook their discomfort with McCarthyism during the senator's campaign against government employees and others they saw as "elites"; now, however, their support began to wane. Almost at once, the aura of invulnerability that had surrounded McCarthy for nearly five years began to disappear. First, the Army undermined the senator's credibility by showing evidence that he had tried to win preferential treatment for his aides when they were drafted. Then came the fatal blow: the decision to broadcast the "Army-McCarthy" hearings on national television. The American people watched as McCarthy intimidated witnesses and offered evasive responses when questioned. When he attacked a young Army lawyer, the Army's chief counsel thundered, "Have you no sense of decency, sir?" The Army-McCarthy hearings struck many observers as a shameful moment in American politics.

What was the fundamental agreement central to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)? How did the Soviet Union respond?

NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. Three NATO members (the United States, France and the United Kingdom) are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATO Headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium. NATO is an alliance that consists of 29 independent member countries across North America and Europe. An additional 21 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total. Members' defense spending is supposed to amount to at least 2% of GDP by 2024. NATO was little more than a political association until the Korean War galvanized the organization's member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two US Supreme Commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, that formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966 for 30 years. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization became involved in the breakup of Yugoslavia, and conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. The Soviet Union and its affiliated Communist nations in Eastern Europe responded by founding a rival alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955.

Rising sectional tensions over slavery in territories

North did not want slavery, South did.

Describe the race riots of 1964 to 1967. What response did the Commission on Civil Disorder suggest? What response did many white Americans prefer?

A race riot, as defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is a riot caused by racial dissension or hatred. In 1968, the National Commission on Civil Disorder (known as the Kerner Commission) reported that the race riots that took place in the United States during the 1960s were the direct result of the serious grievances of a minority racial group. Those riots generally erupted when a minority person was killed or injured and other members of the group perceived it as unjust and prejudicial. During the 1960s, race riots broke out in many larger cities, where there was a large population and concentration of minorities. Harlem Riots, 1964: The riots began on July 16, 1964, when a police officer killed a young black boy in Harlem. The Congress for Racial Equality (CORE) had already scheduled a peaceful march to take place two days later to protest police brutality. After the march, a group of more militant and aggressive demonstrators took their protest to the steps of the police precinct. A number of fights broke out between the police and protesters, and 16 black demonstrators were arrested. Word of the arrests quickly spread, along with reports that police was beating the suspects and that their cries and screaming could be heard outside the building. These rumors prompted a crowd to gather and by 10:30 p.m., a riot began, with protesters throwing Molotov cocktails, stones and bricks. Police came out in riot gear and fired warning shots into the air. The violence continued for four days and began to spread to other neighborhoods such as Bedford-Stuyvesant in Brooklyn, where shooting, looting and arson was widespread. White-owned stores and businesses were burnt down. CORE chairman James Farmer walked through the streets of Harlem begging the rioters to stop, but to no avail. The violence finally ended on July 23, but left one fatality, 144 injuries and 519 arrests in its wake. Watts Riot, 1965: On August 11, 1965, police used excessive force while arresting a black man in Watts, a black neighborhood in Los Angeles, for drunk driving. A small group of people gathered at the scene. Although the situation was tense, it was not violent. That changed when a police officer accused a woman of spitting at him and tried to arrest her. The crowd instantly erupted and began throwing bottles and rocks at passing cars and buses. Additional police were called in, and the violence and fighting intensified. After police left the scene, thinking that their presence exacerbated the issue, the rioters took to the streets with a vengeance and began overturning cars, and smashing windows of nearby stores and looting them. "Burn, baby, burn" was the cry of the rioters. The situation deteriorated and 75 stores in the neighborhood were burned during the first 2 days of the rioting. The undermanned police force was helpless to combat the rioters. Finally, the National Guard was called in and a curfew and martial law were imposed on Watts and on a surrounding area of 50 square miles. It took 13,000 Guardsmen to bring the rioting under control. When things quieted down, it was reported that there were 34 deaths, 1,000 injuries and damage to 600 buildings totaling $40 million. Newark Riots 1967: In Newark, on July 12, 1967, police beat a black cab driver while trying to arrest him. A group of protesters gathered at the precinct house and became unruly. When they were asked to leave, they refused to obey and the police began to use force to break up the crowd. A protest rally against police brutality was called for the next morning. Once again, the police used excessive force, and the city erupted into violence with looting, burning and shooting. The National Guard was called in to help restore order. In all, 23 people were killed and nearly $11 million of damage was caused. Detroit Riots 1967: In the early morning hours of July 23, 1967, Detroit police raided an after-hours bar and arrested 80 patrons. A crowd gathered outside and rocks were thrown at police cars, breaking their windows. The rioting increased and began to spread, with rioters outnumbering police. The next morning, a state of emergency was declared and the National Guard was called in to help the police. Things did not improve until President Lyndon B. Johnson sent in federal troops to help stop the sniping, shooting, looting and burning.

Transcontinental Railroad

A railroad that connected the eastern United States to the western United States, helped with western expansion.

Direct Tax

A tax paid directly by the person or organization on whom it is levied.

Why did Roosevelt break from the Republicans to form the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party?

After Roosevelt lost the election to Taft, he formed the Progressive Party, saying he was as fit as a bull moose, from which came the colloquial name "Bull Moose Party." Although they finished ahead of the Republicans, Roosevelt lost to the Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson.

What was Hoover's new approach to the Depression after mid-1931? What caused his shift in emphasis?

After his voluntary cooperation plan failed he used the government spending to help fight the harshness of the depression. Even increasing the spending by 423 million into federal public work programs wasn't enough to fix the economy's problems. Eventually conditions worsened & Hoover was less willing to increase spending. It then became a problem if the budget was balanced and in 1932 he even proposed a tax to help the government avoid deficit.

Explain how the concept of "parity" was designed to solve the farm problem. What happened to parity legislation?

After some study, economists for the U.S. government decided that during the time from 1910 to 1914, the prices that farmers got for their crops and livestock were roughly in balance with the prices they had to pay for goods and services they used in the production of crops and livestock and family living. In other words, a farmer's earning power was on a par with his or her purchasing power. The concept was actually written into law in the 1933 AAA, Agricultural Adjustment Act, where it became the goal of the U.S. government to get prices up to levels at least close to parity. The Department of Agriculture would do that by paying farmers to NOT to plant some crops and by culling livestock herds. Less supply and a steady demand would raise prices. As the chart to the left shows, they had a long way to go to reach parity. During the "parity years" of 1910-14, farmers in Nebraska received $340,100 from crop and livestock sales. In 1933, farmers in Nebraska received just $193,400 from sales, and $1,000 total in the first government payments. Those two figures together totaled almost 43 percent less than the parity level. Throughout the decade prices went up and down but never reached any higher than 89.9 percent of parity until 1941 as World War II started. Government payments to keep crops and livestock off the market reached a high of over 17 percent of total farm income in 1940. Over the years, the prices that a farmer must pay for production inputs and living expenses have continued to go up. Farm machinery, for example, was at 3,611 percent of parity in 2001.

What happened to the banking system early in the Depression? What role did the Federal Reserve System play?

After the crash during the first 10 months of 1930, 744 banks failed - 10 times as many. In all, 9,000 banks failed during the decade of the 30s. It's estimated that 4,000 banks failed during the one year of 1933 alone. ... Some economists and historians have argued that the bank crisis caused the Great Depression. At the start of the Depression, the Federal Reserve's decision-making structure was decentralized and often ineffective. Each district had a governor who set policies for his district, although some decisions required approval of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, DC. The Board lacked the authority and tools to act on its own and struggled to coordinate policies across districts. The governors and the Board understood the need for coordination; frequently corresponded concerning important issues; and established procedures and programs, such as the Open Market Investment Committee, to institutionalize cooperation. When these efforts yielded consensus, monetary policy could be swift and effective. But when the governors disagreed, districts could and sometimes did pursue independent and occasionally contradictory courses of action. The Fed decided to raise interest rates in 1928 and 1929. The Fed did this in an attempt to limit speculation in securities markets. This action slowed economic activity in the United States. Because the international gold standard linked interest rates and monetary policies among participating nations, the Fed's actions triggered recessions in nations around the globe. The Fed repeated this mistake when responding to the international financial crisis in the fall of 1931. This website explores these issues in greater depth in our entries on the stock market crash of 1929 and the financial crises of 1931 through 1933. The Fed failed to act as a lender of last resort during the banking panics that began in the fall of 1930 and ended with the banking holiday in the winter of 1933.

What was the impact of war on family life?

Although the war had opened up new opportunities, it also brought much sadness and a far more serious reality regarding life in its normal state. Separation from fathers or sons left devastating effects, and in a sense, many felt robbed of their childhood. With the family shifting roles, each member was initially shocked and filled with mixed emotions. With added stresses it was an emotional time, to say the least — the American family would undoubtedly be changed forever. Some families moved west. While adjusting to sacrifices, there was an added excitement about the war and uncertain fear of the consequences as well. The war brought vast changes: While there was an increase in marriages, job opportunities, and patriotism there was also a definite decline in morale among some Americans. Despite the increase in rising wages, poverty increased and some families were forced to move in search of work. Some 20 million people existed on the border of starvation as families faced a severe shortage of housing, lack of schools, hospitals and child-care facilities. Those factors contributed to an upsurge in divorce, resulting in severe problems among the young. There were five million "war widows" trying to care for their children alone. Women employed outside the home left tens of thousands of "latchkey" children who were unsupervised much of the day. The rates of juvenile delinquency, venereal disease and truancy rose dramatically. The impact on the family was evident, attended by much anxiety about the breakdown of social values.

How did the U.S. deal with China and Chiang Kai-shek in the postwar period? How did the situation in China shape U.S. policy toward Japan?

America wanted to have a peaceful "policied" world and China was a key aspect of that. However, an obstacle was now on their way. Chiang Kai-Shek was the leader of the Chinese government, but the government in which he was ruling was corrupt and did not have much popular support. Chiang would not face the problems that were threatening him. Due to a bitter rivalry going on with Mao Zedong, Americans wanted to find a new third force. Truman continued to support Chiang. The United States kept sending money and weapons to Chiang and eventually General George Marshall was sent to recommend a policy for the United States. To find an alternative to China the United States looked to Japan. America lifted the restrictions on industrial development and encouraged economic growth.

Charles Grandison Finney

American Presbyterian minister and leader in the Second Great Awakening in the United States. He has been called The Father of Modern Revivalism. Finney was best known as an innovative revivalist during the period 1825-1835 in upstate New York and Manhattan, an opponent of Old School Presbyterian theology, an advocate of Christian perfectionism, and a religious writer. Together with several other evangelical leaders, his religious views led him to promote social reforms, such as abolition of slavery and equal education for women and African Americans. From 1835 he taught at Oberlin College of Ohio, which accepted all genders and races. He served as its second president from 1851 to 1866, during which its faculty and students were activists for abolition, the Underground Railroad, and universal education.

John Brown

American abolitionist who believed and advocated that armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. Brown first gained attention when he led small groups of volunteers during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856. Dissatisfied with the pacifism of the organized abolitionist movement, he said, "These men are all talk. What we need is action—action!" During the Kansas campaign, Brown commanded forces at the Battle of Black Jack and the Battle of Osawatomie. He and his supporters killed five supporters of slavery in the Pottawatomie massacre of May 1856 in response to the sacking of Lawrence by pro-slavery forces. In 1859, Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry to start a liberation movement among the slaves there. During the raid, he seized the armory; seven people were killed, and ten or more were injured. He intended to arm slaves with weapons from the arsenal, but the attack failed. Within 36 hours, Brown's men had fled or been killed or captured by local pro-slavery farmers, militiamen, and U.S. Marines led by Robert E. Lee. He was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, the murder of five men, and inciting a slave insurrection. He was found guilty on all counts and was hanged. Brown's raid captured the nation's attention, as Southerners feared it was just the first of many Northern plots to cause a slave rebellion that might endanger their lives, while Republicans dismissed the notion and claimed they would not interfere with slavery in the South. Historians agree that the Harpers Ferry raid escalated tensions that, a year later, led to the South's secession and Civil War. David Potter has said the emotional effect of Brown's raid was greater than the philosophical effect of the Lincoln-Douglas debates, and that it reaffirmed a deep division between North and South. Some writers, including Bruce Olds, describe him as a monomaniacal zealot; others, such as Stephen B. Oates, regard him as "one of the most perceptive human beings of his generation". David S. Reynolds hails him as the man who "killed slavery, sparked the civil war, and seeded civil rights" and Richard Owen Boyer emphasizes that Brown was "an American who gave his life that millions of other Americans might be free". "John Brown's Body" was a popular Union marching song during the Civil War and made him a martyr. Brown's actions prior to the Civil War as an abolitionist, and the tactics he chose, still make him a controversial figure today. He is sometimes memorialized as a heroic martyr and a visionary, and sometimes vilified as a madman and a terrorist.

John L. O'Sullivan & Manifest Destiny

American columnist and editor who used the term "manifest destiny" in 1845 to promote the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Country to the United States. O'Sullivan was an influential political writer and advocate for the Democratic Party at that time and served as US Minister to Portugal during the administration of President Franklin Pierce (1853-1857), but he largely faded from prominence soon thereafter. He was rescued from obscurity in the twentieth century after the famous phrase "manifest destiny" was traced back to him. Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States not only could, but was destined to, stretch from coast to coast.

Richard Hoe

American inventor from New York City who designed a rotary printing press and related advancements, including the "Hoe web perfecting press" in 1871; it used a continuous roll of paper and revolutionized newspaper publishing.

Brigham Young

American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement, Politician, and a settler of the Western United States. He was the second president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death in 1877. He founded Salt Lake City and he served as the first governor of the Utah Territory. Young also led the foundings of the precursors to the University of Utah and Brigham Young University. Young had many nicknames, among the most popular being "American Moses" (alternatively, the "Modern Moses" or "Mormon Moses"), because, like the biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was dubbed by his followers the "Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality and was also commonly called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. Young was a polygamist and was involved in controversies regarding black people and the Priesthood, the Utah War, and the Mountain Meadows massacre.

Why was the United States so committed to stability in the Middle East? How was this approach implemented in Iran?

American petroleum companies had large investments in the oil-rich Arab regimes in the Middle East, so they became worried when the prime minister of Iran was resisting the presence of western corporations in his nation. The CIA joined with Iran military leaders that removed the prime minister from office.

DeWitt Clinton

American politician and naturalist who served as a United States Senator, Mayor of New York City and sixth Governor of New York. In this last capacity, he was largely responsible for the construction of the Erie Canal. Clinton was a major candidate for the American presidency in the election of 1812, challenging incumbent James Madison.

What did "black power" mean? What impact did it have on the civil rights movement and on the attitudes of American blacks in general?

Black Power is a political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies aimed at achieving self-determination for people of African descent. It is used by African Americans in the United States. The Black Power movement was prominent in the late 1960s and early 1970s, emphasizing racial pride and the creation of black political and cultural institutions to nurture and promote black collective interests and advance black values. "Black Power" expresses a range of political goals, from defense against racial oppression, to the establishment of social institutions and a self-sufficient economy, including black-owned bookstores, cooperatives, farms, and media. However, the movement was criticized for alienating itself from the mainstream civil rights movement, for its apparent support of racial segregation, and for constituting black superiority over other races. Black Power adherents believed in black autonomy, with a variety of tendencies such as black nationalism, black self-determination, and black separatism. Such positions caused friction with leaders of the mainstream Civil Rights Movement, and thus the two movements have sometimes been viewed as inherently antagonistic. Civil Rights leaders often proposed passive, non-violent tactics while the Black Power movement felt that, in the words of Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, "a 'non-violent' approach to civil rights is an approach black people cannot afford and a luxury white people do not deserve." "However, many groups and individuals—including Rosa Parks, Robert F. Williams, Maya Angelou, Gloria Richardson, and Fay Bellamy Powell—participated in both civil rights and black power activism. A growing number of scholars conceive of the civil rights and black power movements as one interconnected Black Freedom Movement.

Black Middle Class and Booker T. Washington

Booker T. Washington, educator, reformer and the most influentional black leader of his time (1856-1915) preached a philosophy of self-help, racial solidarity and accomodation. He urged blacks to accept discrimination for the time being and concentrate on elevating themselves through hard work and material prosperity.

What was the McKinley Tariff?

Called for 48.4% peacetime tariff.

Cartels, Trusts, Holding Companies

Cartels: Informal agreements between multiple companies to set rates and designate who could sell to which markets Trusts: Stockholders in different corporations send their stock to a group of trustees in exchange for their shares in the trust; no control over trustees Holding Companies: Corporate body that buys up stock from different members of a company's trust and has direct ownership of all companies in the trust

Describe the factors and cases that combined to create the anticommunist paranoia of the late 1940s and early 1950s.

One of the factors was that communism was not an entirely imagined thing, it was real. America had also had setbacks in the fight against Communism; from the Korean stalemate, the "loss" of china, and the Soviet development of the atomic bomb. The HUAC was creating fear through their public investigations that the government allowed communist subversion. They looked largely at the movie industry and Hollywood. Alger Hiss, a former member of the State Department, was also accused and arrested because of communist charges. The McCarran Internal Security Act and the Rosenberg case also created fear within the American people.

Acadians/Cajuns

Descendants of French colonists who settled in Acadia during the 17th and 18th centuries, some of whom are also descended from the Indigenous peoples of the region. During the French and Indian War, British colonial officers suspected Acadians were aligned with France after finding some Acadians fighting alongside French troops at Fort Beausejour. Though most Acadians remained neutral during the French and Indian War, the British, together with New England legislators and militia, carried out the Great Expulsion (Le Grand Dérangement) of the Acadians during the 1755-1764 period. They deported approximately 11,500 Acadians from the maritime region. Approximately one-third perished from disease and drowning. The result was what one historian described as an ethnic cleansing of the Acadians from Maritime Canada. Other historians indicate that it was a deportation similar to other deportations of the time period. Some of them went to New Orleans and became Cajuns.

Ex Parte Merryman

Ex parte Merryman is a well-known and controversial U.S. federal court case which arose out of the American Civil War. It was a test of the authority of the President to suspend "the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus" under the Constitution's Suspension Clause, when Congress was in recess and therefore unavailable to do so itself. More generally, the case raised questions about the ability of the executive branch to decline enforcement of orders from the judicial branch when the executive believes them to be erroneous and harmful to its own legal powers. John Merryman (1824-1881) was a prominent Marylander from Baltimore County, who had been arrested in his rural estate. He remained inaccessible to the judiciary and to civilian legal authorities generally, held prisoner in Fort McHenry in Baltimore harbor. U.S. Supreme Court head, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, appointed by seventh President Andrew Jackson, ruled that the authority to suspend habeas corpus lay exclusively only with the Congress of the United States. The Executive Branch, including the United States Army, under the authority of the President of the United States as Commander-in-Chief, did not comply with Taney's Merryman opinion. Taney filed his Merryman decision with the United States Circuit Court for the District of Maryland, but it is unclear if Taney's decision was a circuit court decision. One view, based in part on Taney's handwritten copy of his decision in Merryman, is that Taney heard the habeas action under special authority granted to federal judges by Section 14 of the Judiciary Act of 1789. According to this view, Merryman was an in-chambers opinion. Due to its vague jurisdictional locus and hastened disposition, the nature of the Merryman decision remains contested to this day.

United States Steel Corporation

Founded by J.P. Morgan and Elbert H. Gary in 1901; once the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Founded in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions; encouraged formation of local labor bodies.

Benjamin Rush

Founding Father of the United States. Rush was a civic leader in Philadelphia, where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, humanitarian, and educator as well as the founder of Dickinson College. Rush attended the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence. His later self-description there was: "He aimed right." He served as Surgeon General of the Continental Army and became a professor of chemistry, medical theory, and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania. Rush was a leader of the American Enlightenment and an enthusiastic supporter of the American Revolution. He was a leader in Pennsylvania's ratification of the Constitution in 1788. He was prominent in many reforms, especially in the areas of medicine and education. He opposed slavery, advocated free public schools, and sought improved education for women and a more enlightened penal system. As a leading physician, Rush had a major impact on the emerging medical profession. As an Enlightenment intellectual, he was committed to organizing all medical knowledge around explanatory theories, rather than rely on empirical methods. Rush argued that illness was the result of imbalances in the body's physical system and was caused by malfunctions in the brain. His approach prepared the way for later medical research, but Rush himself undertook none of it. He promoted public health by advocating clean environment and stressing the importance of personal and military hygiene. His study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American psychiatry.

How did the effort to fund both the Great Society and a great military establishment affect the federal budget?

Funding the Great Society initiatives became difficult beginning in 1968 because of the burden of the Vietnam War, Johnson's reluctance to ask Congress for a tax increase, and the goal of reaching a balanced budget. Many of the programs had no political constituencies, that is, they did not originate from outside lobbying and thus lacked the support necessary for continued financing. Johnson's decision to withdraw from the 1968 presidential race further weakened his advocacy of government intervention on the side of racial justice and economic equality. Under the Republican administration of President Richard M. Nixon, in 1969 the OEO was dismantled and its poverty programs transferred to other federal agencies. Democrat Jimmy Carter's one-term presidency, bogged down with the twin problems of inflation and recession, did little to restore the earlier funding for social causes. Carter offered no new initiatives along the lines of Johnson's program, focusing instead on international affairs.

Southern Romantics

Group of southern writers wrote historical romances set on Old South plantations.

"Great Triumvirate"

Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun

Gender Roles

In a European peasant family, men worked heavy field work and women helped during planting and harvest time and cared for children, livestock and household. Both the Natives and Europeans believed that the job of women was to do simple, domestic tasks.

Describe the circular pattern of international finance established by the Dawes Plan. What was the result?

In an agreement of August 1924, the main points of The Dawes Plan were: 1.The Ruhr area was to be evacuated by foreign troops 2.Reparation payments would begin at one billion marks the first year, increasing annually to two and a half billion marks after five years 3.The Reichsbank would be re-organized under Allied supervision 4.The sources for the reparation money would include transportation, excise, and customs taxes 5.Germany would be loaned about $200 million, primarily through Wall Street bond issues in the United States The bond issues were overseen by consortium of American investment banks, led by J.P. Morgan & Co. under the supervision of the US State Department. Germany benefitted enormously from the influx of foreign capital. The Dawes Plan went into effect in September 1924. Dawes and Sir Austen Chamberlain shared the Nobel Peace Prize. The economy of Germany began to rebound during the mid-1920s and the country continued with the payment of reparations—now funded by the large scale influx of American capital. However, the Dawes Plan was considered by the Germans as a temporary measure and they expected a revised solution in the future. In 1928, German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann called for a final plan to be established, and the Young Plan was enacted in 1929. The Dawes Plan resulted in French troops leaving the Ruhr Valley. It provided a large capital influx to German industry, which continued to rebuild and expand. The capital now available to German industry functionally transferred the burdens of German's war reparations from German government and industry to American bond investors. The Dawes Plan was also the beginning of the ties between German industry and American investment banks. The Ruhr occupation resulted in a victory for the German steel industry and the German re-armament program. By reducing the supplies of coal to France, which was dependent on Germany coal, German industrialists managed to hobble France's steel industry, while getting their own rebuilt. By 1926, the German steel industry was dominant in Europe and this dominance only increased in the years leading to WWII.

Single-Tax Societies

Proposed by Henry George to return the increment to the people.

What impact did events in Russia have on the need for American land forces in Europe?

It put an end to major fighting on the Eastern Front of WWI.

Sectionalism

Loyalty or support of a particular region or section of the nation, rather than the United States as a whole.

Describe the candidates and issues of the election of 1944. Why did Roosevelt win reelection?

Throughout the campaign, Roosevelt led Dewey in all the polls by varying margins. On election day, the Democratic incumbent scored a fairly comfortable victory over his Republican challenger. Roosevelt took 36 states for 432 electoral votes (266 were needed to win), while Dewey won twelve states and 99 electoral votes. In the popular vote Roosevelt won 25,612,916 (53.4%) votes to Dewey's 22,017,929 (45.9%). The important question had been which leader, Roosevelt or Dewey, should be chosen for the critical days of peacemaking and reconstruction following the war's conclusion. A majority of the American people concluded that they should not change from one party, and particularly from one leader. They also felt that in view of ever-increasing domestic disagreements it was not safe to do so in "wartime". Dewey did better against Roosevelt than any of Roosevelt's previous three Republican opponents: Roosevelt's percentage and margin of the total vote were both less than in 1940. Dewey also gained the personal satisfaction of finishing ahead of Roosevelt in his hometown of Hyde Park, New York, and ahead of Truman in his hometown of Independence, Missouri. Dewey would again become the Republican presidential nominee in 1948 and would again lose, though by a slightly smaller margin. Of the 3,095 counties/independent cities making returns, Roosevelt won in 1,751 (56.58%) while Dewey carried 1,343 (43.39%). The Texas Regular ticket carried one county (0.03%). In New York, only the combined support of the American Labor and Liberal parties (pledged to Roosevelt but otherwise independent of the Democrats so as to keep separate their identity) enabled Roosevelt to win the electoral votes of his home state. In 1944, the constantly growing Southern protest against Roosevelt's leadership became clearest in Texas, where 135,553 votes were cast against Roosevelt but not for the Republican ticket. The Texas Regular ticket resulted from a split in the Democratic party in its two state conventions, May 23 and September 12, 1944. This ticket represented the Democratic element opposing the re-election of President Roosevelt, and called for the "restoration of states' rights which have been destroyed by the Communist New Deal" and "restoration of the supremacy of the white race". Its electors were uninstructed. As he had in 1940, Roosevelt won re-election with a lower percentage of both the electoral vote and the popular vote than he had received in the prior elections—the second of only three presidents in US history to do so, preceded by James Madison in 1812 and followed by Barack Obama in 2012. Andrew Jackson in 1832 and Grover Cleveland in 1892 had received more electoral votes but fewer popular votes, while Woodrow Wilson in 1916 had received more popular votes but fewer electoral votes.

Winfield Scott

United States Army general and the unsuccessful presidential candidate of the Whig Party in 1852. Known as "Old Fuss and Feathers" and the "Grand Old Man of the Army", he served on active duty as a general longer than any other person in American history, is rated as one of the Army's most senior commissioned officers, and is ranked by many historians as the best American commander of his time. Over the course of his 53-year career, he commanded forces in the War of 1812, the Black Hawk War, the Mexican-American War, and the Second Seminole War. He was the army's senior officer at the start of the American Civil War, and conceived the Union strategy known as the Anaconda Plan, which was used to defeat the Confederacy. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army for twenty years, longer than any other holder of the office.

Williams V Mississippi

Williams v. Mississippi is a United States Supreme Court case that reviewed provisions of the state constitution that set requirements for voter registration. The Supreme Court did not find discrimination in the state's requirements for voters to pass a literacy test and pay poll taxes, as these were applied to all voters. In practice, the subjective nature of literacy approval by white registrars worked to drastically decrease and essentially disfranchise African American voters. The Court considered the new Mississippi constitution passed in 1890. It upheld disfranchisement clauses which established requirements for literacy tests and poll taxes paid retroactively from one's 21st birthday as prerequisites for voter registration. A grandfather clause effectively exempted illiterate whites, but not blacks, from the literacy test by relating qualifications to whether one's grandfather had voted before a certain date. Because the provisions applied to all potential voters, the Court upheld them, although in practice the provisions had discriminatory effects on African Americans.

Henry George

Wrote Progress and Poverty, opponent of capitalism.

Edward Bellamy

Wrote novel about boy waking up in 2000 to a utopian society.

How did black music influence the development of rock music? To what extent was the audience multiracial?

Rock and roll (often written as rock & roll or rock 'n' roll) is a genre of popular music that originated and evolved in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s, from African American musical styles such as gospel, jump blues, jazz, boogie woogie, and rhythm and blues, along with country music. In the crossover of African American "race music" to a growing white youth audience, the popularization of rock and roll involved both black performers reaching a white audience and white musicians performing African American music. Rock and roll appeared at a time when racial tensions in the United States were entering a new phase, with the beginnings of the civil rights movement for desegregation, leading to the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that abolished the policy of "separate but equal" in 1954, but leaving a policy which would be extremely difficult to enforce in parts of the United States. The coming together of white youth audiences and black music in rock and roll inevitably provoked strong white racist reactions within the US, with many whites condemning its breaking down of barriers based on color. Many observers saw rock and roll as heralding the way for desegregation, in creating a new form of music that encouraged racial cooperation and shared experience. Many authors have argued that early rock and roll was instrumental in the way both white and black teenagers identified themselves.

Describe the response of the political power structure of the Deep South to the Brown v. Board of Education and Brown II rulings. How did the Little Rock episode illustrate the conflict?

Texas Attorney General John Ben Shepperd organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to implementation of desegregation. In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out his state's National Guard to block black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight Eisenhower responded by deploying elements of the 101st Airborne Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to Arkansas and by federalizing Arkansas's National Guard. Also in 1957, Florida's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an Interposition Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But Florida Governor LeRoy Collins, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods. In Mississippi fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years. When Medgar Evers sued to desegregate Jackson, Mississippi schools in 1963 White Citizens Council member Byron De La Beckwith murdered him. Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994. In 1963, Alabama Gov. George Wallace personally blocked the door to Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama to prevent the enrollment of two black students. This became the infamous Stand in the Schoolhouse Door where Wallace personally backed his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" policy that he had stated in his 1963 inaugural address. He moved aside only when confronted by General Henry Graham of the Alabama National Guard, who was ordered by President John F. Kennedy to intervene. In Little Rock, Arkansas a white mob was trying to prevent blacks from entering the Central High School so they were blocking the entrances. President Eisenhower had to step in and send the National Guard and troops down to stop them.

Taken as a whole, what were the basic provisions and central purpose of the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937?

The 1935 act, signed on August 31, 1935, imposed a general embargo on trading in arms and war materials with all parties in a war. It also declared that American citizens traveling on warring ships traveled at their own risk. The act was set to expire after six months. The Neutrality Act of 1936, passed in February of that year, renewed the provisions of the 1935 act for another 14 months. It also forbade all loans or credits to belligerents. However, this act did not cover "civil wars," such as that in Spain (1936-1939), nor did it cover materials such as trucks and oil. U.S. companies such as Texaco, Standard Oil, Ford, General Motors, and Studebaker exploited this loophole to sell such items to General Franco on credit. The Neutrality Act of 1937 was passed in May and included the provisions of the earlier acts, this time without expiration date, and extended them to cover civil wars as well. Furthermore, U.S. ships were prohibited from transporting any passengers or articles to belligerents, and U.S. citizens were forbidden from traveling on ships of belligerent nations.The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts.

Amana Community

The Amana Colony is seven villages on 26,000 acres (11,000 ha) located in Iowa County in east-central Iowa, United States: Amana (or Main Amana), East Amana, High Amana, Middle Amana, South Amana, West Amana, and Homestead. The villages were built and settled by German Pietists, who were persecuted in their homeland by the German state government and the Lutheran Church. Calling themselves the Community of True Inspiration, they first settled in New York near Buffalo in what is now the Town of West Seneca. However, seeking more isolated surroundings, they moved to Iowa (near present-day Iowa City) in 1856. They lived a communal life until 1932. For eighty years, the Amana Colony maintained an almost completely self-sufficient local economy, importing very little from the industrializing American economy. The Amanians were able to achieve this independence and lifestyle by adhering to the specialized crafting and farming occupations that they had brought with them from Europe. Craftsmen passed their skills and techniques on from one generation to the next. They used hand, horse, wind, and water power, and made their own furniture, clothes, and other goods. The community voted to form a for-profit organization during the Great Depression, the Amana Society, which included the Amana Corporation.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is the oldest railroad in the United States and the first common carrier railroad, with its first section opening in 1830. It came into being mostly because the city of Baltimore wanted to compete with the newly constructed Erie Canal (which served New York City) and another canal being proposed by Pennsylvania, which would have connected Philadelphia and Pittsburgh.

Battle of Bunker Hill

The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17, 1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts, which was peripherally involved in the battle. It was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent hill which later became known as Breed's Hill. On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the colonial forces besieging Boston learned that the British were planning to send troops out from the city to fortify the unoccupied hills surrounding the city, which would give them control of Boston Harbor. In response, 1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill. During the night, the colonists constructed a strong redoubt on Breed's Hill, as well as smaller fortified lines across the Charlestown Peninsula. By daybreak of June 17, the British became aware of the presence of colonial forces on the Peninsula and mounted an attack against them that day. Two assaults on the colonial positions were repulsed with significant British casualties; the third and final attack carried the redoubt after the defenders ran out of ammunition. The colonists retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, leaving the British in control of the Peninsula. The battle was a tactical, though somewhat Pyrrhic victory for the British, as it proved to be a sobering experience for them, involving many more casualties than the Americans had incurred, including a large number of officers. The battle had demonstrated that inexperienced militia were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle. Subsequently, the battle discouraged the British from any further frontal attacks against well defended front lines. American casualties were comparatively much fewer, although their losses included General Joseph Warren and Major Andrew McClary, the final casualty of the battle. The battle led the British to adopt a more cautious planning and maneuver execution in future engagements, which was evident in the subsequent New York and New Jersey campaign, and arguably helped rather than hindered the American forces. Their new approach to battle was actually giving the Americans greater opportunity to retreat if defeat was imminent. The costly engagement also convinced the British of the need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in the face of the new and formidable Continental Army.

How did the Hoover administration deal with Japanese expansionism?

The Chinese wanted to expanded government control over Manchuria and Japan's moderate government failed to stop it; the military leaders of Japan seized control of foreign policies and invaded northern Manchuria. U.S. secretary of War-Henry Stimson hoped Japanese modernists would regain control and halt invasion. Military leaders remained in control - Stimson could only issue stern warnings. Stimson refused to grant diplomatic recognition to new Japanese territories. Japanese were unconcerned and continued to invade Shanghai. With the failure of America's Interwar Diplomacy, the U.S. faced a choice: adopt a more energetic form of internationalism and enter into more meaningful associations with other nations or focus on nationalism and its own problems.

Compromise of 1877

The Compromise of 1877 was a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U.S. presidential election. It resulted in the United States federal government pulling the last troops out of the South, and formally ended the Reconstruction Era. Through the Compromise, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was awarded the White House over Democrat Samuel J. Tilden on the understanding that Hayes would remove the federal troops whose support was essential for the survival of Republican state governments in South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana. The compromise involved Democrats who controlled the House of Representatives allowing the decision of the Electoral Commission to take effect. The outgoing president, Republican Ulysses S. Grant, removed the soldiers from Florida. As president, Hayes removed the remaining troops from South Carolina and Louisiana. As soon as the troops left, many white Republicans also left, and the "Redeemer" Democrats took control. They already dominated most other state governments in the South. What was exactly agreed is somewhat contested as the documentation is scanty. Black Republicans felt betrayed as they lost power and were subject to discrimination and harassment to suppress their voting. At the turn of the twentieth century, most black people were effectively disenfranchised by state legislatures in every southern state, despite being a majority in some.

Constitutional Convention

The Constitutional Convention took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States. The most contentious disputes revolved around composition and election of the Senate, how "proportional representation" was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property), whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single president, how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could run for reelection, what offenses should be impeachable, the nature of a fugitive slave clause, whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade, and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison's Virginia Plan and began to modify it. A Committee of Detail, assembled during the July 4 recess, eventually produced a rough draft of the constitution. Most of the rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on and sent to the states.

Credit Mobilier Scandal

The Crédit Mobilier scandal of 1867, which came to public attention in 1872, involved the Union Pacific Rail Road and the Crédit Mobilier of America construction company in the building of the eastern portion of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The scandal was in two parts. The construction company charged the railroad far higher rates than usual, and cash and $9 million in discounted stock were given as bribes to 15 powerful Washington politicians, including the Vice-President, the Secretary of the Treasury, four senators, and the Speaker and other members of the House.

What precipitated the Cuban missile crisis? How was it resolved? What was its legacy?

The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis, the Caribbean Crisis, or the Missile Scare, was a 13-day (October 16-28, 1962) confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning American ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war. In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer. The 1962 United States elections were under way, and the White House had denied charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles from Florida. The missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range (SS-4) and intermediate-range (R-14) ballistic missile facilities. The US established a military blockade to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba; Oval Office tapes during the crisis revealed that Kennedy had also put the blockade in place as an attempt to provoke Soviet-backed forces in Berlin as well. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the Soviet Union. After a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between US President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States also agreed that it would dismantle all U.S.-built Jupiter MRBMs, which had been deployed in Turkey against the Soviet Union; there has been debate on whether or not Italy was included in the agreement as well. When all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il-28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 21, 1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between Washington and Moscow. As a result, the Moscow-Washington hotline was established. A series of agreements reduced US-Soviet tensions for several years.

What assumptions and values underlie the early relief programs of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) and the Civil Works Administration (CWA)? What different dimension did the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) add?

The FERA & CWA put more than 4 million people to work on temporary jobs such as construction, schools, parks. The idea was to get money pumping into the economy and help people who needed it. The CCC was designed to give jobs to young men who couldn't find any. They did jobs such as planting trees, building reservoirs, developing parks and improving agricultural irrigation.The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs. Sources written at the time claimed an individual's enrollment in the CCC led to improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC also led to a greater public awareness and appreciation of the outdoors and the nation's natural resources, and the continued need for a carefully planned, comprehensive national program for the protection and development of natural resources.

First Battle of Bull Run

The First Battle of Bull Run (the name used by Union forces), also known as the Battle of First Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces), was fought on July 21, 1861 in Prince William County, Virginia, just north of the city of Manassas and about 25 miles west-southwest of Washington, D.C. It was the first major battle of the American Civil War. The Union's forces were slow in positioning themselves, allowing Confederate reinforcements time to arrive by rail. Each side had about 18,000 poorly trained and poorly led troops in their first battle. It was a Confederate victory, followed by a disorganized retreat of the Union forces.

Fugitive Slave Act

The Fugitive Slave Law or Fugitive Slave Act was passed by the United States Congress on September 18, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850 between Southern slave-holding interests and Northern Free-Soilers. The Act was one of the most controversial elements of the 1850 compromise and heightened Northern fears of a "slave power conspiracy". It required that all escaped slaves were, upon capture, to be returned to their masters and that officials and citizens of free states had to cooperate in this law. Abolitionists nicknamed it the "Bloodhound Law" for the dogs that were used to track down runaway slaves.

Compare and contrast the views of the religious modernists and fundamentalists. How did Darwinism and the Scopes trial symbolize the conflict between the two? How has the conflict persisted?

The Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy was a religious controversy in the 1920s and 30s within the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America that later created divisions in most American Christian denominations as well.

To what extent was the Depression a global as well as American episode?

The Great Depression began in the United States but quickly turned into a worldwide economic slump owing to the special and intimate relationships that had been forged between the United States and European economies after World War I. The United States had emerged from the war as the major creditor and financier of postwar Europe, whose national economies had been greatly weakened by the war itself, by war debts, and, in the case of Germany and other defeated nations, by the need to pay war reparations. So once the American economy slumped and the flow of American investment credits to Europe dried up, prosperity tended to collapse there as well. The Depression hit hardest those nations that were most deeply indebted to the United States, i.e., Germany and Great Britain. In Germany, unemployment rose sharply beginning in late 1929, and by early 1932 it had reached 6 million workers, or 25 percent of the work force. Britain was less severely affected, but its industrial and export sectors remained seriously depressed until World War II. Many other countries had been affected by the slump by 1931.

Know Nothings/American Party

The Know-Nothing Party, also known as the American Party, was a prominent United States political party during the late 1840s and the early 1850s. The American Party originated in 1849. Its members strongly opposed immigrants and followers of the Catholic Church.

What personalities and policies led to the Republican victory in the presidential election of 1952?

The Korean stalemate and the internal subversion fears contributed to an all-around bad year for the Democratic Party. They had to find a new candidate now that Truman did not have the popular support. Adlai E. Stevenson was chosen as the candidate. He was likable, but he had to run against the Republican candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower had much support behind him and Nixon would attack the Democrats, calling them "cowards."

Kansas and the Lecompton Constitution

The Lecompton Constitution, the second constitution drafted for Kansas Territory, was written by proslavery supporters. The document permitted slavery (Article VII), excluded free blacks from living in Kansas, and allowed only male citizens of the United States to vote.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

The Lincoln-Douglas debates (also known as The Great Debates of 1858) were a series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate for the United States Senate from Illinois, and incumbent Senator Stephen Douglas, the Democratic Party candidate. At the time, U.S. senators were elected by state legislatures; thus Lincoln and Douglas were trying for their respective parties to win control of the Illinois General Assembly. The debates previewed the issues that Lincoln would face in the aftermath of his victory in the 1860 presidential election. Although Illinois was a free state, the main issue discussed in all seven debates was slavery in the United States.

Mayflower Compact

The Mayflower Compact was the first agreement for self-government to be created and enforced in America. On September 16, 1620 the Mayflower, a British ship, with 102 passengers, who called themselves Pilgrims, aboard sailed from Plymouth, England. They were bound for the New World.

What was the importance of the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott?

The Montgomery Bus Boycott, a seminal event in the Civil Rights Movement, was a political and social protest campaign against the policy of racial segregation on the public transit system of Montgomery, Alabama. The campaign lasted from December 5, 1955—the Monday after Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person—to December 20, 1956, when a federal ruling, Browder v. Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. Many important figures in the Civil Rights Movement took part in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. and Ralph Abernathy. White backlash against the court victory was quick, brutal, and, in the short-term, effective. Two days after the inauguration of desegregated seating, someone fired a shotgun through the front door of Martin Luther King's home. A day later, on Christmas Eve, white men attacked a black teenager as she exited a bus. Four days after that, two buses were fired upon by snipers. In one sniper incident, a pregnant woman was shot in both legs. On January 10, 1957, bombs destroyed five black churches and the home of Reverend Robert S. Graetz, one of the few white Montgomerians who had publicly sided with the MIA. The City suspended bus service for several weeks on account of the violence. According to legal historian Randall Kennedy, "When the violence subsided and service was restored, many black Montgomerians enjoyed their newly recognized right only abstractly... In practically every other setting, Montgomery remained overwhelmingly segregated..." On January 23, a group of Klansmen (who would later be charged for the bombings) lynched a black man, Willie Edwards, on the pretext that he was dating a white woman. The City's elite moved to strengthen segregation in other areas, and in March 1957 passed an ordinance making it "unlawful for white and colored persons to play together, or, in company with each other . . . in any game of cards, dice, dominoes, checkers, pool, billiards, softball, basketball, baseball, football, golf, track, and at swimming pools, beaches, lakes or ponds or any other game or games or athletic contests, either indoors or outdoors." Later in the year, Montgomery police charged seven Klansmen with the bombings, but all of the defendants were acquitted. About the same time, the Alabama Supreme Court ruled against Martin Luther King's appeal of his "illegal boycott" conviction. Rosa Parks left Montgomery due to death threats and employment blacklisting. According to Charles Silberman, "by 1963, most Negroes in Montgomery had returned to the old custom of riding in the back of the bus."

National Bank Act of 1863-4

The National Banking Acts of 1863 and 1864 were two United States federal banking acts that established a system of national banks, and created the United States National Banking System. They encouraged development of a national currency backed by bank holdings of U.S. Treasury securities and established the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency as part of the United States Department of the Treasury and a system of nationally chartered banks. The Act shaped today's national banking system and its support of a uniform U.S. banking policy.

How did the National Security Act of 1947 reorganize the administration of national security? What agencies were created?

The National Security Act of 1947 was a major restructuring of the United States government's military and intelligence agencies following World War II. The majority of the provisions of the Act took effect on September 18, 1947, the day after the Senate confirmed James Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The Act merged the Department of War (renamed as the Department of the Army) and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (NME), headed by the Secretary of Defense. It also created the Department of the Air Force and the United States Air Force, which separated the Army Air Forces into its own service. It also protected the Marine Corps as an independent service, under the Department of the Navy. Aside from the military reorganization, the act established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency, the U.S.'s first peacetime non-military intelligence agency.

Plymouth Plantation

The Pilgrims' settlement, named by Captain John Smith; located in the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts. They'd escaped from religious persecution in England.

What inspired the Red Scare of 1919 to 1920? Was the threat real or imagined?

The Red Scare was inspired by the fear of Bolshevik influence in the US, and labor strikes contributed to this fear as well. The threat was mostly imagined.

What seems to have been the main cause of the 1937 recession? Whose economic theory appeared to be supported by the recession and the effect of the administration's response to it?

The Roosevelt Administration was under assault during Roosevelt's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued until most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothing more than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle. But until 1937 Roosevelt had claimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in the recession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937. Business-oriented conservatives explained the recession by arguing that the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935-37, had threatened massive anti-trust legal attacks on big corporations and by the huge strikes caused by the organizing activities of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The recovery was explained by the conservatives in terms of the diminishing of those threats sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long-term growth.

In what ways did the government use the Sedition Act and related legislation to suppress criticism? Who suffered most?

The Sedition Act of 1918 was an Act of the United States Congress that extended the Espionage Act of 1917 to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinion that cast the government or the war effort in a negative light or interfered with the sale of government bonds. It forbade the use of "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the United States government, its flag, or its armed forces or that caused others to view the American government or its institutions with contempt. In April 1918, the government arrested industrialist William Edenborn, a naturalized citizen from Germany, at his railroad business in New Orleans, Louisiana. He was accused of speaking "disloyally" when he allegedly belittled the threat of Germany to the security of the United States. In June 1918, the Socialist Party figure Eugene V. Debs of Indiana was arrested for violating the Sedition Act by undermining the government's conscription efforts. So they often used the Sedition Act to suppress criticism, stating that they are simply preventing unrest.

Seven Years War, French & Indian War, Great War for Empire

The Seven Years' War was a global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved every European great power of the time and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain (including Prussia, Portugal, Hanover, and other small German states) on one side and the Kingdom of France (including the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire, Bourbon Spain, and Sweden) on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, tried to crush a British attempt to conquer Bengal. Although Anglo-French skirmishes over their American colonies had begun with what became the French and Indian War in 1754, the large-scale conflict that drew in most of the European powers was centered on Austria's desire to recover Silesia from the Prussians. Seeing the opportunity to curtail Britain's and Prussia's ever-growing might, France and Austria put aside their ancient rivalry to form a grand coalition of their own, bringing most of the other European powers to their side. Faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned itself with Prussia, in a series of political maneuvers known as the Diplomatic Revolution. However, French efforts ended in failure when the Anglo-Prussian coalition prevailed, and Britain's rise as among the world's predominant powers destroyed France's supremacy in Europe, thus altering the European balance of power.

What led to the Suez crisis of 1956? What position did the United States take?

The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression (in the Arab world) and Operation Kadesh or Sinai War (in Israel), was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal and to remove Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser from power. After the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser. On 29 October, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored. On 5 November, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping. It later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their military objectives, but the Canal was now useless. Heavy political pressure from the United States and the USSR led to a withdrawal. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade; he now threatened serious damage to the British financial system by selling the US government's pound sterling bonds. Historians conclude the crisis "signified the end of Great Britain's role as one of the world's major powers". The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957. Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran, which Egypt had blocked to Israeli shipping since 1950. As a result of the conflict, the United Nations created the UNEF Peacekeepers to police the Egyptian-Israeli border, British Prime Minister Anthony Eden resigned, Canadian Minister of External Affairs Lester Pearson won the Nobel Peace Prize, and the USSR may have been emboldened to invade Hungary. The US remained neutral.

Why can the Tet Offensive be characterized as "a military victory for the United States, but...a political defeat for the administration"?

The Tet Offensive was one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War, launched on January 30, 1968, by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam against the forces of the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam, the United States Armed Forces, and their allies. It was a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The name of the offensive comes from the Tết holiday, the Vietnamese New Year, when the first major attacks took place. The North Vietnamese launched a wave of attacks in the late night hours of 30 January in the I and II Corps Tactical Zones of South Vietnam. This early attack did not lead to widespread defensive measures. When the main North Vietnamese operation began the next morning, the offensive was countrywide and well coordinated; eventually more than 80,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops struck more than 100 towns and cities, including 36 of 44 provincial capitals, five of the six autonomous cities, 72 of 245 district towns, and the southern capital. The offensive was the largest military operation conducted by either side up to that point in the war. Though initial attacks stunned both the US and South Vietnamese armies, causing them to temporarily lose control of several cities, they quickly regrouped, beat back the attacks, and inflicted heavy casualties on North Vietnamese forces. During the Battle of Huế, intense fighting lasted for a month, resulting in the destruction of the city. During their occupation, the North Vietnamese executed thousands of people in the Massacre at Huế. Around the US combat base at Khe Sanh, fighting continued for two more months. Although the offensive was a military defeat for North Vietnam, it had a profound effect on the US government and shocked the US public, which had been led to believe by its political and military leaders that the North Vietnamese were being defeated and incapable of launching such an ambitious military operation; American public support for the war soon declined and the U.S. sought negotiations to end the war.

Tredegar Iron Works

The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia, was the biggest ironworks in the Confederacy during the American Civil War, and a significant factor in the decision to make Richmond its capital. Tredegar supplied about half the artillery used by the Confederate States Army, as well as the iron plating for CSS Virginia, the first Confederate ironclad warship, which fought in the historic Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862. The works avoided destruction by troops during the evacuation of the city, and continued production through the mid-20th century. Now classified as a National Historic Landmark District, the site serves as the main visitor center for the Richmond National Battlefield Park.

Trent Affair

The Trent Affair was a diplomatic incident in 1861 during the American Civil War that threatened a war between the United States and the United Kingdom. The U.S. Navy illegally captured two Confederate diplomats from a British ship; the UK protested vigorously. The United States closed the incident by releasing the diplomats. On November 8, 1861, the USS San Jacinto, commanded by Union Captain Charles Wilkes, intercepted the British mail packet RMS Trent and removed, as contraband of war, two Confederate diplomats - James Murray Mason and John Slidell. The envoys were bound for Britain and France to press the Confederacy's case for diplomatic recognition and to lobby for possible financial and military support. Public reaction in the United States was to celebrate the capture and rally against Britain, threatening war. In the Confederate States, the hope was that the incident would lead to a permanent rupture in Anglo-American relations and possibly even war or at least diplomatic recognition by Britain. Confederates realized their independence potentially depended on intervention by Britain and France. In Britain, the public disapproved of this violation of neutral rights and insult to their national honor. The British government demanded an apology and the release of the prisoners, and took steps to strengthen its military forces in Canada and the Atlantic. President Abraham Lincoln and his top advisors did not want to risk war with Britain over this issue. After several tense weeks, the crisis was resolved when the Lincoln administration released the envoys and disavowed Captain Wilkes's actions without a formal apology. Mason and Slidell resumed their voyage to Britain but failed in their goal of achieving diplomatic recognition.

What led to the Truman doctrine and containment? What pattern of foreign policy did the doctrine establish?

The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy created to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was first announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947 and further developed on July 12, 1948 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey. American military force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated free gifts of financial aid to support the economies and the militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that is still in effect. Historians often use Truman's speech to date the start of the Cold War. Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Truman reasoned that because the totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples, they represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946-49). He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region. Because Turkey and Greece were historic rivals, it was considered necessary to help both equally even though the threat to Greece was more immediate. Historian Eric Foner argues the Truman Doctrine "set a precedent for American assistance to anticommunist regimes throughout the world, no matter how undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the Soviet Union."For years, Britain had supported Greece, but was now near bankruptcy and was forced to radically reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Britain formally requested for the United States to take over its role in supporting the Greeks and their government. The policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in American money but no military forces to the region. The effect was to end the communist threat, and in 1952, both Greece and Turkey joined NATO, a military alliance, to guarantee their protection. The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente (a relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan. It was distinguished from rollback by implicitly tolerating the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe.

What did the Hungarian Revolution and the U-2 incident illustrate about the nature of the United States-Soviet relationship in the late 1950s and into 1960?

The US and Soviet Union were unable to work cooperatively together and ultimately made their relationship much worse.

Success of Union Blockade

The Union blockade in the American Civil War was a naval strategy by the United States to prevent the Confederacy from trading. The blockade was proclaimed by President Abraham Lincoln in April 1861, and required the monitoring of 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of Atlantic and Gulf coastline, including 12 major ports, notably New Orleans and Mobile. Those blockade runners fast enough to evade the Union Navy could only carry a small fraction of the supplies needed. They were operated largely by British citizens, making use of neutral ports such as Havana, Nassau and Bermuda. The Union commissioned around 500 ships, which destroyed or captured about 1,500 blockade runners over the course of the war.

Dorothea Dix, the US Sanitary Commission, and Female Nurses

The United States Sanitary Commission (USSC) was a private relief agency created by federal legislation on June 18, 1861, to support sick and wounded soldiers of the United States Army (Federal /Northern / Union Army) during the American Civil War. It operated across the North, raised an estimated $25 million in Civil War era revenue (assuming 1865 dollars, $391.14 million in 2017) and in-kind contributions to support the cause, and enlisted thousands of volunteers. Female nurses contributed to this in the war.

Election of 1836

The United States presidential election of 1836 was the 13th quadrennial presidential election, held from Thursday, November 3, to Wednesday, December 7, 1836. As the third consecutive election victory for the Democratic Party, it ushered incumbent Vice President Martin Van Buren into the White House with 170 electoral votes to 124 electoral votes for William Henry Harrison and other Whigs. The popular vote was closer; Martin Van Buren attracted 764,000 votes to the 738,000 won by the various Whig candidates. The election of 1836 is principally remembered for three distinctive circumstances: 1) The Whig Party ran four candidates in different parts of the country in hopes that each would be popular enough to defeat Democrat Martin Van Buren in their respective region. The strategy failed, but had three of the four received more electoral votes than Van Buren, it would have been left to the House of Representatives to decide between the competing Whig candidates. 2) Richard Mentor Johnson became the first (and to date only) Vice President elected by the United States Senate. Although pledged to Van Buren and Johnson (his running mate), Virginia's 23 electors refused to vote for Johnson, which left him one electoral vote short of the 148-vote majority required to be elected. As such, it was left to the Senate to decide between the top two vote recipient recipients, Johnson and Francis Granger. Johnson was elected on the first ballot 33 to 16. 3) This was the last election until the 1988 election (of George H. W. Bush) in which the incumbent Vice President was elected to succeed the president under whom he served. The election of 1836 also marked an important turning point in American political history because of the part it played in establishing the Second Party System. In the 1830s the political party structure was still changing, rapidly, the Democratic Party was organized, but factional and personal leaders still played a major role in politics. By the end of the campaign of 1836, the new party system was almost complete, as nearly every faction had been absorbed by either the Democrats or the Whigs.

Election of 1840

The United States presidential election of 1840 saw President Martin Van Buren fight for re-election against an economic depression and a Whig Party unified for the first time behind war hero William Henry Harrison. Rallying under the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler, too," the Whigs easily defeated Van Buren.

Election of 1856

The United States presidential election of 1856 was the 18th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4, 1856. Incumbent president Franklin Pierce was defeated in his effort to be re-nominated by the Democratic Party. James Buchanan, an experienced politician who had held a variety of political offices, was serving as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom and won the nomination instead. Slavery was the omnipresent issue, while the Whig Party, which had since the 1830s been one of the two major parties in the U.S., had disintegrated. New parties such as the Republican Party (strongly against slavery's expansion) and American, or "Know-Nothing," Party (which ignored slavery and instead emphasized anti-immigration and anti-Catholic policies), competed to replace it as the principal opposition to the Democratic Party. The Republican Party nominated John C. Frémont of California as its first presidential candidate. The Know-Nothing Party nominated former President Millard Fillmore, of New York. Frémont condemned the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and decried the expansion of slavery. Buchanan warned that the Republicans were extremists whose victory would lead to civil war. The Democrats endorsed popular sovereignty as the method to determine slavery's legality for newly admitted states. Buchanan won a plurality of the popular vote, but a majority of the Electoral College, and defeated Fillmore and Frémont, with the latter receiving fewer than twelve hundred popular votes in the slave states, with all of these coming from Civil War border states. The results in the Electoral College indicated that the Republican Party could possibly win the next presidential election by capturing only two more states; indeed, 1856 proved to be the last Democratic presidential victory before 1884. The 1856 election also marks the last time that a Democrat had been elected to succeed a fellow Democrat as president without the previous president having died in office and it's the only time an incumbent party kept the presidency after denying the nomination to the sitting president seeking it.

Elections of 1868 and 1872

The United States presidential election of 1868 was the 21st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 3, 1868. It was the first presidential election to take place after the American Civil War, during the period referred to as Reconstruction. As three of the former Confederate states (Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia) were not yet restored to the Union, their electors could not vote in the election. The incumbent President, Andrew Johnson, who succeeded to the presidency in 1865 following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, was unpopular and failed to receive the Democratic presidential nomination. By 1868, Johnson had alienated many of his constituents and had been impeached by Congress. Although Johnson kept his office, his presidency was crippled. After numerous ballots, the Democrats nominated former New York Governor Horatio Seymour to take on the Republican candidate, Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant. Grant was one of the most popular men in the North due to his efforts in concluding the Civil War successfully for the Union. Although Seymour was buried in the electoral college, he gave Grant a good race for the popular vote. In addition to his appeal in the North, Grant benefited from votes among the newly enfranchised freedmen in the South, while the temporary political disfranchisement of many Southern whites helped Republican margins. It was the first election in which African Americans could vote in every Northern or Reconstructed Southern state, in accordance with the First Reconstruction Act. Every state except Florida used popular votes to determine electors for the Electoral College vote.

Describe the turmoil within the Democratic Party in 1968. How did Richard Nixon and George Wallace exploit this turmoil and the general national mood in the 1968 presidential election?

The United States presidential election of 1968 was the 46th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5, 1968. The Republican nominee, former Vice President Richard Nixon, won the election over the Democratic nominee, incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Analysts have argued the election of 1968 was a major realigning election as it permanently disrupted the New Deal Coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years. The election year was tumultuous; it was marked by the assassination of Civil Rights Movement leader Martin Luther King Jr., subsequent King assassination riots across the nation, the assassination of Democratic presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy and widespread opposition to the Vietnam War across university campuses. Incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson, who had won a landslide victory for the Democratic Party four years earlier, declined to seek re-election amid growing discontent over the Vietnam War and his worse-than-expected showing in the New Hampshire primary. The 1968 Democratic National Convention was a scene of violent confrontations between police and anti-war protesters as the Democrats split into multiple factions. Richard Nixon ran on a campaign that promised to restore law and order to the nation's cities and provide new leadership in the Vietnam War. A year later, he would popularize the term "silent majority" to describe those he viewed as being his target voters. Nixon won the popular vote by a narrow margin of 0.7 percentage points, but won easily in the Electoral College, 301-191-46. The election also featured a strong third party effort by former Alabama Governor George Wallace, a vocal advocate for racial segregation in public schools. He carried five states in the Deep South and ran well in some ethnic enclave industrial districts in the North. This was the first election after the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which had led to mass enfranchisement of racial minorities throughout the country, especially in the South. It was the last election in which New York had the most votes in the electoral college (43 votes). After the 1970 census, California gained the most electoral votes and has remained the most populous state since then. This is also the last election in which a major party nominated as its presidential candidate a previously defeated presidential candidate (with respect to Nixon's loss to John F. Kennedy in 1960), as well as the last one in which a non-major party candidate won at least one state.

What did the Washington Conference accomplish?

The Washington Naval Conference, also called the Washington Arms Conference or the Washington Disarmament Conference, was a military conference called by U.S. President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington, D.C., from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspice of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations—the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal—regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first arms control conference in history, and as Kaufman, 1990 shows, it is studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement. Held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington DC, it resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty (more commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty), the Nine-Power Treaty, and a number of smaller agreements. These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but were not renewed in the increasingly hostile world of the Great Depression. The Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets and those few ships that were built were limited in size and armament. Numbers of existing capital ships were scrapped. Some ships under construction were turned into aircraft carriers instead. Even with the Washington Treaty, the major navies remained suspicious of each other, and for a brief while (1927-30) engaged in a race to build cruisers which had been limited to size (10,000 tons) but not numbers. That oversight was resolved on value of cruisers by the London Naval Treaty of 1930, which specified a 10:10:7 ratio for cruisers and destroyers. For the first time submarines were also limited, with Japan given parity with the US and Britain at 53,000 tons each. (Submarines typically displaced 1,000-2,000 tons each.) The U.S. Navy maintained an active building program that replaced obsolescent warships with technically more sophisticated new models in part because its construction yards were important sources of political patronage, and well protected by Congress. During the New Deal, furthermore, relief funds were used to build warships. "The naval program was wholly mine," President Roosevelt boasted. The Washington Naval Conference, also called the Washington Arms Conference or the Washington Disarmament Conference, was a military conference called by U.S. President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington, D.C., from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspice of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations—the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal—regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first arms control conference in history, and as Kaufman, 1990 shows, it is studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement. Held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington DC, it resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty (more commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty), the Nine-Power Treaty, and a number of smaller agreements. These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but were not renewed in the increasingly hostile world of the Great Depression. The Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets and those few ships that were built were limited in size and armament. Numbers of existing capital ships were scrapped. Some ships under construction were turned into aircraft carriers instead. Even with the Washington Treaty, the major navies remained suspicious of each other, and for a brief while (1927-30) engaged in a race to build cruisers which had been limited to size (10,000 tons) but not numbers. That oversight was resolved on value of cruisers by the London Naval Treaty of 1930, which specified a 10:10:7 ratio for cruisers and destroyers. For the first time submarines were also limited, with Japan given parity with the US and Britain at 53,000 tons each. (Submarines typically displaced 1,000-2,000 tons each.) The U.S. Navy maintained an active building program that replaced obsolescent warships with technically more sophisticated new models in part because its construction yards were important sources of political patronage, and well protected by Congress. During the New Deal, furthermore, relief funds were used to build warships. "The naval program was wholly mine," President Roosevelt boasted.

Describe the Normandy invasion and the liberation of France. What role did air power play in preparing for the assault?

The Western Allies of World War II launched the largest amphibious invasion in history when they assaulted Normandy, located on the northern coast of France, on 6 June 1944. The invaders were able to establish a beachhead as part of Operation Overlord after a successful "D-Day," the first day of the invasion. Allied land forces came from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free French forces. In the weeks following the invasion, Polish forces and contingents from Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece and the Netherlands participated in the ground campaign; most also provided air and naval support alongside elements of the Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the Royal Norwegian Navy. The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider landings, massive air attacks and naval bombardments. In the early morning, amphibious landings commenced on five beaches codenamed Sword, Juno, Gold, Omaha and Utah, with troops from the United States landing on Omaha and Utah, Great Britain landing on Gold and Sword and Canada landing on Juno. During the evening the remaining elements of the airborne divisions landed. Land forces used on D-Day sailed from bases along the south coast of England, the most important of these being Portsmouth. The liberation began when the French Forces of the Interior—the military structure of the French Resistance—staged an uprising against the German garrison upon the approach of the US Third Army, led by General George Patton. On the night of 24 August, elements of General Philippe Leclerc's 2nd French Armored Division made its way into Paris and arrived at the Hôtel de Ville shortly before midnight. The next morning, 25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and US 4th Infantry Division entered the city. Dietrich von Choltitz, commander of the German garrison and the military governor of Paris, surrendered to the French at the Hôtel Meurice, the newly established French headquarters, while General Charles de Gaulle arrived to assume control of the city as head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic.

Describe the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and its accomplishments. How did it go beyond traditional public-works programs?

The Works Progress Administration (WPA; renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration) was the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing millions of people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. In a much smaller project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, bridge or school constructed by the agency. The WPA's initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion (about 6.7 percent of the 1935 GDP). Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided paid jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people. Most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were typically set to the prevailing wages in each area. Full employment, which was reached in 1942 and emerged as a long-term national goal around 1944, was not the goal of the WPA; rather, it tried to provide one paid job for all families in which the breadwinner suffered long-term unemployment. "The stated goal of public building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects," sociologist Robert D. Leighninger asserted. "Millions of people needed subsistence incomes. Work relief was preferred over public assistance (the dole) because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp."

Describe how the New Deal represented a "breakthrough" in the role of women in public life. What cultural norms limited the opportunities for women?

The administration was mostly unconcerned with feminist movements because of the lack of popular support. The new deal supported the notion that women withdraw from work to open up positions for men. Agencies offered women few jobs. The AA was not against women but accepted the cultural norms.

How did the Korean War end?

The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty has been signed, and according to some sources the two Koreas are technically still at war. As a war undeclared by all participants, the conflict helped bring the term "police action" into common use. It also led to the permanent alteration of the balance of power within the United Nations, where Resolution 377—passed in 1950 to allow a bypassing of the Security Council if that body could not reach an agreement—led to the General Assembly displacing the Security Council as the primary organ of the UN.

What developments in the "New Era" laid the groundwork for future technological advances in aviation, computers, and genetics?

The first analog computer was created and was capable of performing a variety of complicated tasks. The more complex computers developed later. Gregor Mendel (the father of genetics) hybridized pea plants and helped shape modern genetic research. Pioneers experimented with fruit flies to reveal how several genes could be transmitted together. They also revealed how genes were on chromosomes. His work helped open the path to understanding how genes could recombine - critical to advanced experiments in hybridization and genetics.

Waltham System

The system used domestic labor, often referred to as mill girls, who came to the new textile centers from rural towns to earn more money than they could at home, and to live a cultured life in "the city". Their life was very regimented - they lived in company boardinghouses and were held to strict hours and a moral code. As competition grew in the domestic textile industry and wages declined, strikes began to occur, and with the introduction of cheaper imported foreign workers by mid-century, the system proved unprofitable and collapsed.

Temperance

The temperance movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries was an organized effort to encourage moderation in the consumption of intoxicating liquors or press for complete abstinence.

Express Contract

A contract that a worker voluntary enters into calling for more time on the job. It was in response to laws passed in New Hampshire and Pennsylvania to limit the work day to 10 hours, unless they entered into an express contract.

George M. Cohen

First creator of musical comedies (Yankee Doodle)

General Stores

They were the only stores in rural towns before they began to be replaced by large stores such as Sears.

Sambo

This was a stereotype of slaves. This slave acted in front of whites as whites expected: shuffling, grinning, and head-scratching.

Manumit

To release from slavery.

Who won the election of 1896?

William McKinley.

Subsidies

Money from the government to assist an industry or business

Military Legacy of the Civil War

The American Civil War was distinguished from previous wars by new technological advances, the departure from European tactics, and the first extensive use of rifled field artillery.

Potato Famine

The Great Famine or the Great Hunger was a period of mass starvation, disease, and emigration in Ireland between 1845 and 1849. It is sometimes referred to, mostly outside Ireland, as the Irish Potato Famine, because about two-fifths of the population was solely reliant on this cheap crop for a number of historical reasons. During the famine, about one million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%. Many of the Irish migrated to America.

What motives led to the Marshall Plan? How successful was it?

The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave over $13 billion (nearly $140 billion in current dollar value as of September 2017) in economic support to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II. The plan was in operation for four years beginning on April 8, 1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, make Europe prosperous once more, and prevent the spread of communism. The Marshall Plan required a lessening of interstate barriers, a dropping of many regulations, and encouraged an increase in productivity, labour union membership, as well as the adoption of modern business procedures. The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35%. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels. The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically. There is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the Marshall Plan. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. Most believe that the Marshall Plan sped this recovery, but did not initiate it. Many argue that the structural adjustments that it forced were of great importance. Economic historians J. Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen call it "history's most successful structural adjustment program." One effect of the plan was that it subtly "Americanized" European countries, especially Austria, through new exposure to American popular culture, including the growth in influence of Hollywood movies and rock n' roll.

Impact of Panic of 1873 and Social Darwinism on Northern Reconstruction

The North used Social Darwinism as an explanation for the instability brought by the Panic of 1873

Backcountry

The foothills of the Chesapeake, also known as Piedmont. This area was less populated and seen as less than the people who lived on the coast.

How much allure did such radical movements as communism and socialism have for Americans in the 1930s? What was the "Popular Front" approach and why did it end?

The ideological rigidity of the Third Period began to crack with two events: the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933. Roosevelt's election and the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 sparked a tremendous upsurge in union organizing in 1933 and 1934. Many conservatives equated the New Deal with socialism or Communism, and saw its policies as evidence that the government had been heavily influenced by Communist policy-makers in the Roosevelt administration. Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff argues that socialist and communist parties, along with organized labor, played a collective role in pushing through New Deal legislation, and conservative opponents of the New Deal coordinated an effort to single out and destroy them as a result. Norman Thomas, six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. The Seventh Congress of the Comintern made the change in line official in 1935, when it declared the need for a popular front of all groups opposed to fascism. The CPUSA abandoned its opposition to the New Deal, provided many of the organizers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations and began supporting civil rights of African Americans. The party also sought unity with forces to its right. Earl Russell Browder offered to run as Norman Thomas' running mate on a joint Socialist Party-Communist Party ticket in the 1936 presidential election but Thomas rejected this overture. The gesture did not mean that much in practical terms, since the CPUSA was, by 1936, effectively supporting Roosevelt in much of his trade union work. While continuing to run its own candidates for office, the CPUSA pursued a policy of representing the Democratic Party as the lesser evil in elections. Party members also rallied to the defense of the Spanish Republic during this period after a Nationalist military uprising moved to overthrow it, resulting in the Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939). The CPUSA, along with leftists throughout the world, raised funds for medical relief while many of its members made their way to Spain with the aid of the party to join the Lincoln Brigade, one of the International Brigades. Among its other achievements, the Lincoln Brigade was the first American military force to include blacks and whites integrated on an equal basis. Intellectually, the Popular Front period saw the development of a strong communist influence in intellectual and artistic life. This was often through various organizations influenced or controlled by the Party or, as they were pejoratively known, "fronts". The CPUSA under Browder supported Stalin's show trials in the Soviet Union, called the Moscow Trials. Therein, between August 1936 and mid-1938 the Soviet government indicted, tried, and shot virtually all of the remaining Old Bolsheviks. Beyond the show trials lay a broader purge, the Great Purge, that killed millions. Browder uncritically supported Stalin, likening Trotskyism to "cholera germs" and calling the purge "a signal service to the cause of progressive humanity". He compared the show trial defendants to domestic traitors Benedict Arnold, Aaron Burr, disloyal War of 1812 Federalists, and Confederate secessionists, while likening persons who "smeared" Stalin's name to those who had slandered Abraham Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt. For the first half of the 20th century, the Communist Party was a highly influential force in various struggles for democratic rights. It played a prominent role in the U.S. labor movement from the 1920s through the 1940s, having a major hand in mobilizing the unemployed during the worst of the Great Depression[92][93] and founding most of the country's first industrial unions (which would later use the McCarran Internal Security Act to expel their Communist members) while also becoming known for opposing racism and fighting for integration in workplaces and communities during the height of the Jim Crow period of U.S. racial segregation. Historian Ellen Schrecker concludes that decades of recent scholarship offer "a more nuanced portrayal of the party as both a Stalinist sect tied to a vicious regime and the most dynamic organization within the American Left during the 1930s and '40s". The Communist Party USA played a significant role in defending the rights of African-Americans during its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s. Throughout its history many of the Party's leaders and political thinkers have been African Americans. James Ford, Charlene Mitchell, Angela Davis, and Jarvis Tyner, the current executive vice chair of the Party, all ran as presidential or vice presidential candidates on the Party ticket. Others like Benjamin J. Davis, William L. Patterson, Harry Haywood, James Jackson, Henry Winston, Claude Lightfoot, Alphaeus Hunton, Doxey Wilkerson, Claudia Jones, and John Pittman contributed in important ways to the Party's approaches to major issues from human and civil rights, peace, women's equality, the national question, working class unity, Socialist thought, cultural struggle and more. African American thinkers, artists, and writers such as Claude McKay, Richard Wright, Ann Petry, W. E. B. Du Bois, Shirley Graham Du Bois, Lloyd Brown, Charles White, Elizabeth Catlett, Paul Robeson, Gwendolyn Brooks, and many more were one-time members or supporters of the Party, and the Communists also had a close alliance with Harlem Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the Communist party, when the Communist party responded quickly and effectively to support the Scottsboro Boys, nine African-American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape. Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause, so they chose to let the Communist party organize the defense efforts. William Z. Foster, labor organizer and later a longtime General Secretary of the Communist Party USA. In 1929 Reverend A. J. Muste attempted to organize radical unionists opposed to the passive policies of American Federation of Labor president William Green under the banner of an organization called the Conference for Progressive Labor Action (CPLA). In 1933 Muste's CPLA took the step of establishing itself as the core of a new political organization called the American Workers Party. This organization was informally referred to as "Musteite" by its contemporaries.[100] The AWP then merged with the trotskyist Communist League of America in 1934 to establish a group called the Workers Party of the United States. Through it all Muste continued to work as a labor activist, leading the victorious Toledo Auto-Lite strike of 1934. Throughout 1935 the Workers Party of the United States was deeply divided over the "entryism" tactic called for by the "French Turn," and a bitter debate swept the organization. Ultimately, the majority faction of Jim Cannon, Max Shachtman, and James Burnham won the day and the Workers Party determined to enter the Socialist Party of America; a minority faction headed by Hugo Oehler refused to accept this result and split from the organization. The Trotskyists retained a common orientation with the radicalized SP in their opposition to the European war, their preference for industrial unionism and the CIO over the trade unionism of the American Federation of Labor, a commitment to trade union activism, the defense of the Soviet Union as the first workers' state while at the same time maintaining an antipathy toward the Stalin government, and in their general aims in the 1936 election.[101] The Communist Party of the USA (Opposition) was a right oppositionist movement of the 1930s. The organization emerged from a factional fight in the CPUSA in 1929 and unsuccessfully sought to reintegrate with that organization for several years. Norman Thomas attracted nearly 188,000 votes in his 1936 Socialist Party run for President but performed poorly in historic strongholds of the party. Moreover, the party's membership had begun to decline.[103] The organization was deeply factionalized, with the Militant faction split into right ("Altmanite"), center ("Clarity") and left ("Appeal") factions, in addition to the radical pacifists led by Norman Thomas. A special convention was planned for the last week of March 1937 to set the party's future policy, initially intended as an unprecedented "secret" gathering. Constance Myers indicates that three factors led to the expulsion of the Trotskyists from the Socialist Party in 1937: the divergence between the official Socialists and the Trotskyist faction on the issues, the determination of Altman's wing of the Militants to oust the Trotskyists, and Trotsky's own decision to move towards a break with the party. Recognizing that the Clarity faction had chosen to stand with the Altmanites and the Thomas group, Trotsky recommended that the Appeal group focus on disagreements over Spain to provoke a split. At the same time, Thomas, freshly returned from Spain, had come to the conclusion that the Trotskyists had joined the SP not to make it stronger, but to capture the organization for their own purposes. The 1,000 or so Trotskyists who entered the SP in 1936 exited in the summer of 1937 with their ranks swelled by another 1,000. On December 31, 1937, representatives of this faction gathered in Chicago to establish a new political organization — the Socialist Workers Party.

Atlantic World

The interactions among the peoples and empires bordering the Atlantic Ocean; started during Age of Exploration.

Stono Rebellion

The most serious slave rebellion in the the colonial period which occurred in 1739 in South Carolina. 100 African Americans rose up, got weapons and killed several whites then tried to escape to South Florida. The uprising was crushed and the participants executed. The main form of rebellion was running away, though there was no where to go.

Franchise

The right to vote; 1820 to 1860 most states revised their constitutions so all adult white men could vote.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World.

How did John F. Kennedy's approach to foreign policy contrast with Eisenhower's? What specific programs illustrated that difference?

The foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration in 1961-1963 saw diplomatic and military initiatives in Europe, Southeast Asia, Latin America and other regions amid considerable Cold War tensions. Kennedy deployed a new generation of foreign policy experts, dubbed "the best and the brightest". Several of them were from the foreign policy think tanks. In his inaugural address Kennedy encapsulated his Cold War stance as following: "Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate". Kennedy's strategy of flexible response, managed by Robert McNamara, was aimed to reduce the possibility of war by miscalculation. Kennedy's administration contributed to the peaceful resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis and refrained from further escalation of the 1961 Berlin Crisis. In 1961 Kennedy initiated the creation of Peace Corps, Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and Alliance for Progress. On October 7, 1963 he signed the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which was accepted by the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. Kennedy was praised for having a less rigid view of the world than his predecessor Dwight Eisenhower and for accepting the world's diversity, as well as for improving United States' standing in the Third World. The New Look was the name given to the national security policy of the United States during the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. It reflected Eisenhower's concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the nation's financial resources. The policy emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons to deter potential threats, both conventional and nuclear, from the Eastern Bloc of nations headed by the Soviet Union.

Describe the goals and concepts of the National Recovery Administration (NRA). Why was it less than fully successful? How did it end?

The goals and concepts included every business establishment in the nation accepting a temporary minimum wage, maximum workweek of 35-40 hours, abolition of child labor, raising of consumer purchasing power, and increasing employment. It was not entirely successful because the codes were poorly written and hard to administer, and they were also corrupt. Large producers had power when writing them and therefore gave themselves an advantage.

Describe the legacy of mistrust between the Soviet Union and the United States up to World War II. How did the view of the world articulated by the United States contrast with the vision held by the Soviets and, to a great extent, the British?

The mistrust arose because they had different ideas of what the post-war world should look like. Americans felt that nations should govern their relations through democratic processes and there should be an international organization to keep tension down between countries. The Soviets and the British, however, thought great powers should control areas that interested them strategically to balance out power.

What helped resurrect the Ku Klux Klan? In addition to African Americans, at whom did the Klan target its rage? How influential was it?

The revival of the KKK in the early twentieth century reflected a society struggling with the effects of industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. Klan chapters in major urban areas expanded as many white Americans became bitter and resentful about immigration from Asia and Eastern Europe. Klansmen complained that these immigrants were taking jobs away from whites and diluting the imagined "racial purity" of American society. Given that the country had been populated by immigrants from the beginning, such ideas of racial purity were complete myths.

"Southern Lady"

Their lives centered in the home, where they served as companions and hostesses for their husbands and nurturing mothers for their children, but they seldom engaged in public activities or income- producing employment.

"Empire Of Liberty"

Theme developed first by Thomas Jefferson to identify America's world responsibility to spread freedom across the globe.

Panic of 1837

When Jackson was president, many state banks received government money that had been withdrawn from the Bank of the U.S. These banks issued paper money and financed wild speculation, especially in federal lands. Jackson issued the Specie Circular to force the payment for federal lands with gold or silver. Many state banks collapsed as a result, resulting in the panic of 1837. Bank of the U.S. failed, cotton prices fell, businesses went bankrupt, and there was widespread unemployment and distress.

Jeremiads

A new type of sermon introduced by Puritan preachers after noticing a decline in religious devotion of second generation settlers. They focused primarily on the teachings of Jeremiah, a Biblical prophet who warned of doom.

Hunter-Gatherer

A nomadic person who lives chiefly by hunting, fishing, and harvesting wild food.

Andrew Hamilton

Andrew Hamilton was a Scottish lawyer in the Thirteen Colonies, where he finally settled in Philadelphia. He was best known for his legal victory on behalf of the printer and newspaper publisher John Peter Zenger. This 1735 decision in New York helped to establish that truth is a defense to an accusation of libel. His eloquent defense concluded with saying that the press has "a liberty both of exposing and opposing tyrannical power by speaking and writing truth."

In what weaponry and related military techniques did the Anglo-American forces have distinct technological advantages?

Anglo-American forces had advantages in aviation and naval technologies.

Proprietary Colony

Any of certain early North American colonies, such as Carolina and Pennsylvania, organized in the 1600s in territories granted by the English Crown to one or more proprietors who had full governing rights.

Chartered Companies

Associations formed by investors for the purpose of trade, exploration, and colonization.

How did the Yalta Conference deal with the Polish and German questions? What differing views of the conference did the Soviets and Americans hold?

By the time of the Yalta Conference, the Western forces consisting of the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and the governments-in-exile of France and Belgium, led by British general Bernard Montgomery and American generals Dwight D. Eisenhower and Omar Bradley, had liberated all of France and Belgium and were advancing into Germany, leading to the Battle of the Bulge. In the east, Red Army Marshal Georgy Zhukov's forces were 65 km (40 mi) from Berlin, having already pushed back the Nazis from Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and most of Yugoslavia. By February, Germany only had loose control over the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Austria, Germany, Northern Italy, and Northern Yugoslavia. Stalin, insisting that his doctors opposed any long trips, rejected Roosevelt's suggestion to meet at the Mediterranean. He offered instead to meet at the Black Sea resort of Yalta, in the Crimea. Stalin's fear of flying also was a contributing factor in this decision. Each of the three leaders had their own agenda for post-war Germany and liberated Europe. Roosevelt wanted Soviet support in the U.S. Pacific War against Japan, specifically for the planned invasion of Japan (Operation August Storm), as well as Soviet participation in the United Nations; Churchill pressed for free elections and democratic governments in Eastern and Central Europe (specifically Poland); and Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern and Central Europe as an essential aspect of the USSR's national security strategy. Stalin's position at the conference was one which he felt was so strong that he could dictate terms. According to U.S. delegation member and future Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, "it was not a question of what we would let the Russians do, but what we could get the Russians to do." Poland was the first item on the Soviet agenda. Stalin stated that "For the Soviet government, the question of Poland was one of honor" and security because Poland had served as a historical corridor for forces attempting to invade Russia. In addition, Stalin stated regarding history that "because the Russians had greatly sinned against Poland", "the Soviet government was trying to atone for those sins." Stalin concluded that "Poland must be strong" and that "the Soviet Union is interested in the creation of a mighty, free and independent Poland." Accordingly, Stalin stipulated that Polish government-in-exile demands were not negotiable: the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already annexed in 1939, and Poland was to be compensated for that by extending its western borders at the expense of Germany. Contrasting with his prior statement, Stalin promised free elections in Poland despite the Soviet sponsored provisional government recently installed by him in Polish territories occupied by the Red Army. Roosevelt wanted the USSR to enter the Pacific War with the Allies. One Soviet precondition for a declaration of war against Japan was an American official recognition of Mongolian independence from China (the Mongolian People's Republic had already been the Soviet satellite state from its own beginnings in 1924, through World War II), and a recognition of Soviet interests in the Manchurian railways and Port Arthur (but not asking the Chinese to lease), as well as deprivation of Japanese soil (such as Sakhalin and Kuril Islands) to return to Russian custody since the Treaty of Portsmouth; these were agreed without Chinese representation, consultation or consent, with the American desire to end war early thereby reducing American casualties. Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the Pacific War three months after the defeat of Germany. Stalin pledged to Truman to keep the nationality of the Korean Peninsula intact as Soviet Union entered the war against Japan. Furthermore, the Soviets had agreed to join the United Nations, given the secret understanding of a voting formula with a veto power for permanent members of the Security Council, thus ensuring that each country could block unwanted decisions. At the time, the Red Army had occupied Poland completely and held much of Eastern Europe with a military power three times greater than Allied forces in the West. The Declaration of Liberated Europe did little to dispel the sphere of influence agreements that had been incorporated into armistice agreements. All three leaders ratified previous agreements about the post-war occupation zones for Germany: three zones of occupation, one for each of the three principal Allies: The Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They also agreed to give France a zone of occupation, carved out of the U.S. and UK zones. Also, the Big Three agreed that all original governments would be restored to the invaded countries (with the exception of France, whose government was regarded as collaborationist; Romania and Bulgaria, where the Soviets had already liquidated most of the governments; and Poland whose government-in-exile was also excluded by Stalin) and that all civilians would be repatriated.

Daniel Webster

Famous American politician and orator. he advocated renewal and opposed the financial policy of Jackson. Many of the principles of finance he spoke about were later incorporated in the Federal Reserve System. He would later go on to push for a strong union.

Railroad Tycoons

Few wealthy people with monopoly on railroads (Carnegie)

Mary Baker Eddy

Founded the Church of Christ, wrote a book called Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures.

Describe how commercial television drew on the concepts and corporate structure of the radio era. How did the medium simultaneously unify and alienate Americans?

Perhaps the most important factor influencing advertising in the 1950s was the growth of TV and its maturation into a viable ad medium. By 1951, regular live network service reached the West Coast via microwave transmitters, establishing coast-to-coast national coverage. As with radio, early TV programming was advertiser-sponsored. Advertising agencies produced TV shows, with networks providing little more than facilities, airtime and occasional guidance. Programming typically promoted the name of the sponsor and not the star: "Hallmark Hall of Fame," "Texaco Star Theater," "Colgate Comedy Hour," "Goodyear TV Playhouse" and "Kraft Television Theater." Large U.S. agencies such as JWT, McCann-Erickson, Young & Rubicam and Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn benefited from handling major packaged and durable goods advertisers such as Procter & Gamble Co., Bristol-Myers, Westinghouse Electric and Colgate-Palmolive. Likewise, Madison Avenue continued to profit from spiraling TV spending. In 1949, TV spending was $12.3 million; within two years, it had grown to $128 million. By 1954, TV had become the leading medium for advertising. Network radio suffered losses as major stars and their audiences moved to TV. By 1960, TV approached 90% household penetration. Spokespersons became readily identified with the products they represented, as product demonstrations gained significance in this visual medium. Betty Furness, a B-movie actress of the 1930s, became spokeswoman for Westinghouse appliances in 1949 on "Studio One." For 11 years her popularity soared, as did the popularity of Westinghouse refrigerators, stoves and other household appliances. Demonstrations also helped differentiate similar packaged goods. Notable televised product demonstrations included Band-Aid brand's "Super-Stick" bandages clinging to an egg in boiling water and Remington shaver's peach test in which a razor was used to shave peach fuzz. Other memorable TV spots included the stop-motion antics of Speedy Alka-Seltzer; Old Gold's dancing cigarette boxes; Dinah Shore singing "See the USA in Your Chevrolet"; newsman John Cameron Swayze's matter-of-fact delivery of "It takes a licking and keeps on ticking" for Timex watches; and animated depictions of the Ajax Pixies, Tony the Tiger, Hamm's beer bear and beer mavens Bert and Harry Piel. Picked as one of the best ads of the 20th century by Advertising Age, the TV spot for Anacin pain reliever showed how beneficial and intrusive TV advertising could be. Through slogans, demonstrations, mnemonics and repetition, Anacin positioned itself as the "tension headache" remedy by repeating the phrase "Fast, fast, fast relief" and diagramming an imaginary headache with lightning bolts and hammers. The ad's tactic of repetition drew harsh criticism for agency Ted Bates & Co., yet it increased Anacin's sales. However, the system of advertiser control over program content and scheduling that evolved in the heyday of radio was not a practice the networks were eager to see exported to TV. As the stakes mounted and the competition between the networks intensified, broadcasters increasingly wanted the authority to remove weak programs and strategically schedule strong ones to maintain viewer numbers during the valuable evening hours. At first, advertisers were resistant, but the networks had an ally in economics. As the '50s progressed, production costs rose dramatically to the point where many advertisers began to feel the strain. The introduction of color broadcasting in 1953 added to those expenses. Increasingly programs that had started the decade with a single sponsor retreated to "alternate sponsorships," with one advertiser sponsoring a program one week, another the next. By 1957, Lucky Strike and Richard Hudnut shared "The Hit Parade," and Stopette deodorant and Remington Rand alternated on "What's My Line?" Ad agencies remained an important part of the process, however. An agency might produce a program and offer it to two different clients on an alternate basis or it might switch sponsors. The Kudner Agency produced "The Texaco Star Theater" for its client, Texaco, for example, but when Texaco decided to withdraw in 1953, Kudner sold the program to another of its clients, General Motors Corp., and it became "The Buick-Berle Show." Control over content finally shifted from advertiser to network in the wake of the quiz show scandal of the late 1950s. Long a staple on radio and TV, quiz shows were among the most popular programs on both media. Revlon sponsored "The $64,000 Question" (which debuted in 1955) and controlled program content so tightly that corporate heads chose the games' winners and losers. Revelations in 1958 about a similar quiz show, "Twenty-One," shocked the nation when it was reported that contestant Charles Van Doren had been given the answers to questions in advance. Congressional hearings ensued, and the networks established control over the content of their broadcasts by 1959. Further revolutionizing TV was the 1952 presidential race between Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower and Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson. Rosser Reeves of Bates developed the strategy for Gen. Eisenhower's TV ads. A firm believer in the TV spot, Mr. Reeves is remembered for his promotion of the "unique selling proposition," or USP, to break through the ad clutter in the mass media. He positioned Gen. Eisenhower as "The man from Abilene" and a "Man of peace." In a series of brief TV spots, "Eisenhower Answers America," Mr. Reeves prerecorded the candidate as if he were speaking directly to the American people. Mr. Reeves then intercepted a tour bus at Radio City Music Hall in New York and filmed average Americans asking the candidate questions such as, "Mr. Eisenhower, are we going to have to fight another war?" Careful editing showed the citizen's questions matched with the prerecorded answers. Gen. Eisenhower was reluctant to participate, but acquiesced to Mr. Reeves' persuasive arguments. Gen. Eisenhower won the election, although critics charged that Mr. Reeves had denigrated the office of presidency by selling it like toothpaste. But the objections were too late, as TV and politics now formed an inextricable union.

Union Wartime Military Leadership

President Abraham Lincoln was Commander-in-Chief of the Union armed forces throughout the conflict; after his April 14, 1865 assassination, Vice President Andrew Johnson became the nation's chief executive. Lincoln's first Secretary of War was Simon Cameron; Edwin M. Stanton was confirmed to replace Cameron in January 1862. Thomas A. Scott was Assistant Secretary of War. Gideon Welles was Secretary of the Navy, aided by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox. When the war began, the American standing army or "Regular army" consisted of only 1080 commissioned officers and 15,000 enlisted men. Although 142 regular officers became Union generals during the war, most remained "frozen" in their regular units. That stated, most of the major Union wartime commanders had significant previous regular army experience. Over the course of the war, the Commanding General of the United States Army was, in order of service, Winfield Scott, George B. McClellan, Henry Halleck, and finally, Ulysses S. Grant.

Lord North

Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence. He also held a number of other cabinet posts, including Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer. North's reputation among historians has swung back and forth. It reached its nadir in the late nineteenth century when he was depicted as a creature of the king and an incompetent who lost the American colonies. In the early twentieth century a revisionism emphasized his strengths in administering the Treasury, handling the House of Commons, and in defending the Church of England. Herbert Butterfield, however, argued that his indolence was a barrier to efficient crisis management; he neglected his role in supervising the entire war effort.

First Great Awakening

Protestant religious revival that swept Protestant Europe and British America in the 1730s and 1740s. An evangelical and revitalization movement, it left a permanent impact on American Protestantism.

Baron von Steuben

Prussian and later an American military officer. He served as inspector general and major general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He is credited with being one of the fathers of the Continental Army in teaching them the essentials of military drills, tactics, and disciplines. He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, the book that served as standard United States drill manual until the American Civil War. He served as General George Washington's chief of staff in the final years of the war.

What was Roosevelt's position on conservation and the environment? How did it differ from the positions of previous residents?

Roosevelt was a major conservationist, providing federal protection for nearly 230 million acres of land as president. He was appointed the first Chief of the U.S Forest Service. He is also responsible for the establishment of five national parks and many national forests. Prior to his presidency, he noted that the buffalo population was becoming depleted with the expansion of the railroad. Most presidents before Roosevelt encouraged this expansion.

Draft Riots

Series of violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War.

What were the goals and concepts of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)? How well did it meet them?

Some of the goals were to complete the dam at Muscle Shoals & build others in the region, generate & sell electricity to the public at reasonable rates, redevelop the entire region, stop floods, encourage the development of local industries, increase reforestation, and help farmers improve productivity. They were pretty successful in meeting these goals.

Transcontinental Railroad (Pacific Railway Act)

The Pacific Railroad Acts were a series of acts of Congress that promoted the construction of a "transcontinental railroad" (the Pacific Railroad) in the United States through authorizing the issuance of government bonds and the grants of land to railroad companies.

Panic of 1873

The Panic of 1873 was a financial crisis that triggered a depression in Europe and North America that lasted from 1873 until 1879, and even longer in some countries (France and Britain). In Britain, for example, it started two decades of stagnation known as the "Long Depression" that weakened the country's economic leadership. The Panic was known as the "Great Depression" until the events of the early 1930s set a new standard. The Panic of 1873 and the subsequent depression had several underlying causes, of which economic historians debate the relative importance. American post-Civil War inflation, rampant speculative investments (overwhelmingly in railroads), the demonetization of silver in Germany and the US, a large trade deficit, ripples from economic dislocation in Europe resulting from the Franco-Prussian War, property losses in the Chicago (1871) and Boston (1872) fires, and other factors put a massive strain on bank reserves, which plummeted in New York City during September and October 1873 from US$50 million to $17 million.

What propelled Wilson to victory in 1912? What roles did Taft and Eugene Debs play in the campaign?

The Republican vote was split with the emergence of the Progressive Party, leading the Democratic Party to victory. Taft was the Republican candidate, Debs was the Socialist candidate.

Compare and contrast the military's attitude toward heterosexual and homosexual activity. Why was the treatment different?

The USOs would have women chat up soldiers in their clubs to weed out the homosexuals. The military wanted to take out the homosexual men and women from their ranks. On the other hand, they tolerated heterosexuality.

Describe the provisions of the Taft-Hartley Act. What was its impact on the labor movement?

The amendments enacted in Taft-Hartley added a list of prohibited actions, or unfair labor practices, on the part of unions to the NLRA, which had previously only prohibited unfair labor practices committed by employers. The Taft-Hartley Act prohibited jurisdictional strikes, wildcat strikes, solidarity or political strikes, secondary boycotts, secondary and mass picketing, closed shops, and monetary donations by unions to federal political campaigns. It also required union officers to sign non-communist affidavits with the government. Union shops were heavily restricted, and states were allowed to pass right-to-work laws that ban agency fees. Furthermore, the executive branch of the federal government could obtain legal strikebreaking injunctions if an impending or current strike imperiled the national health or safety. Jurisdictional strikes: In jurisdictional strikes, outlawed by Taft-Hartley, a union strikes in order to assign particular work to the employees it represents. Secondary boycotts and common situs picketing, also outlawed by the act, are actions in which unions picket, strike, or refuse to handle the goods of a business with which they have no primary dispute but which is associated with a targeted business. A later statute, the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act, passed in 1959, tightened these restrictions on secondary boycotts still further. Campaign expenditures: According to First Amendment scholar Floyd Abrams, the Act "was the first law barring unions and corporations from making independent expenditures in support of or [in] opposition to federal candidates". Closed shops: The outlawed closed shops were contractual agreements that required an employer to hire only labor union members. Union shops, still permitted, require new recruits to join the union within a certain amount of time. The National Labor Relations Board and the courts have added other restrictions on the power of unions to enforce union security clauses and have required them to make extensive financial disclosures to all members as part of their duty of fair representation. On the other hand, Congress repealed the provisions requiring a vote by workers to authorize a union shop a few years after the passage of the Act when it became apparent that workers were approving them in virtually every case. Union security clauses: The amendments also authorized individual states to outlaw union security clauses (such as the union shop) entirely in their jurisdictions by passing right-to-work laws. A right-to-work law, under Section 14B of Taft-Hartley, prevents unions from negotiating contracts or legally binding documents requiring companies to fire workers who refuse to join the union. Currently all of the states in the Deep South and a number of states in the Midwest, Great Plains, and Rocky Mountains regions have right-to-work laws (with six states—Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, and Oklahoma—going one step further and enshrining right-to-work laws in their states' constitutions). Strikes: The amendments required unions and employers to give 80 days' notice to each other and to certain state and federal mediation bodies before they may undertake strikes or other forms of economic action in pursuit of a new collective bargaining agreement; it did not, on the other hand, impose any "cooling-off period" after a contract expired. The Act also authorized the President to intervene in strikes or potential strikes that create a national emergency, a reaction to the national coal miners' strikes called by the United Mine Workers of America in the 1940s. Presidents have used that power less and less frequently in each succeeding decade. President George W. Bush invoked the law in connection with the employer lockout of the International Longshore and Warehouse Union during negotiations with West Coast shipping and stevedoring companies in 2002. The Act also prohibited federal employees from striking. Anti-communism: The amendments required union leaders to file affidavits with the United States Department of Labor declaring that they were not supporters of the Communist Party and had no relationship with any organization seeking the "overthrow of the United States government by force or by any illegal or unconstitutional means" as a condition to participating in NLRB proceedings. Just over a year after Taft-Hartley passed, 81,000 union officers from nearly 120 unions had filed the required affidavits. In 1965, The Supreme Court held that this provision was an unconstitutional bill of attainder. Treatment of supervisors: The amendments expressly excluded supervisors from coverage under the act, and allowed employers to terminate supervisors engaging in union activities or those not supporting the employer's stance. The amendments maintained coverage under the act for professional employees, but provided for special procedures before they may be included in the same bargaining unit as non-professional employees. Right of employer to oppose unions: The Act revised the Wagner Act's requirement of employer neutrality, to allow employers to deliver anti-union messages in the workplace. These changes confirmed an earlier Supreme Court ruling that employers have a constitutional right to express their opposition to unions, so long as they did not threaten employees with reprisals for their union activities nor offer any incentives to employees as an alternative to unionizing. The amendments also gave employers the right to file a petition asking the Board to determine if a union represents a majority of its employees, and allow employees to petition either to decertify their union, or to invalidate the union security provisions of any existing collective bargaining agreement. National Labor Relations Board: The amendments gave the General Counsel of the National Labor Relations Board discretionary power to seek injunctions against either employers or unions that violated the Act.[citation needed] The law made pursuit of such injunctions mandatory, rather than discretionary, in the case of secondary boycotts by unions. The amendments also established the General Counsel's autonomy within the administrative framework of the NLRB. Congress also gave employers the right to sue unions for damages caused by a secondary boycott, but gave the General Counsel exclusive power to seek injunctive relief against such activities. Federal jurisdiction: The act provided for federal court jurisdiction to enforce collective bargaining agreements. Although Congress passed this section to empower federal courts to hold unions liable in damages for strikes violating a no-strike clause, this part of the act has instead served as the springboard for creation of a "federal common law" of collective bargaining agreements, which favored arbitration over litigation or strikes as the preferred means of resolving labor disputes. Other: The Congress that passed the Taft-Hartley Amendments considered repealing the Norris-La Guardia Act to the extent necessary to permit courts to issue injunctions against strikes violating a no-strike clause, but chose not to do so. The Supreme Court nonetheless held several decades later that the act implicitly gave the courts the power to enjoin such strikes over subjects that would be subject to final and binding arbitration under a collective bargaining agreement. Finally, the act imposed a number of procedural and substantive standards that unions and employers must meet before they may use employer funds to provide pensions and other employee benefit to unionized employees. Congress has since passed more extensive protections for workers and employee benefit plans as part of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act ("ERISA").

Cholera

An acute intestinal infection caused by ingestion of contaminated water or food.

Mercantilism

Economic philosophy or practice in which England established the colonies to provide raw materials to the Mother Country; the colonies received manufactured goods in return.

Poor Richard's Almanac

First published in 1732. Written by Benjamin Franklin, it was filled with witty, insightful, and funny bits of observation and common sense advice (the saying, "Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise," first appeared in this almanac). It was the most popular almanac in the colonies.

Penny Press

First used in the 1840 campaign; carried news of the candidates to large audiences. Newspapers of this were deliberately livelier and even more sensationalistic than the newspapers of the past, which had been almost entirely directed at the upper classes. The New York Sun was the first of these new breed newspapers.

Eugene V. Debs

Head of American Railway Union; director of Pullman Strike.

McKinley Tariff

1980 bill calling for the highest peacetime tariff yet: 48.4%. It gave a bounty of two cents a pound to American sugar producers, and raised tariffs on ag products; duties on manufactured goods hurt farmers financially.

Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur

19th US president, famous for being part of the Hayes-Tilden election in which electoral votes were contested in four states, most corrupt election in US history.

The Jungle

A novel by Upton Sinclair that revealed the gruesome details of the meat packing industry.

What was the extent of hard core poverty in the otherwise prosperous nation? What groups predominated in this "hard core"?

Of all people considered poor in America, 80% of them had recently become poor and would no longer be in poverty after they got a job. The other 20% were stuck in poverty and were unable to get out of it. Groups in the "hard core" included the elderly, African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans. The Native Americans were the single poorest group in the nation because of government policy.

Describe the successes and challenges faced by Asian immigrants. Where were they concentrated?

The prohibitions of Chinese and Japanese immigration were consolidated and the exclusion was expanded to Asia as a whole in the Asiatic Barred Zone Act of 1917, which prohibited all immigration from a zone that encompassed the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia (then-British India), and Southeast Asia. The Immigration Act of 1924 introduced national origin quotas for the entire Eastern Hemisphere, and barred the immigration of "aliens ineligible for citizenship." This introduced a period of near complete exclusion of Asian immigration to the United States. There were some key exceptions to this broad exclusion: in addition to continuing Filipino immigration due to their status as US nationals until 1934, Asian immigrants continued to immigrate to Hawaii, which was a US territory and therefore not subject to the same immigration laws until it achieved statehood in 1959. Many Chinese had also immigrated to Puerto Rico after 1882, which would become a US territory in 1898 and remains one today. After exclusion, existing Chinese immigrants were further excluded from agricultural labor by racial hostility, and as jobs in railroad construction declined, they increasingly moved into self-employment as laundry workers, store and restaurant owners, traders, merchants, and wage laborers; and they congregated in Chinatowns established in California and across the country. Of the various Asian immigrant groups present in the United States after broad exclusion was introduced in 1917 and 1924, the South Asian population had the most severe gender gap. This led to many of the Punjabi Sikhs in California at the time to marry women of Mexican descent, avoiding anti-miscegenation laws and racial prejudice that prevented them from marrying into white communities. Two important Supreme Court cases in the exclusion era determined the citizenship status of Asian Americans. In 1922, the Court ruled in Takao Ozawa v. United States that ethnic Japanese were not Caucasian, and therefore did not meet the "free white persons" requirement to naturalize according to the Naturalization Act of 1790. A few months later in 1923, the Court ruled in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind that while Indians were considered Caucasian by contemporary racial anthropology, they were not seen as "white" in the common understanding, and were therefore ineligible for naturalization. Whereas United States vs. Wong Kim Ark had determined that all persons born in the United States, including Asian Americans, were citizens, these cases confirmed that foreign-born Asian immigrants were legally excluded from naturalized citizenship on the basis of race. During this period, Asian immigrants continued to face racial discrimination. In addition to first-generation immigrants whose permanent ineligibility for citizenship curtailed their civil and political rights, second-generation Asian Americans (who formally had birthright citizenship) continued to face segregation in schools, employment discrimination, and prohibitions on property and business ownership. The most severe discrimination against Asian Americans occurred during the height of the World War II, when 110,000 to 120,000 Japanese Americans (primarily on the West Coast) were incarcerated in internment camps between 1942-1946. While roughly a third of those interned were issei (first-generation immigrants) who were ineligible for citizenship, the vast majority were nisei or sansei (second- and third-generation) who were citizens by birth.

How and where did World War I begin?

The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. Within weeks, the major powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world.

African Americans in the Union Army

54th Mass.

Lower South

Agriculture included cotton and sugar.

Charles Goodyear

American self-taught chemist and manufacturing engineer who developed vulcanized rubber.

Louis Sullivan

Architect who helped popularize skyscrapers.

Cotton Kingdom

Areas in the south where cotton farming developed because of the high demand for cotton.

Compare and contrast the impact of the Great Depression on blacks, Hispanics, and Asians with its impact on whites. What demographic shifts occurred in this period?

As difficult as the economic crisis of the Great Depression was for white Americans, it was even harder on racial minorities, including black Americans, Mexican Americans, American Indians, and Asian Americans. In 1933 the general unemployment rate in the United States was over 25 percent; at the same time, unemployment rates for various American minorities ranged up to 50 percent or more. Given the severe racial discrimination in almost every facet of daily life in America through the 1920s, it was hard for many minorities to distinguish much difference between the Great Depression and "normal" economic times. Nonetheless, for these groups the Great Depression was worse than "normal" economic hardships they had suffered. During the Depression racial discrimination was widespread, and minority workers were normally the first to lose jobs at a business or on a farm. They were often denied employment in public works programs supposedly available to all needy citizens. They were sometimes threatened at relief centers when applying for work or assistance. Some charities refused to provide food to needy minorities, particularly to blacks in the South. Violence against minorities increased during the Depression, as whites competed for jobs traditionally held by minorities. Minorities were excluded from union membership, and unions influenced Congress to keep antidiscrimination requirements out of New Deal laws. The New Deal was a broad array of federal social and economic programs created under the leadership of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945; served 1933-45) to bring relief to the struggling nation. As a result of all these factors, minorities suffered greatly during the Depression. In deep frustration many minority citizens called Roosevelt's programs a "raw deal" instead of a "new deal." Some improvements did occur by the mid-1930s. For American Indians, John Collier (1884-1968) of the U.S. Office of Indian Affairs introduced the Indian New Deal in June 1934, a program that dramatically changed the course of U.S. Indian policy. Instead of forcing Indians to blend into U.S. society, the new policy provided increased funding for economic development of tribes, promoted continued Indian traditions, and supported tribal governments. Black Americans began to see some positive changes by 1935. Through the influence of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962), Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes (1874-1952), and others, the Roosevelt administration ended racial discrimination in some federal programs, set aside larger amounts of relief aid for blacks, and appointed several blacks to federal positions. As a result, the vast majority of black voters voted for Roosevelt, a Democrat, in the 1936 presidential election, ending a seventy-five-year period of black loyalty to Republican candidates that began with Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865; served 1861-65). Roosevelt created an advisory group (cabinet) of black American government employees to advise him on issues important to them. Unlike American Indians and black Americans, Mexican Americans and Asian Americans saw almost no advances. For minorities overall, the Depression was a period of great economic suffering, small political gains, and lost social opportunities for gaining greater equality with white Americans.

Upton Sinclair

Author of The Jungle

Horatio Alger

Author; wrote books about impoverished boys rising from humble backgrounds to middle class.

Platt Amendment

Authorized U.S. intervention in Cuba to protect its interests. Cuba pledged not to make treaties with other countries that might compromise its independence, and it granted naval bases to the U.S., most notable being Guantanamo Bay.

Injunction

Court order restraining someone from acting; often issued against striking workers.

Stalwarts

Fraction of Republican Party, led by Roscoe Conkling; favored machine politics, suppor patronage.

The New Imperialism

Growing into a leading nation, the United States hoped to further its international standing by emulating European nations that were expanding their influence throughout the world. During the 1870s, the U.S. "new imperialism" was directed towards finding access to resources, markets for surplus production, and opportunities for overseas investments. Although the U.S. did expand its influence in other countries, it preferred market expansion to the traditional European territorial colonialism.

After the initial spate of New Freedom legislation, how and why did Wilson back away from reform? What led him, later in his first term, to advance reform once again?

He tried to reform the national banking system but it proved to be very difficult.

Impeachment of President Johnson

Impeached for violating Tenure of Office Act.

White Supremacy in the South

It was a thing that was very unfortunate.

How were Japanese Americans treated during the war? What was done to atone for the treatment?

Japanese Americans were incarcerated based on local population concentrations and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans in the mainland U.S., who mostly lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps. However, in Hawaii, where 150,000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were also interned. The internment is considered to have resulted more from racism than from any security risk posed by Japanese Americans. Those who were as little as 1/16 Japanese and orphaned infants with "one drop of Japanese blood" were placed in internment camps. Roosevelt authorized the deportation and incarceration with Executive Order 9066, issued on February 19, 1942, which allowed regional military commanders to designate "military areas" from which "any or all persons may be excluded". This authority was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the West Coast, including all of California and parts of Oregon, Washington, and Arizona, except for those in government camps. Approximately 5,000 Japanese Americans voluntarily relocated outside the exclusion zone before March 1942, while some 5,500 community leaders arrested immediately after the Pearl Harbor attack were already in custody. The majority of nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living in the U.S. mainland were forcibly relocated from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans. The Bureau denied its role for decades, but it became public in 2007. In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsu's appeal for violating an exclusion order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders, avoiding the issue of the incarceration of U.S. citizens without due process. In 1980, under mounting pressure from the Japanese American Citizens League and redress organizations, President Jimmy Carter opened an investigation to determine whether the decision to put Japanese Americans into internment camps had been justified by the government. He appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) to investigate the camps. The Commission's report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found little evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time and concluded that the incarceration had been the product of racism. It recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government and authorized a payment of $20,000 (equivalent to $41,000 in 2016) to each camp survivor. The legislation admitted that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership". The U.S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion (equivalent to $3,240,000,000 in 2016) in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs.

Craft Unions

Labor unions of people of the same skilled craft.

Female Protective Unions

Many craft unions excluded women so they began to form their own unions.

Puritans

Non-separatists who wished to adopt reforms to purify the Church of England.

Slave Power Conspiracy

Perceived political power in the U.S. federal government held by slave owners during the 1840s and 1850s, prior to the Civil War. Antislavery campaigners during this period bitterly complained about what they saw as disproportionate and corrupt influence wielded by wealthy Southerners. The argument was that this small group of rich slave owners had seized political control of their own states and were trying to take over the federal government in an illegitimate fashion in order to expand and protect slavery. The argument was widely used by the Republican Party that formed in 1854-55 to oppose the expansion of slavery.

King Cotton

Phrase used in southern USA to show importance of this certain crop to the confederate economy during and before the American Civil War.

Urbanization

Population shift from rural to urban areas.

"Old South"

Pre-Civil war Southern economy.

Scalp Bounties

Proof that you killed an Indian.

Lester Frank Ward

Sociologist who wrote Dynamic Sociology in 1883; argued that civilization was not governed by natural selection, but by human intelligence, which was capable of shaping society as it wished.

Freeholder

Someone who completely owned his or her land.

What did the results of the election of 1920 indicate about the mood of the American people?

That they wanted a return to normalcy and the era of reform for women was over.

Common Man

The "average" American citizen, whose concerns are represented in government. Jackson was considered the common man and his presidency was known as the "Age of the Common Man"

Emancipation Proclamation & Its Effects

The Emancipation Proclamation, or Proclamation 95, was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. It changed the federal legal status of more than 3 million enslaved people in the designated areas of the South from slave to free. As soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally free. Ultimately, the rebel surrender liberated and resulted in the proclamation's application to all of the designated slaves. It did not cover slaves in Union areas that were freed by state action (or by the 13th amendment in December 1865). It was issued as a war measure during the American Civil War, directed to all of the areas in rebellion and all segments of the executive branch (including the Army and Navy) of the United States. The Proclamation ordered the freedom of all slaves in ten states. Because it was issued under the president's authority to suppress rebellion (war powers), it necessarily excluded areas not in rebellion, but still applied to more than 3 million of the 4 million slaves. The Proclamation was based on the president's constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces; it was not a law passed by Congress. The Proclamation was issued in January 1863 after U.S government issued a series of warnings in the summer of 1862 under the Second Confiscation Act, allowing Southern Confederate supporters 60 days to surrender, or face confiscation of land and slaves. The Proclamation also ordered that suitable persons among those freed could be enrolled into the paid service of United States' forces, and ordered the Union Army (and all segments of the Executive branch) to "recognize and maintain the freedom of" the ex-slaves. The Proclamation did not compensate the owners, did not outlaw slavery, and did not grant citizenship to the ex-slaves (called freedmen). It made the eradication of slavery an explicit war goal, in addition to the goal of reuniting the Union. Around 25,000 to 75,000 slaves in regions where the US Army was active were immediately emancipated. It could not be enforced in areas still under rebellion, but, as the Union army took control of Confederate regions, the Proclamation provided the legal framework for freeing more than three million slaves in those regions. Prior to the Proclamation, in accordance with the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, escaped slaves were either returned to their masters or held in camps as contraband for later return. The Proclamation applied only to slaves in Confederate-held lands; it did not apply to those in the four slave states that were not in rebellion (Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and Missouri, which were unnamed), nor to Tennessee (unnamed but occupied by Union troops since 1862) and lower Louisiana (also under occupation), and specifically excluded those counties of Virginia soon to form the state of West Virginia. Also specifically excluded (by name) were some regions already controlled by the Union army. Emancipation in those places would come after separate state actions or the December 1865 ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, which made slavery and indentured servitude, except for those duly convicted of a crime, illegal everywhere subject to United States jurisdiction. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued a preliminary warning that he would order the emancipation of all slaves in any state that did not end its rebellion against the Union by January 1, 1863. None of the Confederate states restored themselves to the Union, and Lincoln's order was signed and took effect on January 1, 1863. The Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners (and their sympathizers) who envisioned a race war. It angered some Northern Democrats, energized anti-slavery forces, and undermined elements in Europe that wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy. The Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans both free and slave. It led many slaves to escape from their masters and get to Union lines to obtain their freedom, and to join the Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation broadened the goals of the Civil War. While slavery had been a major issue that led to the war, Lincoln's only mission at the start of the war was to maintain the Union. The Proclamation made freeing the slaves an explicit goal of the Union war effort. Establishing the abolition of slavery as one of the two primary war goals served to deter intervention by Britain and France. The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court. To ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U.S., Lincoln pushed for passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, and insisted that Reconstruction plans for Southern states require abolition in new state constitutions. Congress passed the 13th Amendment by the necessary two-thirds vote on January 31, 1865, and it was ratified by the states on December 6, 1865, ending legal slavery.

Enforcement Acts

The Enforcement Acts were three bills passed by the United States Congress between 1870 and 1871. They were criminal codes which protected African-Americans' right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and receive equal protection of laws.

Despite President Wilson's disappointments at Versailles, what was his most visible triumph?

The creation of the League of Nations (even though the US never joined)

Homestead Strike of 1892

Violent strike over wage cuts; ended with the destruction of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel.

Peace Democrats

Vocal faction of Democrats in the Northern United States of the Union who opposed the American Civil War, wanting an immediate peace settlement with the Confederates.

Limited Democracy

White women, poor white men, slaves and free blacks, formed the majority of the population but couldn't vote.

Planter Class

Whites who owned lots of slaves and held lots of power in society.

15th Amendment

African Americans confirmed right to vote.

Almanacs

Almanacs circulated throughout the colonies and even sparsely settled lands to the west.

Tenure of Office Act

Denied president right to remove certain office-holders without the approval of the Senate.

Anglicization

Emulation of English.

Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau

French nobleman and general who played a major role in helping the Thirteen Colonies win independence during the American Revolution. During this time, he served as commander-in-chief of the French Expeditionary Force that embarked from France in order to help the American Continental Army fight against British forces.

Baptists

Protestant Christian denomination advocating baptism only of adult believers by total immersion. Baptists form one of the largest Protestant bodies and are found throughout the world and especially in the United States.

Moving Assembly Line

System that used conveyor belts to move parts and partly assembled cars from one group of workers to another; each worker had a specialized job.

What were the purpose and the result of the Bay of Pigs invasion?

The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military group (made up of mostly Cuban exiles who traveled to the United States after Castro's takeover, but also of some US military personnel, trained and funded by the CIA, Brigade 2506 fronted the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) and intended to overthrow the increasingly communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Castro. The coup of 1952 led by General Fulgencio Batista, an ally of the United States, against President Carlos Prio, forced Prio into exile to Miami, Florida. Prio's exile was the reason for the 26th July Movement led by Castro. The movement, which did not succeed until after the Cuban Revolution of 31 December 1958, severed the country's formerly strong links with the US after nationalizing American economic assets (banks, oil refineries, sugar and coffee plantations, along with other American owned businesses). It was after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, that Castro forged strong economic links with the Soviet Union, with which, at the time, the United States was engaged in the Cold War. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was very concerned at the direction Castro's government was taking, and in March 1960 he allocated $13.1 million to the CIA to plan Castro's overthrow (though the plan to overthrow Castro was put off for Kennedy to decide). The CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Eisenhower's successor, John F. Kennedy, approved the final invasion plan on 4 April 1961. Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, assembled in Guatemala before setting out for Cuba by boat on 13 April 1961. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields and then returned to the US. On the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia. The Cuban Army's counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became apparent to the world, and with the initiative turning against the invasion, Kennedy decided against providing further air cover. As a result, the operation only had half the forces the CIA had deemed necessary. The original plan devised during Eisenhower's presidency had required both air and naval support. On 20 April, the invaders surrendered after only three days, with the majority being publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons. The failed invasion helped to strengthen the position of Castro's leadership, made him a national hero, and cemented the rocky relationship between the former allies. It also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy; Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Cuban forces under Castro's leadership clashed directly with US forces during the Invasion of Grenada over 20 years later.

Migratory Trends/New Immigrants

Travelers came from Canada, Mexico, Latin America, China, Japan, and mainly Europe.

Copperheads

Vocal faction of Democrats in the Northern United States of the Union who opposed the American Civil War, wanting an immediate peace settlement with the Confederates.

Growth of Women's Colleges

Women starting to get access to education.

Describe the process by which the U.S. developed reliable ICBMs. Why was this military effort so critical to the space program?

A ballistic missile is powered early in its flight and then follows a non-powered trajectory to its target. During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed inter-continental ballistic missiles, known by the acronym ICBM, that were capable of reaching any target in each other's territory. ICBMs could deliver nuclear weapons in a manner that was virtually immune to defensive measures. Arms limitations treaties between the superpowers have reduced the number of ICBMs deployed by each side. Military interest in ballistic missiles was aroused by the success of German scientists during World War II. The V-2 rocket was launched late in the conflict and proved that, although not very accurate at that time, ballistic missiles could reach their targets without any effective interference by defenses. After the war, the United States made a strenuous effort to collect the remaining materials of the V-2 Program, along with Wernher von Braun and his team of German scientists and engineers. The Germans provided the initial nucleus of the American ballistic missile program after the war. An alternative technology to ballistic missiles is that of cruise missiles, which use rocket propulsion but have wings. For several years after World War II, cruise missiles were favored. The development of two cruise missiles, "Snark" and "Navaho," were funded at much higher levels than the first ballistic missiles. However, the cruise missiles proved to be unreliable with the technology of the time, and studies indicated that better accuracy and reliability could be achieved with ballistic missiles. As a result, the Air Force launched a study in 1951, towards the development of a two-stage ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 nautical miles. The study marked the beginning of the Atlas Missile Program. Conventionally, ICBM is a term used only for land-based systems, in order to differentiate them from submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), which can also have an intercontinental range. As of this writing, only three countries have operational ICBM systems: the United States, Russia, and China. Other nations have ICBMs but not an organized ICBM system. From 1951 to 1954, the Atlas project was poorly funded and had a low priority. However, in late 1953, the Atomic Energy Commission achieved a breakthrough in nuclear weapons, making smaller and lighter bombs available. In early 1954, studies by the von Neumann Committee and the RAND Corporation both recommended that the Air Force pursue ICBMs. Project Atlas was given the Air Force's top priority status in May 1954. President Dwight D. Eisenhower elevated it to the highest national priority in September 1955.

Halfway Covenent

A 1662 Puritan church document that allowed partial membership rights to persons not yet converted into the Puritan church. It lessened the difference between the "elect" members of the church from the regular members. Women soon made up a larger portion of Puritan congregations.

Presbyterians

A branch of Reformed Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the Presbyterian form of church government, which is government by representative assemblies of elders.

Trunk Lines

Consolidation of shorter lines on the railroad into lengthier (major) ones.

Subsistence Farming

Farming to feed the farmer's self and family, not for commercial use.

Anti-Imperialist League

Group that battled against American colonization.

Congressional Reconstruction Bills

Limited the powers of President Johnson.

Public Libraries/Museums - Growth

More opened with greater leisure time.

Kate Chopin

Southern writer who explored the oppressive features of traditional marriage.

General Anthony Wayne

United States Army officer and statesman. Wayne adopted a military career at the outset of the American Revolutionary War, where his military exploits and fiery personality quickly earned him promotion to brigadier general and the sobriquet Mad Anthony. He later served as the Senior Officer of the Army and led the Legion of the United States.

Romanticism

19th century artistic movement that appealed to emotion rather than reason.

Emilio Aquinaldo

Leader of Filipino independence movement against Spain; proclaimed independence of Philippines in 1899 but was captured by US army.

Jane Addams

Middle-class woman who was deeply dedicated to uplifting the urban masses; established the Hull House, the most prominent American settlement house; also condemned war.

National Labor Union

Founded by William Slyvis in 1866; supported 8 hour workday, convict labor, federal department of labor, banking reform, immigration restrictions to increase wages, women, excluded blacks.

Free Silver

After the discovery of silver, several disparate factions began to agitate for the feds to allow it to be minted freely at the rate of $1 per troy ounce. The result would have been a considerable increase in the money supply and resultant inflation.

European Enlightenment

An 18th century European philosophical movement that advocated the use of reason and rationality to establish a system of ethics and knowledge. Provided frame work for both Americans and the French Revolution and rise of capitalism.

Carlisle Indian School

Attempt to assimilate Indians through white education.

Panic of 1893

Began due to railroad companies overextending themselves, causing bank failures.

Sir Henry Clinton

British army officer and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1772 and 1795. He is best known for his service as a general during the American War of Independence. First arriving in Boston in May 1775, from 1778 to 1782 he was the British Commander-in-Chief in North America. In addition to his military service, due to the influence of the 2nd Duke of Newcastle, he was a Member of Parliament for many years. Late in life he was named Governor of Gibraltar, but died before assuming the post.

"Five Civilized Tribes"

Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole.

Horizontal and Vertical Integration

Horizontal: Buying out all companies in the same part of the chain Vertical: Buying out on of each company in the supply chain

The Elect

In Calvinist doctrine, these are the people who have been "predetermined" by God to go to Heaven.

"Spoils System"

In the spoils system, the president appoints civil servants to government jobs specifically because they are loyal to him and to his political party.

Indian Reservations

Instead of relocation, created plots of land so they could develop alone until assimilated into 'civilization'.

Machine Tools

Interchangeable Parts

Queen Liliuokalani

Last Hawaiian ruler to govern the islands.

Penitentiary Movement

More humane treatment for the mentally ill.

Pullman Strike of 1894

Pullman cut wages but refused to lower rents in the "company town". Eugene Debs had American Railway refuse to use Pullman cars, Debs thrown in jail after being sued, strike achieved nothing.

Colonial Elected Assemblies

Representative assemblies elected by eligible voters (white male landowners).

Battle of San Jacinto

The Battle of San Jacinto, fought on April 21, 1836, in present-day Harris County, Texas, was the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Sam Houston, the Texian Army engaged and defeated General Antonio López de Santa Anna's Mexican army in a fight that lasted just 18 minutes.

Spanish Empire

The Spanish empire included the most populous parts of the New World and the regions richest in natural resources. As far as government, the authority originated with the king and flowed downward through the Council of the Indies- the main body in Spain for colonial administration. The Catholic Church also played a significant role in the administration of Spanish colonies, frequently exerting its authority on matters of faith, morals, and treatment of the Indians.

Peace of Paris 1763

The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France, as well as their respective allies. In the terms of the treaty, France gave up all its territories in mainland North America, effectively ending any foreign military threat to the British colonies there.

How was World War II principally financed?

The US funded its World War II effort largely by raising taxes and tapping into Americans' personal savings. During the War, Americans purchased approximately $186 billion worth of war bonds, accounting for nearly three quarters of total federal spending from 1941-1945.

Minstrel Shows

The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American entertainment consisting of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, performed by white people in blackface or, especially after the Civil War, black people in blackface.

Battle of Gettysburg

Union victory, ended Civil War

Newspaper Chains

William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer spread news throughout country through "yellow journalism, deliberately sensational style of reporting designed to reach a mass audience.

D.W. Griffith

Writer and producer best known for the Birth of a Nation.

Gadsden Purchase

1853 treaty in which the United States bought from Mexico parts of what is now southern Arizona and southern New Mexico.

Gullah

A language created in South Carolina which mixed English words with traditional African words.

Atlantic Slave Trade

A large triangular trading system between English mainland colonies, the West Indies, and the African shore.

Factory System

A method of production that brought many workers and machines together into one building.

Plantation Model of Agriculture

A plantation economy is an economy based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops grown on large farms called plantations. Plantation economies rely on the export of cash crops as a source of income. Prominent plantation crops included cotton, rubber, sugar cane, and tobacco.

Town Meetings

A purely democratic form of government common in the colonies, and the most prevalent form of local government in New England. In general, the town's voting population would meet once a year to elect officers, levy taxes, and pass laws. Only male white land owning Puritans could vote.

Task System

A system of slavery in which a slave was given a specific task to complete, and once they finished they were "free" for the day.

Which nations were referred to as the Allies and Central Powers in World War I?

Allies: Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria

Water Cure

Also known as Hydrotherapy, which purported to improve health through immersing people in hot or cold baths or wrapping them in wet sheets.

Capitalism

An economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and accessible markets.

Confederate Financial Problems

At the beginning of the war, the Confederate dollar cost 90¢ worth of gold (Union) dollars. By the war's end, its price had dropped to only .017¢. Overall, the price level in the South increased by over 9000% during the war.[3] The Secretary of the Treasury of the Confederate States, Christopher Memminger, was keenly aware of the economic problems posed by inflation and loss of confidence.

Gradualism

Belief that slavery should be eliminated over an extended period of time, not all at once.

Social Darwinism

Belief that some were wealthy because they were better and the poor were "unfit".

"Noble Savages"

Belief that the Natives were uncivilized, but they could be civilized through education.

Phrenology

Belief that the shape of the head could reveal things about a person's character.

Urban Poor or Paupers

Beyond poor and homeless without resources; often immigrants.

Wilson pushed hard for the Trade Commission Act and gave only lukewarm support to the Clayton Act. What do those actions demonstrate about his ironic move in the direction of New Nationalism?

Both Acts intended to break up trusts, monopolies, and other practices that were said to be harmful to consumers. New Nationalism encourages the federal intervention to promote social justice. His actions moved to Roosevelt's New Nationalism because these actions caused the public to see that he really didn't care too much for these acts (he left them to the supervision of the government)

Charles Townshend

British politician; his last official act was to pass through parliament resolutions for taxing several articles, such as glass, paint, paper and tea, on their importation into America.

Horatio Gates

British soldier who served as an American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory in the Battles of Saratoga (1777) - a matter of contemporary and historical controversy - and was blamed for the defeat at the Battle of Camden in 1780. Gates has been described as "one of the Revolution's most controversial military figures" because of his role in the Conway Cabal, which attempted to discredit and replace George Washington; the battle at Saratoga; and his actions during and after his defeat at Camden.

J. P. Morgan

Businessman who refinanced railroads; built intersystem alliance by buying stock in competing railroads.

The Octopus

By Frank Norris, struggle between California railroad barons and California wheat growers.

What was the trend in business organization? What sorts of firms were less likely to consolidate?

Certain industries, such as steel who were dependent on large scale mass production, seemed to move toward concentrating production in a few large firms. Other industries, such as textiles who were less dependent on technology and less susceptible to greater economies of scale, proved more resistant to the consolidation. Some modern administrative systems included efficient divisional organization, which made it easier to control subsidiaries and simpler to expand further. Those less susceptible to domination attempted to stabilize themselves through cooperation.

Sequoyah

Cherokee silversmith. In 1821 he completed his independent creation of a Cherokee syllabary, making reading and writing in Cherokee possible. This was one of the very few times in recorded history that a member of a pre-literate people created an original, effective writing system. After seeing its worth, the people of the Cherokee Nation rapidly began to use his syllabary and officially adopted it in 1825. Their literacy rate quickly surpassed that of surrounding European-American settlers.

Little Turtle

Chief of the Miami who led a Native American alliance that raided U.S. settlements in the Northwest Territory. He was defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of Greenville. Later, he became an advocate for peace.

Commonwealth V Hunt

Commonwealth v. Hunt, 45 Mass. 111 (1842) was a case in the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court on the subject of labor unions. Prior to Hunt the legality of labor combinations in America was uncertain. In March 1842, Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw ruled that labor combinations were legal provided that they were organized for a legal purpose and used legal means to achieve their goals.

Joint Stock Companies

Companies made up of a group of shareholders. Each shareholder contributes some money to the company and receives some share of the company's profits and debts. This was the primary way that British people were able to come to the New World.

Consumerism

Concentration on producing and distributing goods for a market which must constantly be enlarged.

The "Texas Question"

Controversy over the annexation of Texas.

Why did the slumping industries have trouble selling accumulated inventory?

Demand could not keep up with supply, factories were producing more goods than consumers could afford.

Who was William Jennings Bryan?

Democrat who was a supporter of free silver; won his audiences with biblical fervor; jobless workers and bankrupt farmers resulted in Bryan's assault on the gold standard striking fear in many hearts.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Denied any additional Chinese laborers to enter the country while allowing students and merchants to immigrate.

Describe how the coming of World War II ended the Great Depression. What region of the nation benefited most spectacularly?

During the war more than 12 million Americans were sent into the military, and a similar number toiled in defense-related jobs. Those war jobs seemingly took care of the 17 million unemployed in 1939. Most historians have therefore cited the massive spending during wartime as the event that ended the Great Depression. The West benefited most.

Haymarket Square Bombing

Dynamite bomb was thrown as police advanced on a meeting called to protest brutalities; violence from anarchists who wanted to overthrow the government.

Freedmen's Bureau

Established in 1865 to help former slaves and poor whites after the Civil War.

What impact did international trade and debt factors have on the American economy? What role did U.S. tariff policy play?

European demand for American goods began to decline. After the war, all the nations allied with the US owed money to the banks, but it was too much money for them considering their economies had been destroyed by the war. American banks began making large loans to European governments to pay off their earlier loans so that they could then pay back America. So debts and reparations were being paid only by piling up new and greater debts. American protective tariffs made it hard for Europeans to sell their goods in America.

Charles Darwin

Evolutionist who introduced "survival of the fittest"

The Grange (Patrons of Husbandry)

Farmers movement involving the affiliation of local farmers into area "granges" to work for their political and economic advantages.

Democratic Party

Federal government should take a more active role in people's lives, particularly those who are in need.

Women's Trade Union League

Formed in 1903 to support the efforts of women to organize labor unions and to eliminate sweatshop conditions.

Marquis de Montcalm

French soldier best known as the commander of the forces in North America during the Seven Years' War.

Lincoln's Position on Secession

He believed it wasn't really legal.

What sort of relationship did President Roosevelt develop with the press and the public to build confidence in the nation?

He developed an open relationship with the public to ensure them the change that needed to be made. He remained optimistic and made use of the radio broadcasting (Fireside Chats) where he would explain his programs and plans with the people.

Lincoln's Position on Slavery

He just wanted to cease the expansion of slavery (not abolish it)

Describe the programs that Roosevelt unveiled at Osawatomie, Kansas. How did they go beyond the moderation he had exhibited as President?

He made a case for "New Nationalism". He argued that social justice was possible only through strong federal government whose executive acted acted as the "steward of the public welfare".

Why was Taft so decisively defeated after only one term as president?

He made several key missteps for the Progressives as he aligned himself with the more conservative members of the Republican parties. Some of these were the passage of the Payne-Aldrich Act, which did little to lower tariffs and dismissing Gifford Pinchot, a close friend of Roosevelt.

What made Franklin Roosevelt such an attractive presidential candidate for the Democrats? Why did he win the 1932 election?

He was positive. He was able to present himself as a more energetic and imaginative leader than Hoover. Even though Roosevelt had qualities Americans were looking for in a leader, Hoover's unpopularity alone won FDR the presidency.

What German moves and diplomatic failures led to the start of World War II in Europe? What role did the Soviet Union play in the road to war?

Hitler moved his army into the Rhineland which violated the Versailles treaty. He marched into Austria and claimed an alliance between Austria and Germany. Hitler wanted a part of Czechoslovakia now - Sudetenland. The Czech wanted to fight for it, but needed help in order to win. People were reluctant to help in fear of another war. The Munich conference met to solve issue. France and Britain accepted Germany taking the one part of Czechoslovakia but Hitler couldn't expand further. In March 1939, Hitler violated the treaty and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. He then invaded Poland, starting WW2.

Republican Economic Program

Homestead Act and Pacific Railway Act * Homestead Act: Offered 160 acres of land to families that farmed it for five years * Pacific Railway Act: Authorized the building of a transcontinental railroad by setting aside land for railroad companies. * Republicans had majorities in Congress so they passed that included a national banking system and other economic programs. Significance: The Republican economic programs stimulated the economic growth of the North and the West, while also encouraging settlement westward.

In what ways did the Good Neighbor policy of Roosevelt build on Hoover's Latin American policy?

Hoover had abandoned military efforts and Roosevelt approved that "no state has the right to intervene in internal or external affairs of another" Roosevelt wanted to use economic policies to ease tension.

Truck Farming

Horticultural practice of growing one or more vegetable crops on a large scale for shipment to distant markets.

Why did Lyndon Johnson send troops to the Dominican Republic? Was the action reminiscent of the interventions in the days of the Roosevelt Corollary?

In an effort to forestall what he claims will be a "communist dictatorship" in the Dominican Republic, President Lyndon B. Johnson sends more than 22,000 U.S. troops to restore order on the island nation. Johnson's action provoked loud protests in Latin America and skepticism among many in the United States. Yes, it was reminiscent of interventions in the days of the Roosevelt Corollary.

Describe the Diem regime and its war effort up to 1963. What led to the coup and assassination that ended his rule?

In early summer of 1955, a campaign on denouncing communists was launched by Ngo Dinh Diem. During this campaign, communists and other opponents of the government in South Vietnam were arrested, interned, persecuted, or executed. Ngo Dinh Diem instituted the death sentence against any communist activity in August 1956. According to Gabriel Kolko, it was estimated that there were about 12,000 doubted objectors of Diem executed between 1955 and 1957; by late 1958, about 40, 000 political prisoners had been jailed. Yet, according to Guenter Lewy, the figure was exaggerated, in fact, there were about more than 35, 000 prisoners of all kinds in the entire country. As a fervent Catholic, Ngo Dinh Diem was regarded by many ordinary Vietnamese as part of the old elite supporting the French rule Vietnam. Vietnamese people majorly were Buddhist. Therefore, his attack on the Buddhist community only served to deepen mistrust. Human rights abuses, under Diem regime, increasingly estranged the population. As hostility to the rule of Diem regime in South Vietnam developed, a small-scale insurgency began to come into being in 1957. Four hundred officials of government were assassinated in that year. In May 1957, Ngo Dinh Diem paid a ten-day visit to the United States. To welcome the arrival of Ngo Dinh Diem, a parade was held in New York City. In this visit, the U.S President, Eisenhower pledged to continued American support for Vietnam. In spite of being praised publicly, Ngo Dinh Diem had been selected before in private Secretary of State, as there were no better alternatives. During 1954 - 1957, Diem government managed to suppress a high-level disagreement in the countryside. At the beginning of 1957, Southern Vietnam gained its first peace in over ten years. However, from 1957 to 1959, because the government did not deduced increasingly incidents of violence, the disorders were seen too widespread to warrant committing Government of Vietnam resources. By 1959, the disorders are seen as an organized campaign, thus, Ngo Dinh Diem conducted Law 10/59 in which political rebellion were punished by death and property confiscation. Besides, among former Viet Minh some divisions happened. The main goal was to hold an election cross the country as discussed in the Geneva Conference triggered "wildcat" activities. These activities were separate from other communists and anti-Government of Vietnam activists. In December 1960, all anti-Government of Vietnam activists (including non-communists) founded the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong). In Pentagon Papers, Viet Cong played an important role in forcing the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, in land reform and liberalization of the Government of Vietnam. The purpose of the National Liberation Front was to connect people of all levels in the countryside. The Viet Minh had conducted land reform and restored a large number of land to poor peasants. Meanwhile, landowners came back to the village according to the plan of Ngo Dinh Diem. Farmers in the villages had to return land to landlords and pay rents for the previous year. Insurgency activity against Saigon government started in the south under southern leadership in 1958. To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Conference, the independence of the Viet Cong was stressed in communist propaganda. In March 1956, Le Duan, the southern communist leader showed a plan to re-establish the insurgency called "The Road to the South" to the other member of the Politburo in Hanoi. Although the plan was rejected by China and the Soviet Union, the North Vietnamese leadership approved tentative measures to revive the southern insurgency in December 1956. After two year, 1958, communist forces were set up as a single command structure.

Henry Clay Frick

Industrialist, financier; chairman of Carnegie Steel; known for lack of morality; anti-unionist.

Slave Trade

International flow and sale of Africans into bondage, federal law prohibited the importation of slaves in 1808 but smuggling continued until the 1850s.

Natural Selection and Evolution

Introduced by Charles Darwin.

How have historians differed in their explanations for the involvement of the United States in Vietnam?

Interpretations of the Vietnam War have departed significantly from typical patterns both during and after most of America's previous wars. Instead of reflecting, defending, and bolstering official accounts of the war, as occurred with World Wars I and II, early historical assessments of the Vietnam conflict were for the most part highly critical of U.S. policy. The most widely read works on the Vietnam War during the late 1960s and early 1970s—including those of journalists Bernard Fall, Robert Shaplen, and David Halberstam, and historians Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., and George McT. Kahin and John W. Lewis—indicted government policy, often quite harshly. Those works presented a radically different version of the war's origins. purpose, and efficacy than that offered by Washington officialdom. Only in the late 1970s, following North Vietnam's military triumph and the extended soul-searching it occasioned throughout the United States, did a revisionist school of thought emerge. Ironically, the Vietnam revisionists mounted a belated defense of the American war effort, venting much of their anger at the prevailing liberal orthodoxy, which, they insisted, wrongly considered the Indochina war to be unwinnable or—even more egregious from their perspective—immoral. Despite the broad agreement among early writers that the Vietnam War represented a colossal mistake for the United States, and that American policy was plagued persistently by errors, blunders, misperceptions, and miscalculations, significant interpretive differences still existed within that literature. In their influential book, The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked (1979), Leslie H. Gelb and Richard K. Betts identified no less than nine distinct explanations advanced by experts during the 1960s and 1970s for America's failed intervention in Vietnam. They ranged from economic imperialism to idealistic imperialism, from bureaucratic politics to domestic politics, and from misperceptions and ethnocentrism to ideological blinders and the imperatives of international power politics. Analysts disagreed from the first, then, not just about the reasons for the U.S. failure in Vietnam, but about the relative weight of the factors that precipitated and sustained the American commitment. Two sharply differentiated views emerged in that first wave of scholarship about the Vietnam War, views that continue to be echoed in today's debates. The first characterizes American involvement in the war as an avoidable tragedy. American policymakers, according to this liberal realist perspective, foolishly exaggerated Vietnam's importance to the United States. Had they more soberly assessed its true value to the economic and security interests of the United States, recognized the popular appeal of revolutionary nationalism within the country, and appreciated the limits of American power, then the ensuing tragedy might well have been averted. That view remains the dominant interpretation of the Vietnam War. Most books and articles about American involvement, for all the different emphases that naturally distinguish the work of individual authors, fall within its wide boundaries. Major overviews of the war by such experts as George C. Herring, Stanley Karnow, Gary R. Hess, George McT. Kahin, William S. Turley, Neal Sheehan, and William I. Duiker take as a basic point of departure the notion that the Vietnam conflict was a tragic misadventure that could have been avoided had American leaders only been wiser, more prudent, and less wedded to the assumptions of the past. The former defense secretary Robert S. McNamara's memoir, In Retrospect (1995), also falls within this interpretive school. The other major interpretive approach offers a far more radical critique of American intentions and behavior. It depicts the United States as a global hegemony, concerned primarily with its own economic expansion, and reflexively opposed to communism, indigenous revolution, or any other challenge to its authority. Authors writing from this perspective typically characterize American intervention in Indochina as the necessary and logical consequence of a rapacious superpower's drive for world dominance. Although scholarly and polemical treatments of the war have been written in this vein since the late 1960s, Gabriel Kolko's seminal Anatomy of a War represents the most sophisticated and comprehensive formulation of the radical perspective. Kolko sees U.S. intervention in Vietnam as a predictable consequence of the American ruling class's determination to exert control over the world capitalist system. The U.S. political economy's need for raw materials, investment outlets, and the integration between capitalist core states and the developing regions of the periphery set Washington on a collision course with revolutionary nationalist currents throughout the Third World. By the early 1980s, a conservative revisionism had emerged that, at least temporarily, shifted the terms of a debate that up to then had largely pitted liberal realists against radical neo-Marxists. The Vietnam revisionist perspective was spearheaded by three former U.S. Army officers, Harry G. Summers, Jr., Bruce Palmer, Jr., and Philip B. Davidson, all veterans of the war. In separate books, each vehemently criticized U.S. policy. Summers, Palmer, and Davidson asserted that military and civilian leaders failed to develop realistic plans for achieving American politico-military objectives in Vietnam, failed to assess accurately the capabilities and intentions of their adversaries, and failed to coordinate specific battlefield tactics with an overall strategy for securing victory. The conservative critique of America's Vietnam policy scored points with academic and nonacademic audiences alike, while calling attention to fundamental shortcomings in the American approach to warfare in Southeast Asia. Another group of conservative revisionists also emerged during the 1980s. This group, which included such diverse authorities as R. B. Smith, Larry Cable, Andrew Krepinevich, Walt W. Rostow, and William Colby, insisted that real benefits accrued to the non-Communist nations of Southeast Asia as a result of U.S. intervention, and argued that the "pacification" campaign pursued by the United States could have succeeded. For all the attention accorded it by the media and by politicians, the conservative revisionist wave has not fundamentally altered our understanding of the Vietnam War. The revisionists may, ironically, have bolstered the central premises of the liberal realists more than they have overturned them. The chief faultline in the literature continues to lie between the liberal realists, on the one hand, and their left radical critics on the other-much as it has for the past three decades. That faultline will not soon be closed since the core issues at stake concern matters much broader than the mere origins and outcome of a war. They encompass as well such fundamental questions as the purpose of American foreign relations, the nature of American society, and the meaning of the American historical experience. That is why, perhaps, debates about the Vietnam conflict remain as hotly contested years after the war's end as they were at the height of U.S. involvement in the late 1960s.

Limited Liability

Investors can only risk what they paid for in stock, in case the company is in financial or legal trouble.

"Specie Circular"

Issued by President Jackson July 11, 1836. Was meant to stop land speculation caused by states printing paper money without proper specie (gold or silver) backing it. It required that the purchase of public lands be paid for in specie. It stopped the land speculation and the sale of public lands went down sharply. The panic of 1837 followed.

Explain the changes in immigration laws brought about by the National Origins Act and subsequent legislation. What ethnic groups were favored?

It banned immigration from east Asia entirely. It angered the Japs who knew they were the principal target since Chinese were banned since 1882. It reduced the quota for S + E Europeans. What immigration there was would favor northwestern Europeans.

What was the course of relations between the United States and Japan during Roosevelt's presidency?

Japan staged a surprise attack on Russian Fleet on a Chinese port that they both wanted to control. Roosevelt, in order to prevent either nation from becoming dominant there, agreed to a Japanese request to end the conflict. He negotiated a secret agreement with the Japanese to ensure that the United States could continue to trade freely in the region. Japan rose as the naval power and they began to exclude the US from trade. Roosevelt took no direct action, but he sent out a fleet to make sure they recognized the power of the US.

Yellow Journalism

Journalism that uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers.

Describe John F. Kennedy's background and his plans for domestic legislation. How did Congress react to his New Frontier?

Kennedy's Background: At the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in the strongly Democratic 11th Congressional district in Massachusetts to become mayor of Boston in 1946. With his father financing and running his campaign, Kennedy won the Democratic primary with 12 percent of the vote, defeating ten other candidates. Though Republicans took control of the House in the 1946 elections, Kennedy defeated his Republican opponent in the general election, taking 73 percent of the vote. Along with Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, Kennedy was one of several World War II veterans first elected to Congress that year. He served in the House for six years, joining the influential Education and Labor Committee and the Veterans' Affairs Committee. He concentrated his attention on international affairs, supporting the Truman Doctrine as the appropriate response to the emerging Cold War. He also supported public housing and opposed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, which restricted the power of labor unions. Though not as vocal an anticommunist as McCarthy, Kennedy supported the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which required Communists to register with the government, and he deplored the "Loss of China."As early as 1949, Kennedy began preparing to run for the Senate in 1952 against Republican three-term incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Joseph Kennedy again financed and managed his son's candidacy, while John Kennedy's younger brother Robert Kennedy emerged as an important member of the campaign. In the presidential election, General Dwight D. Eisenhower carried Massachusetts by a margin of 208,000 votes, but Kennedy defeated Lodge by 70,000 votes for the Senate seat. The following year, he married Jacqueline Bouvier. Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholic last rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957. Rumors that this work was co-written by his close adviser and speechwriter, Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography. At the 1956 Democratic National Convention, Kennedy gave the nominating speech for the party's presidential nominee, Adlai Stevenson II. Stevenson let the convention select the Vice Presidential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee but receiving national exposure as a result. In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin of 874,608 votes; this represented the largest ever margin in Massachusetts politics. It was during his re-election campaign that Kennedy's press secretary at the time, Robert E. Thompson, put together a film entitled The U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy Story, which exhibited a day in the life of the Senator and showcased his family life as well as the inner workings of his office. It was the most comprehensive film produced about Kennedy up to that time. In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president in 1960. While Kennedy's father was a strong supporter of Senator Joseph McCarthy, McCarthy was also a friend of the Kennedy family. As well, Bobby Kennedy worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated Kennedy sister Patricia. In 1954, the Senate voted to censure McCarthy and Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the censure. However, it was not delivered because Kennedy was hospitalized at the time. The speech had the potential of putting Kennedy in the position of participating procedurally by "pairing" his vote against that of another senator. Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged his support among members of the liberal community, including Eleanor Roosevelt, in the 1956 and 1960 elections. On January 2, 1960, Kennedy announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination. Though some questioned Kennedy's youth and experience, his charisma and eloquence earned him numerous supporters. His greatest obstacle to winning the nomination may have been his religion. Many Americans held anti-Catholic attitudes, but his vocal support of the separation of church and state helped to defuse the issue. His religion also helped him win a devoted following among many Catholic voters. Kennedy faced several potential challengers for the Democratic nomination, including Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, Adlai Stevenson, and Senator Hubert Humphrey. Kennedy traveled extensively to build his support among Democratic elites and voters. At the time, party officials controlled most of the delegates, but several states also held primaries, and Kennedy sought to win several primaries to boost his chances of winning the nomination. In his first major test, Kennedy won the Wisconsin primary, effectively ending Humphrey's hopes of winning the presidency. Nonetheless, Kennedy and Humphrey faced each other in a competitive West Virginia primary in which Kennedy could not benefit from a Catholic bloc, as he had in Wisconsin. Kennedy won the West Virginia primary, impressing many in the party, but at the start of the 1960 Democratic National Convention, it was unclear whether he would win the nomination. When Kennedy entered the convention, he had the most delegates, but not enough to ensure he would win the nomination. Stevenson—the 1952 and 1956 presidential nominee—remained very popular in the party, while Johnson also hoped to win the nomination with the support of party leaders. Kennedy's candidacy also faced opposition from former president Harry S. Truman, who worried about Kennedy's lack of experience. Kennedy knew that a second ballot could result in the nomination of Johnson or another candidate, and his well-organized campaign was able to earn the support of just enough delegates to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot. Kennedy ignored the opposition of his brother and some of his liberal supporters when he chose chose Johnson as his vice presidential nominee. He believed that the Texas Senator could help him win support in the South. In accepting the presidential nomination, Kennedy gave his well-known "New Frontier" speech, saying: "For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier.... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them." At the start of the fall general election campaign, Republican nominee Richard Nixon, the incumbent vice president, held a six-point lead in the polls. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Roman Catholicism, the Cuban Revolution, and whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960: "I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters - and the Church does not speak for me." Kennedy questioned rhetorically whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic, and once stated that: "No one asked me my religion [serving the Navy] in the South Pacific."In September and October, Kennedy squared off against Nixon in the first televised presidential debates in U.S. history. During these programs, Nixon had a sore, injured leg, and his "five o'clock shadow" was perspiring as he looked tense and uncomfortable. Kennedy, on the other hand, chose to avail himself of makeup services and appeared relaxed, which led the huge television audience to favor him as the winner. Radio listeners either thought that Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in politics. Kennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Election Day, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote, by most accounts, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the Electoral College, he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). Fourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the civil rights movement; they voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma. Kennedy became the youngest person (43) ever elected to the presidency. Plans for domestic legislation: Amongst the legislation passed by Congress during the Kennedy Administration, unemployment benefits were expanded, aid was provided to cities to improve housing and transportation, funds were allocated to continue the construction of a national highway system started under Eisenhower, a water pollution control act was passed to protect the country's rivers and streams, and an agricultural act to raise farmers' incomes was made law. A significant amount of anti-poverty legislation was passed by Congress, including increases in social security benefits and in the minimum wage, several housing bills, and aid to economically distressed areas. A few antirecession public works packages, together with a number of measures designed to assist farmers, were introduced. Major expansions and improvements were made in Social Security (including retirement at 62 for men), hospital construction, library services, family farm assistance and reclamation. Food stamps for low-income Americans were reintroduced, food distribution to the poor was increased, and there was an expansion in school milk and school lunch distribution. The most comprehensive farm legislation since 1938 was carried out, with expansions in rural electrification, soil conservation, crop insurance, farm credit, and marketing orders. In September 1961, the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency was established as the focal point in government for the "planning, negotiation, and execution of international disarmament and arms control agreements." Altogether, the New Frontier witnessed the passage of a broad range of important social and economic reforms.

Massachusetts Bay Company

King Charles gave the Puritans a right to settle and govern a colony in the Massachusetts Bay area. The colony established political freedom and a representative government.

King Philip's War

King Philip's War, sometimes called Metacom's War or Metacom's Rebellion, was an armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies in 1675-1676.

Sharecropping

Landowner would give the use of his land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land.

Atlantic Slave Trade/Triangular Trade/Atlantic World

Lasted from 16th century until the 19th century. The buying, transporting, and selling of Africans in the Americas. Trade of African peoples from Western Africa to the Americas. A three-part economical system of trade.

Act Concerning Religion

Law mandating religious tolerance for *only* Trinitarian Christians.

Slave Codes

Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights.

Rise of Lynchings

Lynchings in the United States rose in number after the American Civil War in the late 1800s, following the emancipation of slaves; they declined after 1930 but were recorded into the 1960s. Lynchings most frequently targeted African-American men and women in the South, with lynchings also occurring in the North during the Great Migration of blacks into Northern areas. The political message—the promotion of white supremacy and black powerlessness—was an important element of the ritual, with lynchings photographed and published as postcards which were popular souvenirs in the U.S. As well as being hanged, victims were sometimes burned alive and tortured, with body parts removed and kept as souvenirs.

Henry James

Made women his central characters, exploring their inner reactions to complex situations; master of "psychological realism"

Ellis Island

Main immigration processing station on the east coast located in the NY harbor.

Collective Bargaining

Management and union representatives negotiate the employment conditions for a particular bargaining unit for a designated period of time; gave workers some say in their working conditions.

Describe how the prewar groundwork in antibiotics and immunization flowered after 1945. What major diseases were virtually eliminated in the U.S.?

More vaccines were developed to control childhood diseases. After the war the health of children was generally better than at any other time in history. Vaccines against polio, measles and rubella were developed in the 1950's and 1960's. Tests were also developed for defects in babies such as the amniocentesis for spina bifida and Down's Syndrome. Treatments were also developed for children with heart disease. After 1945, major advances were also made in birth control. In earlier times there had been advances in rubber sheaths but they were seen more as a protection against syphilis as opposed to a form of birth control. The cap or diaphragm had been developed in the 1880's but its availability had been very much limited as people were kept in the dark as to its very existence. Marie Stopes did much to change attitudes as to give women more freedom when concerning birth control. However, pre-war social conventions had done much to prevent the total spread of her ideas throughout Britain. Many social conventions had been swept away during the war and by the 1950's the contraceptive pill had been introduced as was seen as a way of giving women more control over their own destiny - and certainly taking this away from domineering men. By the 1960's, the contraceptive pill was widely available, as was the IUD (Intrauterine device). This had first been developed in 1909 but was more widely available after 1945. Certain types of IUD were also linked to pelvic infection and septic abortions as late as the 1970's and 1980's. Such concerns did much to stymie its use. Many very significant medical advances were also made after 1945. One of the most important was the discovery of DNA by Wilkins, Crick and Watson. These three were also helped by the work done by Rosalind Franklin. DNA is the substance that makes life - a human cell that contains genes, which are made up of chromosomes, the basis of living tissue. This has in turn allowed the study of disease caused by defective genes such as in cystic fibrosis and Down's Syndrome. In recent years, researchers have been able to identify specific genes that are responsible for specific diseases. New drugs have also been created post-1945. The success of penicillin during the war, prodded researchers to study other moulds. Streptomycin, found in chickens, was used successfully to treat TB. This treatment was pioneered primarily in America after 1946. Streptomycin was also found to be capable of treating many other diseases that penicillin could not. However, it was found that too much use of streptomycin could lead to the TB germ developing a resistance to its use. After 1951, streptomycin was used with Isoniazid in the fight against TB. This again was developed in America. By the 1970's, five antibiotics existed which could be used against TB. In recent years, despite this array of drugs against TB, there have been fears that TB can be resistant to all drugs that have been developed to fight it. The recent rise of TB in the more depressed areas of Britain's cities has concerned many doctors. The problems with streptomycin did lead scientists to study why drugs lost their effectiveness and also why some people suffered side effects when they were used and others did not. The development in pharmacology has been a major development since 1945. Since 1945, there has been a greater use of steroids in medicine. These were used to relieve pain and inflammation. Cortisone was used in injection form to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Cortisone also had the important side effect of reducing the body's immune system. This made it useful to prevent the rejection of skin and kidney transplants. This in turn lead to the idea of using drugs to suppress the growth of cancers using cytotoxins. The use of ultrasound and magnetic resonance since 1945 has also made it easier to diagnose disease. Ian Donald, Professor of Midwifery at Glasgow developed ultrasound in the 1950's for looking at unborn babies. Magnetic Resonance Imaging can be used to detect diseases without the use of radiation making it less harmful to the patient. Three-dimensional CAT scans can also be used. The less use of radiation the better as some patients can be harmed by exposure to large doses of radiation. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) does away with this problem. The use of modern equipment such as the endoscope has also allowed for the internal examination of patients without the need for surgery. Kidney dialysis was first tried in 1914 but only became more widely available in the 1960's. The introduction of long term and repeated dialysis gave hope to patients who almost certainly would have died without this particular development. Surgery in general has witnessed major developments since 1945. Far more operations can be carried out now on areas of the body that were rarely touched before 1945. Christian Barnard's heart transplant was on an organ that few surgeons would have operated on. His pioneering surgery inspired others to do likewise and now heart operations are very common, as is surgery on organs such as the liver and kidneys etc. Microsurgery and keyhole surgery are common place now - as is the use of lasers in surgery. The major - though not exclusive - developments in surgery are as follows: Post 1953: the development of a successful heart lung machine allowed more complicated heart surgery to take place. Techniques have improved greatly here with coronary bypasses to improve blood supply to the heart since 1953 and the replacement of heart valves since the 1960's. Artificial arteries have also been developed to improve blood flow. After 1961, pacemakers were introduced to maintain a regular heart beat. From 1960 on, lasers were used to treat eye tumours etc. Transplant surgery has also developed aided by drugs like cortisone, azathioprine and cyclosporin which have helped to reduce rejection. The first successful kidney transplant was done in Boston in 1954; the first heart transplant was in 1967 (performed by Christian Barnard); the first liver transplant was in 1963; the first heart and lung transplant was in 1982 and the first brain tissue transplant was in 1987. Since 1945, there have been massive strides in the treatment of cancer. The use of a combination of drugs, radiotherapy and surgery have greatly increased a cancer patient's chances of survival. During the 1950's, research linked smoking to lung cancer and other external factors have also been identified - such as excess sunlight potentially causing skin cancer. It is now thought that 15% of all cancers are caused by viruses.

What did the Great Society accomplish?

Most of the Great Society's achievements came during the 89th Congress, which lasted from January 1965 to January 1967, and is considered by many to be the most productive legislative session in American history. Johnson prodded Congress to churn out nearly 200 new laws launching civil rights protections; Medicare and Medicaid; food stamps; urban renewal; the first broad federal investment in elementary and high school education; Head Start and college aid; an end to what was essentially a whites-only immigration policy; landmark consumer safety and environmental regulations; funding that gave voice to community action groups; and an all-out War on Poverty.

Jacob Riis

NY newspaper reporter and photographer; shocked many with his sensational descriptions and pictures of tenement life.

Transformation of the Northern Economy

New factories had been formed and a millionaire class was born for the first time in history.

Gail Borden

New industry for packing and selling food.

Reconstruction

New plans to govern the South after the Civil War.

Headright System

New settlers who paid their way to Virginia received 50 acres of land. It was used as a way to attract new settlers to the region and address the labor shortage. With the emergence of tobacco farming, a large supply of workers was needed.

Nativism

Opposition to immigration.

Anti-Saloon League

Organization working for prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors; came to wield great political influence.

How did the Pinchot-Ballinger affair drive a wedge between Taft and Roosevelt?

Pinchot was a close friend of Roosevelt, so Taft firing him made Roosevelt upset. Pinchot demanded that Taft fire Ballinger, but Taft supported him.

The Alamo

Place of famous Texas battle where Texas army was massacred along with famous heroes like Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett.

Deskilling

Reducing the skill needed to carry out a job.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist; key figure during Scottish Enlightenment; author of 'Wealth of Nations'

Tenantry

Sharecropping, utilizing a parcel of another's land in exchange for a portion of the crop.

Atlanta Compromise

The Atlanta compromise was an agreement struck in 1895 between Booker T. Washington, president of the Tuskegee Institute, other African-American leaders, and Southern white leaders. It was first supported, and later opposed by W. E. B. Du Bois and other African-American leaders. The agreement was that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic education and due process in law. Blacks would not agitate for equality, integration, or justice, and Northern whites would fund black educational charities.

Crittenden Compromise

The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful proposal introduced by United States Senator John J. Crittenden (Constitutional Unionist of Kentucky) on December 18, 1860. It aimed to resolve the secession crisis of 1860-1861 by addressing the fears and grievances about slavery that led many slave-holding states to contemplate secession from the United States.

What did the North African and Italian offensives accomplish? How did the Soviet Union regard these efforts?

The Germans had given all they had against the inexperienced Americans in Africa and were able to defeat the Americans. General Patton then regrouped them and they were finally able to move all the Germans out of Africa. This postponed the French invasion further, which angered the Soviet Union. The American and British armies were able to take the island of Sicily, causing the government to fail and Mussolini to flee to Germany. Mussolini's successor, Pietro Badoglio, sided Italy with the allies. The Soviet Union believed the United States and Britain were purposefully holding out on the French invasion so the Russians would endure most of the fighting.

How did the Federal Reserve Act transform the nation's monetary system?

The absence of a central banking structure in the U.S. previous to this act left a financial essence that was characterized by immobile reserves and inelastic currency. Creating the Federal Reserve gave the Federal Reserve control to regulate inflation, even though the government control over such powers would eventually lead to decisions that were controversial. Some of the most prominent implications include the internationalization of the U.S. Dollar as a global currency, the impact from the perception of the Central Bank structure as a public good by creating a system of financial stability, and the Impact of the Federal Reserve in response to economic panics. The Federal Reserve Act also permitted national banks to make mortgage loans for farm land, which had not been permitted previously.

Manumission

The act of a slave owner freeing his or her slaves. Different approaches developed, each specific to the time and place of a society's slave system. The motivations of slave owners in manumitting slaves were complex and varied.

Trans-Atlantic Print Culture

The culture that surrounded communication via the press in the new world. This was signficant because it encouraged communication between the old world and the new world.

Feudalism

The dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.

Robert Walpole

The first "modern" prime minister; deliberately didn't enforce the navigation acts because of concerns of his merchant and landowner sponsors that increased colonial control would diminish profits from the colonies.

Hudson River School of Art

The first coherent school of American art - active from 1825 to 1870; painted wilderness landscapes of the Hudson River valley and surrounding New England.

House of Burgesses

The first democratically-elected legislative body in the British American colonies.

Free Laborers

The free labor ideology of the nineteenth century was grounded in the beliefs that Northern free labor was superior to Southern slave labor. The key factor that made this system unique was "the opportunity it offers wage earners to rise to property-owning independence."

Describe the impact the New Deal had on the West. Why was it greater than on other sections of the nation?

The new deal gave special relief to the West and South. It had profound impact on the west because of the farming central economy, and it needed dams, electricity, and other public works It received more attention because it was less economically developed.

"Hill People"

The nonslaveowning whites who opposed the planter elite, who lived in the Appalachian ranges east of the Mississippi, in the Ozarks to the west of the river, and in other hill/ back- country areas. They were the most isolated from the mainstream southern lifestyle, practiced subsistence farming, owned almost no slaves, and were unconnected with the new commercial economy of the South.

Land Redistribution in the South during Reconstruction

The phrase "forty acres and a mule" evokes the Federal government's failure to redistribute land after the Civil War and the economic hardship that African Americans suffered as a result. As Northern armies moved through the South at the end of the war, blacks began cultivating land abandoned by whites.

Home Rule

The power of an administrative division of a state to exercise such of the state's powers of governance within its own administrative area that have been decentralized to it by the central government.

Pro Slavery Arguments

The pro-slavery argument was that slavery was actually a moral practice in that slaves were treated better than factory workers in the North.

Slavery as a "Positive Good"

The pro-slavery argument was that slavery was actually a moral practice in that slaves were treated better than factory workers in the North.

On what two methods did the Wilson administration depend to finance the war effort? How did the war cost compare with the typical peacetime budgets of that era?

The two methods were liberty bonds and new taxes. The war was incredibly expensive.

"Factors"

These were the brokers who marketed the planters' crops in the South and purchased goods for planters. They tended to live in towns like New Orleans, Charleston, Mobile, and Savannah. These merchants served as bankers for the planters.

How did newspaper chains, mass-circulation magazines, movies, and radio serve as unifying and nationalizing forces in America?

They provided mediums to which information could be given to the public on a mass scale. Radio was much less centralized than film-making. Individual stations had considerable autonomy, and even carefully monitored stations and networks could not control the countless hours of programming as effectively as the Hays office could control films. Radio programming, therefore, was more diverse and more controversial and even subversive than film.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

This treaty ended the Mexican American War. The treaty added an additional 525,000 square miles to United States territory, including the land that makes up all or parts of present-day Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming.

Philippines Insurrection

U.S. entered war with the Philippines; Aquinaldo helped America fight Spain only to turn on them once free. Aquinaldo surrendered in 1901.

Fort Sumter

Union fort in Confederacy that didn't relinquish power to South; provisions were sent and the South Carolinians fired (non-fatal); they surrendered but this event started the Civil War.

Explain the expanded role of advertising and consumer credit. Why can it be said that the prosperity of the 1950s and the 1960s was substantially consumer-driven?

Until about 1953, U.S. advertising and consumerism were catching up. Products such as clothing, refrigerators, automobiles and appliances-unavailable or in short supply during World War II-were again plentiful. Pent-up demand for consumer products fueled a steady growth in manufacturing. Conversely, the latter part of the decade was for consumers a period of acute consumption anxiety. Marketers continued to offer "new and improved" products to maintain high consumer demand. That focused selling technique relied on newly popular methods such as motivational research, demographic targeting and generational marketing. The postwar years also saw a huge increase in population. From 1945 to 1964, a global "baby boom" occurred, which fueled a housing boom. By the close of the decade, one-third of the U.S. population lived in suburban areas surrounding metropolitan centers, lured by the increase in transportation options and affordable housing for America's new middle class. That, in turn, fueled a need for appliances and other necessities to fill those new homes, and marketers rushed to introduce a vast array of products while manufacturers churned out new appliances, automobiles and consumer electronics. Many advertised products promoted labor-saving automation for increased productivity and leisure time. Heating and cooling products, kitchen and laundry appliances, furniture and decorating accessories, and frozen and prepared foods all promoted time-saving benefits. Capitalism claimed the technical innovations of wartime and transformed them into labor-saving convenience products. The aerosol spray can was a by-product of the war's South Pacific "bug bomb." Adding a spray top transformed the "bug bomb" into a dispenser for everything from processed cheese, whipped cream, shaving cream, hairspray and deodorant to furniture polish. Nylon, initially developed for parachutes, replaced expensive silk in stockings. Plastics and Styrofoam found new applications in everything from furniture to insulation. Advertising during this period reflected a conscious return to traditional family values. In a single generation, lingering memories of the Great Depression and war were replaced by positive futuristic portrayals of the idealized modern family—mother, father, son and daughter—enjoying the comforts of their new home, the convenience of their automobile and added leisure time together. Children were targeted for the first time, as advertising tapped their newfound affluence. Phonographs, records, radios, magazines, clothing and soft drinks, among other products, found a receptive teen audience. Advertising also portrayed society's upward mobility and prosperity, its technological superiority and its renewed optimism. For example, the necessity of becoming a two-car family was heavily promoted throughout the 1950s—a decade that began with 59% of American families owning a car. Within a few years, many families owned at least one car while many owned several. By the mid-1950s, automobiles surpassed packaged goods and cigarettes as the most heavily advertised products. Car owners of the mid-1950s began to see their vehicles as extensions of themselves. Ever-changing designs pushed consumers to replace their cars yearly—not for lack of performance, but for lack of style. Automobile design, with its distinctive fins and heavy emphasis on chrome, and advertising reflected the nation's infatuation with new technology, jet planes and the atomic age. Perhaps the most important factor influencing advertising in the 1950s was the growth of TV and its maturation into a viable ad medium. By 1951, regular live network service reached the West Coast via microwave transmitters, establishing coast-to-coast national coverage. As with radio, early TV programming was advertiser-sponsored. Advertising agencies produced TV shows, with networks providing little more than facilities, airtime and occasional guidance. Programming typically promoted the name of the sponsor and not the star: "Hallmark Hall of Fame," "Texaco Star Theater," "Colgate Comedy Hour," "Goodyear TV Playhouse" and "Kraft Television Theater." Midcentury advertising was a fertile ground for critics. As the Cold War raged, critics claimed that new mind-control methods were used to manipulate unsuspecting consumers. Motivational research tapped into hidden desires to help advertisers influence consumers to purchase goods through their need for security, sex, social acceptance, style, luxury and success. The leading proponent of motivational research was consultant Ernest Dichter. Mr. Dichter and his associates claimed to use psychological tools to analyze consumer buying habits and attitudes toward products, brands, packages, colors and other motivations. He proposed that one of the main dichotomies advertisers should resolve was what he called "the conflict between pleasure and guilt" among adults more affluent than their Depression-era parents. Many ad agencies formed motivational research departments, and new brand personalities were born. The Marlboro man (from Leo Burnett Co.), Maidenform woman (Norman, Craig & Kummel) and Hathaway shirt man ( Ogilvy & Mather) brought parity products (those with no easily discernible differences from others in the same category) to life and offered such attachments as emotional security, reassurance, creativity and power. Vance Packard introduced motivational research to a Cold War-weary public in his best-selling book, "The Hidden Persuaders." Revealing little about advertising technique, its ostensible subject, the book instead fueled Americans' fear of manipulation and mind control and became one of the most widely read "exposes" of advertising since the 1930s.

Mass Communication Trends

Urban industrial society created a large market for transmitting news and information (newspapers).

Universal Education

Value of public education began to spread (Horace Mann).

Salvation Army

Welfare organization that provided food, shelter, and employment to the urban poor while preaching temperance.

Pinkertons

Well known as strike-breakers; called in by Carnegie during Homestead Strike.

Associated Press

When the telegraph system allowed the exchange of national and international news to be shared by different newspapers, in 1846, newspaper publishers from around the nation formed to create an organization to promote cooperative news gathering by wire.

What effect did the Depression have on attitudes about the role of women and the realities of life for women

Women become a vital part of the labor movement during the era of the Great Depression. While men faced major unemployment, and the disruption of typical bread-winner roles, women maintained employment or even took on new paid labor in order to support their families.

New Roles for Southern Women

Women filled men's roles or even dressed up as men to fight.

African American Families and Changing Gender Roles

Women were freed from the "cult of domesticity" and began partaking in activities that were previously reserved for men.

Daughters Of Liberty

Women who displayed their patriotism by participating in boycotts of British goods following the passage of the Townshend Acts.

"Camp Followers"

Women who traveled with the armies; some were prostitutes but most were wives, cooks, laundresses, and nurses.

Devastation of the South

World of slavery was shattered, economy failed, needed reconstruction.

Education in the South during Reconstruction

Young and old, the freedpeople flocked to the schools established after the Civil War. For both races, Reconstruction laid the foundation for public schooling in the South.

John Bartram

Early American botanist, horticulturist and explorer, born into a Quaker farm family.

Saloons

Bars where laborers would go after work

Ethnic Neighborhoods

Deserted residences by the affluent citizens, the poor moved into them. Slums with tiny windowless apartments, over 4000 people could be fit on one block in these neighborhoods.

Nationalist Clubs

Network of socialist political groups.

What were the successes and failures of Truman's reform agenda after 1948?

One of the successes involved Congress raising the legal minimum wage to 75 cents an hour. The Social Security system was expanded, and the National Housing Act of 1949 was passed. Some of the failures were that there was no progress on the national health insurance and education aid. Truman also could not get Congress on board with his civil rights legislation.

Contract Labor Law

1885; prohibited contract labor in order to protect American workers.

Teddy Roosevelt

26th President known for conservationalism, trust-busting, Hepburn Act, safe food regulations, "Square Deal", Panama Canal, etc.

Vice Admiralty Courts

A tribunal with only a judge, no jury.

Olive Branch Petition

Adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 5, 1775 in a final attempt to avoid a full-on war between Great Britain and the thirteen colonies represented in that Congress. The Congress had already authorized the invasion of Canada more than a week earlier, but the petition affirmed American loyalty to Great Britain and beseeched King George III to prevent further conflict. That the petition was followed by the July 6 Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms made its success in London improbable. In August 1775, the colonies were formally declared to be in rebellion by the Proclamation of Rebellion, and the petition was rejected by Great Britain—even though King George had refused to read the Olive Branch Petition before declaring the colonists traitors.

Freemen

Adult men who belonged to the Puritan congregations.

Mary E. Lease

Advocate of the suffrage movement as well as temperance; best know for work with the Populist Party.

Pragmatism

Advocated by William James: Modern society should rely on the test of scientific inquiry for guidance and progress, not on inherited ideas and morals.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

Affirmed that all citizens are equally protected under the law.

14th Amendment

African Americans confirmed as citizens of the US.

What American values and interests were reflected in the motion pictures and popular literature of the 1930s?

Again, most of the literature capitalized on 'escapism', allowing people to momentarily forget their issues in the real world. Most films were fantasy or sci-fi.

Social Realism

Attempts to recreate (often terrible) realities of urban social life through literature.

Why was banking the new president's number one order of business? What was done immediately and later in the New Deal?

Banking became the presidents priority because there was great panic surrounding bank failures. Immediately, Roosevelt issued the Emergency Banking Act. It was important to FDR that people had a safe place to deposit their money and that they felt comfortable doing so.

Election of 1866

Bitter dispute over whether Reconstruction should be harsh or lenient towards the South.

Political Bosses

Bosses garnered support of large immigrant communities and won votes for his organization by providing social services for immigrants, jobs for the unemployed, etc.

Subways

Boston opened the first in 1897.

Dime Novels

Cheaply bound and widely circulated novels that became popular after the Civil War depicting such scenarios from the "Wild West" and other American tales.

What led to Fidel Castro's rise in Cuba? How did the United States deal with his new regime?

Castro joined an anti-corruption Orthodox Party movement in 1947 that tried and failed to overthrow Dominican Republic dictator, Rafael Trujillo. Castro graduated college in 1950, and opened a law office. Two years later, he launched a bid for Cuba's House of Representatives, but the election never happened. Cuban dictator, Fulgencio Batista squashed it after staging a coup and seizing power in March 1952. From there, Castro would discard any further attempts at legitimate party politics, launching his own offensive with more than 100 men who stormed the Moncada army barracks in 1953. That attack failed, many of the men died, and Castro was sentenced to 15 years in prison. Batista ordered Castro released from prison in 1955, after which, Castro ended up in Mexico, where he would plan another coup attempt. The next year, Castro, plus 81 men including Ernesto "Che" Guevara, and Fidel's brother, Raul sailed to the eastern coast of Cuba. They were ambushed. The Castro brothers and Guevara fled into the country's southeastern mountains. Following a series of offensives between 1957 and 1959, Castro would seize control from Batista in January that year, and solidify his power grab in July. Early on, Castro gained the support of many Cuban citizens with promises to restore political and civil liberties. But later, Castro began to take a more radical tone, nationalizing American businesses on the island, and further angering the US with an increasingly anti-American rhetoric, and aligning with the Soviet Union in a 1960 trade deal. The US officially cut all diplomatic ties with Cuba in January 1961. By April that year, the US government armed about 1,500 Cuban exiles to try and overthrow the regime at the Bay of Pigs. It failed. Cuba and the Soviet Union later strengthened their partnership. In 1962, the Soviet Union began secretly placing ballistic missiles in Cuba that were capable of firing nuclear weapons into American cities. That ushered in the Cuban missile crisis. Both the US and Soviet Union later stood down when the former agreed to remove its missiles stationed in Turkey and the Soviet Union removed its weapons from Cuba. Meanwhile, Castro instituted a one-party government, gaining control over all aspects of Cuban life. While that drove away many of Cuba's upper and middle class citizens, Castro expanded the country's social and educational services, free of charge, to all economic classes. Castro's economic power was further concentrated, but that didn't bode well for the Cuban economy, which failed to gain momentum. The country became increasingly dependent on Soviet policies while, at the same time, enduring the squeeze of a United States trade embargo. 1976 -- Cuba created the National Assembly, Castro became president of that body's State Council. 1980s -- Castro was recognized as one of the prime rulers of unaligned nations. And while the country still had strong ties to the Soviet Union, Castro regularly hinted his willingness to restore diplomatic ties with the US if the US ended the trade embargo. The Castro regime later released some 125,000 immigrants to the US, which overwhelmed America's immigration officials.

Describe the economic boom of the 1920s and its causes. What impact did the spectacular growth of the automobile industry have on related business activities?

Causes of the economic boom: 1) After WWI, the debilitation of European industry left the US for a period of time to be the only truly healthy industrial power in the world 2) Technology and the great industrial expansion Automobile industry stimulated growth in many related industries by needing steel, rubber, glass, tools and gasoline. It created a need of road construction as well as a demand for more suburban housing because more mobility was made possible.

What features of President Warren G. Harding's personal background led to his political repudiation? What was the biggest of the various Harding-era scandals?

He was baffled by his responsibilities and he noticed his own unfitness. He loved gambling, illegal alcohol, and attractive women. Teapot dome scandal was the biggest.

Evangelism

Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality; led by George Whitefield. Evangelism was a reaction to the Enlightenment priority of rationalism over emotionalism and spirituality.

Compare and contrast craft unionism and industrial unionism. What caused the split between the AFL and the CIO?

Craft unionism refers to a model of trade unionism in which workers are organised based on the particular craft or trade in which they work. It contrasts with industrial unionism, in which all workers in the same industry are organized into the same union, regardless of differences in skill. The AFL and CIO split because of a disagreement over the best way to spend Union funds.

Edward Braddock

Edward Braddock was major-general in the British Army. He was dispatched to America in 1754 to restore and strengthen British positions in the Ohio Valley and the Great Lakes region after the defeat of George Washington at Fort Necessity.

John Tyler

Elected Vice President and became the 10th President of the United States when Harrison died. He was responsible for the annexation of Mexico after receiving mandate from Polk, and he opposed many parts of the Whig program for economic recovery.

Why did Truman dismiss Douglas MacArthur? Why was the decision so controversial?

In March 1951 secret United States intercepts of diplomatic dispatches disclosed clandestine conversations in which General MacArthur expressed confidence to the Tokyo embassies of Spain and Portugal that he would succeed in expanding the Korean War into a full-scale conflict with the Chinese Communists. When the intercepts came to the attention of President Truman, he was enraged to learn that MacArthur was not only trying to increase public support for his position on conducting the war, but had secretly informed foreign governments that he planned to initiate actions that were counter to United States policy. The President was unable to act immediately since he could not afford to reveal the existence of the intercepts and because of MacArthur's popularity with the public and political support in Congress. However, following the release on April 5 by Representative Martin of MacArthur's letter, Truman concluded he could relieve MacArthur of his commands without incurring unacceptable political damage. Truman summoned Secretary of Defense George Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Averell Harriman to discuss what to do about MacArthur. They concurred MacArthur should be relieved of his command, but made no recommendation to do so. Although they felt that it was correct "from a purely military point of view", they were aware that there were important political considerations as well. Truman and Acheson agreed that MacArthur was insubordinate, but the Joint Chiefs avoided any suggestion of this. Insubordination was a military offense, and MacArthur could have requested a public court martial similar to that of Billy Mitchell. The outcome of such a trial was uncertain, and it might well have found him not guilty and ordered his reinstatement. The Joint Chiefs agreed that there was "little evidence that General MacArthur had ever failed to carry out a direct order of the Joint Chiefs, or acted in opposition to an order." "In point of fact," Bradley insisted, "MacArthur had stretched but not legally violated any JCS directives. He had violated the President's 6 December directive [not to make public statements on policy matters], relayed to him by the JCS, but this did not constitute violation of a JCS order." Truman ordered MacArthur's relief by Ridgway, and the order went out on 10 April with Bradley's signature. In a 3 December 1973 article in Time magazine, Truman was quoted as saying in the early 1960s: "I fired him because he wouldn't respect the authority of the President. I didn't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch, although he was, but that's not against the law for generals. If it was, half to three-quarters of them would be in jail." The relief of the famous general by the unpopular politician for communicating with Congress led to a constitutional crisis, and a storm of public controversy. Polls showed that the majority of the public disapproved of the decision to relieve MacArthur. By February 1952, almost nine months later, Truman's approval rating had fallen to 22 percent. As of 2014, that remains the lowest Gallup Poll approval rating recorded by any serving president. As the increasingly unpopular war in Korea dragged on, Truman's administration was beset with a series of corruption scandals, and he eventually decided not to run for re-election. Beginning on May 3, 1951, a Joint Senate Committee—chaired by Democrat Richard Russell, Jr.—investigated MacArthur's removal. It concluded that "the removal of General MacArthur was within the constitutional powers of the President but the circumstances were a shock to national pride."

What role did Herbert Hoover play before his presidency? What concept did he champion most vigorously?

In 1917, after the United States entered the war, President Woodrow Wilson asked Hoover to run the U.S. Food Administration. Hoover performed quite admirably, guiding the effort to conserve resources and supplies needed for the war and to feed America's European allies. Hoover even became a household name during the war; nearly all Americans knew that the verb "to Hooverize" meant the rationing of household materials. After the armistice treaty was signed in November 1918, officially ending World War I, Wilson appointed Hoover to head the European Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. In this capacity, Hoover channeled 34 million tons of American food, clothing, and supplies to war-torn Europe, aiding people in twenty nations. His service during World War I made Hoover one of the few Republicans trusted by Wilson. Because of Hoover's knowledge of world affairs, Wilson relied him at the Versailles Peace Conference and as director of the President's Supreme Economic Council in 1918. The following year, Hoover founded the Hoover Library on War, Revolution, and Peace at Stanford University as an archive for the records of World War I. This privately endowed organization later became the Hoover Institution, devoted to the study of peace and war. No isolationist, Hoover supported American participation in the League of Nations. He believed, though, that Wilson's stubborn idealism led Congress to reject American participation in the League. In 1920, Hoover emerged as a contender for the Republican presidential nomination. His run was blocked, however, by fellow a Californian, Senator Hiram Johnson, who objected to Hoover's support for the League. Republican Warren Harding won the White House in 1920 and appointed Hoover as his secretary of commerce, a position that Hoover retained under Harding's successor, President Calvin Coolidge. Under Hoover's leadership, the Department of Commerce became as influential and important a government agency as the Departments of State and Treasury. Hoover encouraged research into measures designed to counteract harmful business cycles. He supported government regulation of new industries like aviation and radio. He brought together more than one hundred different industries and convinced them to adopt standardized tools, hardware, building materials, and automobile parts. Finally, he aggressively pursued international trade opportunities for American business. To win these reforms, Hoover strengthened existing agencies in the Commerce Department, like the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, or simply established new ones, like the Bureau of Standards, for the standardization project. He also formed commissions that brought together government officials, experts, and leaders of the relevant economic sectors to work towards reform. The initiatives Hoover supported as commerce secretary—and the ways in which he pursued them—reveal his thinking about contemporary life in the United States and about the federal government's role in American society. Hoover hoped to create a more organized economy that would regularize the business cycle, eliminating damaging ebbs and flows and generating higher rates of economic growth. He believed that eradicating waste and improving efficiency would achieve some of these results— thus, his support for standardization and for statistical research into the workings of the economy. He also believed that the American economy would be healthier if business leaders worked together, and with government officials and experts from the social sciences, in a form of private-sector economic planning. This stance led him to support trade associations—industry-wide cooperative groups wherein information on prices, markets, and products could be exchanged among competitors—which Hoover saw as a middle way between competition and monopoly. He insisted, though, that participation in these associations remain voluntary and that the government merely promote and encourage, rather than require, their establishment. Hoover hoped that these innovations would strengthen what he saw as the central component of the American experience: individualism. In 1922, Hoover published a small book, entitled American Individualism, that examined the Western intellectual tradition's major social philosophies, including individualism, socialism, communism, capitalism, and autocracy. Hoover concluded that individualism was the superior principle around which to organize society. He rejected the laissez-faire capitalism of the Right and the socialism and communism of the Left because he believed that these ideologies hindered rather than helped the individual. Instead, Hoover sought a "balance of perspective" between Right and Left that theoretically would create and maintain opportunities for Americans to succeed. Through enterprises like those he championed as commerce secretary, Hoover believed the federal government could facilitate the creation of political, social, and economic conditions in which individual Americans could flourish. Hoover's positions and thinking placed him solidly in the progressive camp of the Republican Party. As secretary of commerce, Hoover emerged as a potential running-mate for Coolidge in the 1924 presidential election, though that effort fell short. Hoover's reputation with the American people reached its peak in 1927, when he took charge of relief efforts following disastrous floods along the Mississippi River. The episode displayed Hoover at his best: as a humanitarian and leader with the ability to solve problems. When Coolidge announced in 1927 that he would not seek reelection, Hoover became the leading candidate for the Republican presidential nomination.

Scottish Highlanders

Immigrant group that did not feel any loyalty towards the British crown.

Describe the events in Asia that brought Japan into conflict with the United States. How close to war was the nation prior to the Pearl Harbor attack?

Japan took advantage of the chaos with Great Britain, France, and Russia, and formed an alliance with Germany and Italy. Japan captured Vietnam, which was a French colony, and targeted the Dutch East and Indies. They were close to war before Pearl Harbor since Stimson rejected negotiations.

Spread of Jim Crow and Southern Society

Jim Crow laws were laws created by white southerners to enforce racial segregation across the South from the 1870s through the 1960s. In 1896, the Supreme Court declared Jim Crow segregation legal in the Plessy v. Ferguson decision.

Privy Council

King's personal advisers and leading parliamentarians often appointed by the king. It was their responsibility to carry out any wishes of the King. The Privy Council's influence in Parliament made the body less representational and flexible to handle the American problem.

Conditions for Southern African Americans

Laws restricted blacks from exercising their freedom.

Southern Advantages

Leaders: Many believed that the Confederacy had better leaders, such as Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, whom were some of the best officers before the war. Home Advantage: The Confederate soldiers knew the terrain better than that of their counterparts. A psychological aspect could be that they were fighting for their land, for their families, which could have been the driving force although they were vastly outnumbered. Geography: The coastline is longer, which took more time to travel, and therefore capture.

How did the United States react to the Holocaust? Why did the United States not do more to save the Jews from the Nazi extermination campaign?

Like most other countries, the United States did not welcome Jewish refugees from Europe. In 1939, 83% of Americans were opposed to the admission of refugees. In the midst of the Great Depression, many feared the burden that immigrants could place on the nation's economy; refugees, who in most cases were prevented from bringing any money or assets with them, were an even greater cause for concern. Indeed, as early as 1930, President Herbert Hoover reinterpreted immigration legislation barring those "likely to become a public charge" to include even those immigrants who were capable of working, reasoning that high unemployment would make it impossible for immigrants to find jobs. While economic concerns certainly played a role in Americans' attitudes toward immigration, so too did feelings of fear, mistrust, and even hatred of those who were different. Immigration policies were shaped by fears of communist infiltrators and Nazi spies. Antisemitism also played an important role in public opinion. It was propagated by leaders like Father Charles Coughlin, known as "the radio priest," who was the first to offer Catholic religious services over the radio and reached millions of people with each broadcast. In addition to his religious message, Coughlin preached antisemitism, accusing the Jews of manipulating financial institutions and conspiring to control the world. Industrialist Henry Ford was another prominent voice spreading antisemitism. Martha and Waitstill Sharp challenged this strong tide of opinion when they agreed to travel to Europe to help victims of the Nazi regime. They were among a small number of Americans who worked to aid refugees despite popular sentiment and official government policies. Many of those involved had friends and relatives abroad. They inundated members of Congress and government officials with letters and telegrams. A smaller number still, including the Sharps, actually traveled to Europe in an attempt to aid the refugees. Most rescue and relief work was done under the auspices of aid groups such as the Unitarian Service Committee (created through the Sharps' work), the American Friends Service Committee (run by the Quakers), the Committee for the Care of European Children, and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. Some American government officials also recognized the danger and looked for ways to bring more refugees into the country. At a time when having the right "papers" determined a refugee's chance of survival, immigration policy was crucial. In 1939, Senator Robert Wagner, a Democrat from New York, and Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers, a Republican from Massachusetts, sponsored a bill that proposed to allow German Jewish children to enter the United States outside of official immigration quotas. The bill caused a loud and bitter public debate, but it never even reached a vote in Congress. In 1940, members of the President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees argued with the State Department to simplify immigration procedures for refugees. This effort was also defeated. Refugees had an ally in First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, who supported liberalizing immigration laws, wrote about the refugee crisis in her weekly newspaper column, and worked behind the scenes to effect change. Mrs. Roosevelt's interventions successfully helped some individual refugees, particularly artists and intellectuals, but she was not able to shift national policies. Those in power in the State Department insisted on enforcing the nation's immigration laws as strictly as possible. Breckinridge Long, the State Department officer responsible for issuing visas, was deeply antisemitic. He was determined to limit immigration and used the State Department's power to create a number of barriers that made it almost impossible for refugees to seek asylum in the United States. For example, the application form for US visas was eight feet long and printed in small type. Long believed that he was "the first line of defense" against those who would "make America vulnerable to enemies for the sake of humanitarianism." Long and his colleagues at the State Department went so far as to turn away a group of Jewish refugees aboard the St. Louis in May 1939 when the German ocean liner sought to dock in Florida after the refugees were denied entry to Cuba. Following their deportation back to Europe, many of these people perished in the Holocaust.

Free Soil Party

Main purpose was to oppose the expansion of slavery into the western territories, arguing that free men on free soil constituted a morally and economically superior system to slavery.

Describe the contrasting views of managed development conservationists and naturalists. What episode crystallized the naturalist movement?

Managed development conservationists believe in allowing limited sustainable development while protecting the area's natural environmental features. Naturalism was a literary movement that used realism to suggest that social conditions, heredity, and environment had an inescapable force in shaping human character. Theodore Dreiser popularized it with his novels "Sister Carrie" and "An American Tragedy".

Describe how African-American military and industrial contributions during World War I raised black aspirations. What resulted after the war?

Many African Americans viewed the war as a chance to exhibit patriotism and gain respect from whites. However, there was perhaps even more violence from whites after the war because African Americans "dared" to even think of being respected.

Why did Taft get the Republican nomination in 1912 despite Roosevelt's obvious popularity?

Many began to view Roosevelt as a dangerous radical because he began advocating the recall of judicial decisions through popular vote, then he would press forward "to see that the wage-worker, the small producer, the ordinary consumer, shall get their fair share of the benefit of business prosperity."

What philosophy shaped Martin Luther King, Jr.'s approach to civil rights protest? How did he become the principal leader and symbol of the movement?

Martin Luther King, Jr. became the predominant leader in the Civil Rights Movement to end racial segregation and discrimination in America during the 1950s and 1960s and a leading spokesperson for nonviolent methods of achieving social change. His eloquence as a speaker and his personal charisma, combined with a deeply rooted determination to establish equality among all races despite personal risk won him a world-wide following. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Price in 1964 and was selected by Time magazine as its Man of the Year. His "I Have a Dream" speech, which is now considered to be among the great speeches of American history, is frequently quoted. His success in galvanizing the drive for civil rights, however, made him the target of conservative segregationists who believed firmly in the superiority of the white race and feared social change. He was arrested over 20 times and his home was bombed. Ultimately, he was assassinated on April 4, 1968, on the balcony of a motel where he was staying in Memphis. A monument to Dr. King was unveiled in the national capital in 2012. His tactics for achieving social change were drawn from those of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (known as Mahatma, "great soul"), who had used nonviolent civil disobedience to bring about change in his native India (as he had done with some success previously to win concessions for Indian immigrants living in South Africa's apartheid system). Gandhi's methods included boycotts of British goods and institutions. (Like Martin Luther King, Jr., Gandhi was repeatedly arrested and ultimately was assassinated by a fanatic.) Although King stressed nonviolence, even when confronted by violence, those who opposed change did not observe such niceties. Protestors were beaten, sprayed with high-pressure water hoses, tear-gassed, and attacked by police dogs; bombings at black churches and other locations took a number of lives; some, both black and white, who agitated for civil rights such as the right to vote were murdered, but the movement pressed on. King was the most prominent leader in the drive to register black voters in Atlanta and the march on Washington, D.C., that drew a quarter-million participants. His message had moved beyond African Americans and was drawing supporters from all segments of society, many of them appalled by the violence they saw being conducted against peaceful protesters night after night on television news. He also drew from Thoreau and Christian doctrine.

Suburbs

Moderately well-to-do people took advantage of less expensive land on the edges of the city and settled there.

What role did American ground forces play in the conflict?

Most of the American troops were on the ground, they helped to blockade Germany in the Navy.

Why did the war turn into a stalemate?

Neither side could move or win; at a certain point it was just a war of attrition. The dead and wounded were continuous and it appeared the fighting could never end. Both sides had made some gains and it was just time to bring it to a halt.

What impact did the Soviet launching of Sputnik have on U.S. education and the space effort?

On October 4, 1957, exactly 55 years ago, scientists in the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1. This launch of the first satellite to orbit the Earth was a coup for the Soviet Union, a Communist country and America's principal international rival in the Cold War. The Soviets' history-making accomplishment created both paranoia (Americans feared that the Soviets were spying on them), and concern that the Soviets had beaten Americans into space. And so, just as Sputnik jump-started the space race, that little aluminum sphere also jolted the nation's education system: educators quickly seized on the launch to push for more government money. The effect was huge. In 1958, Congress approved $1 billion for the National Defense Education Act, or NDEA, the first of an alphabet soup of more than a dozen programs meant to help US students compete with the Soviets. It also involved the federal government to an unprecedented extent with all levels of American education. In addition, the federal government took several other remarkable actions: * President Eisenhower established the position of Presidential Science Advisor; * The House and the Senate reorganized their committee structures to focus on science policy; * Congress created the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), charging it to create a civilian space program; * Congress tripled funding for the National Science Foundation to improve science education. And at the local level: schools began focusing on gifted students, handpicking them for upper-level courses, and they also began receiving matching funds for math, science and foreign languages. Baby-boomer families began buying educational toys — telescopes and plastic models of the human body. And second language instruction quickly found its way to elementary schools (a very smart move, since those youngsters are very receptive to learning another language).

Thomas Jefferson

One of the Founding Fathers of the United States and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. He served as the third President of the United States (1801-1809) and was elected the second Vice President of the United States under John Adams (1797-1801). A proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights who motivated American colonists to break from Great Britain and form a new nation, he produced formative documents and nation-building decisions at both the state and national level.

George Whitefield

One of the founders of Methodism and a popular preacher during the Great Awakening.

Charter Colony

One of the three British colonies in America (Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island) governed by royal charter without direct interference from the crown.

What two American naval and air victories in mid-1942 stemmed the Japanese tide? What island victory early in 1943 ended Japanese chances at an offensive toward the south?

One victory was the Battle of Coral Sea. Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons. The battle marked the first time since the start of the war that a major Japanese advance had been checked by the Allies. More importantly, the Japanese fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku - the former damaged and the latter with a depleted aircraft complement - were unable to participate in the Battle of Midway the following month, while Yorktown did participate, ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two adversaries and contributing significantly to the U.S. victory in that battle. The other victory was at the Battle of Midway. The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped another demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in the Pacific War and thus ensure Japanese dominance in the Pacific. Luring the American aircraft carriers into a trap and occupying Midway was part of an overall "barrier" strategy to extend Japan's defensive perimeter, in response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii itself. The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to prepare its own ambush. There were seven aircraft carriers involved in the battle and all four of Japan's large aircraft carriers—Akagi, Kaga, Soryu and Hiryu, part of the six-carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier—and a heavy cruiser were sunk, while the U.S. lost only the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well-trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The island victory was Guadalcanal. On 7 August 1942, Allied forces, predominantly United States Marines, landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida in the southern Solomon Islands, with the objective of denying their use by the Japanese to threaten Allied supply and communication routes between the US, Australia, and New Zealand. The Allies also intended to use Guadalcanal and Tulagi as bases to support a campaign to eventually capture or neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. The Allies overwhelmed the outnumbered Japanese defenders, who had occupied the islands since May 1942, and captured Tulagi and Florida, as well as an airfield (later named Henderson Field) that was under construction on Guadalcanal. Powerful American and Australian naval forces supported the landings. Surprised by the Allied offensive, the Japanese made several attempts between August and November to retake Henderson Field. Three major land battles, seven large naval battles (five nighttime surface actions and two carrier battles), and continual (almost daily) aerial battles, culminated in the decisive Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in early November, in which the last Japanese attempt to bombard Henderson Field from the sea and land with enough troops to retake it was defeated. In December, the Japanese abandoned their efforts to retake Guadalcanal and evacuated their remaining forces by 7 February 1943, in the face of an offensive by the US Army's XIV Corps. The Guadalcanal campaign was a significant strategic combined arms Allied victory in the Pacific theater. Along with the Battle of Midway, it has been called a turning point in the war against Japan. The Japanese had reached the peak of their conquests in the Pacific. The victories at Milne Bay, Buna-Gona, and Guadalcanal marked the Allied transition from defensive operations to the strategic initiative in the theater, leading to offensive operations such as the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and Central Pacific campaigns, that eventually resulted in Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.

Oregon Trail

Overland trail of more than two thousand miles that carried American settlers from the Midwest to new settlements in Oregon, California, and Utah.

Interchangeable Parts

Parts (components) that are, for practical purposes, identical. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they will fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting (such as filing).

Assimilation

People began to break ties with old culture and conform to the American way.

"his Fraudulency"

People called Rutherford B. Hayes "his Fraudulency" because they did not think he won fairly.

Henry Ford

Pioneered the use of the assembly line; mass production

Restricting the Franchise, Poll Taxes, and Literacy Tests

Poll taxes and literacy tests wee put in place to restrict African American's right to vote.

What new attitudes toward motherhood, sex, and leisure developed in the 1920s, especially among middle-class women?

Professional opportunities for women remained limited by the prevailing assumptions about what were suitable female occupations. The "new professional woman" was a vivid and widely publicized image. In reality, most married women did not work outside the home. Motherhood became less emotionally fulfilling, less connected to their instinctive lives, and more dependent on institutions and people (for advice and assistance) so they devoted their time to marriage. Some argued women should be free to enjoy the pleasures of sex...so came birth control.

Radical vs. Conservative Republican views on Reconstruction

Radicals demanded rights for freedmen, conservatives were the opposite of this.

What were problems with the Civil War Pension System?

Rates were often lower than they should be. Lots of men transferred their old pensions to the new one that paid more.

Bessemer Process/Open Hearth Process

Removes impurities of iron by blowing hot air through it.

Election of 1860

Republican Abraham Lincoln defeated Southern Democrat John C. Breckinridge, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, and Constitutional Union candidate John Bell.

Interstate Commerce Act

Required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just" but did not empower the government to fix specific rates.

Black Codes

Restricted African Americans freedom, compelled them to work low wages/debt.

Prohibitory Act

Restricted trade and rights of colonists in response to the growing rebellion.

How did Roosevelt manage to aid Great Britain in 1939 and 1940 in various ways short of war?

Roosevelt added military goods to the cash-and-carry policy of the Neutrality Acts despite isolationists and aided Winston Churchill in exchange for bases in western hemisphere.

What was the Currency or Gold Standard Act of 1900?

Signed by McKinley in 1900 and stated that all paper money must be backed only by gold.

Military Districts

South divided into five military districts; each under a general.

Scalawags

Southern whites who supported Reconstruction.

Tejanos

Spanish speaking people born in Texas.

What private acts created a climate of repression during the war?

State and local governments, corporations, universities, and private citizens contributed to the climate of repression.

Staple Crops

Sugar, tobacco, cotton, indigo, and rice.

Mass Production

System of deskilling industrial labor; utilized and popularized by Henry Ford.

How successful were the socialists and communists in exploiting the unrest caused by the Depression?

They were ultimately unsuccessful because they failed to get a lot of support from the public.

Alice Hamilton

Toxicologist known for her work on industrial poisons.

Before 1917, how did Wilson balance the demands for preparedness and the cries for peace? What effect did his position have on the 1916 election?

Wilson at first sided with the antipreparedness forces, denouncing the idea of an American military buildup as needless and provocative, but as tensions between the US and Germany grew, he changed his mind. He endorsed an ambitious proposal for a large and rapid increase in the nation's armed forces. He worked hard to win approval of it, even embarking on a national speaking tour to arouse support for the proposal. "He kept us out of war" became Wilson's 1916 campaign slogan.

Royal Colony

A colony administered by a royal governor and council appointed by the British crown.

George McClellan

American soldier, civil engineer, railroad executive, and politician. A graduate of West Point, McClellan served with distinction during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), and later left the Army to work in railroads until the outbreak of the American Civil War (1861-1865). Early in the war, McClellan was appointed to the rank of major general and played an important role in raising a well-trained and organized army, which would become the Army of the Potomac in the Eastern Theater; he served a brief period (November 1861 to March 1862) as general-in-chief of the United States Army / Union Army. Although McClellan was meticulous in his planning and preparations, these very characteristics hampered his ability to challenge aggressive opponents in a fast-moving battlefield environment. He chronically overestimated the strength of enemy units and was reluctant to apply principles of mass, frequently leaving large portions of his army unengaged at decisive points. McClellan organized and led the Union army in the Peninsula Campaign in southeastern Virginia from March through July 1862. It was the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. Making an amphibious clockwise turning movement around the Confederate States Army in northern Virginia, McClellan's forces turned west to move up the Virginia Peninsula, between the James and York Rivers landing from the Chesapeake Bay, with the Confederate capital, Richmond, as their objective. Initially, McClellan was somewhat successful against the equally cautious General Joseph E. Johnston, but the military emergence of General Robert E. Lee to command the Army of Northern Virginia turned the subsequent Seven Days Battles into a partial Union defeat. General McClellan failed to maintain the trust of 16th President Abraham Lincoln. He did not trust his commander-in-chief and was privately derisive of him. He was removed from command in November after failing to decisively pursue Lee's Army following the tactically inconclusive but strategic Union victory at the Battle of Antietam outside Sharpsburg, Maryland and never received another field command. McClellan went on to become the unsuccessful Democratic Party nominee in the 1864 presidential election against Lincoln's reelection. The effectiveness of his campaign was damaged when he repudiated his party's platform, which promised an end to the war and negotiations with the southern Confederacy. He served as the 24th Governor of New Jersey from 1878 to 1881. He eventually became a writer, and vigorously defended his Civil War conduct. Most modern authorities have assessed McClellan as a poor battlefield general. Some historians view him as a highly capable commander whose reputation suffered unfairly at the hands of pro-Lincoln partisans who made him a scapegoat for the Union's military setbacks. After the war, subsequent commanding general and 18th President Ulysses S. Grant was asked for his opinion of McClellan as a general; he replied, "McClellan is to me one of the mysteries of the war."

Amistad

19th-century two-masted schooner, owned by a Spaniard living in Cuba. It became renowned in July 1839 for a slave revolt by Mende captives, who had been enslaved in Sierra Leone, and were being transported from Havana, Cuba to their purchasers' plantations. The African captives took control of the ship, killing some of the crew and ordering the survivors to sail the ship to Africa. The Spanish survivors secretly maneuvered the ship north, and La Amistad was captured off the coast of Long Island by the brig USS Washington. The Mende and La Amistad were interned in Connecticut while federal court proceedings were undertaken for their disposition. The owners of the ship and Spanish government claimed the slaves as property; but the US had banned the African trade and argued that the Mende were legally free. Because of issues of ownership and jurisdiction, the case gained international attention. Known as United States v. The Amistad (1841), the case was finally decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in favor of the Mende, restoring their freedom. It became a symbol in the United States in the movement to abolish slavery.

Methodists

A movement of Protestant Christianity; the religion is known for concern for societal welfare and doing missionary work, as well as trying to spread the message of Jesus around by establishing hospitals, schools, and soup kitchens; founded by John and Charles Wesley.

Almshouses and Workhouses

Charitable housing provided to enable people (typically elderly people who can no longer work to earn enough to pay rent) to live in a particular community. They are often targeted at the poor of a locality, at those from certain forms of previous employment, or their widows, and are generally maintained by a charity or the trustees of a bequest. Almshouses were originally formed as extensions of the church system and were later adapted by local officials and authorities.

Second Continental Congress

Convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting in the spring of 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774. The Second Congress managed the Colonial war effort and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States by raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties such as the Olive Branch Petition. The Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775, effectively reconvening the First Continental Congress. Many of the 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the same president (Peyton Randolph) and secretary (Charles Thomson). Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses; he was replaced in the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. Henry Middleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined. Hancock was elected president on May 24. Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the Second Continental Congress convened. Georgia had not participated in the First Continental Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second. On May 13, 1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John's in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself. On July 4, 1775, revolutionary Georgians held a Provincial Congress to decide how to respond to the American Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. They arrived on July 20.

Frederick Law Olmstead

Designer of New York's Central Park, which was originally for the wealthy.

Contrast Eisenhower's attitude toward new social legislation with his approach to existing programs. What act of his presidency led to the largest public works project in American history?

Eisenhower did not really do a lot to create or work with new legislation and programs that were trying to be made. However, he resisted the pressure to get rid of existing legislation and even increased some programs, such as the Social Security system. The act that led to the largest public works project in history was the Federal highway Act of 1956, which gave $25 billion to build over 40,000 miles of interstate highway.

What obstacles did Wilson face in getting the European leaders to accept his approach to peace? What domestic development weakened his position?

He provided no formula for deciding how to implement the national self-determination that he promised for subjugated peoples. He said little about economic rivalries and their effect on international relations, even though such economic tensions have been in large part responsible for the war. The Allies reacted unhappily when Wilson refused to make the US their "ally" but had kept his distance as an "associate" of his European partners. Britain and France had a lot of bitterness toward Germany and were in no mood for a benign peace. The Republicans were elected to the presidency and they has their own reasons for opposing Wilson.

What events prompted passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1965 (Voting Rights Act)?

In the 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement increased pressure on the federal government to protect the voting rights of racial minorities. In 1957, Congress passed the first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction: the Civil Rights Act of 1957. This legislation authorized the Attorney General to sue for injunctive relief on behalf of persons whose Fifteenth Amendment rights were deprived, created the Civil Rights Division within the Department of Justice to enforce civil rights through litigation, and created the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate voting rights deprivations. Further protections were enacted in the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which allowed federal courts to appoint referees to conduct voter registration in jurisdictions that engaged in voting discrimination against racial minorities. Although these acts helped empower courts to remedy violations of federal voting rights, strict legal standards made it difficult for the Department of Justice to successfully pursue litigation. For example, to win a discrimination lawsuit against a state that maintained a literacy test, the Department needed to prove that the rejected voter-registration applications of racial minorities were comparable to the accepted applications of whites. This involved comparing thousands of applications in each of the state's counties in a process that could last months. The Department's efforts were further hampered by resistance from local election officials, who would claim to have misplaced the voter registration records of racial minorities, remove registered racial minorities from the electoral rolls, and resign so that voter registration ceased. Moreover, the Department often needed to appeal lawsuits several times before the judiciary provided relief because many federal district court judges opposed racial minority suffrage. Thus, between 1957 and 1964, the African-American voter registration rate in the South improved marginally even though the Department litigated 71 voting rights lawsuits. Congress responded to rampant discrimination against racial minorities in public accommodations and government services by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act included some voting rights protections; it required registrars to equally administer literacy tests in writing to each voter and to accept applications that contained minor errors, and it created a rebuttable presumption that persons with a sixth-grade education were sufficiently literate to vote. However, despite lobbying from civil rights leaders, the Act did not prohibit most forms of voting discrimination. President Lyndon B. Johnson recognized this, and shortly after the 1964 elections in which Democrats gained overwhelming majorities in both chambers of Congress, he privately instructed Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach to draft "the *******dest, toughest voting rights act that you can". However, Johnson did not publicly push for the legislation at the time; his advisers warned him of political costs for vigorously pursuing a voting rights bill so soon after Congress had passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and Johnson was concerned that championing voting rights would endanger his Great Society reforms by angering Southern Democrats in Congress. Following the 1964 elections, civil rights organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) pushed for federal action to protect the voting rights of racial minorities. Their efforts culminated in protests in Alabama, particularly in the city of Selma, where County Sheriff Jim Clark's police force violently resisted African-American voter registration efforts. Speaking about the voting rights push in Selma, James Forman of SNCC said: Our strategy, as usual, was to force the U.S. government to intervene in case there were arrests—and if they did not intervene, that inaction would once again prove the government was not on our side and thus intensify the development of a mass consciousness among blacks. Our slogan for this drive was "One Man, One Vote." In January 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr., James Bevel, and other civil rights leaders organized several demonstrations in Selma that led to violent clashes with police. These marches received national media coverage and drew attention to the issue of voting rights. King and other demonstrators were arrested during a march on February 1 for violating an anti-parade ordinance; this inspired similar marches in the following days, causing hundreds more to be arrested. On February 4, civil rights leader Malcolm X gave a militant speech in Selma in which he said that many African Americans did not support King's nonviolent approach; he later privately said that he wanted to frighten whites into supporting King. The next day, King was released and a letter he wrote addressing voting rights, "Letter From A Selma Jail", appeared in The New York Times. With the nation paying increasing attention to Selma and voting rights, President Johnson reversed his decision to delay voting rights legislation, and on February 6, he announced he would send a proposal to Congress. However, he did not reveal the proposal's content or when it would come before Congress. On February 18 in Marion, Alabama, state troopers violently broke up a nighttime voting-rights march during which officer James Bonard Fowler shot and killed young African-American protester Jimmie Lee Jackson, who was unarmed and protecting his mother. Spurred by this event, and at the initiation of Bevel, on March 7 SCLC and SNCC began the Selma to Montgomery marches in which Selma residents proceeded to march to Alabama's capital, Montgomery, to highlight voting rights issues and present Governor George Wallace with their grievances. On the first march, demonstrators were stopped by state and county police on horseback at the Edmund Pettus Bridge near Selma. The police shot tear gas into the crowd and trampled protesters. Televised footage of the scene, which became known as "Bloody Sunday", generated outrage across the country. In the wake of the events in Selma, President Johnson, addressing a televised joint session of Congress on March 15, called on legislators to enact expansive voting rights legislation. He concluded his speech with the words "we shall overcome", a major theme of the Civil Rights Movement. The legislation that Johnson referred to was the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which was introduced in Congress two days later while civil rights leaders, now under the protection of federal troops, led a march of 25,000 people from Selma to Montgomery.

Enclosure Movement

In the English countryside English landlords were "enclosing" croplands for sheep grazing, forcing many small farmers into precarious tenancy or, off their land altogether.

Why did the Roosevelt administration extend diplomatic recognition to the Soviet Union? What was the effect of this action?

The U.S. and Russia had mistrust and hostility with each other after the Bolshevik revolution. Powerful voices in U.S. urged a change in policy because soviet union was possible source of trade. Russia wanted US help with containing Japan. In Nov. 1933 they reached an agreement; Soviets would stop propaganda efforts in the U.S. and the U.S. would recognize the Soviet Union. However, American trade failed to start up in Russia. The U.S. showed no interest in stopping Japan. At the end of 1934, the U.S. and Russia still mistrusted each other and were hostile.

What role did radio play for Depression-era Americans?

The radio was one of the only sources of news ("Fireside Chats") and was also an escape from the harsh realities of the Depression.

Southern Conscription and Manpower Shortages

The Confederacy had to utilize conscription and drafting due to shortage of manpower.

Competing Notions of Freedom

African Americans wanted their independence, Southerners wanted the freedom to live their life undisturbed.

What impact did the Depression have on the traditional success ethic of Americans?

Although the Depression shook the confidence of many, the Depression did not seriously erode the success ethic. People were still committed to traditional American emphasis on the individual and the idea that the individual was in control of his or her fate.

P.T. Barnum

American politician, showman, and businessman remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and for founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus.

What led to the string of race riots during and shortly after the war? What were the riots like, and where was the first episode?

Blacks returning from the war felt they deserved respect from whites, but whites though otherwise. The main riot was the Chicago race riot of 1919. Longstanding racial tensions between whites and blacks exploded in five days of violence that started on July 27, 1919. On that hot summer day, on a segregated Chicago beach, a white man was throwing rocks at black swimmers in the water at a beach on the South Side which resulted in Eugene Williams' death. Tensions escalated when a white police officer not only failed to arrest the white man responsible for Williams' death, but arrested a black man instead. Objections by black observers were met with violence by whites. Attacks between white and black mobs erupted swiftly. At one point, a white mob threatened Provident Hospital, many of whose patients were African American. The police successfully held them off. The Chicago riot lasted almost a week, ending only after the government had deployed nearly 6,000 National Guard infantrymen.

Henry Clay

Clay was a Political Scientist during the 1820's. He was also a Congressman from Kentucky. He developed the American System which the US adopted after the War of 1812. The American System created a protective tariff to American Markets. It also used the tariff to build roads and canals for better transportation. (The American System started a cycle to trading for US market)

Public Health Service

Created by federal government in 1912; charged with preventing diseases such as tuberculosis, anemia, etc. Attempted to create common health standards for factories but was too weak.

What led to the demise of Senator Joseph McCarthy and the end of the Red Scare?

Despite initial popularity among his fellow party members and the American public, McCarthy's career began to decline. Even some moderate Republicans withdrew their support from him because they felt the senator was hurting the presidential administration. Despite his waning support, President Eisenhower refrained from publicly reprimanding McCarthy. Apparently, the president refused to "go into the gutter" with McCarthy by initializing a public confrontation. Doing so would only create more chaos and generate more publicity for the senator .However, it became apparent that McCarthy's end was near. In June 1953, J.B. Matthews was appointed as McCarthy's research director. In July, Matthews published an article called "Reds in our churches" in the conservative American Mercury. In it, Matthews referred to the Protestant clergy as " the largest single group supporting the Communist apparatus in the United States." The result was a public outrage at Matthews as well as his boss McCarthy. McCarthy began his investigation of the Army Signal Corps Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey in 1953. The laboratory had employed many Jewish engineers from New York. Many of the civilian employees there were members of the left-leaning Populist Front. In fact, Julius Rosenberg once worked there. Many of the workers have been inspected and cleared by the government. The army was already reexamining the entire workforce in 1953.Nevertheless, McCarthy insisted on opening up an investigation into the matter. McCarthy eventually gave up the investigation after months of quarreling with the army. After giving up his investigation on the Army Signal Corps, McCarthy's committee began to concentrate on Irving Peress, an Army dentist. Peress had invoked the Fifth Amendment when filling out the army's questionnaire. Even though he was put under military surveillance, Peress was still promoted to Major. The army eventually found the paperwork that called for his dismissal and Peress was quickly discharged. McCarthy then launched a campaign to criticize the army for allowing Peress to be promoted. When interrogating General Ralph Zwicker, the senator demanded that the general should reveal some names. Zwicker refused because he could not violate executive order. In response, McCarthy rudely insulted the general by comparing his intelligence to that of a "five year old child." McCarthy's treatment of the general generated a lot of hostility from the press and the American public. In retaliation for McCarthy's investigation, the Army accused McCarthy's aide Roy Cohn of trying to force the Army into giving special treatment to his friend G. David Schine. The Senate then started hearings into the Peress matter. The investigations and hearings between the Army and McCarthy was televised live to the public. For two months, Americans watched on as McCarthy bully witnesses and called "point of order" to make crude remarks. The climax came on June 9. Representing the Army was Joseph Welch. As the Welch was questioning Cohn, McCarthy intervened and said, "I think we should tell him that he has in his law firm a young man named Fisher, whom he recommended, incidentally, to do work on this committee, who has been for a number of years a member of an organization which was named, oh year and years ago, as the legal bulwark of the Communist party." Here, McCarthy was referring to Fred Fisher, a young associate in Welch's law firm. Fisher had refused to come to the hearings because he was once affiliated with the National Lawyers Guild. In response, Welch said he did not let Fisher come to the hearing because he did not want to hurt "the lad" on national television. Welch then urged McCarthy to drop the issue. Nevertheless, McCarthy persisted in questioning Fisher's background. At this point Welch exclaimed, Welch: You've done enough. Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency? At this point, the entire American public viewed McCarthy with disdain. On television, the senator from Wisconsin came off as cruel, manipulative and reckless. The hearings were not the only components that eroded McCarthy's credibility. Earlier in the year, the journalist Edward R. Murrow had aired a documentary that showed how McCarthy's charges were groundless and how he had used bullying techniques to harass individuals. By June, the senator's Gallup Poll ratings fell from 50% to 34%. On December 2, the Senate voted to censure Joe McCarthy by a margin of sixty-seven to twenty-two. Driven by depression from being censured, Joe McCarthy resorted to alcohol, which greatly worsen his health. On May 2, 1957, Joe McCarthy died from acute hepatitis and was buried in Appleton, Michigan.

Social Class Changes

Expanding middle class; wealthy moved to suburbs.

John Dewey

Father of progressive education.

Free Soil and Free Labor

Free soil party believed free men on free soil comprised a morally and economically superior system to slavery.

What were Herbert Hoover's first approaches to combating the Depression? How effective were they?

His first response was to try and restore the public's confidence in the economy. In attempt to do so he gathered leaders of business labor & agriculture to the White House. He pushed for them to adopt a program of voluntary cooperation for recovery. He tried to persuade them of not to lay off workers but to give them higher wages & better hours. However, the economic conditions deteriorated and the voluntary cooperation idea was ineffective.

Southern Wartime Military Leadership

Jefferson Davis was named provisional president on February 9, 1861, and assumed similar commander-in-chief responsibilities as would Lincoln; on November 6, 1861 Davis was elected President of the Confederate States of America under the Confederate Constitution. Alexander H. Stephens was appointed as Vice President of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, and later assumed identical vice presidential responsibilities as Hannibal Hamlin did. Several men served the Confederacy as Secretary of War, including Leroy Pope Walker, Judah P. Benjamin, George W. Randolph, James Seddon, and John C. Breckinridge. Stephen Mallory was Confederate Secretary of the Navy throughout the conflict.

John Brown's Raid

John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry was an effort by armed abolitionist John Brown to initiate an armed slave revolt in 1859 by taking over a United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown's party of 22 was defeated by a company of U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant Israel Greene. Colonel Robert E. Lee was in overall command of the operation to retake the arsenal. John Brown had originally asked Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass, both of whom he had met in his transformative years as an abolitionist in Springfield, Massachusetts, to join him in his raid, but Tubman was prevented by illness, and Douglass declined, as he believed Brown's plan would fail.

Sarah Bagley

Labor leader in New England during the 1840s; an advocate of shorter workdays for factory operatives and mechanics, she campaigned to make ten hours of labor per day the maximum in Massachusetts.

"Pidgin"

Language that may develop when two groups of people with different languages meet. The pidgin has some characteristics of each language.

Confiscation Acts

Laws passed by the United States government during the Civil War with the intention of freeing the slaves still held by the Confederate forces in the South.

James Otis

Lawyer in colonial Massachusetts, a member of the Massachusetts provincial assembly, and an early advocate of the Patriot views against British policy that led to the American Revolution. His catchphrase "Taxation without representation is tyranny" became the basic Patriot position.

James Wolfe

Major General James Wolfe was a British Army Officer, known for his training reforms and remembered chiefly for his victory in 1759 over the French at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in Quebec.

Mountain Men

Men hired by eastern companies to trap animals for fur in the Rocky Mountains and other regions of the US. Later became trailblazers and guides.

Social Gospel

Movement led by Washington Gladden - taught religion and human dignity would help the middle class overcome problems of industrialization.

Louisa May Alcott

Novelist best known for Little Women.

Theodore Dreiser

Novelist who used blunt prose to batter promoters and profiteers in The Financer and The Titan.

Sentimental Novels

Novels written by women and mostly for women.

54th Mass.

One of the first official black units in the U.S. armed forces.

Farmer's Alliances

Organizations that united farmers; goals included more readily available farm credits and federal regulation of railroads.

Tenements

Overcrowded housing for workers and poor, also known as "slum dwellings".

Selectmen

People chosen in the town meetings to govern the town for the next year; usually those who were high up in the church.

Clara Barton

Pioneering nurse who founded the American Red Cross. She was a hospital nurse in the American Civil War, a teacher, and patent clerk. Nursing education was not very formalized at that time and Clara did not attend nursing school, so she provided self-taught nursing care. Barton is noteworthy for doing humanitarian work at a time when relatively few women worked outside the home.

"Redeemers", "Bourbons", and "Home Rule"

Redeemers were the southern wing of the Bourbon Democrats, the conservative, pro-business faction in the Democratic Party, who pursued a policy of Redemption, seeking to oust the Radical Republicans, a coalition of freedmen, "carpetbaggers", and "scalawags". Home rule was a rallying cry used by southern Democrats painting Reconstruction governments as illegitimate—imposed on the South—and themselves as the only party capable of restoring the South to "home rule."

Robber Barons

Refers to industrialists who gained huge profits by paying their employees extremely low wages.

Labor Contract Law Repeal

Repeal of law which was used to recruit immigrant workers; permitted employers to pay for the passage of workers in advance and deduct the amount later from their wages.

What was the effect of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act?

Required government to purchase nearly twice as much silver and added substantially to the amount of money already in circulation.

Samuel Gompers

Responsible for formation of one of the first labor unions (American Federation of Labor)

"Modern Prime Minister"

Robert Walpole was the first.

Why did rock 'n' roll, and especially Elvis Presley, become so popular in the 1950s? What was the role of radio and, later, TV?

Rock n' Roll and Elvis Presley became popular in the 1950s through the rise of counterculture and young peoples desire for something new and rebellious. Elvis' music, and rock'n roll more generally, signified a shifting tide in American society among youth. Youth became interested in upsetting the status quo and listening to and being involved in things that were once considered taboo like rock'n roll. Radio and TV helped to spread this music because it provided a medium for people to hear and learn of new artists and music styles quickly.

Explain Roosevelt's distinction between "civilized" and "uncivilized" nations. How did sea power fit into his vision?

Roosevelt believed civilized nations were predominantly white and Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic and uncivilized nations were generally non-white. He believed a civilized society had the right and duty to intervene in the affairs of a "backward" nation to preserve order and stability.

On what aspect of the war did American entry have the most immediate effect? Explain.

Sea warfare because Americans helped the British fight against German subs, among other things.

The Black Hawk War

Series of clashes in Illinois and Wisconsin between American forces and Indian chief Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox tribes, who unsuccessfully tried to reclaim territory lost under the 1830 Indian Removal Act.

Bear Flag Revolt

Short-lived independence rebellion precipitated by American settlers in California's Sacramento Valley against Mexican authorities. In 1846 approximately 500 Americans were living in California, compared with between 8,000 and 12,000 Mexicans.

Coxey's Army

Supporters of Jacob Coxey; wanted jobs for the unemployed.

Supreme Court and Reconstruction

Supreme Court basically denied African Americans rights.

Old Northwest

Territories acquired by the federal government from the states, encompassing land northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River, and south of the Great Lakes; the well organized management and the sale of the land in the territories under the land ordinances of 1785 and 1787 established a precedent for handling future land acquisition.

Oregon Territory

Territory of Oregon, Washington, and portions of what became British Columbia, Canada; land claimed by both U.S. and Britain and held jointly under the Convention of 1818.

American Antislavery Society

The American Anti-Slavery Society was an abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison, and Arthur Tappan. Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave, was a key leader of this society who often spoke at its meetings. William Wells Brown was also a freed slave who often spoke at meetings. By 1838, the society had 1,350 local charters with around 250,000 members.

Lincoln's Wartime Powers

The Constitution lacked a definition of the war powers that could be exercised by the president, and there were few precedents upon which Lincoln could rely in responding to the war. Yet, believing that he held an awesome power as commander-in-chief and that suppressing rebellion was more an executive function than legislative, Lincoln acted in a way he saw best for the survival of the nation as a union of states. After all, his presidential oath prescribed by the Constitution required him to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" and "to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

What was the appeal of Levittown and similar suburban developments? How did typical suburbs transform family life and shape women's attitudes? What role did race play in suburbanization?

The appeal was to be able to live beyond the noise, pollution, overcrowding and disease of the city, while still close enough to enjoy the benefits of its industrial and cultural vitality. The Levitts certainly did not invent the business of building suburbs, but in many ways, they perfected it. Abraham, a horticultural enthusiast, was heavily involved in the landscaping and gardening of the community. Alfred, the quieter of the two sons, experimented with progressive ways of designing and constructing homes while his brother Bill marketed and sold them with vigor. Bill later became the public face of the company, loved (and later reviled), gracing magazine covers and dubbed the "King of Suburbia." The Levitts experimented with and implemented wholly new methods of building a community, taking division of labor and efficiency to the extreme, transforming "a cottage industry into a major manufacturing process." 7 They divided the construction of each home into twenty-seven steps starting with the laying of a concrete base. Construction workers were trained to do one step at each house (which were spaced 60 feet apart) instead of building each house up from scratch individually. The Levitts' homes were affordable, planted in a picture-perfect, carefully controlled community, and were equipped with futuristic stoves and television sets. The houses were simple, unpretentious, and most importantly to its inhabitants, affordable to both the white and blue collar worker. And the Levitts took more than the homes themselves into consideration—they designed community streets along curvilinear patterns to create a graceful, un-urban grid like feel, and directed cars going through the development to the outside of the community so Levittown would not be disturbed by noisy traffic. Even the maintenance of houses and yards were meticulously governed; buyers agreed to a laundry list of rules that, for example, prohibited residents from hanging laundry to dry outside their homes. Despite such meticulousness in community planning, all was not serene in Levvittown. The Levitts' level of control over the appearance of Levittown did not stop at the yards and houses, but extended to the appearance of the inhabitants themselves. Bill Levitt only sold houses to white buyers, excluding African Americans from buying houses in his communities even after housing segregation had been ruled unconstitutional by the courts. By 1953, the 70,000 people who lived in Levittown constituted the largest community in the United States with no black residents. Originally, the Levitts' racist policy was enshrined in the lease itself, which stipulated that "the tenant agrees not to permit the premises to be sued or occupied by any person other than members of the Caucasian race." 10 That provision was later struck down in court as unconstitutional, but Bill Levitt continued to enforce racial homogeneity in practice by rejecting would-be black buyers. Activist groups across the U.S. and even individuals within Levittown, who united under the Committee to End Discrimination in Levittown, protested the Levitts' racist policies. In 1955, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) sued federal mortgage agencies which had helped future homeowners finance the purchase of homes in the community, basing the suit on the denial of six black veterans from purchasing homes. Thurgood Marshall, the lawyer who had successfully argued Brown v. Board of Education, represented the plaintiffs, but a Philadelphia court dismissed the suit after ruling that the federal agencies were not responsible for preventing housing discrimination. Though the Levitts made it an unofficial policy not to sell homes to minorities, they could not legally prevent an existing homeowner from reselling their home to black buyers. In 1957, William and Daisy Myers, a black couple with young children, bought a house in Levittown, Pennsylvania from the former owners. The Myers family faced endless harassment as well as implicit and explicit threats of violence from other residents in the community, with little help from the local police to keep the mobs of angry racists from congregating outside their home day and night. Through perseverance and courage, however, Myers outlasted their harassers and eventually succeeded in filing criminal charges against the worst members of the mob. The specter of communism was also heavily implicated in the Myers struggle, as members of both sides of the conflict hurled charges of socialism at their opponents. White residents of Levittown and other still segregated communities across the country took to blandly referencing their "Americanism" as justification for racial exclusivity, and painted those who sought to enforce integration as that which was at the time perceived as the most un-American of allegiances, communist. Indeed, the very charters of Levittown and suburbs across America were closely intertwined with the preservation of the capitalist American way in the face of growing Soviet international influence. Though the government attempted to address the severe housing shortage by launching some public housing programs, those programs were viciously vilified by right-wing politicians as a form of socialism. Senator Joseph McCarthy himself called public housing projects "breeding ground[s] for communists." The Levitts and McCarthy joined forces in promoting Levittown as a more American, capitalist alternative to public housing solutions. McCarthy posed with washing machines to be placed in Levittown homes, and praised Levittown as a model of the American way. Bill Levitt himself once said, "No man who owns his own home and lot can be a Communist, he has too much to do." Later, Levitt vilified those who questioned his segregationist policies as communists. It wasn't only segregationists who used the charge of Communism to their advantage. U.S. writer Pearl Buck once compared the architectural and racial uniformity of the Levittown as reminiscent of the conformity of Communist China. The construction and growth of Levittown was a godsend for many houseless families, but it was also a battleground for divisive conceptions of race and political differences in the United States. Journalist David Kushner, the author of a book about the Myers experience, wrote of that less told story of Levittown's history, "It epitomizes how systematically people can be shut out of a dream—and yet how heroically they can take it back." Sadly, the experiences of the Myers in Levittown were not unique, but were echoed in houses, apartments and streets across the nation. How was segregation still such a real, persevering and violent part of communities long after residential segregation laws had been ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1917? During the Great Depression, President Roosevelt had launched a federal agency called the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), meant to protect struggling homeowners from losing their homes. The HOLC later implemented a system of rating neighborhoods with letter grades to help more systematically discern property values. While racially homogenous and primarily white neighborhoods generally received higher grades, the agency deemed those neighborhoods housing minorities or, "an undesirable element," in the official language, with its lowest ratings. Later, the Federal Housing Authority continued to use those HOLC standards when issuing mortgages. As historian Jackson has written, "For perhaps the first time, the federal government embraced the discriminatory attitudes of the marketplace. Previously, prejudices were personalized and individualized; FHA exhorted segregation and enshrined it as public policy." The rating system eventually contributed to reinforcing segregation as real estate agents and landlords steered white buyers to white communities, and African Americans to poorer developments. The system also enforced the perception that the entry of racial minorities into a community resulted in a drop in property values. As one neighbor of the Myers family told Life magazine during the standoff, "He's [William Myers] probably a nice guy, but every time I look at him I see $2,000 drop off the value of my house." While federal policies encouraged home ownership as a way to reinforce the capitalist spirit of the nation and real estate marketing celebrated home ownership as the key ingredient to an ideal domestic existence, government bureaucrats, real estate agents and landlords all implemented policies which helped exclude a large portion of American society from realizing that dream. After the financial success of the Levittown in Long Island, Levitt and Sons went on to build two more Levittowns, one in Pennsylvania and one in New Jersey. The uniform houses and immaculate lawns of the Levittown version of Suburbia made an indelible impression in the American mind, and an image of the winding roads of Levittown still conjures associations of a peaceful, wholesome Leave it To Beaver-type existence.

How did the focus of racial issues and the locus of the civil rights movement change in the mid- to late-1960s?

The civil rights movement progressed through various stages in the 1960s. Activists began the decade by focusing on Southern racial discrimination. Because of the sustained protests of the 1960s, President Lyndon Baines Johnson placed his support behind legislation that would end the most visible signs of Southern racial injustice. In response, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Acts of 1965. Southern states and private citizens could no longer deprive African Americans the rights to equal facilities and to vote without unfair impediments. After these successes, the movement shifted course, transcending the earlier focus on Southern segregation and voting rights.

What caused the Korean War? What was the role of the U.N. in authorizing and fighting the war?

The main cause for the Korean War started after WWII. An agreement was made between the Allied Forces and the Soviet forces. The country was divided along the 38th Parallel by American administrators. The northern part of the country was occupied by Soviet troops and the southern part was occupied by troops from the United States. This caused much tension between the two countries particularly as the Cold War intensified and allegiances were drawn. During the late 1940's Northern Korea established a communist government and the 38th Parallel became a political border between the two sides. North Korea, as a communist state, wanted to expand it borders and many skirmishes and raids were carried out by both sides across the 38th parallel. The United Nations supported South Korea's government and tensions continued to mount. North Korea sought assistance from both the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China to mount an assault against South Korea. China committed to support the leader of North Korea an on the June 25, 1950, North Korean troops advanced across the 38th Parallel and invaded South Korea. This event instigated what is now known as the Korean War. Sixteen UN nations supplied fighting units and five sent military hospitals and field ambulances. Australia was one of the very first to contribute military personnel from all three services. The single largest UN contributor was the United States of America (USA) which at one stage had 140,000 personnel deployed in direct combat roles in Korea. Great Britain, Canada, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Colombia, Ethiopia, South Africa, New Zealand, Turkey, Greece, Thailand, Philippines and Luxembourg sent fighting units. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, India, Italy contributed military hospitals and field ambulances to the cause. The United Nations Command (UNC) provided the core military and strategic direction for the anti-communist war effort in Korea. The USA provided the high command for the UNC as well as the vast majority of the logistics, air and naval power, artillery and military infrastructure which made possible the continuation of the war despite repeated reverses suffered due to the actions of an aggressive, determined and proficient foe. The British Commonwealth sent the next most numerous of the UN contingents. As well as Commonwealth air and naval units, the 1st British Commonwealth Division, in which Australian infantry battalions served, took part in some of the hardest-fought battles of the war. In 1950 the armed forces of the Republic of Korea (ROK) numbered 95,000. They were poorly equipped and there was no air force. The army had no experience of combat against regular land forces. The ROK army was overwhelmed by the North Korean invasion and retreated as quickly as it could to the safety of the Pusan defensive perimeter. Recovering there, ROK units participated in the UN counterattacks following Inchon and suffered heavily in the retreat after the Chinese intervention. Organisation, equipment, training and tactical doctrine of the South Koreans were modelled on those of the US military. By August 1951 the ROK Army had grown to 357,430 personnel, the largest single contingent within the UNC. By the end of 1952 it held three-quarters of the front line. In three years of war the ROK army had recovered from catastrophic defeat to become a formidable and stalwart opponent of its communist enemies.

What was Roosevelt's objective in the "Court-packing" plan? What were the political repercussions of the episode?

The main goal was to get rid of people who prevented his plans from passing. Congress ultimately defeated Roosevelt's proposal. This damaged southern democrats & conservatives. Roosevelt lost a lot of support.

Why did America's two-fold strategy of "attrition" and "pacification" fail?

The strategy premised on the belief that the US could inflict so many casualties and so much damage on the enemy that they would eventually be unable and unwilling to fight. This strategy failed because Vietnamese were willing to send in more troops than the United States.

Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines

Treaty of Paris ended Spanish-American War and gave the US control over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Valley Forge

Valley Forge was the military camp 18 miles northwest of Philadelphia where the American Continental Army spent the winter of 1777-78 during the American Revolutionary War. Starvation, disease, malnutrition, and exposure killed more than 2,500 American soldiers by the end of February 1778. General George Washington sought quarters for his men with winter almost setting in, and with greatly diminishing prospects for campaigning. Washington and his troops had fought in early December what was the last major engagement of 1777 at the Battle of White Marsh. He devised to pull his troops from their present encampment in the White Marsh area and move to a more secure location for the coming winter.

Carrie Nation

Vehement foe of alcohol; would come to saloons, berate customers, and damage things with her hatchet.

John Winthrop and "A City Upon A Hill"

Winthrop admonished the future Massachusetts Bay colonists that their new community would be "as a city upon a hill", watched by the world—which became the ideal that the New England colonists placed upon their hilly capital city of Boston.

What were the patterns of wartime migration and employment of African Americans? What tensions resulted?

World War II initiated the largest migration of African Americans in the region's history. During the 1940s, the West's black population grew by 443,000 (33 percent), with most of the newcomers settling in the coastal cities of California, Oregon, and Washington. Oklahoma lost 23,300 African Americans, 14 percent of its black population, while California gained 338,000. The increase resulted, in the main, from the booming defense industries, which rescued black workers from decades of menial employment. Thousands more African Americans were stationed on military bases; after the war, many sent for their families and settled permanently. The World War II migration made the entire region "younger, more southern, more female, and noticeably more black than ever before." Getting to the Pacific coast in those days was not an easy task. Many migrants followed long, hot, dusty stretches of highway across Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Since few hotels would take them in, travelers took turns driving, and camped along the roadsides. Those making the trip by train faced three or four days on crowded, uncomfortable, and often segregated cars. But people were willing to endure these poor conditions because black workers could find decent-paying jobs in shipyards and aircraft factories all along the Pacific coast. However, they also encountered their share of problems, including unwarranted job transfers, anti-black remarks by supervisors and co-workers, and residential segregation. Fanny Christina Hill recalled: "They did everything they could to keep you separated . . . . They just did not like for a Negro and a white person to get together to talk." But black workers in the West Coast plants joined integrated unions, worked in the same buildings as whites, and lunched in the same cafeterias. For thousands of black women and men in skilled jobs, the defense industry work changed the quality of their lives. Fanny Christina Hill put it bluntly: "The War made me live better. Hitler was the one that got us out of the white folks' kitchen." African Americans shared their nation's joy on V-J Day, 1945. But for many the celebration soon turned bittersweet. By 1947, thousands of African Americans who had been "essential workers" during the war were unemployed and roamed the streets of Los Angeles, Oakland, and Portland. In that year, black Oaklanders, although only 10 percent of the city's population, made up half of the applicants for welfare. The postwar job outlook in Portland was so dismal that the black population declined by half between 1944 and 1947.

What were the general and immediate motivations for the proclamation of the Roosevelt Corollary? What pattern of Latin American policy and intervention did it establish?

A crisis in the Dominican Republic was the immediate motivation. They took control of customs from the Dominican government which was corrupt and bankrupt. The United States had the right to oppose European intervention in the Western Hemisphere and the right to intervene in domestic affairs of its neighbors.

Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms

A document issued by the Second Continental Congress on July 6, 1775 to explain why the Thirteen Colonies had taken up arms in what had become the American Revolutionary War.

Encomienda System

A system used by Spaniards in which Indians were given to colonists to use for labor; in exchange, the Spaniards made attempts to convert them to Christianity.

Describe the methods that the United States used to acquire rights to construct the Panama Canal? Why were these actions criticized?

America pressured the Colombian diplomats into allowing construction to begin without delay in exchange for a fee and rental. When they refused to accept, John Hay went to cause a revolution in Panama. When Panama became independent they quickly agreed to the project terms.

Patrick Henry

American attorney, planter, and orator well known for his declaration to the Second Virginia Convention (1775): "Give me liberty, or give me death!" A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779 and from 1784 to 1786.

Treaty of Wang Hya

Among other things, it contained: 1) Extraterritoriality, which meant that U.S. citizens could only be tried by U.S. consular officers 2) Fixed tariffs on trade in the treaty ports 3) The right to buy land in the five treaty ports and erect churches and hospitals there 4) The right to learn Chinese by abolishing a law which thitherto forbade foreigners to do so 5) The U.S. received most favoured nation status, resulting in the U.S. receiving the same beneficial treatment China gave to other powers such as Britain, and received the right to modify the treaty after 12 years.

Political Sovereignty

An idea formulated by Lewis Cass. The notion that the sovereign people of a given territory should decide whether or not to allow slavery. Seemingly a compromise, it was largely opposed by Northern abolitionists who feared it would promote the spread of slavery to the territories.

Baseball

Baseball began to become an enjoyable pastime activity.

King Caucus

Beginning in 1796, caucuses of the parties' congressional delegations met informally to nominate their presidential and vice presidential candidates, leaving the general public with no direct input. This early nomination system evoked widespread resentment. By 1824 it had fallen into such disrepute that only one-fourth of the Democratic-Republican congressional delegation took part in the caucus that nominated Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford instead of more popular figures such as John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.

Battle of Antietam

Bloodiest battle; Union victory

Gospel of Wealth

Book by Carnegie where he describes the wealthy as especially skilled and intelligent (Social Darwinism)

Looking Backward

Book by Edward Bellamy in which a boy awakes in 2000 to a utopian society.

Progress and Poverty (1879)

Book by Henry George blaming social issues on a few wealthy monopolists.

The Red Badge of Courage

Book by Stephen Crane which paints a horrific picture of war.

Sentimental Novels

Books written by and mostly for women.

What approach did the Harding and Coolidge administrations take toward taxes and the federal budget?

Both presidents made great strides in cutting taxes, balancing the federal budget, and reducing unemployment in the United States during the 1920s.

Impressment

British practice of taking American sailors from American ships and forcing them into the British navy.

Battle of Shiloh

First battle of the Civil War; Union victory

Edwin L. Drake

First American to successfully drill for oil.

Wilbur and Orville Wright

Flew the first airplane

American Socialist Party

Founded in 1901; merged Social Democratic Party of America and Socialist Labor Party; supports worker control of industry.

Marquis de Lafayette

French aristocrat and military officer who fought in the American Revolutionary War. A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830.

John Peter Altgeld

Governor of Illinois during Haymarket riots; pardoned three convicted bombers, believing them victims of the "malicious ferocity" of the courts.

Hawaii

Hawaii had been an important way station for American ships in the China trade since the people from England and Scotland.

New Immigration

Immigrants came mainly from rural America and Europe. More immigration per year than ever before; increased ethnic tensions as immigrants were willing to work for less.

Describe the steady progression of American forces through the islands of the Pacific culminating at Okinawa. What did this experience seem to presage about the planned invasion of Japan?

In June, the American forces were able to capture the islands of Tinian, Guam, and Saipan. In September and October, the forces landed on the western Carolines and Leyte Island in the Philippines. At the battle of Leyte Gulf the Americans held off the Japanese and practically destroyed their chance to continue a naval war. The battle of Okinawa showed how much resistance the Japanese were putting up. They kept sending suicide plans against Allied force ships. Nighttime attacks were launched against the Americans. Finally in late June 1945 the Allied forces captured Okinawa. This seemed to show that there might be the same type of fighting in Japan. There were also signs that an invasion might not be necessary because Japan had barely any ships or planes left.

Describe the 1935 legislative initiatives that signaled the emergence of the Second New Deal. To what extent were these acts reactions to political agitation and court rulings?

In his address to Congress in January 1935, Roosevelt called for five major goals: improved use of national resources, security against old age, unemployment and illness, and slum clearance, as well as a national work relief program (the Works Progress Administration) to replace direct relief efforts. It is usually dated 1935-36, and includes programs to redistribute wealth, income and power in favor of the poor, the old, farmers and labor unions. The most important programs included Social Security, the National Labor Relations Act ("Wagner Act"), the Banking Act of 1935, rural electrification, and breaking up utility holding companies. The Undistributed profits tax was only short-lived. Liberals in Congress passed the Bonus Bill of $1.5 million to 3 million World War veterans over FDR's veto. Liberals strongly supported the new direction, and formed the New Deal Coalition of union members, big city machines, the white South, and ethnic minorities to support it; and conservatives—typified by the American Liberty League—were strongly opposed. Few liberal programs were enacted after 1936; Liberals generally lost control of Congress in 1938. Programs continued for a while. Many were ended during World War II because unemployment was no longer a problem. These included the WPA, NYA and the Resettlement Administration. Social Security, however, survived and was expanded.

Ida B. Wells and the Anti-Lynching Law

In the 1890s, Wells documented lynching in the United States. She showed that lynching was often used in the South as a way to control or punish black people who competed with whites, rather than being based on criminal acts by black people, as was usually claimed by whites.

National Trades Union

In the mid-1830s, hard times and frustration with the inutility of their expanded voting rights drove tens of thousands of urban wage earners toward unionism. Established in 1834 under the presidencies of first Ely Moore then John Commerford. collapsed with most of its constituent bodies during the panic of 1837.

Union Party

Invented by Lincoln for Election of 1864; included all of the Republicans and the war Democrats; excluded the copperheads and peace Democrats; was formed out of fear of the republican party losing control; was responsible for nominating Lincoln.

Limited Liability Corporation

Investors only risked the amount of their own investments; not liable for any debts the corporation may accumulate.

Terence V Powderly

Irish-American leader of Knights of Labor.

How did Lyndon Johnson differ from Kennedy in personality and in the ability to influence Congress?

Johnson was known for his very persuasive personality and had no problems passing legislation through Senate, so much so that it was named "Johnson's treatment". At the core was its irresistible persuasion tactics. Some say this was very manipulative and it contrasted with Kennedy's openness and celebrity status as well as personal charm.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Leader of Efficiency movement; encouraged subsidization of work which lessened the need for skilled workers.

Joseph and Mary Brant

Mohawk brother and sister who persuaded their tribe to contribute to the British cause; played an important role in Burgoyne's unsuccessful campaigns in the North.

Jonathan Edwards

Most famous preacher of the Great Awakening; best known for "Sinners In the Hands of an Angry God"

Land Grant Colleges

Most of the land given from the Morrill Act became these types of schools; usually state universities.

Why was so much of rural America still mired in poverty as late as 1960?

Most rural Americans were farmers. By 1956, farmers were only receiving 4.1% of the national income. The farm population was also decreasing as much of the population was migrating into or absorbed into cities. The farm prices were also falling and many black sharecroppers and tenants were still living below the subsistence level.

New World/Old World

New World: American Colonies Old World: Europe

Income Tax

North increased tariffs and excise taxes to financially support the war. It also created the first income tax.

Carpetbaggers

Northerners who came to the South after the Civil War.

Recount the stages of Johnson's escalation of the Vietnam War up to 1967. Why did the conflict become a "quagmire"?

On August 2, 1964, gunboats of North Vietnam allegedly fired on ships of the United States Navy stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin They had been sailing 10 miles off the coast of North Vietnam in support of the South Vietnamese navy. When reports that further firing occurred on August 4, President Johnson quickly asked Congress to respond. With nearly unanimous consent, members of the Senate and House empowered Johnson to "take all necessary measures" to repel North Vietnamese aggression. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution gave the President a "Blank Check" to wage the war in Vietnam as he saw fit. After Lyndon Johnson was elected President in his own right that November, he chose escalate the conflict. In February 1965, the United States began a long program of sustained bombing of North Vietnamese targets known as Operation Rolling Thunder. At first only military targets were hit, but as months turned into years, civilian targets were pummeled as well. The United States also bombed the Ho Chi Minh trail, a supply line used by the North Vietnamese to aid the Vietcong. The trail meandered through Laos and Cambodia, so the bombing was kept secret from the Congress and the American people. More bombs rained down on Vietnam than the Allies used on the Axis powers during the whole of World War II. Additional sorties delivered defoliating agents such as Agent Orange and napalm to remove the jungle cover utilized by the Vietcong. The intense bombardment did little to deter the communists. They continued to use the Ho Chi Minh trail despite the grave risk. The burrowed underground, building 30,000 miles of tunnel networks to keep supply lines open. Often unable to see the enemy through the dense growth of Vietnam's jungles, the U.S. military sprayed a chemical herbicide known as "Agent Orange" in an attempt to destroy the trees. Currently, debate rages on whether or not exposure to this compound is responsible for disease and disability in many Vietnam veterans. It soon became clear to General William Westmoreland, the American military commander, that combat troops would be necessary to root out the enemy. Beginning in March 1965, when the first American combat troops waded ashore at Danang, the United States began "search and destroy" missions. One of the most confounding problems faced by U.S. military personnel in Vietnam was identifying the enemy. The same Vietnamese peasant who waved hello in the daytime might be a VC guerrilla fighter by night. The United States could not indiscriminately kill South Vietnamese peasants. Any mistake resulted in a dead ally and an angrier population. Search and destroy missions were conducted by moving into a village and inspecting for any signs of Vietcong support. If any evidence was found, the troops would conduct a "Zippo Raid" by torching the village to the ground and confiscating discovered munitions. Most efforts were fruitless, as the VC proved adept at covering their tracks. The enemy surrounded and confounded the Americans but direct confrontation was rare. The media played an important part in shaping the public's opinion towards the conflict in Vietnam. Television brought the horrors of war into millions of homes, as did photos like this one of a young Vietnamese girl fleeing a napalm bombing. By the end of 1965, there were American 189,000 troops stationed in Vietnam. At the end of the following year, that number doubled. Casualty reports steadily increased. Unlike World War II, there few major ground battles. Most Vietnamese attacks were by ambush or night skirmishes. Many Americans died by stepping on landmines or by triggering Booby Traps. Although Vietnamese body counts were higher, Americans were dying at rate of approximately 100 per week through 1967. By the end of that year there were nearly 500,000 American combat troops stationed in Vietnam. The quagmire theory explains the cause of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. The quagmire theory suggests that American leaders had unintentionally and mistakenly led the country into the Vietnam War. The theory is categorized as an "orthodox" interpretation of the Vietnam War.

What were the key factors that converged in the postwar period to ignite the civil rights movement?

One key factor was the legacy of World War II. Many black men and women served during the war and had a broader view of their place in the world. Another factor was the urban black middle class. Much of the force for the movement came from leaders from these communities along with college and university students. These people had more freedom than rural blacks so they were more aware of the oppression and obstacles and what could be done about them. One other factor was television and pop culture. Blacks were all too aware of the white majority since they were excluded from it most of the time.

What were the elements of the New Deal-Democratic political coalition that propelled Roosevelt to victory in 1936?

One reason why he won was the Death of Huey Long. Another reason was the ill-fated alliance among Coughlin, Townsend, and Gerald L. K. Smith, who joined forces that summer to establish a new political movement. Roosevelt polled under 61% of the popular vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont. The election results demonstrated the party realignment that the New Deal has produced. The Democrats now controlled a broad coalition of western and southern farmers, the urban working classes, the poor and unemployed, and the black communities of northern cities, as well as traditional progressives and committed new liberals.

"54-40 or Fight"

Polk called for expansion that included Texas, California, and the entire Oregon territory. The northern boundary of Oregon was the latitude line of 54 degrees, 40 minutes. "Fifty-four forty or fight!" was the popular slogan that led Polk to victory against all odds.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

Response to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad cutting wages of workers for the third time in a year; workers wouldn't let trains roll until it was revoked.

New Purchasing Trends/Stores

Rise of big business and department stores.

Sectarianism/Non-Sectarianism

Sectarian: Colleges that promoted the doctrines of a particular religion Non-Sectarian: Colleges/Universities that did not promote a particular religious sect

National Draft Law

Since there was a decline in enlistments, Congress passed this in March 1863. Virtually all young adult males were eligible to be drafted; but a man could escape service by hiring someone to go in his place or by paying the government a fee of $300.

Describe the technological and scientific advances in agriculture in the New Era. What effect did these changes have on production and prices?

Some advances of the New Era included the car, the radio, silent movies, and new immunizations.

Why could the attack on Pearl Harbor be considered a tactical victory but a political blunder by the Japanese?

Some consider it a blunder because Japan failed to capitalize on even more opportunities to hurt America's fighting abilities.

Cuban Revolt

Spanish empire was decreasing in power and Cubans wanted freedom; purposefully damaged the island in an attempt to force the Spaniards to leave; battles on both sides were brutal.

Sutter's Mill and the Forty-Niners

Sutter's Mill was a sawmill, owned by 19th-century pioneer John Sutter, where gold was found, setting off the California Gold Rush, a major event of the history of the United States. Forty-Niners was the name for people who came to California during the Gold Rush.

What organization led the conservative attack on Roosevelt in 1934 and 1935? Who were its main supporters?

The American right in general and much of the corporate world in particular was hostile to the New Deal. A group of the most fervent Roosevelt opponents, led by members of the Du Pont family, reshaped the American Liberty League, to arouse public opposition to the New Deal.

What was the basic war aim set out in the Atlantic Charter?

The Atlantic Charter was a pivotal policy statement issued during World War II on 14 August 1941, which defined the Allied goals for the postwar world. The leaders of the United Kingdom and the United States drafted the work and all the Allies of World War II later confirmed it. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war - no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people, self-determination; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations. Adherents of the Atlantic Charter signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942, which became the basis for the modern United Nations. The Atlantic Charter set goals for the postwar world and inspired many of the international agreements that shaped the world thereafter.

What tactics did the Committee on Public Information (CPI) employ to propagandize the American people into unquestioning support of the war effort?

The CPI fed newspapers the story that ships escorting the First Division to Europe sank several German submarines, a story discredited when newsmen interviewed the ships' officers in England. Republican Senator Boies Penrose of Pennsylvania called for an investigation and The New York Times called the CPI "the Committee on Public Misinformation." The incident turned the once compliant news publishing industry into skeptics. Early in 1918, the CPI made a premature announcement that "the first American built battle planes are today en route to the front in France," but newspapers learned that the accompanying pictures were fake, there was only one plane, and it was still being tested. At other times, though the CPI could control in large measure what newspapers printed, its exaggerations were challenged and mocked in Congressional hearings. The Committee's overall tone also changed with time, shifting from its original belief in the power of facts to mobilization based on hate, like the slogan "Stop the Hun!" on posters showing a U.S. soldier taking hold of a German soldier in the act of terrorizing a mother and child, all in support of war bond sales.

What was the purpose of the Economy Act of 1933?

The Economy Act of 1933, officially titled the Act of March 20, 1933, is an Act of Congress that cut the salaries of federal workers and reduced benefit payments to veterans, moves intended to reduce the federal deficit in the United States.

What was the Fair Deal? Why was it initially unsuccessful?

The Fair Deal was an ambitious set of proposals put forward by U.S. President Harry S. Truman to Congress in his January 1949 State of the Union address. More generally the term characterizes the entire domestic agenda of the Truman administration, from 1945 to 1953. It offered new proposals to continue New Deal liberalism, but with the Conservative Coalition controlling Congress, only a few of its major initiatives became law and then only if they had considerable GOP support. As Richard Neustadt concludes, the most important proposals were aid to education, universal health insurance, the Fair Employment Practices Commission, and repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act. They were all debated at length, then voted down. Nevertheless, enough smaller and less controversial items passed that liberals could claim some success.

Stephen Douglas and the Kansas-Nebraska Act

The Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed by the U.S. Congress on May 30, 1854. It allowed people in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery within their borders. The Act served to repeal the Missouri Compromise of 1820 which prohibited slavery north of latitude 36°30´.

What led to increasing animosity toward the United States on the part of many Latin Americans? What did the Guatemalan incident reveal about American intentions?

The Red Scare had left America with a crippling fear of communists, so when America began to be fearful of Jacobo Arbenz Guzman and the Guatemalan government, they completely toppled the government.

Ostend Manifesto

The Ostend Manifesto, also known as the Ostend Circular, was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused.

Pueblo Revolt

The Pueblo Revolt was a 1680 uprising of the Pueblo Indians against the Spanish who ruled the southwest.

Scrooby Group/Separatists

The Scrooby Congregation were English Protestant separatists who lived near Scrooby, on the outskirts of Bawtry, a small market town at the border of South Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire. In 1607/8 the Congregation emigrated to the Netherlands in search of the freedom to worship as they chose.

The Confederacy

The Southern states that seceded. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina.

Why did Wilson take sides in the Mexican government turmoil? Describe the two interventions and their results.

The U.S. had lots of businesses in Mexico. The American admiral demanded that the Huerta forces fire a salute to the American flag as penance, but the Mexicans refused, thus Wilson seized the port of Veracruz. General Pershing was ordered to lead an expeditionary force across the Mexican border in pursuit of Villa. They found Carranza and engaged in two skirmishes. Wilson quietly withdrew American troops and granted formal recognition to the Carranza regime.

How did President Roosevelt's responses to the Spanish-American War and the Japanese actions in China illustrate the political strength of isolationist sentiment?

The US along with Great Britain and France refused to side with either in the Spanish-American War. The Quarantine Speech threatened Japan & told them to stop aggression. The isolationist said the Panay bombing was an accident and pressured the administration to accept Japan's apology.

What were Wilson's actions in the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Nicaragua? Were they consistent with the Roosevelt Corollary?

The United states established a military government in the Dominican Republic when they refused to accept a treaty. Marines were landed in Haiti and stayed for nearly twenty years. Treaty was signed in Nicaragua to ensure no other nation would build a canal there. This was quite similar to the Roosevelt Corollary.

What events of 1949 thrust the Cold War into a new and seemingly more dangerous stage?

The first was news in September of the Soviet Union's successful explosion of their first atomic bomb, years earlier than had been predicted. Another notable event was the collapse of Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist government in China. This concerned Americans because it left China under the rule of a communist government.

What were the two broad offensives that the U.S. planned to turn the tide against the Japanese?

The first was moving North from Australia through New Guinea and to the Philippines. The second was to moving West from Hawaii toward the major Japanese island outposts in the Central Pacific.

Gang System

The gang system is a system of division of labor within slavery on a plantation. It is the more brutal of two main types of labor systems. The other form, known as the task system, was less harsh and allowed the slaves more self-governance than did the gang system. The gang system allowed continuous work at the same pace throughout the day. The first gang, or great gang, was given the hardest work, for the fittest slaves. The second gang was for less able slaves (teenagers, old people, or the unwell slaves) and this gang was given lighter work. The third gang was given the easiest work.

Why did vacation travel, especially to national parks, expand in the 1950s?

The interstate highway system allowed people to travel more often. People began going to national parks more often as well to do things like hike, fish, camp, and hunt.

What general influences and German actions forced President Woodrow Wilson out of his professed stance of true neutrality?

The main events that brought the U.S. out of neutrality were the German's attacks on ships. Especially after the Lusitania, in which many were killed. The Germans promised not to attack ships without warning anymore, yet they still did, so Congress decided to declare war on Germany.

Tories

The people who remained loyal to England during the Revolutionary war; against the Patriots. They were about 20% of the population when the war was over.

What social forces combined to disenchant many intellectuals? What did these people attack? Who were the main attackers?

The repudiation f Wilsonian idealism, the restoration of "business as usual," the growing emphasis on materialism and consumerism suggested that the war had been a fraud; that the suffering and dying had been in vain. H.L. Mencken ridiculed everything most middle-class Americans held dear. Fitzgerald ridiculed the American obsession with material success.

Truth about corruption in the Reconstruction South (and North)

There was corruption in the Republican governments.

Indentured Servants

This system was popular in the colonies during the 17th century. The servants were mostly unskilled male laborers and farmers. They came to the New World with hope and a paid trip over by their master. They were expected to work for 2-7 years and in return get a small amount of land from their master. The system declined in the 18th century and that increased the use of African slaves by the late 1600's.

Transatlantic Exchanges (Atlantic World)

Trade among Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The Americas would give Europe raw materials, Europe would give finished products to Africa. Africa would give slaves to America.

How did reconversion affect the many women and minorities who had taken war-related jobs?

Veterans returning from war needed jobs so factories and plants often pushed out women and minorities in favor of the white men. Because most of the women wanted to continue working, we see a spread of female workers into other sectors, such as service.

Catholic Irish

Catholic Irish people became angry with Queen Elizabeth because she was Protestant. They built up a force with Spain to challenge Elizabeth, but they were crushed. Elizabeth then went on to plant landlords in Irish lands to spread Protestantism.

Cotton Mather

Cotton Mather was a socially and politically influential New England Puritan minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. He left a scientific legacy due to his hybridization experiments and his promotion of inoculation for disease prevention, though he is most frequently remembered today for his vigorous support for the Salem witch trials.

Plymouth Company

One of the earliest successful colonies to be founded by the English in North America and the first sizable permanent English settlement in the New England region. Aided by Squanto, a Native American of the Patuxent people, the colony was able to establish a treaty with Chief Massasoit which helped to ensure the colony's success. It played a central role in King Philip's War, one of the earliest of the Indian Wars. Ultimately, the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other territories in 1691 to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

Compulsory Education Law (1647)

The first brick on the road to compulsory education in America was laid by the Massachusetts Act of 1642. The Law of 1642 required that parents and master see to it that their children knew the principles of religion and the capital laws of the commonwealth. The Law of 1647 required that towns of fifty families hire a schoolmaster who would teach children to read and write. Towns of a hundred families must have a grammar schoolmaster who could prepare children to attend Harvard College.

Elite Planters

Wealthy people who dominated the Chesapeake economy and owned half the land in Virginia.

New England Town Meetings

A form of direct democracy where each citizen acted as a legislator; a focus of New England politics. They allowed all free adult males to have a voice in government, and even though it could only work well in small towns, the system helped pave the way for our current representative system.

Chattel Slavery

Ownership of human beings; a system of bondage in which a slave has the legal status of property and so can be bought as sold like property.

Racial Slavery/Chattel Slavery

Ownership of human beings; a system of bondage in which a slave has the legal status of property and so can be bought as sold like property.

Conquistadors

Spanish conquerors, especially of Mexico and Peru.

Anglicization

The colonial American desire to emulate English society, including English tastes in foods, customs, and architecture.

John D. Rockefeller

American oil industry magnate, extremely wealthy.

Why did the United States decide to use the atomic bomb against Japan? Was it a wise decision? What have historians found?

American soldiers and civilians were weary from four years of war, yet the Japanese military was refusing to give up their fight. American forces occupied Okinawa and Iwo Jima and were intensely fire bombing Japanese cities. But Japan had an army of 2 million strong stationed in the home islands guarding against invasion. For Truman, the choice whether or not to use the atomic bomb was the most difficult decision of his life. First, an Allied demand for an immediate unconditional surrender was made to the leadership in Japan. Although the demand stated that refusal would result in total destruction, no mention of any new weapons of mass destruction was made. The Japanese military command rejected the request for unconditional surrender, but there were indications that a conditional surrender was possible. Regardless, on August 6, 1945, a plane called the Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. Instantly, 70,000 Japanese citizens were vaporized. In the months and years that followed, an additional 100,000 perished from burns and radiation sickness. On August 14, 1945, the Japanese surrendered. Critics have charged that Truman's decision was a barbaric act that brought negative long-term consequences to the United States. A new age of nuclear terror led to a dangerous arms race. Some military analysts insist that Japan was on its knees and the bombings were simply unnecessary. The American government was accused of racism on the grounds that such a device would never have been used against white civilians. Other critics argued that American diplomats had ulterior motives. The Soviet Union had entered the war against Japan, and the atomic bomb could be read as a strong message for the Soviets to tread lightly. In this respect, Hiroshima and Nagasaki may have been the first shots of the Cold War as well as the final shots of World War II. Regardless, the United States remains the only nation in the world to have used a nuclear weapon on another nation. Truman stated that his decision to drop the bomb was purely military. A Normandy-type amphibious landing would have cost an estimated million casualties. Truman believed that the bombs saved Japanese lives as well. Prolonging the war was not an option for the President. Over 3,500 Japanese kamikaze raids had already wrought great destruction and loss of American lives.

George Washington

American statesman and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, and later presided over the 1787 convention that drafted the United States Constitution. He is popularly considered the driving force behind the nation's establishment and came to be known as the "father of the country," both during his lifetime and to this day.

Westward Migration

Americans defended westward expansion by citing the superiority of the American race or white people of Northern European origins.

Utopia

An imaginary place considered to be perfect or ideal.

American Protective Association

An organization created by nativists in 1887 that campaigned for laws to restrict immigration.

How were the women who filled war jobs treated? What obstacles did they face?

American women in World War II became involved in many tasks they rarely had before; as the war involved global conflict on an unprecedented scale, the absolute urgency of mobilizing the entire population made the expansion of the role of women inevitable. The hard skilled labor of women was symbolized in the United States by the concept of Rosie the Riveter, a woman factory laborer performing what was previously considered man's work. With this expanded horizon of opportunity and confidence, and with the extended skill base that many women could now give to paid and voluntary employment, American women's roles in World War II were even more extensive than in the First World War. Women worked in the war industries, building ships, aircraft, vehicles, and weaponry. Women also worked in factories, munitions plants and farms; drove trucks; provided logistic support for soldiers; and entered professional areas of work that were previously the preserve of men. Women also enlisted as nurses serving on the front lines, and there was a great increase in the number of women serving for the military itself. During World War II, approximately 400,000 U.S. women served with the armed forces and more than 460 — some sources say the figure is closer to 543 — lost their lives as a result of the war, including 16 from enemy fire. However, the U.S. decided not to use women in combat because public opinion would not tolerate it. Women became officially recognized as a permanent part of the U.S. armed forces after the war, with the passing of the Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948. U.S. women also performed many kinds of non-military service in organizations such as the American Red Cross and the United Service Organizations (USO). Nineteen million American women filled out the home front labor force, not only as "Rosie the Riveters" in war factory jobs, but in transportation, agricultural, and office work of every variety. Women joined the federal government in massive numbers during World War II. Nearly a million "government girls" were recruited for war work. In addition, women volunteers aided the war effort by planting victory gardens, canning produce, selling war bonds, donating blood, salvaging needed commodities and sending care packages. By the end of World War I, twenty-four percent of workers in aviation plants, mainly located along the coasts of the United States were women, and yet this percentage was easily surpassed by the beginning of World War II. Mary Anderson, director of the Women's Bureau, reported in January 1942 that about 2,800,000 women "are now engaged in war work, and that their numbers are expected to double by the end of this year." The skills women had acquired through their daily chores proved to be very useful in helping them acquire new skill sets towards the war effort. Since men that usually did certain jobs were out at war, women tried to replace them. For example, the pop culture phenomenon of "Rosie the Riveter" made riveting one of the most widely known jobs. Experts speculate women were so successful at riveting because it so closely resembled sewing (assembling and seaming together a garment). However, riveting was only one of many jobs that women were learning and mastering as the aviation industry was developing. As Glenn Martin, a co-founder of Martin Marietta, told a reporter: "we have women helping design our planes in the Engineering Departments, building them on the production line, [and] operating almost every conceivable type of machinery, from rivet guns to giant stamp presses". It is true that some women chose more traditional female jobs such as sewing aircraft upholstery or painting radium on tiny measurements so that pilots could see the instrument panel in the dark. And yet many others, maybe more adventurous, chose to run massive hydraulic presses that cut metal parts while others used cranes to move bulky plane parts from one end of the factory to the other. They even had women inspectors to ensure any necessary adjustments were made before the planes were flown out to war often by female pilots. The majority of the planes they built were either large bombers or small fighters. Although at first, most Americans were reluctant to allow women into traditional male jobs, women proved that they could not only do the job but in some instances they did it better than their male counterparts. For example, women in general paid more attention to detail as the foreman of California Consolidated Aircraft once told the Saturday Evening Post, "Nothing gets by them unless it's right." The United States Department of Labor even states that when examining the number of holes drilled per day in the aircraft manufacturing industry, a man drilled 650 holes per day while a woman drilled 1,000 holes per day. Two years after Pearl Harbor, there were some 475,000 women working in aircraft factories - which, by comparison, was almost five times as many as ever joined the Women's Army Corps. Other industries that women entered were the metal industry, steel industry, shipbuilding industry, and automobile industry. Women also worked in plants where bombs, weaponry, and aircraft were made.

Maize

Another name for corn, one of the staple crops of the New World.

Describe the contributions American Indians made to the war effort. What impact did the war have on federal Indian policy?

As many as 25,000 Native Americans actively fought in World War II: 21,767 in the Army, 1,910 in the Navy, 874 in the Marines, 121 in the Coast Guard, and several hundred Native American women as nurses. These figures represent over one-third of able-bodied Native American men aged 18-50, and even included as high as seventy percent of the population of some tribes. Unlike African Americans, Native Americans did not serve in segregated units and served alongside white Americans. Alison R. Bernstein argues that World War II presented the first large-scale exodus of Native Americans from reservations since the reservation system began, and presented an opportunity for many Native Americans to leave reservations and enter the "white world". For many soldiers, World War II represented the first interracial contact between natives living on relatively isolated reservations. The war's aftermath, says Allison Bernstein, marked a "new era in Indian affairs" and turned "American Indians" into "Indian Americans". Upon returning to the US after the war, some Native American servicemen and women suffered from PTSD and unemployment. Following the war, many Native Americans found themselves living in cities rather than on reservations. In 1940, only five percent of Native Americans lived in cities. By 1950, this number had ballooned to nearly 20 percent of Native Americans living in urban areas.

Corporations

Began to develop rapidly in the 1830s when some legal roadblocks were removed. The state legislation charter process was removed, and was replaced by a simple fee and the passage of limited liability, which means that, when you own stock in a company, you are only responsible for the shares you own. So if the company goes under, your entire financial life is not on the line, just the shares that you own, which encourages stock ownership. They were combined resources of large number of shareholders.

General Thomas Gage

British Army officer best known for his many years of service in North America, including his role as military commander in the early days of the American Revolution. Being born to an aristocratic family in England, he entered military service, seeing action in the French and Indian War, where he served alongside his future opponent George Washington in the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela. After the fall of Montreal in 1760, he was named its military governor. During this time he did not distinguish himself militarily, but proved himself to be a competent administrator. From 1763 to 1775 he served as commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, overseeing the British response to the 1763 Pontiac's Rebellion. In 1774 he was also appointed the military governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, with instructions to implement the Intolerable Acts, punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. His attempts to seize military stores of Patriot militias in April 1775 sparked the Battles of Lexington and Concord, beginning the American War of Independence. After the Pyrrhic victory in the June Battle of Bunker Hill he was replaced by General William Howe in October 1775, and returned to Great Britain.

John Burgoyne

British army officer, dramatist and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1761 to 1792. He first saw action during the Seven Years' War when he participated in several battles, most notably during the Portugal Campaign of 1762. John Burgoyne is best known for his role in the American Revolutionary War. He designed an invasion scheme and was appointed to command a force moving south from Canada to split away New England and end the rebellion. Burgoyne advanced from Canada but his slow movement allowed the Americans to concentrate their forces. Instead of coming to his aid according to the overall plan, the British Army in New York City moved south to capture Philadelphia. Surrounded, Burgoyne fought two small battles near Saratoga to break out. Trapped by superior American forces, with no relief in sight, Burgoyne surrendered his entire army of 6,200 men on 17 October 1777. His surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, "was a great turning point of the war, because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory". He and his officers returned to England; the enlisted men became prisoners of war. Burgoyne came under sharp criticism when he returned to London, and never held another active command.

William Pitt

British statesman of the Whig group who led the government of Great Britain twice in the middle of the 18th century. Pitt is best known as the wartime political leader of Britain in the Seven Years' War, especially for his single-minded devotion to victory over France, a victory which ultimately solidified Britain's dominance over world affairs. He is also known for his popular appeal, his opposition to corruption in government, his support for the colonial position in the run-up to the American War of Independence, his advocacy of British greatness, expansionism and colonialism, and his antagonism toward Britain's chief enemies and rivals for colonial power, Spain and France.

"Redemption" and the Ku Klux Klan

By 1873, many white Southerners were calling for "Redemption" - the return of white supremacy and the removal of rights for blacks - instead of Reconstruction. This political pressure to return to the old order was oftentimes backed up by mob and paramilitary violence, with the Ku Klux Klan, the White League, and the Red Shirts assassinating pro-Reconstruction politicians and terrorizing Southern blacks.

What were the accomplishments of the Casablanca and Tehran Conferences?

Casablanca: The conference produced a unified statement of purpose, the Casablanca Declaration which announced to the world that the Allies would accept nothing less than the "unconditional surrender" of the Axis powers. Roosevelt had borrowed the term "unconditional surrender" from General Ulysses S. Grant who had communicated this stance to the Confederate commander at Forts Donelson and Henry during the American Civil War. Tehran: The declaration issued by the three leaders on conclusion of the conference on 1 December 1943, recorded the following military conclusions: 1) Yugoslav Partisans should be supported by supplies and equipment and also by commando operations. 2) It would be desirable if Turkey should come into war on the side of the Allies before the end of the year. 3) The leaders took note of Stalin's statement that if Turkey found herself at war with Germany, and as a result Bulgaria declared war on Turkey or attacked her, the Soviet Union would immediately be at war with Bulgaria. The Conference further took note that this could be mentioned in the forthcoming negotiations to bring Turkey into the war. 4) The cross-channel invasion of France (Operation Overlord) would be launched during May 1944, in conjunction with an operation against southern France. The latter operation would be undertaken in as great a strength as availability of landing-craft permitted. The Conference further took note of Joseph Stalin's statement that the Soviet forces would launch an offensive at about the same time with the object of preventing the German forces from transferring from the Eastern to the Western Front. 5) The leaders agreed that the military staffs of the Three Powers should keep in close touch with each other in regard to the impending operations in Europe. In particular it was agreed that a cover plan to mislead the enemy about these operations should be concerted between the staffs concerned. Stalin and Churchill discussed the future borders of Poland and settled on the Curzon line in the east and the Oder-Neisse line in the west. FDR had asked to be excused from any discussion of Poland out of consideration for the effects of any decision on Polish voters in the USA and the upcoming 1944 election. The Yugoslav Partisans were given full Allied support, and Allied support to the Yugoslav Chetniks was halted (they were believed to be cooperating with the occupying Germans rather than fighting them). The Communist Partisans under Tito took power in Yugoslavia as the Germans gradually retreated from the Balkans in 1944-45. Turkey's president conferred with Roosevelt and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in November 1943, and promised to enter the war when his country was fully armed. By August 1944 Turkey broke off relations with Germany. In February 1945, Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan, which may have been a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the future United Nations. The invasion of France on 6 June 1944 took place about as planned, and the supporting invasion of southern France also took place (Operation Dragoon). The Soviets launched a major offensive against the Germans on 22 June 1944 (Operation Bagration).

Mark Twain

Captured frontier realism and humor with American dialect; wrote Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

Child Labor

Child labor was very common during this time.

What measures were taken to restore confidence in the stock market?

Congress passed the so-called Truth in Securities Act of 1933, requiring corporations issuing new securities to provide full and accurate information about them to the public. Another act of June 1934 established the Securities and Exchange Commission to provide a means to monitor the market and to enforce laws regarding the sales of stocks and bonds. The establishment of the SEC was an indication of how far the financial establishment had fallen in public estimation.

Convict Lease System

Convict leasing was a system of penal labor practiced in the Southern United States. Convict leasing provided prisoner labor to private parties, such as plantation owners and corporations (e.g. Tennessee Coal and Iron Company). The lessee was responsible for feeding, clothing, and housing the prisoners.

Contrast the personal lives of Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Did their politics and policies differ as much as their personalities?

Coolidge...dour, silent, puritanical, honest Harding...genial, garrulous, debauched, corrupt Both took a passive approach to their office -If anything, Coolidge was even less active than Harding bc he thought gov should interfere as little as possible

The Taxes

Duties on glass, while lead, paper and paint and tea.

What sort of individuals dominated Eisenhower's cabinet?

Eisenhower delegated the selection of his cabinet to two close associates, Lucius D. Clay and Herbert Brownell Jr.; Brownell, a legal aid to Dewey, became attorney general. John Foster Dulles, an attorney who also had close ties to Dewey, became the secretary of state. A conscientious "student of foreign affairs," Dulles had previously had a part in developing the both the United Nations Charter and the Treaty of San Francisco. He traveled nearly 560,000 miles (901,233 km) during his six years in office. Eisenhower sought out leaders of big business for many of his other cabinet appointments. Charles Erwin Wilson, the CEO of General Motors, was Eisenhower's first secretary of defense. In 1957, he was replaced by president of Procter & Gamble president, Neil H. McElroy. For the position of secretary of the treasury, Ike selected George M. Humphrey, the CEO of several steel and coal companies. His postmaster general, Arthur E. Summerfield, and first secretary of the interior, Douglas McKay, were both automobile distributors. Additionally, former senator, Sinclair Weeks, director of the National Association of Manufacturers. Several businessmen named to cabinet-level posts—Wilson, Humphrey, along with Harold E. Talbott (Eisenhower's first Air Force secretary) and Robert Tripp Ross, (a deputy assistant secretary of defense)—came under U.S. Senate scrutiny due their investments and possible conflicts of interest while in office; Talbott and Ross later resigned as a result. Other Eisenhower cabinet selections were made to cover various "political bases." Ezra Taft Benson, a high-ranking member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was chosen as secretary of agriculture; he was the only person appointed from the Taft wing of the party. Oveta Culp Hobby became the first secretary of the newly created Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; she was the second female cabinet secretary (after Frances Perkins). Martin Patrick Durkin, a Democrat and president of the plumbers and steamfitters union, was selected as secretary of labor. As a result, it became a standing joke that his first Cabinet was composed of "nine millionaires and a plumber." Most were wealthy corporate lawyers and business executives dominated the cabinet.

John Wesley

English Anglican cleric and theologian who, with his brother Charles and fellow cleric George Whitefield, founded Methodism.

Equality (of Opportunity)

Everyone has the same opportunity to rise from their position in society.

What were the problems with the credit structure of the economy?

Farmers were in debt and many of them had their land mortgaged. The crop prices were too low to allow them to pay off what they owed. Many of the small banks in the 1920s had consumers who relied on loans. Banks of the 1920s were investing recklessly in the stock market or making unwise loans.

How did the fear of potential nuclear war affect the attitudes and daily lives of Americans in the 1950s and early 1960s? What were the positive expectations for atomic technology?

Fearful images of nuclear attacks were heavily portrayed in movies and television. The Twilight Zone was a good example of this. Schools and offices began to have air raid drills, radio stations tested the emergency broadcast systems, and fallout shelters were put in public buildings. One positive expectation was the use of nuclear power People believed that atomic power could do more good than bad and many nuclear power plants were created.

Republican

Federal government should not play a big role in people's lives; most Republicans favor lower taxes and less government spending on social programs.

Pendleton Act

Federal legislation that created a system in which federal employees were chosen based upon competitive exams; made job positions based on merit or ability and not inheritance or class.

Knights of Labor

First effort to create National Union. Open to everyone but lawyers and bankers. Vague program, no clear goals, weak leadership and organization; failed.

Explain the difference between General Marshall's plan for European offensive with the British approach. Which option did Roosevelt select?

General Marshall's plan involved a full invasion of France across the English channel in the spring of 1943. The British's plan was to launch offensives around the Nazi empire edges, which were in Northern Africa and Southern Europe, and then invade France. Roosevelt ultimately selected the British plan.

Women's Christian Temperance Union

Founded in 1874, advocated for prohibition of alcohol using women's greater purity as a point.

Half-Breeds

Fraction of the Republican party; led by James G. Blaine favored reform; against patronage.

Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse

French admiral. He is best known for his command of the French fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake, which led directly to the British surrender at Yorktown in the American Revolutionary War. Admiral Rodney defeated and captured de Grasse the next year, at the Battle of the Saintes. de Grasse was widely criticised for his loss in that battle. On his return to France, he demanded a court martial; it acquitted him of fault in his defeat.

Alexis de Tocqueville

French diplomat, political scientist, and historian. He was best known for his works Democracy in America (appearing in two volumes: 1835 and 1840) and The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856). In both he analyzed the improved living standards and social conditions of individuals, as well as their relationship to the market and state in Western societies. Democracy in America was published after Tocqueville's travels in the United States and is today considered an early work of sociology and political science. Tocqueville was active in French politics, first under the July Monarchy (1830-48) and then during the Second Republic (1849-51) which succeeded the February 1848 Revolution. He retired from political life after Louis Napoléon Bonaparte's 2 December 1851 coup, and thereafter began work on The Old Regime and the Revolution. He argued the importance of the French Revolution was to continue the process of modernizing and centralizing the French state which had begun under King Louis XIV. The failure of the Revolution came from the inexperience of the deputies who were too wedded to abstract Enlightenment ideals. Tocqueville was a classical liberal who advocated parliamentary government, but he was skeptical of the extremes of democracy.

Count de Vergennes

French statesman and diplomat. He served as Foreign Minister from 1774 during the reign of Louis XVI, notably during the American War of Independence. Vergennes rose through the ranks of the diplomatic service during postings in Portugal and Germany before receiving the important post of Envoy to the Ottoman Empire in 1755. While there he oversaw complex negotiations that resulted from the Diplomatic Revolution before being recalled in 1768. After assisting a pro-French faction to take power in Sweden, he returned home and was promoted to foreign minister. Vergennes hoped that by giving French aid to the American rebels, he would be able to weaken Britain's dominance of the international stage in the wake of their victory in the Seven Years' War. This produced mixed results as in spite of securing American independence France was able to extract little material gain from the war, while the costs of fighting damaged French national finances in the run up to the Revolution. He went on to be a dominant figure in French politics during the 1780s.

Gaspee Affair

HMS Gaspee was a British customs schooner that had been enforcing the Navigation Acts in and around Newport, Rhode Island in 1772. It ran aground in shallow water while chasing the packet ship Hannah on June 9 near what is now known as Gaspee Point in Warwick, Rhode Island.[2] A group of men led by Abraham Whipple and John Brown attacked, boarded, and torched the ship. The event increased hostilities between the American colonists and British officials, following the Boston Massacre in 1770. The British had hoped to reduce tensions with the colonies by repealing some aspects of the Townshend Acts and working to end the American boycott of British goods. British officials in Rhode Island wanted to increase their control over the trade that had defined the small colony—legitimate trade as well as smuggling—in order to increase their revenue from the colony. But Colonists increasingly began to protest the Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, and other British impositions that had clashed with the colony's history of rum manufacturing, maritime trade, and slave trading. This event marked the first act of violent uprising against the authority of the British crown in America, preceding the Boston tea party by more than a year and moving the Colonies as a whole toward the war for independence.

How did President Hoover reshape U.S. policy toward Latin America?

He tried to avoid intervention of neighboring nation's internal affairs by pulling American troops, granting diplomatic recognition to any neighboring government, and repudiating the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine when Latin America called on the US for help with debt.

Columbian Exposition (1893)

Held in Chicago in 1893; purpose was to display the White City's downtown area and the fairgrounds along with the progress of American civilization such as new industrial technologies.

Jim Crow and Plessy V Ferguson (1896)

Image result for plessy v ferguson Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court issued in 1896. It upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws for public facilities as long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality, a doctrine that came to be known as "separate but equal".

What was the central focus of William Howard Taft's foreign policy? What nickname was it given?

His goal was to extend American investments into less developed areas. This was known as "Dollar Diplomacy".

Briefly characterize the ideas of Huey Long, Francis Townsend, and Charles E. Coughlin. Who was probably most important among them? How did Roosevelt respond?

Huey Long attacked banks, oil companies, and utilities. He was compared to a dictator and had record of conventional progressive accomplishments. He is most known for the Share Our Wealth plan - "Every Man a King"; tax the rich and distribute it to the poor. He was also Governor of Louisiana as well as a US Senator. Long planned to run against FDR in the 1936 elections, but he was assassinated. Townsend was a retired physician who proposed an Old Age Revolving Pension Plan to give every retiree over age 60 $200 per month, provided that the person spend the money each month in order to receive their next payments. The object of Townsend's plan was to help retired workers as well as stimulate the spending in order to boost production and end the Depression. Father Coughlin was a priest who had a broad radio audience and wanted to change the bank currency system. Huey Long was probably the most important of the three. Roosevelt responded with the second new deal.

What was the extent of unemployment in the Depression era?

In 1933, at the worst point in the Great Depression years, unemployment rates in the United States reached almost 25%, with more than 11 million people looking for work. Farmers who had lost their land and homes to foreclosure as a result of the Dust Bowl made up a large part of the idle workforce.

Stephen Crane

Introduced grim realism to the American novel; best known for The Red Badge of Courage.

Confederate Government & Jefferson Davis

Jefferson Davis was an American politician who served as the President of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. He was a member of the Democratic Party who represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives prior to becoming president of the Confederacy. He was the 23rd United States Secretary of War, serving under U.S. President Franklin Pierce from 1853 to 1857. Many historians attribute the Confederacy's weaknesses to the poor leadership of Davis. His preoccupation with detail, reluctance to delegate responsibility, lack of popular appeal, feuds with powerful state governors and generals, favoritism toward old friends, inability to get along with people who disagreed with him, neglect of civil matters in favor of military ones, and resistance to public opinion all worked against him. Historians agree he was a much less effective war leader than his Union counterpart Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and imprisoned at Fort Monroe. He was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Robert E. Lee. Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union. Ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot, and he became a hero of the Lost Cause in the post-Reconstruction South.

What new direction in Indian policy did the Roosevelt administration take? What were the results of the new policy?

John Collier promoted legislation that would reverse the pressures on Native Americans to assimilate and would allow them the right to live in traditional Indian ways. This became the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and it restored to the tribes the right to own land collectively. In the 13 years after passage of the bill, tribal land increased by nearly 4 million acres, and Indian agricultural income increased from under $2 million to over $49 million. However, most of the land they owned was what whites did not want.

John Rolfe/Tobacco

John Rolfe experimented with growing tobacco and is therefore credited with establishing Virginia's first profitable export.

George III

King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of the two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy Roman Empire before becoming King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors, he was born in England, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover. His life and with it his reign, which were longer than any of his predecessors, were marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of Europe, and places farther afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britain's American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, and eventually permanent, mental illness. Although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, and George III's eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, ruled as Prince Regent. On George III's death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George III's life has gone through a "kaleidoscope of changing views" that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the second half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant; and in Britain he became "the scapegoat for the failure of imperialism"

Grant's Strategy (Total War)

Laws of war disregarded, any weapons/tactics could be used.

What impact did Hoover's handling of the veteran's Bonus March have on his popularity?

Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression. The World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a qualified veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldier's promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the immediate cash payment of their certificates. On July 28, U.S. Attorney General William D. Mitchell ordered the veterans removed from all government property. Washington police met with resistance, shots were fired and two veterans were wounded and later died. President Herbert Hoover then ordered the Army to clear the veterans' campsite. Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur commanded the infantry and cavalry supported by six tanks. The Bonus Army marchers with their wives and children were driven out, and their shelters and belongings burned. The incident served as the "final blow" to Hoover's political standing. It proved to the American people that he was unsympathetic to their stressful situations.

How did the war effort affect Mexican Americans?

Mexican Americans were drafted into or volunteered for the U.S. armed services, where they had the highest percentage of Congressional Medal of Honor winners of any minority in the United States. The war also fueled Latino migration to the United States. As defense industries grew and many workers went off to war, industries experienced acute labor shortages. Women and African Americans entered industry in large numbers to help address these shortages, and temporary workers from Puerto Rico and Mexico, or braceros, were through the Bracero Program, a 1942 labor agreement between the United States and Mexico. Although the Bracero Program brought Mexicans to the United States to work primarily in agriculture, some workers were also employed in various industries. Over 100,000 contracts were signed between 1943 and 1945 to recruit and transport Mexican workers to the United States for employment on the railroads. By early 1945, the bracero population in the Philadelphia area numbered approximately 1,000, most of whom worked on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Living in substandard conditions in "box car camps," the laborers had little contact with the general population and limited access to healthcare, recreation, translators, or legal aid. In September 1945, Philadelphia's International Institute (an immigrant aid organization now known as the Nationalities Services Center) formed the Philadelphia Regional Committee of Mexican War Workers to support these railroad workers and address some of the difficulties they faced. The committee helped with weekly English classes, recreational activities, shopping, and problems ranging from contract disputes. It organized sports events and day trips, and Sunday evening fiestas that drew up to 200 guests and featured traditional music and food. The Committee was often called upon to mediate contract disputes. A particularly controversial subject was the automatic deductions made from the men's paychecks for food, health insurance, and retirement benefits. Mexican workers were wary of representatives from the Pennsylvania Railroad. As one case worker reported, "one sensed constantly an antagonism to the railroad people." Since most war-related job opportunities existed in urban centers, there was considerable migration of Mexican Americans to the cities in the decades of the 1940s and 1950s. In Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona there was a large exodus of the population to the urban centers. California had the largest population increase, giving it a Mexican-American population equal to that of Texas. One of the most serious incidents of discrimination occurred during World War II in the Zoot-Suit Riots of Los Angeles. The incident received its name from the type of clothing, known as a "zoot suit," worn by many young Mexican Americans of the early 1940s. In the summer of 1943, a dispute between a Mexican American and an Anglo erupted into widespread rioting. Anglo members of the armed forces were soon joined by civilians in a spree of attacking and beating Mexican Americans wherever they were found. With the end of the war and the return of troops from overseas, the railroad workers were required to return to Mexico (many Puerto Ricans, who were citizens, decided to remain). Serving or working abroad, or moving to a large city expanded the horizons of a generation of Mexican Americans. Like many African Americans, they had sacrificed for their adopted country, they began to want more of the American Dream: better education, better jobs, and an end to racism and discrimination. They considered themselves as Americans and wanted their full civil rights. Many decided to change the system in which they were reared. The termination of the war also brought into being the "G.I. Bill." This act provided veterans with opportunities for employment, high school and college education, job training, and resources for purchasing homes and life insurance. Many Mexican Americans took advantage of the G.I Bill. For the first time, they entered college in large numbers. Within a few years after the war, their slightly higher educational achievements would lead to greater opportunities.

Militiamen

Members of the militia.

Self-Made Man

Men who rose to wealth or higher status from humble origins through self-discipline and hard work.

What were the Open Door Notes?

Message sent by secretary of state John Hay in 1899 to Germany, Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan asking the countries not to interfere with US trading rights in China.

How did Roosevelt respond to the Panic of 1907?

Most of the response was from J.P. Morgan, who pledged lots of his money to shore the banking system. Roosevelt did approve U.S. Steel's takeover of Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad company, avoiding a collapse of stock price.

General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Mexican politician and general who fought to defend royalist New Spain and then for Mexican independence. He greatly influenced early Mexican politics and government, and was a skilled soldier and cunning politician, who dominated Mexican history in the first half of the nineteenth century to such an extent that historians often refer to it as the "Age of Santa Anna". He was called "the Man of Destiny", who "loomed over his time like a melodramatic colossus, the uncrowned monarch." Santa Anna first opposed the movement for Mexican independence from Spain, but then fought in support of it. Though not the first caudillo (military leader) of modern Mexico, he "represents the stereotypical caudillo in Mexican history," and among the earliest. Conservative historian, intellectual, and politician Lucas Alamán wrote that "The history of Mexico since 1822 might accurately be called the history of Santa Anna's revolutions.... His name plays the major role in all the political events of the country and its destiny has become intertwined with his." An enigmatic, patriotic and controversial figure, Santa Anna had great power in Mexico; during a turbulent 40-year career, he served as general at crucial points and served eleven non-consecutive presidential terms over a period of 22 years. In the periods of time when he was not serving as president, he continued to pursue his military career. A wealthy landowner, he built a firm political base in the major port city of Veracruz. He was perceived as a hero by his troops; he sought glory for himself and his army, and independent Mexico. He repeatedly rebuilt his reputation after major losses. Historians and many Mexicans also rank him as perhaps the principal inhabitant even today of Mexico's pantheon of "those who failed the nation." His centralist rhetoric and military failures resulted in Mexico losing just over half its territory, beginning with the Texas Revolution of 1836, and culminating with the Mexican Cession of 1848 following its defeat by the United States in the Mexican-American War. His political positions changed frequently in his lifetime; "his opportunistic politics made him a Liberal, Conservative, and uncrowned king." He was overthrown for the final time by the liberal Revolution of Ayutla in 1854 and lived most of his later years in exile.

Texas Boundary Dispute

Mexico claimed that the new border between Texas and Mexico was the Nueces River, while the United States contested the border was the Rio Grande.

Vaudeville

Most popular form of commercial entertainment since the 1880s (singers, jugglers, comedians, etc.)

Molly Maguires

Militant labor organization that used violence and murder in its battle with coal operators; much of the violence though was instigated by people employed by mine owners so they could have a reason to criticize unionization.

Molly Pitcher

Molly Pitcher was a nickname given to a woman said to have fought in the American Battle of Monmouth, who is generally believed to have been Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley. Since various Molly Pitcher tales grew in the telling, many historians regard Molly Pitcher as folklore rather than history, or suggest that Molly Pitcher may be a composite image inspired by the actions of a number of real women. The name itself may have originated as a nickname given to women who carried water to men on the battlefield during War.

What modification in containment policy was outlined in the NSC-68 report?

NSC-68 saw the goals and aims of the United States as sound, yet poorly implemented, calling "present programs and plans... dangerously inadequate". Although George F. Kennan's theory of containment stated a multifaceted approach for U.S. foreign policy in response to the perceived Soviet threat, NSC-68 recommended policies that emphasized military over diplomatic action. Kennan's influential 1947 "X" article advocated a policy of containment towards the Soviet Union. NSC-68 thought of containment as "a policy of calculated and gradual coercion." NSC-68 called for significant peacetime military spending, in which the U.S. possessed "superior overall power" "in dependable combination with other like-minded nations." It called for a military capable of 1) Defending the Western Hemisphere and essential allied areas so that their war-making capabilities can be developed; 2) Providing and protecting a mobilization base while the offensive forces required for victory were being built up; 3) Conducting offensive operations to destroy vital elements of the Soviet war-making capacity, and to keep the enemy off balance until the full offensive strength of the United States and its allies can be brought to bear; 4) Defending and maintaining the lines of communication and base areas necessary to the execution of the above tasks; and 5) Providing such aid to allies is as essential to the execution of their role in the above tasks. NSC-68 itself did not contain any specific cost estimates at a time when the United States was committing six to seven percent of its GNP to defense. It was evident that the limits the President had previously set on defense spending were too low. NSC-68 called for tripling defense spending to $40 or $50 billion per year from the original $13 billion set for 1950. NSC-68 does specify a reduction of taxes and a "reduction of Federal expenditures for purposes other than defense and foreign assistance, if necessary by the deferment of certain desirable programs", as a means for paying for it. However, several officials involved in the preparation of the study, including the future chairman of the president's Council of Economic Relations Leon Keyserling, suggested that the massive increase in military spending could be afforded by deliberate acceptance of government deficits, which would have the added benefit of energising and stimulating parts of the American economy, as it did after 1930. Indeed, the document does note that achieving a high gross national product "might itself be aided by a build-up of the economic and military strength of the United States...", and the Deputy Secretary of Defense Robert Lovett also suggested that the American economy "might benefit from the kind of build-up we are suggesting". In essence, NSC-68 advocated a form of military Keynesianism, in which, according to Noam Chomsky is a system of "state-corporate industrial management" needed "to sustain high-technology industry, relying on the taxpayer to fund research and development and provide a guaranteed market or waste production, with the private sector taking over when there are profits to be made".

What pressures led to the establishment of the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)?

On June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Committee on Fair Employment Practice, generally known as the Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC), by signing Executive Order 8802, which stated, "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin." A. Philip Randolph, founding president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, had lobbied with other activists for such provisions due to the wide discrimination against African Americans in employment across the country. With the buildup of defense industries before the United States entered the war, blacks were being excluded from economic opportunities. With all groups of Americans being asked to support the war effort, Randolph demanded changes in employment practice of the defense industries, which regularly excluded African Americans and other minorities based on race. Together with other activists, Rudolph planned to muster tens of thousands of persons for a 1941 March on Washington to protest continued segregation in the military and discrimination in defense industries. A week before they planned march, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia of New York met with him and other officials to discuss the President's intent to issue an executive order announcing a policy of non-discrimination in Federal vocational and training programs. Randolph and his allies convinced him that more was needed, especially directed at the booming defense industries. President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 to prohibit discrimination among defense firms that had contracts with the government. He established the Fair Employment Practice Committee to implement this policy through education, accepting complaints of job discrimination, and working with industry on changing employment practices. The activists called off their march.

Why was 1968 such a tumultuous year around much of the world as well as in the United States?

Of all the tumultuous years since World War II, 1968 remains a strong contender for the title of most convulsive. In the U.S., there were the shattering assassinations of civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. (April 4) and presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy (June 5). The Vietnam War saw the Tet offensive and the My Lai Massacre (March 16), in which American soldiers brutally murdered as many as 400, mostly women, children and the elderly. Other countries had their own nightmares. On May 19, Nigerian forces surrounded the breakaway state of Biafra, helping to cause the starvation death of 2 million over the next two years. On Aug. 21, some 200,000 Warsaw Pact troops and 2,000 tanks invaded Czechoslovakia, ending the "Prague Spring" of liberalization. Meanwhile, in far-flung nations, millions of mostly young people took part in protests against the Vietnam War and fought for social change

Jeffrey Amherst

Officer in the British Army and as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces. Amherst is best known as the architect of Britain's successful campaign to conquer the territory of New France during the Seven Years' War. Under his command, British forces captured the cities of Louisbourg, Quebec City and Montreal, as well as several major fortresses. He was also the first British Governor General in the territories that eventually became Canada. Numerous places and streets are named for him, in both Canada and the United States.

How did involvement in Vietnam affect the American economy and the Great Society?

On the United States' side, more than 58,000 American soldiers were killed while more than 150,000 others wounded. Moreover, according to Indochina Newsletter, Asia Resource Center (Special Issue 93-97), the U.S. government spent around $350 billion to $900 billion on the Vietnam War including veteran benefits and interests, which left a heavy burden on its economy. But blood and money were not the only prices they had to pay. The news of atrocities such as the My Lai massacre questioned the U.S. claim of moral superiority and its status as the world defender of freedom and right. Together with the Watergate scandal, the war weakened American people's faith and confidence in their governments. In fact, there was a widespread public distrust of the government, especially in military decisions right after the war. The Vietnam War also left many long lasting effects on the veterans who had fought hard in the war. Around 700,000 Vietnam veterans suffered psychological after-effects. The Vietnam War thoroughly changed the way the American approaches military actions.

Describe the process that led to large pockets of poverty-stricken minorities in cities, especially in the North and Southwest. Why did so many of these people remain poor at a time of growing national affluence?

One of the biggest reasons was the migration of African Americans into industrial cities. They would come to the Northern cities like Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and New York, from the South. Hispanic neighborhoods were increasing as Mexican and Puerto Ricans migrated as well. Mexicans would cross the border at Texas and California. Some believed these people stayed in poverty because of their backgrounds. They were unable to adapt to the needs of the modern industrial city. Others believe the cities were a "culture of poverty" between the crime, violence, hopelessness, etc. Lots of other people believe it is a combination of declining blue-collar jobs, not enough support for the minority-dominated public schools, and barriers to advancement that were rooted in racism.

Boxer Rebellion

Peasant uprising in China that blamed foreign people and institutions for the loss of the traditional Chinese way of life.

Describe the events surrounding the Kennedy assassination. What did the Warren Commission conclude? What doubts remain?

President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central Standard Time on Friday, November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation) and conservative John Connally. Traveling in a presidential motorcade through downtown Dallas, he was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head.Kennedy was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, where he was pronounced dead 30 minutes later. He was 46 years old and had been in office for 1,036 days. Lee Harvey Oswald, an order filler at the Texas School Book Depository from which the shots were suspected to have been fired, was arrested for the murder of police officer J.D. Tippit, and was subsequently charged with Kennedy's assassination. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a patsy, and was killed by Jack Ruby on November 24, before he could be prosecuted. Ruby was arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction and death sentence but became ill and died of cancer on January 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was being set. President Johnson quickly issued an executive order to create the Warren Commission—chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren—to investigate the assassination. The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy and that Oswald was not part of any conspiracy. The results of this investigation are disputed by many. The assassination proved to be a pivotal moment in U.S. history because of its impact on the nation, and the ensuing political repercussions. A 2004 Fox News poll found that 66% of Americans thought there had been a conspiracy to kill President Kennedy, while 74% thought that there had been a cover-up. A Gallup Poll in mid-November 2013, showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought that Oswald did it alone. In 1979, the U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that it believed "that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of the conspiracy." In 2002, historian Carl M. Brauer concluded that the public's "fascination with the assassination may indicate a psychological denial of Kennedy's death, a mass wish...to undo it.

Distribution Act

Pressured by Henry Clay, the government distributed the surplus from selling western lands among the states as loans. Surplus was proportionately divided according to each state's representation in the two houses of Congress.

How did code breaking contribute to future computer technology?

Probably the most important codebreaking event of the war was the successful decryption by the Allies of the German "Enigma" Cipher. The first complete break into Enigma was accomplished by Poland around 1932; the techniques and insights used were passed to the French and British Allies just before the outbreak of the War in 1939. They were substantially improved by British efforts at the Bletchley Park research station during the War. Decryption of the Enigma Cipher allowed the Allies to read important parts of German radio traffic on important networks and was an invaluable source of military intelligence throughout the War. Intelligence from this source (and other high level sources, including the Fish ciphers) was eventually called Ultra. A similar break into an important Japanese cipher (PURPLE) by the US Army Signals Intelligence Service started before the US entered the War. Product from this source was called MAGIC. It was the highest security Japanese diplomatic cipher. The Colossus II was also in the works as the first programmable digital computer.

What were the new technologies used in World War I? How did they change the nature of warfare?

Reflected a trend toward industrialism and the application of mass-production methods to weapons and to the technology of warfare in general. 1) Trench warfare: Infantry rifles, rifled artillery, hydraulic recoil mechanisms, zigzag trenches and machine guns, hand grenade, high explosive shells, led to the development of the concrete pill box, a hardened blockhouse that could be used to deliver machine gun fire 2)Artillery: "box barrage" (the use of a three- or four-sided curtain of shell-fire to prevent the movement of enemy infantry), wire-cutting No. 106 fuse was developed, anti-aircraft guns, indirect counter-battery fire, artillery sound ranging and flash spotting, creeping barrage was perfected, weather, air temperature, and barrel wear could for the first time be accurately measured and taken into account when firing indirectly, Forward observers were used to direct artillery positioned out of direct line of sight from the targets, and sophisticated communications and fire plans were developed, forward observers were used to direct artillery positioned out of direct line of sight from the targets, sophisticated communications and fire plans were developed 3)Poison Gas: Germany had the most advanced chemical industry at the start of the war, Britain and France soon followed suit. 4)Command and Control: Runners, flashing lights, and mirrors were often used to communicate, "contact patrols" could also carry messages 5)Railways: men and material could be moved to the front at an unprecedented rate, but lacked flexibility of motor transport. 6)War of Attrition: manufacture of weapons and ammunition, women played a key role 7)Air Warfare: Interrupter gear allowed a machine gun to be mounted behind the propeller so the pilot could fire directly ahead, along the plane's flight path. Manned observation balloons were used as stationary reconnaissance points. 8)Tanks: The idea of tanks showed great potential, but early tanks were unreliable. 9)Naval Warfare: larger, more advanced ships, UK had the largest surface fleet so Germany turned to submarines. 10)Mobility: Germany moved many troops to Western Front; cyclist infantry and machine guns mounted on motor cycle sidecars. 11)Small Arms: Chauchat M1915 automatic rifle, Lewis Gun, MG08/15, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle 12)Flame Throwers: Used by the German army. Two main types: Kleinflammenwerfer (Single person version) and Grossflammenwerfer (Larger multiple person configuration).

Asiento System

Required the Spanish to pay a tax to their king on each slave they imported to the Americas.

What ideas and developments fed isolationist sentiment in the first half of the 1930s? What was Roosevelt's position?

Roosevelt attempted to spur the arms control conference by submitting a new proposal for arms reduction. Hitler and Mussolini withdrew from the talks. U.S. faced choice of more-active efforts to stabilize the world versus more-energetic attempts to isolate the nation from it- Americans chose this. Old Wilsonian internationalists were disillusioned by the League of Nation's inability to stop Japanese aggression. The argument about whether powerful business interests tricked U.S. into entering WW1, the Nye Investigation proved some of this.

What sort of relationship did President Roosevelt develop with the press and the public to build confidence in the nation?

Roosevelt promised to take drastic, even warlike, action against the emergency. He projected an infectious optimism that helped alleviate the growing despair. He used the radio to talk to the people about his programs and plans which helped build public confidence. (Fireside Chats) Roosevelt held frequent informal press conferences and won the respect and friendship of most reporters.

How did Roosevelt break with Hoover on the matter of economic relations with Europe?

Roosevelt saw the need to return to a gold standard and saw the importance of internationalism. He agreed to lower tariffs if the other countries did but forbade banks from giving out loans.

After the U.S. won the race to the moon, what direction did the American space program take?

Russia had already beat America at launching their satellite, Sputnik, in to space, and now U.S hoped to beat them in a different race - by sending manned vehicles in to space. NASA created the Mercury Project as an initial effort. The Apollo Project followed the Mercury and Gemini Projects and aimed to send a man to the moon. Instead of focusing on traveling to far off planets, NASA focused on making space travel easier and more practical - with the creation of the "space shuttle". These were more airplane like devices which could be launched by a missile, but also be capable of navigating through space and landing on earth. However, the seven deaths which occurred during the first attempt at launching a shuttle (The Challenger) stalled the program for two years. The End Alan Shepard, May 5, 1961 did make it into space, but the Soviets had beat US again, and sent Yuri Gagarin months before. The Gemini Project followed the Mercury Project, and on February 2, 1962 sent John Glenn to be the first man to orbit the Earth. On July 20, 1969 Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin, and Michael Collins successfully traveled into orbit around the moon. Armstrong and Aldrin were then able to land on the surface of the moon for the first time in history. Six more lunar missions followed before the government began to cut funding for these projects. Work again resumed in the late 1980s, but more for commercial purposes. Space shuttles launched and repaired communication satellites, and also sent the Hubble Space Telescope in to orbit (1990). The major space inventions that were created greatly changed the American Aeronautics industry and was lead to many new developments and technologies for future purposes.

Epidemics

Some of the deadly epidemics brought by Europeans that wiped out a large majority of Indians were smallpox, influenza and measles. This was the number one cause for Native American deaths.

Ashcan School

School where realist painters used slums and streets as their subjects; advocated political and social reform.

Growth of Public Schools

Schooling for Indians, more public schools.

Segregation in Southern Schools

Schools were segregated in the South.

Andrew Carnegie

Scottish Industrialist who had monopoly on steel industry.

Wars Effect on Slaves

Some slaves actually fought; ended with slaves being "emancipated"

"Independent Treasury" or "Subtreasury" System

System in which government funds would be placed in an independent treasury in Washington and in subtreasuries. This way no private banks would have the government's money or name to use as a basis for speculation. Van Buren called a special session of Congress in 1837 to consider this proposal, which failed in the House. In 1840, the administration finally succeeded in driving the measure through both houses of Congress.

Scientific Management

System of organizing work developed by Frederick W. Taylor in late 19th century; designed to coax maximum output from workers, increase efficiency and reduce production costs.

What agency was the "centerpiece" of the Great Society? What new approach to fighting poverty did it bring?

The "centerpiece" of the War on Poverty was the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which created an Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to oversee a variety of community-based antipoverty programs.

Into what three major categories did the Fourteen Points fall?

The 14 pts were specific recommendations for adjusting postwar boundaries and for re-establishing new nations to replace the defunct Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires (8), (5) general principles to govern international conduct in the future, and (1) proposal for a league of nations to implement these new principles and territorial adjustments and resolve future controversies. It reflected his belief, strongly rooted in the ideas of progressivism, that the world was as capable of just and efficient government as were individual nations; that once the international community accepted certain basic principles of conduct, and once it's constructed modern institutions to implement them, the human race could live in peace.

Advancement of Women's Rights

The women's rights movement began to gain momentum.

How did artists and writers, including those on the political left, shape public perceptions of the human effects of the Depression?

The Great Depression challenged American families in major ways, placing great economic, social, and psychological strains and demands upon families and their members. These struggles were portrayed in writing and art during the Depression.

Morrill Land Grant Act

The Morrill Land-Grant Acts are United States statutes that allowed for the creation of land-grant colleges in U.S. states using the proceeds of federal land sales.

Wilmot Proviso

The Wilmot Proviso proposed an American law to ban slavery in territory acquired from Mexico in the Mexican War.

Secession

The action of withdrawing formally from membership of a federation or body, especially a political state.

Describe the war protest movement. How did it move from the streets into Congress and the administration?

The anti-war movement began mostly on college campuses, as members of the leftist organization Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) began organizing "teach-ins" to express their opposition to the way in which it was being conducted. Though the vast majority of the American population still supported the administration policy in Vietnam, a small but outspoken liberal minority was making its voice heard by the end of 1965. This minority included many students as well as prominent artists and intellectuals and members of the hippie movement, a growing number of young people who rejected authority and embraced the drug culture. By November 1967, American troop strength in Vietnam was approaching 500,000 and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded. The Vietnam War was costing the U.S. some $25 billion per year, and disillusionment was beginning to reach greater sections of the taxpaying public. More casualties were reported in Vietnam every day, even as U.S. commanders demanded more troops. Under the draft system, as many as 40,000 young men were called into service each month, adding fuel to the fire of the anti-war movement. On October 21, 1967, one of the most prominent anti-war demonstrations took place, as some 100,000 protesters gathered at the Lincoln Memorial; around 30,000 of them continued in a march on the Pentagon later that night. After a brutal confrontation with the soldiers and U.S. Marshals protecting the building, hundreds of demonstrators were arrested. One of them was the author Norman Mailer, who chronicled the events in his book "The Armies of the Night," published the following year to widespread acclaim. Also in 1967, the anti-war movement got a big boost when the civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. went public with his opposition to the war on moral grounds, condemning the war's diversion of federal funds from domestic programs as well as the disproportionate number of African-American casualties in relation to the total number of soldiers killed in the war. The launch of the Tet Offensive by North Vietnamese communist troops in January 1968, and its success against U.S. and South Vietnamese troops, sent waves of shock and discontent across the home front and sparked the most intense period of anti-war protests to date. By early February 1968, a Gallup poll showed only 35 percent of the population approved of Johnson's handling of the war and a full 50 percent disapproved (the rest had no opinion). Joining the anti-war demonstrations by this time were members of the organization Vietnam Veterans Against the War, many of whom were in wheelchairs and on crutches. The sight of these men on television throwing away the medals they had won during the war did much to win people over to the anti-war cause. After many New Hampshire primary voters rallied behind the anti-war Democrat Eugene McCarthy, Johnson announced that he would not seek reelection. Vice President Hubert Humphrey accepted the Democratic nomination in August in Chicago, and 10,000 anti-war demonstrators showed up outside the convention building, clashing with security forces assembled by Mayor Richard Daley. Humphrey lost the 1968 presidential election to Richard M. Nixon, who promised in his campaign to restore "law and order"-a reference to conflict over anti-war protests as well as the rioting that followed King's assassination in 1968-more effectively than Johnson had. The following year, Nixon claimed in a famous speech that anti-war protesters constituted a small-albeit vocal-minority that should not be allowed to drown out the "silent majority" of Americans. Nixon's war policies divided the nation still further, however: In December 1969, the government instituted the first U.S. draft lottery since World War II, inciting a vast amount of controversy and causing many young men to flee to Canada to avoid conscription. Tensions ran higher than ever, spurred on by mass demonstrations and incidents of official violence such those at Kent State in May 1970, when National Guard troops shot into a group of protesters demonstrating against the U.S. invasion of Cambodia, killing four students. In mid-1971, the publication of the first Pentagon Papers-which revealed previously confidential details about the war's conduct-caused more and more Americans to question the accountability of the U.S. government and military establishments. In response to a strong anti-war mandate, Nixon announced the effective end to U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia in January 1973.

How had the use of computers expanded by the mid-1950s? What company dominated the computer market in these years?

The first significant computer of the 1950s was the UNIVAC, which was developed initially for the U.S. Bureau of the Census by the Remington Rand Company. The was the first computer able to handle both alphabetical and numerical information easily. The computer became popular when it predicted that Eisenhower would have a landslide victory over Stevenson. Remington Rand had limited success in marketing the computer, but in the mid-190s, the International Business Machines Company introduced its first major data-processing computers and began to find a wide market for them among businesses in the United States and abroad.

How had the economic attitudes of many corporate leaders changed by the time of the Eisenhower administration?

The most notable difference was that they tried to coexist and work with the Keynesian welfare state that was launched from the New Deal.

Christianity

The religion of almost all Europeans; the Europeans tried to convert the Natives to Christianity.

Border States

There were four slave states that stayed in the Union because of the assurances that the war was being fought to preserve the Union rather than end slavery. These four border states were Missouri, Delaware, Kentucky, and Maryland.

Which two industries were most responsible for the New Era industry and hence substantially to blame for the Great Depression when they slumped?

These two industries were the Construction and Automobile industry.

"Crackers" or Clay Eaters"

These were referred to as "White Trash" and were the lower class white population in the south. They were called clay eaters because they were so poor they had to eat clay and therefore suffered lots of diseases. They were supporters of slavery.

What distinct programs were provided for in the Social Security Act of 1935? What aspects of "insurance" rather than "welfare" were reflected in the law?

Title I is designed to give money to states to provide assistance to aged individuals, Title III concerns unemployment insurance, Title IV concerns Aid to Families with Dependent Children, Title V concerns Maternal and Child Welfare, Title VI concerns public health services, Title X concerns support for blind people. Some aspects of insurance were contribution from participants and benefits available to everyone.

Adams-Onis Treaty 1819

Treaty between the United States and Spain in 1819 that ceded Florida to the U.S. and defined the boundary between the U.S. and New Spain.

Seward's Folly

U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward signs a treaty with Russia for the purchase of Alaska for $7 million. Despite the bargain price of roughly two cents an acre, the Alaskan purchase was ridiculed in Congress and in the press as "Seward's folly."

Open Door Policy

U.S. foreign policy towards China; reaffirmed the principle that all countries should have equal access to any Chinese port open to trade.

Imperialism

US became imperial power in 1898 when it acquired colonies after the Spanish American War.

Battle of Atlanta

Union victory in Atlanta.

Nathaniel Bacon

Virginia planter and leader of Bacon's Rebellion (1676), the first popular revolt in England's North American colonies. The immediate cause of the rebellion was Governor William Berkeley's refusal to retaliate for a series of Native American attacks on frontier settlements. In addition, many colonists wished to attack and claim American Indian frontier land westward, but they were denied permission by Gov. Berkeley.

Who were the Rough Riders?

Volunteer soldiers led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish-American War.

Describe how the various "war boards" were organized. What were the roles of the War Industries Board (WIB) and the National War Labor Board?

War Boards such as the WIB were organized in order to manage labor disputes. It was organized by Woodrow Wilson. The purpose of the WIB was to coordinate the purchase of war supplies between the War Department (Department of the Army) and the Navy Department. The purpose of the NWLB was to prevent strikes that would disrupt production in war industries.

How did Roosevelt's New Nationalism and Wilson's New Freedom differ from each other as two brands of progressivism?

Wilson's -policy of The New Freedom promoted antitrust modification -tariff reduction -banking and currency reform. -favored small enterprise, entrepreneurship, and the free functioning of unregulated and unmonopolized markets -not regulation but fragmentation of the big industrial combines, chiefly by means of vigorous enforcement of the antitrust laws. Roosevelt's -New Nationalism focused on human welfare versus property rights. - powerful federal government could regulate the economy and guarantee social justice -concentration in industry was not necessarily bad -He wanted executive agencies (not the courts) to regulate business -The federal government should be used to protect the laboring man and the weak in society, like women and children, from exploitation. -Supported child labor laws and a minimum wage law for women. Differences -One of the biggest differences was regarding antitrust modification. -According to Wilson, "If America is not to have free enterprise, she can have freedom of no sort whatever." -Wilson warned that New Nationalism represented collectivism - New Freedom stood for political and economic liberty from such things as trusts (powerful monopolies) -agreed that economic power was being abused by the American government -Wilson's ideas split with Roosevelt on how the government should handle the restraint of private power dismantling corporations that had too much economic power in a large society.

What impact did the war have on the legal and social status of Chinese Americans?

World War II brought momentous change to America's Chinese community. For decades, Chinese were vilified in America, especially in California, the center of the U.S.'s anti-Chinese feelings. The Chinese had initially come to California for the Gold Rush and later the building of the Transcontinental Railroad, but public sentiment quickly turned against them. Competition for jobs and a depression in the 1870s all led to a racist backlash against Chinese. Eventually Chinese immigration was ended with the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. The Chinese in America found themselves a hated minority segregated in Chinatowns. The attack on Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941 changed all of that. After Pearl Harbor perceptions of China and Chinese Americans were suddenly transformed. China went from being known as the "sick man of Asia" to a vital ally in the United States' war against the Japanese. Likewise, Chinese went from the "heathen Chinee" to friends. In 1943 a congressman said if not for December 7, America might have never known how good Chinese Americans were. Chinese were drawn to the war effort like other Americans. They contributed money to the Red Cross and ran bond drives to fund the war. In San Francisco Chinese raised $18,000 for the Red Cross and bought $30,000 in war bonds in 1942 alone. Chinese also collected tin and other scrap metal to donate to the government. The war also had a great impact on the economic status of Chinese Americans. Before, Chinese were severely limited in their job opportunities. Most Chinese were relegated to their local ethnic economies found in Chinatowns working as waiters, cooks, laundry, and garment workers. When the war started, eventually better work was made available. America's huge defense industry was hungry for workers of any race, ethnicity, and gender as the war progressed. In the San Francisco Bay Area, for example, 15 percent of all shipyard workers were Chinese in 1943. Even the country's strong distaste for Chinese immigrants was changed. In 1943 Congress began considering repealing the Chinese Exclusion Act. President Roosevelt even joined the cause. The resulting change in opinion led to the Exclusion Act being repealed by late 1943. The new immigration act that replaced it was more symbolic than anything else as only 105 Chinese were allowed to enter the United States a year. More importantly, however, Chinese already in America were now allowed to become naturalized citizens if they met the requirements, something previously denied them by racist laws. Finally, Chinese made the ultimate sacrifice during World War II by serving in the American military. Many Chinese were drafted because the law said that men with no dependents were the first to be drafted and the Exclusion Act had created a bachelor society of single Chinese men in America. Many others volunteered for service. In total, 13,499 Chinese fought in the war for the United States, 22 percent of all Chinese men in America. Seventy percent were in the U.S. Army serving in the 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions in Europe and the 6th, 32nd, and 77th Infantry Divisions in the Pacific. Twenty-five percent also served in the U.S. Army Air Force like Oakland's Sgt. Thomas Fong pictured receiving his Air Medal for outstanding service in the bomber corps over Europe.

Louisa May Alcott

Writer and reformer best known for Little Women

Progress and Poverty

Written by Henry George, critical of entrepreneurs.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

Wrote The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, which argued that control of the sea was the key to world dominance.

Edward Bellamy

Wrote a utopian novel in which a boy wakes up in 2000 to a harmonious world.

What was the goal of the Underwood-Simmons tariff? How did it fulfill longstanding Democratic pledges? Why was a graduated income tax needed, as well as the tariff reduction?

re-imposed the federal income tax after the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment and lowered basic tariff rates from 40% to 25%, well below the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909. It was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on October 3, 1913 and was sponsored by Alabama Representative Oscar Underwood. This was necessary after the failure of previous tariffs.

Skyscrapers

Tall steel framed buildings that began in America.

Immigration Restriction League

Belief that immigrants should be screened through literacy tests and other standards designed to separate the desirable from the undesirable.

Plantation Mistress

Commanded a sizable household staff mostly of female slaves. plantation agriculture.

Describe the role of blacks in the military. What tensions resulted?

Despite a high enlistment rate in the U.S. Army, African Americans were not treated equally. At parades, church services, in transportation and canteens the races were kept separate. The Women's Army Corps (WAC) changed its enlistment policies in January 1941, allowing for African American women to join the ranks of Army nurses to strengthen the war effort. Much like with male soldiers, Black women were given separate training, inferior living quarters, and rations. Black nurses were integrated into everyday life with their white colleagues and often felt the pain of discrimination and slander from the wounded soldiers they cared for and the leadership assigned to them. Phyllis Mae Dailey was sworn into the Navy as the first African-American woman in World War II. The Navy did not follow suit in changing its policies to include women of color until January 25, 1945. The first African American woman sworn into the Navy was Phyllis Mae Dailey, a nurse and Columbia University student from New York. She was the first of only four African American women to serve in the navy during World War II. Many soldiers of color served their country with distinction during World War II. There were 125,000 African Americans who were overseas in World War II. Famous segregated units, such as the Tuskegee Airmen and 761st Tank Battalion and the lesser-known but equally distinguished 452nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion, proved their value in combat, leading to desegregation of all U.S. armed forces by order of President Harry S. Truman in July 1948 via Executive Order 9981. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. served as commander of the Tuskegee Airmen during the war. He later went on to become the first African American general in the United States Air Force. His father, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., had been the first African American brigadier general in the Army (1940). Doris Miller, a Navy mess attendant, was the first African American recipient of the Navy Cross, awarded for his actions during the attack on Pearl Harbor. Miller had voluntarily manned an anti-aircraft gun and fired at the Japanese aircraft, despite having no prior training in the weapon's use. In 1944, the Golden Thirteen became the Navy's first African American commissioned officers. Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. became a commissioned officer the same year; he would later be the first African American to command a US warship, and the first to be an admiral. The Port Chicago disaster on July 17, 1944, was an explosion of about 2,000 tons of ammunition as it was being loaded onto ships by black Navy sailors under pressure from their white officers to hurry. The explosion in Northern California killed 320 military and civilian workers, most of them black. It led a month later to the Port Chicago Mutiny, the only case of a full military trial for mutiny in the history of the U.S. Navy against 50 African American sailors who refused to continue loading ammunition under the same dangerous conditions. The trial was observed by the then young lawyer Thurgood Marshall and ended in conviction of all of the defendants. The trial was immediately and later criticized for not abiding by the applicable laws on mutiny, and it became influential in the discussion of desegregation. During World War II, most male African American soldiers still served only as truck drivers and as stevedores (except for some separate tank battalions and Army Air Forces escort fighters). African American women in uniform answered the call of duty by tending the wounded as nurses, or working as riveters, mail clerks, file clerks, typists, stenographers, supply clerks, or motor pool drivers. In the midst of the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, General Eisenhower was severely short of replacement troops for existing all-white companies. Consequently, he made the decision to allow 2000 black servicemen volunteers to serve in segregated platoons under the command of white lieutenants to replenish these companies. These platoons would serve with distinction and, according to an Army survey in the summer of 1945, 84% were ranked "very well" and 16% were ranked "fairly well". No black platoon received a ranking of "poor" by those white officers or white soldiers that fought with them. Unfortunately, these platoons were often subject to racist treatment by white military units in occupied Germany and were quickly sent back to their old segregated units after the end of hostilities in Germany. Despite their protests, these brave African American soldiers ended the war in their old non-combat service units. Though largely forgotten after the war, the temporary experiment with black combat troops proved a success - a small, but important step toward permanent integration during the Korean War. A total of 708 African Americans were killed in combat during World War II. In 1945, Frederick C. Branch became the first African-American United States Marine Corps officer. In 1965, Marcelite J. Harris became the first female African American United States Air Force officer.

Virginia Company

Formed Virginia as a profit-earning venture but was a major fail.. Starvation was the main problem; about 90% of the colonists died the first year, many of the survivors left, and the company had trouble attracting new colonists. They offered private land ownership in the colony to attract settlers, but the Virginia Company eventually went bankrupt and the colony went to the crown. Virginia did not become a successful colony until the colonists started raising and exporting tobacco.

Richard Sears

Founder of Sears (First department store)

What key events early in 1917 combined to finally bring the United States fully into World War I?

Germany's submarine warfare, Lusitania, Zimmerman telegram, and the Russian revolution were some of the major events that contributed to the US' involvement in the war.

What factors caused the low unemployment rate and the great growth in GNP from 1945 to 1960? How widespread was the prosperity?

In the decade and a half after World War II, the United States experienced phenomenal economic growth and consolidated its position as the world's richest country. Gross national product (GNP), a measure of all goods and services produced in the United States, jumped from about $200,000-million in 1940 to $300,000-million in 1950 to more than $500,000-million in 1960. More and more Americans now considered themselves part of the middle class. The growth had different sources. The economic stimulus provided by large-scale public spending for World War II helped get it started. Two basic middle-class needs did much to keep it going. The number of automobiles produced annually quadrupled between 1946 and 1955. A housing boom, stimulated in part by easily affordable mortgages for returning servicemen, fueled the expansion. The rise in defense spending as the Cold War escalated also played a part. After 1945 the major corporations in America grew even larger. There had been earlier waves of mergers in the 1890s and in the 1920s; in the 1950s another wave occurred. Franchise operations like McDonald's fast-food restaurants allowed small entrepreneurs to make themselves part of large, efficient enterprises. Big American corporations also developed holdings overseas, where labor costs were often lower. Workers found their own lives changing as industrial America changed. Fewer workers produced goods; more provided services. As early as 1956 a majority of employees held white-collar jobs, working as managers, teachers, salespersons, and office operatives. Some firms granted a guaranteed annual wage, long-term employment contracts, and other benefits. With such changes, labor militancy was undermined and some class distinctions began to fade. Farmers -- at least those with small operations -- faced tough times. Gains in productivity led to agricultural consolidation, and farming became a big business. More and more family farmers left the land.

Seminole War

In the bloodiest Indian conflict in U.S. history, the Seminoles, ordered to merge with their ancestral enemy, the Creeks, for relocation, retreated to the swamps of the Everglades, where they fought a bitter and protracted war with the United States Army, killing 1.500 US soldiers in seven years (1835-1842). Three thousand Seminoles were then forced to relocate to Oklahoma in a bitter forced march, but another 1,000 hid in the Everglades and continued to fight for five more years.

Wade-Davis Bill

Majority of Southerners had to take an oath to be readmitted.

Who were the main domestic opponents of American entry into the League of Nations? What were the two categories of opponents? How much of the blame for the treaty's defeat must be laid on Wilson himself?

Most Republicans opposed the joining of the League of Nations because of Article X, which said that they must "protect" other nations in the League should they be attacked. The two categories were irreconcilables and reservationists. Many people do blame the treaty's defeat on Wilson because he was so unwilling to compromise.

Taylorism

New principles of "scientific management" from Frederick Winslow Taylor; encouraged subsidation to reduce the need for skilled labor.

Populism (People's Party)

Party formed in 1892 representing mainly farmers, favoring free coinage of silver and government control of railroads and other monopolies.

Describe the ideas of the several writers of the 1950s who explored the growing tensions between organized, bureaucratic society and the tradition of individualism. What was The Organization Man?

Popular authors included: J. D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye (1951) Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (1952) E. B. White, Charlotte's Web (1953) Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451 (1953) Allen Ginsberg, Howl (1956) Ayn Rand, Atlas Shrugged (1957) Dr. Seuss, The Cat in the Hat (1957) Jack Kerouac, On the Road (1957) The Organization Man is a bestselling book by William H. Whyte, originally published by Simon & Schuster in 1956. It is considered one of the most influential books on management ever written. While employed by Fortune Magazine, Whyte did extensive interviews with the CEOs of major American corporations such as General Electric and Ford. A central tenet of the book is that average Americans subscribed to a collectivist ethic rather than to the prevailing notion of rugged individualism. A key point made was that people became convinced that organizations and groups could make better decisions than individuals, and thus serving an organization became logically preferable to advancing one's individual creativity. Whyte felt this was counterfactual and listed a number of examples of how individual work and creativity can produce better outcomes than collectivist processes. He observed that this system led to risk-averse executives who faced no consequences and could expect jobs for life as long as they made no egregious missteps. Whyte's book led to deeper examinations of the concept of "commitment" and "loyalty" within corporations. Whyte's book matched the fictional best seller of the period, The Man In The Gray Flannel Suit (1955) by Sloan Wilson in inspiring criticism that those Americans inspired to win World War II returned to an empty suburban life, conformity, and the pursuit of the dollar. Marxist theorist Guy Debord discusses Whyte's observations about advanced capitalism in The Society of the Spectacle (1967).

Three Ways of Financing War

Printing money, raising taxes, and borrowing money.

To what extent was the lag in union membership due to the unions themselves? What were the other causal factors?

The New Era was a bleak time for labor organization, because the unions themselves were generally conservative and failed to adapt realities of the modern economy. The AFL remained wedded to skilled workers only. Unions were uninterested in organizing women because they were not industrial workers. The AA who went from the south to the north had few opportunities for union representation.

What new source of power for the national government emerged in the Smith-Lever Act?

The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 is a United States federal law that established a system of cooperative extension services, connected to the land-grant universities, in order to inform people about current developments in agriculture, home economics, public policy/government, leadership, 4-H, economic development, coastal issues (National Sea Grant College Program), and many other related subjects. It helped farmers learn new agricultural techniques by the introduction of home instruction.

Describe the increasing civil rights activism of the early 1960s. How did this protest movement lead to "the most important civil rights bill of the twentieth century"?

The civil rights movement was a struggle struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for blacks to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn't end discrimination against blacks—they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, African Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many whites, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.

How did American families adjust to the pressures of hard times?

They didn't buy unneeded things like they had in the 20s. Women typically sewed clothes, and families relied on growing their own food instead of buying it. Many took up home businesses. The overall strength of the family was "eroded".

Describe the technological evolution of radio. How widely had it spread by the end of the 1920s?

The first radio news program was broadcast August 31, 1920 by station 8MK in Detroit, Michigan, which survives today as all-news format station WWJ under ownership of the CBS network. The first college radio station began broadcasting on October 14, 1920 from Union College, Schenectady, New York under the personal call letters of Wendell King, an African-American student at the school. That month 2ADD (renamed WRUC in 1947), aired what is believed to be the first public entertainment broadcast in the United States, a series of Thursday night concerts initially heard within a 100-mile (160 km) radius and later for a 1,000-mile (1,600 km) radius. In November 1920, it aired the first broadcast of a sporting event. At 9 pm on August 27, 1920, Sociedad Radio Argentina aired a live performance of Richard Wagner's opera Parsifal from the Coliseo Theater in downtown Buenos Aires. Only about twenty homes in the city had receivers to tune in this radio program. Meanwhile, regular entertainment broadcasts commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research Centre at Writtle, England. Sports broadcasting began at this time as well, including the college football on radio broadcast of a 1921 West Virginia vs. Pittsburgh football game. The radio was used as a distraction from reality during the Great Depression, and was a common household item by the end of the 1920s.

How did the image of the "new professional woman" compare with reality for most working women?

The image of the "new professional woman" was highly publicized and was mostly factitious. In reality, most women did not work outside the home.

Fort Louisbourg

The original settlement was founded in 1713 by the French and developed over several decades into a thriving center for fishing and trade. Fortified against the threat of British invasion during the turbulent time of empire-building, Louisbourg was besieged twice before finally being destroyed in the 1760s.

Nativism

The policy, generally around immigration but also dealing with social and economic aspects of daily life, that favors native-born or long-term resident individuals in the United States at the expense of immigrants.

Calvinism

The teachings and doctrine of John Calvin, a leader in the Protestant reformation. Calvinism is unique in its rejection of consubstantiation, the Eucharist and in its doctrine of predestination, the belief that no actions taken during a persons life would effect their salvation. The Puritan colonies were based on Calvinist doctrine.

Indian Hunters and Indian Slavery

Unofficial violence by white vigilantes who engaged in what became known as this. Sometimes the killings were in response to Indian raids on white communities.

What is bimetallism?

Use of both gold and silver as money.

Why did John Foster Dulles move the United States toward the policy of massive retaliation?

When Dwight D. Eisenhower became U.S. President in January 1953, Dulles was appointed and confirmed as his Secretary of State. As Secretary of State, Dulles still carried out the "containment" policy of neutralizing the Taiwan Strait during the Korean War, which had been established by President Truman in the Treaty of Peace with Japan of 1951, but he felt this was too passive. Dulles also supervised the completion of the Japanese Peace Treaty, in which full independence was restored to Japan under United States terms. As Secretary of State, Dulles concentrated on building up the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and forming other alliances (a phenomenon described as his "Pactomania") as part of his strategy of controlling Soviet expansion by threatening massive retaliation in event of a war. In the 1950s, he worked alongside to reduce the French influence in Vietnam as well as asking the United States to attempt to cooperate with the French in the aid of strengthening Diem's Army. Over time Dulles concluded that it was time to "ease France out of Vietnam". In 1950 he also helped initiate the ANZUS Treaty for mutual protection with Australia and New Zealand. Dulles strongly opposed communism, believing it was "Godless terrorism". One of his first major policy shifts towards a more aggressive position against communism occurred in March 1953, when Dulles supported Eisenhower's decision to direct the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), then headed by his brother Allen Dulles, to draft plans to overthrow the Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh of Iran. This led directly to the coup d'état via Operation Ajax in support of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who became the Shah of Iran. In 1954, Dulles became the architect of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The treaty, signed by representatives of Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and the United States, provided for collective action against aggression. In 1954 Dulles lobbied Eisenhower on behalf of the American United Fruit Company to instigate a military coup by the Guatemalan army through the CIA under the pretext that democratically-elected President Jacobo Árbenz's government and the Guatemalan Revolution were veering toward communism. Dulles had previously represented the United Fruit Company as a lawyer, and remained on its payroll, while his brother, CIA Director Allen Dulles, was on the company's board of directors. Dulles was named Time's Man of the Year for 1954. Dulles was one of the pioneers of massive retaliation and brinkmanship. In an article written for Life magazine, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." Dulles' hard line alienated many leaders of nonaligned countries when on June 9, 1955, he argued in a speech that "neutrality has increasingly become obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and shortsighted conception." Throughout the 1950s Dulles was in frequent conflict with those non-aligned statesmen he deemed excessively sympathetic to Communism, including India's V.K. Krishna Menon. In November 1956, Dulles strongly opposed the Anglo-French invasion of the Suez Canal zone in response to the Suez Crisis. During the most crucial days he was hospitalized after surgery and did not participate in Washington's decision-making. However, by 1958 Dulles had become an outspoken opponent of President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and prevented him from receiving arms from the United States. This policy allowed the Soviet Union to gain influence in Egypt. Dulles served as the Chairman and Co-founder of the Commission on a Just and Durable Peace of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America (later the National Council of Churches), the Chairman of the Board for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and a Trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1935 to 1952. Dulles was also a founding member of Foreign Policy Association and Council of Foreign Relations.

Florence Kelley

Woman who successfully lobbied in 1893 for an antisweatshop law that protected women workers and prohibited child labor.

Impact of Horses

Europeans introduced Old World crops and animals to the Americas. Columbus returned to the Caribbean island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic) in 1493 with seventeen ships that unloaded twelve hundred men and a virtual Noah's Ark of cattle, swine, and horses. The horses soon reached the North American mainland through Mexico and in less than two centuries had spread as far as Canada. North American Indian tribes like the Apaches, Sioux, and Blackfoot swiftly adopted the horse, transforming their cultures into highly mobile, wide-ranging hunter societies that roamed the grassy Great Plains in pursuit of the shaggy buffalo.

Metacom's War (King Phillip's War)

King Philip's War, sometimes called Metacom's War or Metacom's Rebellion, was an armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies in 1675-1676.

Pennsylvania Dutch

The Pennsylvania Dutch are a cultural group formed by early German-speaking immigrants to Pennsylvania and their descendants. The word "Dutch" does not refer to the Dutch people or their descendants, but to the German settlers, known as Deutsch. Most emigrated to the U.S. from Germany or Switzerland in the 17th and 18th century. Over time, the various dialects spoken by these immigrants fused into a unique dialect of German known as Pennsylvania German or Pennsylvania "Dutch". At one time, more than one-third of Pennsylvania's population spoke this language. The Pennsylvania Dutch maintained numerous religious affiliations, with the greatest number being Lutheran or German Reformed, but also with many Anabaptists, including Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterite. The Anabaptist religions promoted a simple lifestyle, and their adherents were known as Plain people or Plain Dutch. This was in contrast to the Fancy Dutch, who tended to assimilate more easily into the American mainstream. Other religions were also represented by the late 1700s, in smaller numbers. Some of the emigration of Germans to America from the Rhine area was caused by the devastation of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the wars between the German principalities and France. Members this group founded the borough of Germantown, in northwest Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, in 1683. They settled on land that William Penn had sold to them. Germantown included not only Mennonites but also Quakers.

Lincoln's Reconstruction Plan

10% Plan; Southern states could be readmitted once 10% of voters took an oath.

Santa Fe Trail

19th-century transportation route through central North America that connected Independence, Missouri with Santa Fe, New Mexico. Pioneered in 1821 by William Becknell, it served as a vital commercial highway until the introduction of the railroad to Santa Fe in 1880. Santa Fe was near the end of the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro which carried trade from Mexico City. The route skirted the northern edge and crossed the north-western corner of Comancheria, the territory of the Comanches, who demanded compensation for granting passage to the trail, and represented another market for American traders. Comanche raiding farther south in Mexico isolated New Mexico, making it more dependent on the American trade, and provided the Comanches with a steady supply of horses for sale. By the 1840s, trail traffic along the Arkansas Valley was so heavy that bison herds could not reach important seasonal grazing land, contributing to their collapse, which in turn hastened the decline of Comanche power in the region. The Trail was used as the 1846 U.S. invasion route of New Mexico during the Mexican-American War. After the U.S. acquisition of the Southwest ending the Mexican-American War, the trail helped open the region to U.S. economic development and settlement, playing a vital role in the expansion of the U.S. into the lands it had acquired. The road route is commemorated today by the National Park Service as the Santa Fe National Historic Trail. A highway route that roughly follows the trail's path through the entire length of Kansas, the southeast corner of Colorado and northern New Mexico has been designated as the Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway

Woodrow Wilson

28th President; known for World War I leadership, created federal Reserve, Federal Trade Commission, Clayton Antitrust Act, progressive income tax, lower tariffs, women's suffrage (reluctantly), treaty of Versailles, sought 14 points post-war plan, League of Nations (but failed to win US ratification), won Nobel Peace Prize.

The Benevolent Empire

A broad-ranging campaign of moral and institutional reform inspired by evangelical Christian ideals and created by middle class men and women.

London Company

A joint-stock company chartered in 1606; responsible for founding the first permanent English settlement in America; Jamestown, Virginia in 1607.

Royal African Company

A mercantile company set up by the Stuart family and London merchants to trade along the West coast of Africa. It was led by James, Duke of York, Charles II's brother. Its original purpose was to exploit the gold fields up the Gambia River identified by Prince Rupert during the Interregnum, and it was set up once Charles II gained the English throne in the English Restoration of 1660. However, it was soon engaged in the slave trade as well as with other commodities.

Protestant Evangelicalism

A worldwide Protestant movement, which maintained that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by faith in Jesus Christ's atonement. The movement gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

Act passed in 1890 which prohibited any "contract, combination, in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce".

Election of 1864

Abraham Lincoln defeated Democrat George B. McClellan. As the election occurred during the American Civil War, it was contested only by the states that had not seceded from the Union.

Direct Vs. Virtual Representation

Actual representation: In order to be taxed by Parliament, the Americans rightly should have actual legislators seated and voting in London. Virtual representation: Members of Parliament, including the Lords and the Crown-in-Parliament, reserved the right to speak for the interests of all British subjects, rather than for the interests of only the district that elected them or for the regions in which they held peerages and spiritual sway.

Sojourner Truth

African-American abolitionist and women's rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, Ulster County, New York, but escaped with her infant daughter to freedom in 1826. After going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man. She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843 after she became convinced that God had called her to leave the city and go into the countryside "testifying the hope that was in her". Her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became widely known during the Civil War by the title "Ain't I a Woman?," a variation of the original speech re-written by someone else using a stereotypical Southern dialect; whereas Sojourner Truth was from New York and grew up speaking Dutch as her first language. During the Civil War, Truth helped recruit black troops for the Union Army; after the war, she tried unsuccessfully to secure land grants from the federal government for former slaves.

What role did Soviet forces play in the final defeat of Germany?

After the successful Allied invasions of western France, Germany gathered reserve forces and launched a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes, which collapsed by January. At the same time, Soviet forces were closing in from the east, invading Poland and East Prussia. By March, Western Allied forces were crossing the Rhine River, capturing hundreds of thousands of troops from Germany's Army Group B. The Red Army had meanwhile entered Austria, and both fronts quickly approached Berlin. Strategic bombing campaigns by Allied aircraft were pounding German territory, sometimes destroying entire cities in a night. In the first several months of 1945, Germany put up a fierce defense, but rapidly lost territory, ran out of supplies, and exhausted its options. In April, Allied forces pushed through the German defensive line in Italy. East met West on the River Elbe on April 25, 1945, when Soviet and American troops met near Torgau, Germany. Then came the end of the Third Reich, as the Soviets took Berlin, Adolf Hitler committed suicide on April 30, and Germany surrendered unconditionally on all fronts on May 8 (May 7 on the Western Front).

Successes and Failures of Reconstruction

Successes: 1. The reunification of the Union. This separation lasted 4 years, and Reconstruction had brought them together and restored what we know as the United States. 2. Expansion of the South & North's economy. The Reconstruction brought many offers to the South as well as to the North since it proposed to collaborate in order to make a better place. 3. More laws. These protected the rights of the newly freedmen, and accepted them as men, having the right to vote, and speak. 4. Freedmen's Bureau and many other smaller associations were formed. These helped the ones in need to not be homeless and completely poor. 5. Education was provided to everyone, and it was forced in the South. 6. Freedom. 7. The Compromise of 1877, that stated that the Republicans could make on of their's a leader, as long as they took care of building the South: However, the Presidential Election of 1876 marked a great sour turn. The Republican Hayes lost the popular vote against Democrat Tilden. Tilden had the support of the solid South, a group of dominating southerners taking part in the Democratic Party. This said, the electoral vote was very debated. Hayes won according to Forida, Louisiana & South Carolina, who were then under Republican control. The Democrats however had said that Tilden won in those states. Congress then made a commission to solve this election, and since there were more Republicans than Democrats, they called Hayes as the President. Democrats had the enough strength to call off this commission, and in 1877, the Compromise of 1877 was passed, where Democrats agreed to give Hayes the victory though he hadn't completely won. The compromise was that the Hayes would then have to support rebuilding levees aside the Mississippi, dismissing the troops in the south, and to help rebuild southern railroads. And this was obviously a pro, letting the south be free. 8. Enforcement Act of 1870 "banned the use of terror, force, or briebery to prevent people from voting because of their race" reinforced the Thirteenth Ammendement which gave slaves freedom. Failures: To transition from the postivite to negative consequences of the Reconstruction, one should connect who the Enforcement Act was talking to: the Klansmen. 1. Ku Klux Klan was a group of people who wore robes and masks and pretended to be the ghosts of the Confederate soldiers. They were scared of changes, and the rising rights of the African Americans, who they wanted to be labourors and slaves. So, they attacked them, usually by putting their homes on fire. There were many kinds of racist attitudes towards African Americans, and not only in the South, but in the North as well. 2. Poverty was still a global issue in the South, where many white southerners had lost their lands, and the blacks were newly freed, and therefore, had no economic opportunities. This caused them to be trapped in a poverty cycle. African Americans had little job offerings. 3. Industrialization in the South was too slow. 4. Sharecropping & tenant farming were bad because they usually brought more complications like who would get what, and wasn't fair to the laborors on the land. 5. Corruption happened when the people would pay taxes, and that money was used in the wrong way. Like, just a little percent would be used seriously, and the rest would go in the government's pockets. 6. Black codes were used at the beginning of the Reconstruction, where as freedmen, the blacks still had pressure about things like when to meet with friends. They were restrictions on the way a freedman should live. 7. Taxes were elevated in order to rebuild the South. 8. Jim Crow Laws which supported discrimination & racial segregation.

How did the U.S. react to the establishment of Israel? How did Israel's neighbors react?

Although the United States supported the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which favored the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had assured the Arabs in 1945 that the United States would not intervene without consulting both the Jews and the Arabs in that region.At midnight on May 14, 1948, the Provisional Government of Israel proclaimed a new State of Israel. On that same date, the United States, in the person of President Truman, recognized the provisional Jewish government as de facto authority of the Jewish state (de jure recognition was extended on January 31, 1949). The U.S. delegates to the U.N. and top-ranking State Department officials were angered that Truman released his recognition statement to the press without notifying them first. On May 15, 1948, the first day of Israeli Independence and exactly one year after UNSCOP was established, Arab armies invaded Israel and the first Arab-Israeli war began.

USS Maine

American battleship that blew up in Havana, Cuba, ultimately starting the Spanish-American War.

Stephen F. Austin

American empresario. Known as the "Father of Texas", and the founder of Texas, he led the second, and ultimately, the successful colonization of the region by bringing 300 families from the United States to the region in 1825.

John Slidell

American politician, lawyer, and businessman. Prior to the Mexican-American War, Slidell was sent to Mexico, by President James Knox Polk, to negotiate an agreement whereby the Rio Grande would be the southern border of Texas. He also was instructed to offer, among other alternatives, a maximum of $25 million for California by Polk and his administration. Slidell hinted to Polk that the Mexican reluctance to negotiate might require a show of military force by the United States. Under the guidance of General Zachary Taylor, U.S. troops were stationed at the U.S./Mexico border, ready to defend against Mexican attack. The Mexican government rejected Slidell's mission. After Mexican forces attacked at Matamoros, the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846.

Edgar Allan Poe

American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as a whole, and he was one of the country's earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career.

James K. Polk

American politician who served as the 11th President of the United States (1845-1849). He previously was elected the 13th Speaker of the House of Representatives (1835-1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839-1841). As a protégé of Andrew Jackson, Polk was a member of the Democratic Party and an advocate of Jacksonian democracy and Manifest Destiny. During his presidency, the United States expanded significantly with the annexation of the Republic of Texas, the Oregon Treaty, and the close of the Mexican-American War. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to the state legislature (1823) and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825. He served as the Speaker of the House of Representatives from 1835 to 1839, and was the only president to have also served as Speaker. Polk left Congress to serve as Governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841, then lost re-election as governor in 1840, and lost the same election in 1842. He was a dark horse candidate for president in 1844, when he entered his party's convention as a nominee for vice president; nevertheless, he won the presidential nomination as a compromise candidate among various party factions. In the general election, he defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party, primarily due to his promise to annex the Republic of Texas. Polk is considered by many the last exceptional president of the pre-Civil War era, having met during his four-year term every major domestic and foreign policy goal set during his campaign and transition to office. After threatening war, he reached a settlement with the United Kingdom over the disputed Oregon Country, whereby the territory was divided along the 49th parallel. Polk achieved a sweeping victory in the Mexican-American War, which resulted in the cession by Mexico of nearly all the American Southwest. He ensured a substantial reduction of tariff rates with the Walker tariff of 1846, which pleased the less-industrialized southern states through less expensive imported and domestic goods. He also re-established the Independent Treasury System, oversaw the opening of the United States Naval Academy and the Smithsonian Institution, the groundbreaking for the Washington Monument, and the issuance of the first United States postage stamp. True to his campaign pledge to serve only one term, Polk left office in 1849 and returned to Tennessee; he died of cholera three months afterwards. Scholars have ranked him favorably for his ability to promote and achieve the major items on his presidential agenda. However, he has also been criticized for leading the country into war against Mexico and for exacerbating sectional divides.

Whigs

Conservatives who supported government programs, reforms, and public schools. They called for internal improvements like canals, railroads, and telegraph lines.

Inflation in the Confederacy

At the beginning of the war, the Confederate dollar cost 90¢ worth of gold (Union) dollars. By the war's end, its price had dropped to only .017¢. Overall, the price level in the South increased by over 9000% during the war.[3] The Secretary of the Treasury of the Confederate States, Christopher Memminger, was keenly aware of the economic problems posed by inflation and loss of confidence.

Role of Britain and France in the War

Between these two countries, France played a much smaller role in the American Civil War. France maintained that it was officially neutral during the conflict, yet parts of the country sympathized with the Confederacy, mostly because of the need for Southern cotton.

John Brown and Bleeding Kansas

Bleeding Kansas was a series of violent political confrontations in the United States between 1854 and 1861 involving anti-slavery "Free-Staters" and pro-slavery "Border Ruffian", or "southern" elements in Kansas. At the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would allow or outlaw slavery, and thus enter the Union as a slave state or a free state. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 called for "popular sovereignty"—that is, the decision about slavery was to be made by the settlers (rather than outsiders). It would be decided by votes—or more exactly which side had more votes counted by officials. Pro-slavery forces said every settler had the right to bring his own property, including slaves, into the territory. Anti-slavery "free soil" forces said the rich slaveholders would buy up all the good farmland and work it with black slaves, leaving little or no opportunity for non-slaveholders. As such, Bleeding Kansas was a conflict between anti-slavery forces in the North and pro-slavery forces from the South over the issue of slavery in the United States, and its violence indicated that compromise was unlikely, and thus it presaged the Civil War.

William Howe

British Army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence. Having joined the army in 1746, Howe saw extensive service in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years' War. He became known for his role in the capture of Quebec in 1759 when he led a British force to capture the cliffs at Anse-au-Foulon, allowing James Wolfe to land his army and engage the French in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Howe also participated in the campaigns to take Louisbourg, Belle Île and Havana. He was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight, a post he would hold until 1795. Howe was sent to North America in March 1775, arriving in May after the American War of Independence broke out. After leading British troops to a costly victory in the Battle of Bunker Hill, Howe took command of all British forces in America from Thomas Gage in September of that year. Howe's record in North America was marked by the successful capture of both New York City and Philadelphia. However, poor British campaign planning for 1777 contributed to the failure of John Burgoyne's Saratoga campaign, which played a major role in the entry of France into the war. Howe's role in developing those plans and the degree to which he was responsible for British failures that year (despite his personal success at Philadelphia) have both been subjects of contemporary and historic debate. He was knighted after his successes in 1776. He resigned his post as Commander in Chief, North America, in 1777, and the next year returned to England, where he was at times active in the defence of the British Isles. He sat in the House of Commons from 1758 to 1780. He inherited the Viscountcy of Howe upon the death of his brother Richard in 1799. He married, but had no children, and the viscountcy was extinguished with his death in 1814.

Erie Canal

Canal in New York State that runs from the Hudson River to Lake Erie, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. It cut transport costs into what was then wilderness by about 90%. The Canal resulted in a massive population surge in western New York, and opened regions further west to increased settlement.

Republican Motherhood

Centered on the belief that the patriots' daughters should be raised to uphold the ideals of republicanism, in order to pass on republican values to the next generation. In this way, the "Republican Mother" was considered a custodian of civic virtue responsible for upholding the morality of her husband and children. Although it is an anachronism, the period of Republican Motherhood is hard to categorize in the history of Feminism. On the one hand, it reinforced the idea of a domestic women's sphere separate from the public world of men. On the other hand, it encouraged the education of women and invested their "traditional" sphere with a dignity and importance that had been missing from previous conceptions of Women's work.

Abigail Adams

Closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. She is sometimes considered to have been a Founder of the United States, and is now designated as the first Second Lady and second First Lady of the United States, although these titles were not in use at the time. Adams's life is one of the most documented of the first ladies: she is remembered for the many letters she wrote to her husband while he stayed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the Continental Congresses. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with intellectual discussions on government and politics. Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front.

Mexican War

Conflict after US annexation of Texas; Mexico still considered Texas its own; US was the victor; granted all land from Texas to California (minus the Gadsden Purchase) in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Cumming V County Board of Education (1899)

Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899) ("Richmond") was a class action suit decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. It is a landmark case, in that it sanctioned de jure segregation of races in American schools. The decision was overruled by Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

David Walker

David Walker was an outspoken African-American abolitionist, writer and anti-slavery activist. Though his father was a slave, his mother was free so therefore he was free. In 1829, while living in Boston, Massachusetts, he published An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, a call for black unity and self-help in the fight against oppression and injustice.

How did the work force expand to make up for the labor shortage due to the growth of the armed forces?

During the war 17 million new civilian jobs were created, industrial productivity increased by 96 percent, and corporate profits after taxes doubled. The government expenditures helped bring about the business recovery that ;had eluded the New Deal. War needs directly consumed over one-third of the output of industry, but the expanded productivity ensured a remarkable supply of consumer goods to the people as well. America was the only that saw an expansion of consumer goods despite wartime rationing. BY 1944, as a result of wage increases and overtime pay, real weekly wages before taxes in manufacturing were 50 percent higher than in 1939. The war also created entire new technologies, industries, and associated human skills. The war brought full employment and a fairer distribution of income. Blacks and women entered the workforce for the first time. Wages increased; so did savings. The war brought the consolidation of union strength and far-reaching changes in agricultural life. Housing conditions were better than they had been before. In addition, because the mobilization included the ideological argument that the war was being fought for the interests of common men and women, social solidarity extended far beyond the foxholes. Public opinion held that the veterans should not return jobless to a country without opportunity and education. That led to the GI Bill, which helped lay the foundation for the remarkable postwar expansion that followed. The war also made us more of a middle-class society than we had been before.

Leisure Time - Changes

Eight hour workday allowed for more leisure time.

What did the New Deal offer to African Americans? What political realities did Roosevelt face regarding treatment of blacks? What special role did Eleanor Roosevelt play?

Eleanor Roosevelt spoke throughout the 1930s on behalf of racial justice and put continuing pressure on her husband and others in the federal government to ease discrimination against blacks. When the renowned African American concert singer Marian Anderson was refused permission in the spring of 1939 to give a concert in the auditorium of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Eleanor Roosevelt resigned from the organization and then helped secure government permission for her to sing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. The president appointed a number of black officials to significant second-level positions in his administration. By 1935, perhaps a quarter of all African Americans were receiving some form of government assistance. The president was never willing to risk losing the backing of southern Democrats by supporting legislation to make lynching a federal crime and he would not endorse efforts in Congress to ban the poll tax. For most of the public works programs, blacks were excluded or at least paid less. New Deal agencies reinforced discrimination by separating blacks in the CCC & NRA codes and the WPA gave minorities lower paying jobs.

Fusion parties, populism, elections of 1894 & 1896, and violence against African Americans

Elections to the United States House of Representatives in 1894 comprised a significant realigning election — a major Republican landslide that set the stage for the decisive election of 1896.

Howe-Singer

Elias Howe invented the first practical and successful sewing machine using the "two-threaded lock-stitch" method. Howe and Isaac Merritt Singer in 1854 battled over the patent, and Howe came out the winner. Isaac Singer made good changes to Howe's basic model, and that was some of the debate.

What inspired the labor unrest of 1919, and what were the most important strikes? What was the public reaction to the wave of strikes?

Employers aggravated the resentment by using the end of the war to rescind benefits that had been forced to give workers in 1917 and 1918; right of Unions were taken back. Some important ones were: Boston Police Strike: Strike by poorly paid Boston policemen in the fall of 1919 in which policemen abandoned their work and chaos ensued so the government called in the National Guard to restore order. Steelworkers' strike: Workers represented by the American Federation of Labor went on strike against the United States Steel Corporation ; workers at other companies joined the strike ; labor unrest eventually involved more than 350,000 workers ; known as the Great Steel Strike of 1919 ; huge work stoppage Some labor strikes contributed to the fear of communism and anarchy during the Red Scare.

What was the symbolic importance of the currency question?

Especially important because of the depression beginning in 1893.

Rocky Mountain Fur Company

Established in St. Louis, Missouri in 1822 by William Henry Ashley and Andrew Henry. Among the original employees, known as "Ashley's Hundred", was Jedediah Smith, who went on to take a leading role in the company's operations and Jim Bridger, who was among those that bought out Smith and his partners in 1830. It was Bridger and his partners that gave the enterprise the name "Rocky Mountain Fur Company." The company became a pioneer in western exploration, most notably in the Green River Valley. The operations of other aspiring organizations like the American Fur Company would often overlap, causing a fierce rivalry. Growing competition motivated the trappers to explore and head deeper into the wilderness. This led to greater knowledge of the topography and to great reductions in the beaver populations. Eventually the intense competition for fewer and fewer beavers and the transient style of fur hats brought the Rocky Mountain Fur Company down. Nearly a decade after its founding, the stock holders sold all their shares, leaving behind a legacy in terms of both western settlement and folklore. The US government, seeking geographic knowledge or travel advice regarding the West, would seek out former members of the company as consultants. Ashley himself later became a congressman whose expertise was Western affairs.

Impact of Guns

Europeans brought guns to the New World. They were used for protection, hunting, and demonstrating technological superiority to the Natives.

Missionaries

Europeans or Americans of European descent who wanted to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Jesuit priests from France and Franciscan monks from Spain brought Catholicism to North America. San Diego, California and San Antonio, Texas were two cities that originated as Spanish missions.

Freedmen

Former slaves who were legally released.

What happened to the American economy in the postwar years, 1919-1921?

For the short term effect the US economy grew in the buildup to the war and during its prosecution. From 1915 the US made tons of loans to the UK to help them in their war effort. It is not a stretch to say that WWI was the major factor in contributing to the "Roaring 20s" when the US economy boomed. After the peace the economy dropped temporarily and this is most likely attributable to the stopping of war material production. However, at that point in the timeline the US was the only country that had not been completely devastated by the effects of the war. US companies were able to expand their reach around the world, and domestic consumption in the US increased, hence the name "The Roaring 20s." So the short term effect was that the US economy grew a large amount due to their involvement in WWI. The long term effect was that US involvement in the war lead directly to the Great Depression and WWII. The Treaty of Versailles led to a system where the US was cashing in its wartime loans to the UK, which in turn was using the wartime reparations it received from Germany to pay off the US. This system collapsed when the Germany economy succumbed to hyperinflation and died. That paired with Black Tuesday, which was driven by rampant stock speculation from tons of US citizens flush with cash led to the Great Depression. Since the world was still reeling from the effects of WWI when Germany fell, everything else fell apart. This event was directly attributable to WWI.

Anthony Comstock

Former postal inspector who created New York Society for the Suppression of Vice in 1873; got Congress to pass the Comstock Law which made illegal the delivery or transportation of both "obscene, lewd, or lascivious" material as well as any methods of, or information pertaining to birth control.

What efforts did the national government make to regulate production, labor, and prices during the war? How effective were these actions?

From the beginning of preparedness in 1939 through the peak of war production in 1944, American leaders recognized that the stakes were too high to permit the war economy to grow in an unfettered, laissez-faire manner. American manufacturers, for instance, could not be trusted to stop producing consumer goods and to start producing materiel for the war effort. To organize the growing economy and to ensure that it produced the goods needed for war, the federal government spawned an array of mobilization agencies which not only often purchased goods (or arranged their purchase by the Army and Navy), but which in practice closely directed those goods' manufacture and heavily influenced the operation of private companies and whole industries. In January 1942, President Roosevelt established a new mobilization agency, the War Production Board, and placed it under the direction of Donald Nelson, a former Sears Roebuck executive. Nelson understood immediately that the staggeringly complex problem of administering the war economy could be reduced to one key issue: balancing the needs of civilians — especially the workers whose efforts sustained the economy — against the needs of the military — especially those of servicemen and women but also their military and civilian leaders. Though neither Nelson nor other high-ranking civilians ever fully resolved this issue, Nelson did realize several key economic goals. First, in late 1942, Nelson successfully resolved the so-called "feasibility dispute," a conflict between civilian administrators and their military counterparts over the extent to which the American economy should be devoted to military needs during 1943 (and, by implication, in subsequent war years). Arguing that "all-out" production for war would harm America's long-term ability to continue to produce for war after 1943, Nelson convinced the military to scale back its Olympian demands. He thereby also established a precedent for planning war production so as to meet most military and some civilian needs. Second (and partially as a result of the feasibility dispute), the WPB in late 1942 created the "Controlled Materials Plan," which effectively allocated steel, aluminum, and copper to industrial users. The CMP obtained throughout the war, and helped curtail conflict among the military services and between them and civilian agencies over the growing but still scarce supplies of those three key metals. The Office of War Mobilization was also implemented. The government also increased federal taxes, sold war bonds, and set a "General Maximum Price Regulation" (also known as "General Max") to attempt to curtail inflation by maintaining prices at their March 1942 levels.

Why did Roosevelt retire, even temporarily, from public life at the end of his second term?

He moved to North Dakota, built a ranch, and learned the western lifestyle.

Homestead Act of 1862

Homestead Act encouraged Western migration by providing settlers 160 acres of public land. In exchange, homesteaders paid a small filing fee and were required to complete five years of continuous residence before receiving ownership of the land.

How did Roosevelt react to Hoover's demand for policy pledges during the "interregnum" of the winter of 1932-1933?

Hoover tried to exact from the president-elect a pledge to maintain policies of economic orthodoxy and Roosevelt refused. After more banks were closing and public confidence in banks were waning, Hoover asked again for Roosevelt to give prompt public assurances that there would be no tinkering with the currency, no heavy borrowing, no unbalancing of the budget. Roosevelt again refused.

Crop-Lien System and its Effects

In this system, Storekeepers granted credit until the farm was harvested. To protect the creditor, the storekeeper took a mortgage, or lien, on the tenant's share of the crop. The system was abused and uneducated blacks were taken advantage of. The result, for Blacks, was not unlike slavery.

What was the purpose of Medicare? Why was it controversial?

In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signs Medicare, a health insurance program for elderly Americans, into law. At the bill-signing ceremony, which took place at the Truman Library in Independence, Missouri, former President Harry Truman was enrolled as Medicare's first beneficiary and received the first Medicare card. Johnson wanted to recognize Truman, who, in 1945, had become the first president to propose national health insurance, an initiative that was opposed at the time by Congress. The Medicare program, providing hospital and medical insurance for Americans age 65 or older, was signed into law as an amendment to the Social Security Act of 1935. Some 19 million people enrolled in Medicare when it went into effect in 1966. In 1972, eligibility for the program was extended to Americans under 65 with certain disabilities and people of all ages with permanent kidney disease requiring dialysis or transplant. In December 2003, President George W. Bush signed into law the Medicare Modernization Act, which added outpatient prescription drug benefits to Medicare. Medicare is funded entirely by the federal government and paid for in part through payroll taxes. Medicare is currently a source of controversy due to the strain it puts on the federal budget. Throughout its history, the program also has been plagued by fraud—committed by patients, doctors and hospitals—that has cost taxpayers billions of dollars. Medicaid, a state and federally funded program that offers health coverage to certain low-income people, was also signed into law by President Johnson on July 30, 1965, as an amendment to the Social Security Act.

Truth About "Negro Rule"

In Louisiana in the summer and fall of 1868, white Democrats killed 1,081 people, mostly African Americans and white Republicans. Around the same time in Hinds County, Miss., whites killed an average of one African American a day, especially targeting servicemen. Whites mounted similar attacks across the South. Far from suffering under black dominance, all of the Southern states had white governors throughout Reconstruction. All but one (South Carolina) had white legislative majorities. Mississippi's Constitutional Convention of 1868 is still called the "Black and Tan Convention," but only 16 of its 94 delegates were black. Of course, a government that is 17 percent black looks "black" to people used to the all-white governments before and after.

Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers

Labor union formed in 1876 for iron and steel workers; part of homestead strike.

Union Advantages

Leaders: Although the Confederacy had good leaders too, the Union had more. The Union states had leaders like Ulysses S. Grant, William Sherman, Philip Sheridan, and George Thomas, among others. The biggest leader though was President Lincoln. His utter determination to win was key in the Civil War. Having the support of the President, although things weren't always in the favor of the Union states, is a major point in the pursuit of victory. Population: The Union had twenty-two million people in its population, versus the mere nine million of the Confederacy. With the freeing of slaves, and the allowance to serve in the army, the population of the army grew by an additional 200,000 men. Industry: Their commerce and industrial base, along with railroads, was a huge advantage. By making many of their own supplies, they could replenish things far quicker than that of the Confederacy who had to rely on importation.

Walter Rauschenbusch

Leading protestant advocate of the "Social Gospel" who tried to make Christianity relevant to urban and industrial problems.

Radical Republicans

Led by Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner. Wanted to disenfranchise large numbers of Southern whites, protect black civil rights, confiscate the property of wealthy whites who aided the confederacy, and distribute the land among the freedmen.

How were the hard times reflected in intellectual art and literature?

Literature in the Depression era saw the introduction of Escapism. Escapism is the avoidance of unpleasant, boring, arduous, scary, or banal aspects of daily life. It can also be used as a term to define the actions people take to help relieve persisting feelings of depression or general sadness. Escapist literature was used to take people's minds off of the struggles they were facing during the Great Depression.

Describe the new urban consumer society of the 1920s. How did advertising help shape it?

Men and women could afford not only the means of subsistence, but a considerable measure of additional goods and services. Middle-class families purchased new house appliances, which revolutionized housework. Women purchased beauty and cosmetic items. People wore watches and smoked. Above all, they bought automobiles. Publicists sought to identify products with a particular lifestyle, to invest them with glamour and prestige, and to persuade customers.

Internal Combustion Engine

Made for the extraction process; invented in 1870 in Europe, expanded power of burning gas to drive the pistons; used in automobiles.

In what ways was World War II a "watershed for technological and scientific innovation"? How did American mass-production capability complement the technical advances?

Many types of technology were customized for military use, and major developments occurred across several fields including: Weaponry: ships, vehicles, aircraft, artillery, small arms; and biological, chemical, and atomic weapons Logistical support: vehicles necessary for transporting soldiers and supplies, such as trains, trucks, ships, and aircraft Communications and intelligence: devices used for navigation, communication, remote sensing, and espionage Medicine: surgical innovations, chemical medicines, and techniques Rocketry: atomic bombs and automatic aircraft -Also M&Ms were produced specifically for the military to provide troops with chocolate without it melting. Mass-production allowed for the production of many aircrafts during the war.

Mathew Brady & Wartime Propaganda

Mathew B. Brady was one of the earliest photographers in American history, best known for his scenes of the Civil War. He studied under inventor Samuel F. B. Morse, who pioneered the daguerreotype technique in America. Brady opened his own studio in New York in 1844, and photographed Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams, among other celebrities. When the Civil War started, his use of a mobile studio and darkroom enabled vivid battlefield photographs that brought home the reality of war to the public. Thousands of war scenes were captured, as well as portraits of generals and politicians on both sides of the conflict, though most of these were taken by his assistants, rather than by Brady himself.

What were the elements of "welfare capitalism"? How much did the average worker truly benefit from welfare capitalism and the general prosperity of the decade?

Most workers saw their standard of living rise and they enjoyed better working conditions along with benefits. Some employers, eager to avoid labor unrest and unions, adopted paternalistic techniques that came to be known as welfare capitalism. Techniques included: shortened workweek, increased wages, instituted paid vacations, improved safety and sanitation, pensions on retirement. When grievances surfaced workers could voice them through company unions, organized by corporations. It brought benefits, but did not give workers control over their fate. Welfare capitalism collapsed when the economy went into crisis.

What naval warfare led the United States to the brink of war in Europe?

Nazi submarines began campaigning against American vessels. A German U-Boat fired on an American destroyer, the USS Greer. Nazi submarines continued to hit American destroyers. Congress was enraged and allowed U.S. to arm its merchant vessels and sail all the way to belligerent ports; launched a naval war against Germany.

Popular Sovereignty or the Freeport Doctrine

Notion that the sovereign people of a given territory should decide whether to allow slavery.

Andrew Johnson and Restoration

Offered amnesty to all who took an oath of loyalty.

Jacob Coxey

Ohio businessman seeking relief and jobs for the unemployed.

When and where did President Roosevelt die?

On a clear spring day at his Warm Springs, Georgia, retreat, Roosevelt sat in the living room with Lucy Mercer (with whom he had resumed an extramarital affair), two cousins and his dog Fala, while the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff painted his portrait. According to presidential biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin, it was about 1 p.m. that the president suddenly complained of a terrific pain in the back of my head and collapsed unconscious. One of the women summoned a doctor, who immediately recognized the symptoms of a massive cerebral hemorrhage and gave the president a shot of adrenaline into the heart in a vain attempt to revive him. Mercer and Shoumatoff quickly left the house, expecting FDR's family to arrive as soon as word got out. Another doctor phoned first lady Eleanor Roosevelt in Washington D.C., informing her that FDR had fainted. She told the doctor she would travel to Georgia that evening after a scheduled speaking engagement. By 3:30 p.m., though, doctors in Warm Springs had pronounced the president dead.

Southern Realists

One group of writers who produced works that were more broadly American, these were writers from the fringes of plantation society, who depicted the world of the backwoods rural areas. They focused on ordinary people and poor whites. Their works were sometimes painfully realistic.

What were the main arguments against federal aid to education? How did Johnson's legislation manage to circumvent much of the opposition?

Opponents of federal aid assert that federal financial assistance would inevitably lend to federal control of education. This, they argue, is un desirable because it would rest control in a bureaucracy far removed from and unresponsive to the local population. School boards locally elected, it is said, far better reflect the needs and wishes of the community, and fail of reelection if they prove unsatisfactory. Moreover, federal control would discourage experimentation, and thereby slow up educational progress. Aid during the emergency is thought undesirable because, once the precedent is established, the pressure to continue federal assistance as a permanent policy will prove irresistible. Even as a purely emergency measure its disadvantages would outweigh its benefits, for it would weaken the sense of local responsibility. The federal Constitution wisely reserved education to the states, it is said, and sound public policy requires that there be no tampering with this arrangement. It is argued, moreover, that federal aid would penalize the wealthier states for the benefit of those less fortunate, and place unfair burdens upon the states that have conserved their resources and maintained their credit. To attempt to equalize educational facilities throughout the United States is thought both impossible and unwise. The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA) (Pub.L. 89-329) was a legislation signed into United States law on November 8, 1965, as part of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society domestic agenda. Johnson chose Texas State University (then called "Southwest Texas State College"), his alma mater, as the signing site. The law was intended "to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education". It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. The "financial assistance for students" is covered in Title IV of the HEA.

"Greenbackers" and the National Greenback Party

Opposed the deflationary lowering of prices paid to producers entailed by a return to a bullion-based monetary system, the policy favored by the Republican and Democratic Parties. Continued use of unbacked currency, it was believed, would better foster business and assist farmers by raising prices and making debts easier to pay.

Republican Party

Organized in 1854 by antislavery Whigs, Democrats, and Free Soilers in response to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act; nominated John C. Frémont for president in 1856 and Abraham Lincoln in 1860

Why did organized labor become more militant in the 1930s? How did the Wagner Act help? In what industries did unions make especially significant gains?

Organized labor became more militant in response to the government efforts to try to enhance the power of unions. The Wagner Act established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to protect the rights of workers to organize, bargain collectively, and strike.

Pontiac

Ottawa chief who led several tribes in a campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio Country. He overran all but three British posts west of the Appalachians and killed two thousand soldiers and settlers. The British retaliated by distributing smallpox infested blankets and easily crushed the uprising. He was killed but this fiasco convinced British of a need to stabilize relations with Indians.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

Passed in 1830, authorized Andrew Jackson to negotiate land-exchange treaties with tribes living east of the Mississippi. The treaties enacted under this act's provisions paved the way for the reluctant—and often forcible—emigration of tens of thousands of American Indians to the West.

Lincoln's Death

Shot by John Wilkes Booth at the theater on April 14, 1865.

Mercy Otis Warren

Political writer and propagandist of the American Revolution. During the years before the American Revolution, Warren published poems and plays that attacked royal authority in Massachusetts and urged colonists to resist British infringements on colonial rights and liberties. She was married to James Warren, who was likewise heavily active in the independence movement. During the debate over the United States Constitution in 1788, she issued a pamphlet, Observations on the new Constitution, and on the Federal and State Conventions written under the pseudonym "A Columbian Patriot," that opposed ratification of the document and advocated the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. Observations was long thought to be the work of other writers, most notably Elbridge Gerry. It was not until her descendant, Charles Warren, found a reference to it in a 1787 letter to British historian, Catharine Macaulay, that Warren was accredited authorship. In 1790, she published a collection of poems and plays under her own name, a highly unusual occurrence for a woman at the time. In 1805, she published one of the earliest histories of the American Revolution, a three-volume History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution, the first history of the American Revolution authored by a woman.

What more basic conflict in society did the controversy over the "noble experiment" of prohibition come to symbolize? What were the results of prohibition?

Prohibition did reduce drinking, but it also produced conspicuous and growing violations that made the law controversial. The law was not enforced enough. It became easy to acquire illegal alcohol and since the industry was now barred to legit businessmen, organized crime figures took over.

"New South" and the Growth of Industry

Proponents of the New South envisioned a post-Reconstruction southern economy modeled on the North's embrace of the Industrial Revolution. Henry W. Grady, a newspaper editor in Atlanta, Georgia, coined the phrase the "New South" in 1874. He urged the South to abandon its longstanding agrarian economy for a modern economy grounded in factories, mines, and mills. But Grady's vision was not to be. By 1900, per-capita income in the South was forty percent less than the national average, and rural poverty persisted across much of the South well into the twentieth century.

Henry George

Proposed single tax on land to replace all other taxes.

Battle of Vicksburg

Siege on city of Vicksburg by Union

Dorr Rebellion

Rebellion beginning in 1842 in Rhode Island, led by Thomas Dorr. Dorr and his followers, the Dorrites, were upset over the voting requirements in Rhode Island that allowed only landholders to vote. They held a "People's Party" where they wrote up a revised constitution and set up a new government with Dorr as the governor. Dorr's government won popular vote in an election. The old state government still claimed to be in power and began arresting Dorrites, calling them rebels. The Dorrites attempted and failed a raid on the state arsenal. Eventually, President John Tyler threatened to intervene on the old government's behalf, stifling the rebellion. Though the old government did come back into power, the rebellion brought to the forefront the need for Rhode Island's voting police to change. A new constitution was drafted with expanded suffrage.

Compare and contrast Roosevelt's and Truman's attitudes toward Stalin and the Soviet Union. To what extent was Truman's potential influence over the Soviet's economy constrained by wartime realities?

Roosevelt viewed Stalin and the Soviet Union as a whole as flexible; they could get them to agree to the provisions. Essentially, Roosevelt thought Stalin was reasonable. Truman, on the other hand, felt that Stalin was untrustworthy and suspicious. Ultimately, Truman had to little leverage to really do anything.

Omnibus Bill or the Compromise of 1850

Senator Henry Clay introduced a series of resolutions on January 29, 1850, in an attempt to seek a compromise and avert a crisis between North and South. As part of the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act was amended and the slave trade in Washington, D.C., was abolished. The Omnibus Bill was Clay's plan to put the Compromise of 1850 into one bill.

Sherman's March to the Sea

Sherman's March to the Sea, more formally known as the Savannah Campaign, was a military campaign of the American Civil War conducted through Georgia from November 15 to December 21, 1864 by Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman of the Union Army. The campaign began with Sherman's troops leaving the captured city of Atlanta on November 15 and ended with the capture of the port of Savannah on December 21. His forces destroyed military targets as well as industry, infrastructure, and civilian property and disrupted the Confederacy's economy and its transportation networks. The operation broke the back of the Confederacy and helped lead to its eventual surrender. Sherman's bold move of operating deep within enemy territory and without supply lines is considered to be one of the major achievements of the war.

How were the cultural tensions of the 1920s reflected in the Democratic Party?

Some of the main issues that created cultural tensions were the Ku Klux Klan, Prohibition, Evolutionism, Fundamentalism, Jazz Music, Increase in Immigration, and Increased Consumerism. Democrats were split on many of these things between Progressives and other Democratic party machines.

Spanish Gen. Butcher Weyler

Spanish general whose brutal tactics against Cuban rebels outraged American public opinion.

Spectator Sports

Sports such as baseball, football, basketball, and boxing that were professionally organized in the late 19th century.

Free States

States without slavery.

What was the principle feature of New Deal farm policy? How well did it work? Which farmers were served best? Who was left out?

The Agricultural Adjustment act helped improve the well being of farmers tremendously. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was a United States federal law of the New Deal era designed to boost agricultural prices by reducing surpluses. The Government bought livestock for slaughter and paid farmers subsidies not to plant part of their land. Farm prices were standardized up to the point of parity. However, this policy favored large farms over small ones.

Brooks-Sumner Affair

The Brooks-Sumner Affair occurred on May 22, 1856, in the United States Senate when Representative Preston Brooks attacked Senator Charles Sumner, an abolitionist, with a walking cane in retaliation for a speech given by Sumner two days earlier in which he fiercely criticized slaveholders including a relative of Brooks. The beating nearly killed Sumner and it drew a sharply polarized response from the American public on the subject of the expansion of slavery in the United States. It has been considered symbolic of the "breakdown of reasoned discourse" that eventually led to the American Civil War.

Spanish Caste System

The Casta system of colonial Spain determined a person's social importance in old Mexico, using over one-hundred different terms to describe different racial categories. The names Peninsular, Criollo, Indio and Negra describe persons of "pure" racial ancestry, whereas names such as Mestizo, Mulatto, and Zambo, in addition to many other terms, describe the "mixed-blood" children resulting from inter-racial marriages.

What was the crime of '73?

The Fourth Coinage Act was enacted by the United States Congress in 1873 and embraced the gold standard and de-monetized silver. U.S. set the specie standard in gold and not silver, upsetting miners who referred to it as a crime.

Precious Metals

The Spanish enslaved Indians and forced them to dig for precious metals.

Roger Taney Decision in the Dred Scott v. Sandford Case

The Supreme Court decision Dred Scott v. Sandford was issued on March 6, 1857. Delivered by Chief Justice Roger Taney, this opinion declared that slaves were not citizens of the United States and could not sue in Federal courts.

How did the war spark a wave of consumerism reminiscent of the 1920s? How did rationing affect consumption?

The U.S. entered World War II in 1941, creating immediate product shortages. Rubber and fuel were rationed, and auto production stopped immediately. Despite high levels of discretionary income and full employment, there was virtually nothing for consumers to buy. After the war ended in 1945, the economic depression that was expected never happened-although inflation was high for a time-so product marketers set about satisfying Americans' pent-up demand. They introduced a range of modern new products, many of which were the result of technologies developed during the war. These included the aerosol spray can, nylon, plastics and Styrofoam, among many others. The baby boom (1945-64) began, with the birth rate shooting up 25% right after the war and staying high, leading advertisers to focus on mothers with new babies.

What unique factors combined to stimulate the rapid population expansion and economic growth that characterized the American West, and especially the Los Angeles area, in the post-World War II era?

The West and the Southwest grew with increasing rapidity, a trend that would continue through the end of the century. Sun Belt cities like Houston, Texas; Miami, Florida; Albuquerque, New Mexico; and Phoenix, Arizona, expanded rapidly. Los Angeles, California, moved ahead of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the third largest U.S. city and then surpassed Chicago, metropolis of the Midwest. The 1970 census showed that California had displaced New York as the nation's largest state. By 2000, Texas had moved ahead of New York into second place. A lot of the growth came from federal spending on things like dams, power stations, highways, etc. The increase in automobiles, which in return improved the highway system gave stimulus to the petroleum industry which gave way to rapid growth in the oil fields that were in Texas and Colorado. State governments were investing large amounts into their universities. The warm dry climate of the West also attracted people from the East which improved the economic growth. After World War II, more than 10% of all the new businesses started in Los Angeles.

What did President Roosevelt mean by the shift from "Dr. New Deal" to "Dr. Win-the-War"?

The analogy was that the New Deal came into existence because the United States, "an awfully sick patient," was suffering from grave internal disorders. Thereupon Roosevelt reminded the nation of "all those ills of 1933," and of the remedies that after a few years "brought recovery." Then, on December 7, 1941, there had come "a very bad accident - not an internal trouble, breaking several bones": "Old Doctor New Deal didn't know 'nothing' about legs and arms. . . . So he got his partner, who was an orthopedic surgeon, Dr. Win-the-War, to take care of this fellow. . . . And the result is that the patient is back on his feet. He has given up his crutches. He isn't wholly well yet, and he won't be until he wins the war. And I think that is almost as simple, that little allegory, as learning again how to spell 'cat.' At some length, in no fashion that would give comfort to conservatives, Roosevelt elaborated upon the achievements of "old Doctor New Deal." The point to all this, FDR concluded, was that at present "the overwhelming first emphasis should be on winning the war": "And when victory comes . . . it seems pretty clear that we must plan for, and help bring about an expanded economy which will result in more security, in more employment, in more education, in more health, in better housing for all of our citizens, so that the condition of 1932 and the beginning of 1933 won't come back again." Whatever Roosevelt intended in retiring the term "New Deal," friends and foes alike interpreted it as a retreat to the right. While Republicans rejoiced that the New Deal white lamb of the 1932 campaign had become the black sheep of 1944, loyal liberals in the Roosevelt administration were dismayed.

How did the nation respond to the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.?

The assassination of King led to The King assassination riots, also known as the Holy Week Uprising. This was a wave of civil disturbance which swept the United States following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1968. They were the greatest wave of social unrest the United States experienced since the Civil War. Some of the biggest riots took place in Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Chicago, and Kansas City.

Cult of Domesticity

The belief that as the fairer sex, women occupied a unique and specific position and that they were to provide religious and moral instruction in the homes but avoid the rough world of politics and business in the larger sphere of society.

How did the labor union movement change in the 1950s? What problems surfaced?

The formation of the AFL—CIO in 1955 visibly testified to the powerful continuities persisting through the age of industrial unionism. Above all, the central purpose remained what it had always been-to advance the economic and job interests of the union membership. Collective bargaining performed impressively after World War II, more than tripling weekly earnings in manufacturing between 1945 and 1970, gaining for union workers an unprecedented measure of security against old age, illness, and unemployment, and, through contractual protections, greatly strengthening their right to fair treatment at the workplace. But if the benefits were greater and if they went to more people, the basic job-conscious thrust remained intact. Organized labor was still a sectional movement, covering at most only a third of America's wage earners and inaccessible to those cut off in the low-wage secondary labor market.

Southern "Honor"

The idea of defending one's family, often by dueling.

What was the basic United Nations plan that was agreed to by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta?

The key points of the meeting are as follows: 1) Agreement to the priority of the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany. After the war, Germany and Berlin would be split into four occupied zones. 2) Stalin agreed that France would have a fourth occupation zone in Germany, but it would have to be formed out of the American and British zones. 3) Germany would undergo demilitarization and denazification. 4) German reparations were partly to be in the form of forced labour. (see also Forced labor of Germans after World War II and Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union). The forced labour was to be used to repair damage that Germany had inflicted on its victims. 5) Creation of a reparation council which would be located in the Soviet Union. 6) The status of Poland was discussed. It was agreed to reorganize the communist Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland that had been installed by the Soviet Union "on a broader democratic basis." 7) The Polish eastern border would follow the Curzon Line, and Poland would receive territorial compensation in the west from Germany. 8) Stalin pledged to permit free elections in Poland. 9) Roosevelt obtained a commitment by Stalin to participate in the UN. 10) Stalin requested that all of the 16 Soviet Socialist Republics would be granted UN membership. This was taken into consideration, but 14 republics were denied; Truman agreed to membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States. 11) Stalin agreed to enter the fight against the Empire of Japan "in two or three months after Germany has surrendered and the war in Europe is terminated," and that as a result, the Soviets would take possession of Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, the port of Dalian would be internationalized, and the Soviet lease of Port Arthur would be restored, among other concessions. 12) Nazi war criminals were to be found and put on trial. 13) A "Committee on Dismemberment of Germany" was to be set up. Its purpose was to decide whether Germany was to be divided into six nations.

Why did Stalin blockade Berlin? How did the United States respond, and what resulted?

The main cause of the Berlin Blockade was the Cold War, which was just getting started. Stalin was taking over eastern Europe by salami tactics and Czechoslovakia had just turned Communist (March 1948). On the other side, the USA had just adopted the Truman Doctrine to 'contain' the USSR. The Berlin Blockade was just another event in this 'Cold War' between the superpowers. The second reason for the Berlin Blockade was that the USA and the USSR had different Aims for what they wanted to do to Germany. The USSR had already disagreed with Britain and the USA at Potsdam (July 1945) about this. Stalin wanted to destroy Germany, and the USSR had been stripping East Germany of its wealth and machinery. On the other side, Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany's industry to become a wealthy trading partner (so as not to repeat the mistake of Versailles). This difference in aims was the underlying cause of the Berlin Blockade. The policy of the USA and the USSR towards Germany was so different that conflict was bound to break out there sooner or later. American officials were furious, and some in the administration of President Harry S. Truman argued that the time for diplomacy with the Soviets was over. For a few tense days, the world waited to see whether the United States and Soviet Union would come to blows. In West Berlin, panic began to set in as its population worried about shortages of food, water, and medical aid. The United States response came just two days after the Soviets began their blockade. A massive airlift of supplies into West Berlin was undertaken in what was to become one of the greatest logistical efforts in history. For the Soviets, the escapade quickly became a diplomatic embarrassment. Russia looked like an international bully that was trying to starve men, women, and children into submission. And the successful American airlift merely served to accentuate the technological superiority of the United States over the Soviet Union. On May 12, 1949, the Soviets officially ended the blockade.

Upper South

The region of the South consisting of the states of Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, and Kentucky. They had a more diversified economy than the Lower South's states and practiced a more paternalistic kind of slavery, but increasingly sold their slaves "down the river" to the Lower South, where cotton production was booming.

What caused the stock market boom to get so out of hand? What was the crash like?

The stock market boom was caused by a surplus of manufactured goods. The public was pressured by advertising to buy more and more and to use hire purchase to pay for it. As US industry boomed, so did company shares on the stock market. Prices of shares went up, year after year. This was based on confidence that the boom would last. Speculators brought shares, hoping to make easy money. Some people borrowed money to buy shares; others bought 'on the margin' that is, only paying 10% of their value, hoping to make enough money to pay the full price later. People did not realize that buying a share was a gamble and that they could lose all of their money. The situation was made worse because there were almost no controls on the buying and selling of shares, or on the setting up of companies. Shares could be bought on street corners and many people sand their life savings into the stock market. Some companies did not actually manufacture anything, but just bought and sold shares. One company that claimed to be an airline was actually a railroad. Another company sold land in Florida, but did not say that the land was swamp and uninhabitable. Many people bought the land thinking that they would be able to build homes on it. In fact some companies did not exist at all. They used their name to attract investors and simply took their money. A number of bogus aeroplane companies were set up. But as long as there was confidence, the boom would last. As long as people went on believing that the prices of shares would go on rising, they would keep on investing and the governments of Presidents Harding and Coolidge made no effort to intervene or to regulate the buying and selling of shares. Although people in the new industries found themselves getting better off, during the 1920s the wages of many workers did not rise. In the old industries they actually fell. More and more money found its way into the pockets of fewer and fewer people. This meant that the gap between the very rich and very poor grew. Eventually there were fewer and fewer people who could actually afford to go on buying. The first portion of the crash occurred on October 24, a day known as Black Thursday. The following week brought Black Monday (Oct. 28) and Black Tuesday (Oct. 29) - the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell more than 20% over those two days. Pre-existing selling pressures and fear in the stock market were exasperated by a flood of sell orders that shut down the ticker-tape service that provided stock prices to traders. With key information missing from the markets, selling intensified even further. Despite a few attempts at recovery, the stock market continued to languish, eventually falling almost 90% from its peak in 1929.

Factory Girls System

The system used domestic labor, often referred to as mill girls, who came to the new textile centers from rural towns to earn more money than they could at home, and to live a cultured life in "the city". Their life was very regimented - they lived in company boardinghouses and were held to strict hours and a moral code. As competition grew in the domestic textile industry and wages declined, strikes began to occur, and with the introduction of cheaper imported foreign workers by mid-century, the system proved unprofitable and collapsed

Lowell System

The system used domestic labor, often referred to as mill girls, who came to the new textile centers from rural towns to earn more money than they could at home, and to live a cultured life in "the city". Their life was very regimented - they lived in company boardinghouses and were held to strict hours and a moral code. As competition grew in the domestic textile industry and wages declined, strikes began to occur, and with the introduction of cheaper imported foreign workers by mid-century, the system proved unprofitable and collapsed.

What factors combined to keep the United States from experiencing another depression after the war? What economic problems did the nation face? How did Truman respond?

There was a sharp drop in government spending, and war contracts were cancelled, however the consumer demand made up for this. Goods were not necessarily available during the war so now people had saved their wages and were ready to purchase the goods which had become available again. The GI Bill also helped to increase spending. There was however, more than 2 years of inflation. Truman vetoed an extension that got rid price controls, soaring inflation up to 25%.

Why was Mexican immigration to the Southwest mostly welcomed despite the discrimination that the migrants faced?

There was concern among the U.S. public, as well as policymakers and the press, that "new" immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe as well as Asia were somehow different from previous generations of Western European immigrants to the United States—and whether their supposed differences posed a threat to U.S. society and culture. The so-called science of eugenics helped drive this concern—the notion that ethnic groups had inherent qualities (of intelligence, physical fitness, or a propensity towards criminality) and that some ethnic groups had better qualities than others. These beliefs tied in directly to concerns about immigration and immigration policy. However, Mexicans were sometimes said to have certain positive qualities that made them "better" labor immigrants than the other groups. They were thought to be docile, taciturn, physically strong, and able to put up with unhealthy and demanding working conditions. Perhaps more importantly, they were perceived as temporary migrants, who were far more likely to return to Mexico than to settle permanently in the United States.

Describe the human impact in key industrial cities and on the farms. How effective were local, state, and private relief agencies in meeting the ravages of widespread unemployment?

They weren't very effective. They served only a small number of people in need of help. They were unequipped to handle the demands. In many places relief simply collapsed. Private charities attempted to supplement the public relief efforts but the problem was beyond their capabilities. State governments felt pressure to expand their own assistance to the unemployed but tax revenues were declining along with everything else.

How did the women and minorities fare with most labor unions?

Unions were uninterested in organizing women because they were not industrial workers.

What strategy did Truman use to win the 1948 presidential election despite problems within the party?

Truman had acceded to the presidency in April 1945 after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945. Defeating attempts to drop him from the ticket, Truman won the presidential nomination at the 1948 Democratic National Convention. The Democratic convention's civil rights plank caused a walk-out by several Southern delegates, who launched a third-party "Dixiecrat" ticket led by Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. The Dixiecrats hoped to win enough electoral votes to force a contingent election in the House of Representatives, where they could extract concessions from either Dewey or Truman in exchange for their support. Truman also faced a challenge from the left in the form of former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who launched the Progressive Party and challenged Truman's confrontational Cold War policies. Dewey, who was the leader of his party's moderate eastern wing and had been the 1944 Republican presidential nominee, defeated Senator Robert A. Taft and other challengers at the 1948 Republican National Convention. Truman's feisty campaign style energized his base of traditional Democrats, consisting of most of the white South, as well as Catholic and Jewish voters; he also fared surprisingly well with Midwestern farmers. Dewey ran a low risk campaign and largely avoided directly criticizing Truman. With the three-way split in the Democratic Party, and with Truman's low approval ratings, Truman was widely considered to be the underdog in the race. Virtually every prediction (with or without public opinion polls) indicated that Truman would be defeated by Dewey. Defying predictions of his defeat, Truman won the 1948 election, garnering 303 electoral votes to Dewey's 189. Truman won 49.6% of the popular vote compared to Dewey's 45.1%, while the third party candidacies of Thurmond and Wallace each won less than 3% of the popular vote. Truman's surprise victory was the fifth consecutive presidential win for the Democratic Party, the longest winning streak for either party since the 1880 election. With simultaneous success in the 1948 congressional elections, the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress, which they had lost in 1946. Thus, Truman's election confirmed the Democratic Party's status as the nation's majority party.

Ex Parte Milligan

U.S. Supreme Court case that ruled the application of military tribunals to citizens when civilian courts are still operating is unconstitutional. In this particular case the Court was unwilling to give President Abraham Lincoln's administration the power of military commission jurisdiction, part of the administration's controversial plan to deal with Union dissenters during the American Civil War. Justice David Davis, who delivered the majority opinion, stated that "martial rule can never exist when the courts are open" and confined martial law to areas of "military operations, where war really prevails," and when it was a necessity to provide a substitute for a civil authority that had been overthrown. Chief Justice Chase and three associate justices filed a separate opinion concurring with the majority in the judgment, but asserted that Congress had the power to authorize a military commission, although it had not done so in Milligan's case. The landmark case stemmed from a trial by a military commission of Lambdin P. Milligan (for whom the case is named), Stephen Horsey, William A. Bowles, and Andrew Humphreys that convened at Indianapolis on October 21, 1864. The charges against the men included, among others, conspiracy against the U.S. government, offering aid and comfort to the Confederates, and inciting rebellion. On December 10, 1864, Milligan, Bowles, and Horsey were found guilty on all charges and sentenced to hang. Humphreys was found guilty and sentenced to hard labor for the remainder of the war. (The sentence for Humphreys was later modified, allowing his release; President Andrew Johnson commuted the sentences for Milligan, Bowles, and Horsey to life imprisonment.) On May 10, 1865, Milligan's legal counsel filed a petition in the Circuit Court of the United States for the District of Indiana at Indianapolis for a writ of habeas corpus, which called for a justification of Milligan's arrest. A similar petition was filed on behalf of Bowles and Horsey. The two judges who reviewed Milligan's petition disagreed about the issue of whether the U.S. Constitution prohibited civilians from being tried by a military commission and passed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. The case was argued before the Court on March 5 and March 13, 1866; its decision was handed down on April 3, 1866.

"Plain Folk"

Typical white Southerner, owned a few slaves.

What was the most popular music of the war era? How did this new sound challenge racial taboos?

Unlike many World War I songs, many World War II songs focused more on romance and strength instead of propaganda, morale, and patriotism. Songs that were overly patriotic or militaristic were often rejected by the public. During World War II, American music helped to inspire servicemen, people working in the war industries, homemakers and schoolchildren alike. Popular singers of the era included Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, the Andrews Sisters and Bing Crosby. Notable wartime radio songs were Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy, Shoo Shoo Baby, I'm Making Believe, I'll Be Seeing You, and I'll Be Home for Christmas. Songs that ridiculed the Axis Powers were also popular. These songs include We'll Knock the Japs Right into the Laps of the Nazis, Yankee Doodle Ain't Doodlin' Now, You're a Sap, Mr. Jap, and Oliver Wallace's song Der Fuehrer's Face, popularly recorded by Spike Jones, itself inspiring a 1943 Walt Disney cartoon starring Donald Duck. A notable trend with songs that targeted the Axis powers was that for the songs directed towards Europe, the songs focused on Hitler and the Nazis as opposed to the civilians. On the other hand, songs that were directed towards the Pacific showed blatant racism, hate, anger, and revenge following the Pearl Harbor attack.

Cereal Crops

Wheat, barley, rye, grain.

What social and economic effects did the Korean War have in America?

While the cost of the Korean War was less significant than that of World War II, it still changed the structure of the American growth as a result of its financing. The Korean War boosted GDP growth through government spending, which in turn constrained investment and consumption. While taxes were raised significantly to finance the war, the Federal Reserve followed an anti-inflationary policy. Though there was a large increase in prices at the outset of the war, price and wage controls ultimately stabilized prices by the end of the war. Consumption and investment continued to grow after the war, but below the trend rate prior to the war.

What gains did labor unions make during the war? What concessions did labor promise in return? How effective was the agreement?

Workers made gains during this era. The Congress of Industrial Organizations and the American Federation of Labor grew dramatically. The NWLB's "maintenance-of-membership" rule allowed unions to count all new employees as union members and to draw union dues from those new employees' paychecks, so long as the unions themselves had already been recognized by the employer. Given that most new employment occurred in unionized workplaces, including plants funded by the federal government through defense spending, "the maintenance-of-membership ruling was a fabulous boon for organized labor," for it required employers to accept unions and allowed unions to grow dramatically: organized labor expanded from 10.5 million members in 1941 to 14.75 million in 1945. By 1945, approximately 35.5 percent of the non-agricultural workforce was unionized, a record high. This was not super effective, however, because there were still a lot of strikes.

Frank Norris

Wrote book called The Octopus which said that railroads strangled farmers because it was too expensive.