APUSH FLASHCARDS AP TEST

indentured servitude

1600s Poor workers, convicted criminals, and debtors received immigration passage and fees in return for a number of years at labor on behalf of a planter or company Servants entered into their contracts voluntarily and kept some legal rights Servants had little control over the conditions of their work and living arrangements, and the system led to harsh and brutal treatment Remained the predominant system of labor until the 1670's; Bacon's Rebellion made the practice seem more risky to planters and owners, and improving economic conditions in England decreased the supply of servants Many owners relied on slave labor instead

House of Burgesses

1619 Representative assembly in Virginia Election to a seat was limited to voting members of the charter colony, which at first was all free men; later rules required that a man own at least 50 acres of land to vote First representative house in America Instituted the private ownership of land but maintained the rights of colonies

Massachusetts Bay Company

1629 Joint-stock company chartered by a group of Puritans escaping King James I Led by John Winthrop, who taught that the new colony should be a model of Christian society These Puritans carefully organized their venture and, upon arriving in Massachusetts, did not undergo the "starving time" that had often plagued other first-year colonies The government of Massachusetts developed to include a governor and a representative assembly

Delaware

1631 Dutch patroons established the first settlement in Delaware That settlement was destroyed by Native American attacks The Dutch West India Company and Dutchmen, including Peter Minuit, began to trade and settle in Delaware during the mid-to-late 1630s Between 1664 and 1674, Delaware switched between Dutch and English ownership, ending with English ownership in 1674

Anne Hutchinson

1638 Claimed to have had special revelations from God that superseded the Bible, contrary to Puritan doctrine The leadership of New England accused her of antinomian teachings (antinomianism is the belief that salvation is attained through faith and divine grace and not through strict adherence to rules or moral laws) Hutchinson was tried and banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony Wither her followers, she founded Portsmouth in the Aquidneck region (1638) in what is now known as Rhode Island

John Jay

1745-1829 Member of First and Second Continental Congress Negotiated Treaty of Paris and Jay's Treaty First Chief Justice of Supreme Court Wrote portions of The Federalist Papers

The Intolerable Acts (The Coercive Acts)

1774 Names given by colonists to the Quebec Act (1774) and to a series of acts by the British in response to the Boston Tea Party Closed the Port of Boston to all trade until citizens paid for the lost tea Increased the power of Massachusetts' Royal governor at the expense of the legislature Allowed Royal officials accused of crimes in massachusetts to be tried elsewhere

John Adams

1797-1800 Second President First Vice President Diplomat and signer of the Declaration of Independence Led the country through the XYZ affair, the Alien and Sedition Acts, and the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Kept the nation from war during his tenure as president

Battle of Bunker Hill

June 17, 1775 Bunker Hill was an American post overlooking Boston The stronghold allowed Americans to contain General Gage and his troops The colonists twice turned back a British frontal assault, and they held off the British until the Bunker Hill force ran out of ammunition an was overrun American strong defense led to strengthened morale

Stamp Act Congress

October 1765 Delegates of seven colonies met in New York to discuss plans for defense Adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, which stated that freeborn Englishmen could not be taxed without their consent

The Constitution of the US

Signed September 17, 1787, and ratified by the required nine states June 21, 1788 Drafted at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 Included a preamble and seven articles Created a stronger federal government The Bill of Rights constitutes the first ten amendments, and it protects individual rights and freedoms

John Rolfe

1585-1622 English colonist in Jamestown, Virginia Married Pocahontas Created process for curing tobacco, ensuring economic success for Jamestown

Lee's Resolutions

1776 Presented to Second Continental Congress by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia Urged Congress to declare independence and were accepted July 2, 1776 Said, "That these United Colonies are, and of right out to be, free and independent States"

Judiciary Act of 1789

1789 Provided for a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and Five associates Established the office of the Attorney General Created federal district courts and circuit courts

Battles of Concord and Lexington

April 1775 Concord: Site suspected by British General Gage of housing a stockpile of colonial weaponry Paul Revere, William Dawes, and others detected movement of British troops toward Concord and warned militia and gathered Minutemen at Lexington Lexington: Miltia and Royal infantry fought, and the colonial troops withdrew

Georgia

Chartered in 1732 James Oglethorpe, and English philanthropist and soldier, chartered the colony Settlers included those who paid their own way to receive the best land grants Some settlers were financed by the colony's board of trustees, including bands of prisoners from British jails After wars between the European empires began, the colony served as a buffer between South Carolina and Spanish-held Florida Elaborate and detailed regulations resulted in relatived little settlement

Samuel Adams

1722-1803 Revolutionary resistance leader in Massachusetts Along with Paul Revere, he headed the Sons of Liberty in Massachusetts Worked with the committees of correspondence, which provided communication about resistance among colonies Attended both the First, and Second Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence

Charles Cornwallis

1738-1805 British military and political leader Was a member of Parliament Opposed the tax measures that led to the American Revolution Led British forces during the American Revolution The British defeat culminated with Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown in 1781

Sugar Act

1764 It taxed goods imported to America to raise revenue for England Meant to assist England in recouping the debt it had taken on during the French and Indian War Strictly enforced, unlike the Molasses Act of 1733 Taxed goods included imports such as wine, cloth, coffee, and silk

Quartering Act

1765 Act that required the colonies in which British troops were stationed to provided soldiers with bedding and other basic needs Colonists reacted negatively because they feared having a standing army in their towns, and they disliked the additional expenses it caused After the emergence of the US Constitution, the Third Amendment protected citizens against the stationing of troops in their homes

Western Land Cessions

1781-1787; Georgia in 1802 The original 13 states ceded their western land claims to the new federal government The states that lacked western land claims feared that states with claims could grow in size, skewing representation in the federal government Before signing the US Constitution, these states demanded that those with claims cede the land Ordinances in 1784 and 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance (1787) organized the ceded areas in preparation for statehood New states were organized and admitted to the Union This policy strengthened the ties of the western farmers to the central government

Shays' Rebellion

1786-1787 During a period of economic depression, Daniel Shays led a group of farmers to stop the courts from seizing a farmer's land and enacting debt collection Citizens of Boston raised an army and suppressed the rebels Americans felt pressure to strengthen the government and avoid future violence The rebellion served as a catalyst for writing the Constitution

Declaration of Independence

Declaration adopted July 4, 1776 Document restating political ideas justifying the separation from Britain Thomas Jefferson and his committee had the duty of drafting for the Continental Congress John Locke's influences served as a foundation for the document The final produce lacked provisions condemning the British slave trade and a denunciation of the British people that earlier drafts had contained

The Carolinas

Granted in 1663 King Charles II rewarded loyal noblemen with these lands after the 20 year Puritan revolution in England in hopes of attracting settlers, the proprietors planned for a hierarchical society They experimented with silk manufacturing and with crops such as rice and indigo, but this proved unworkable and the Carolinas grew slowly as a result Large group of colonists in the Carolinas came from Barbados; the form of slavery that this group employed proved to be very harsh While North Carolina became a separate colony in 1712, the same proprietors retained ownership Rebellion against the proprietors in 1719 led to royal intervention, and both North and South Carolina became royal colonies in 1729

Common Sense

January 1776 Pamphlet published by Thomas Paine that called for immediate independence from Britain It was sold throughout the colonies, where it gained popularity Common Sense helped weaken resistance in the Continental Congress toward independence

The Virginia Plan and The New Jersey Plan

July 1787 Virginia Plan: Presented by Edmund Randolph and written by James Madison, it called for a bicameral legislature based on a state's population,and it suggested that both the chief executive and judiciary should be chosen by legislature New Jersey Plan: Presented by William Patterson, it called for a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state The plans were united in the Great Compromise They formed the basis of the modern American legislature structure

Joint-Stock Company

Popularized in 1600s A type of business structure used by some colonial explorers to raise money for their expeditions These private trading companies sold shares to investors who provided start-up funding In return for taking on the risk of the investment, investors were paid based on the profits of the expedition Many modern business structures, such as the American corporation, are founded on principles of the joint-stock company

Elastic Clause and the 10th Amendment

Ratified 1791 The 10th Amendment restricts the federal government to those powers delegated to it by the Constitution and gives all other powers to the states, or the people Article I, Section 8 grants the federal government the power to make all laws "which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers" The conflict to between these two ideas is the determination of which group, the federal government or the states and their people, has the right to exercise powers that have not been expressly delegated to the central government

First Continental Congress

September-October 1774 Meeting in Philadelphia of colonial representatives to denounce the Intolerable Acts and to petition the British Parliament A few radical members discussed breaking from England Created Continental Association and forbade the importation and use of Briish goods Agreed to convene a Second COntinental Congress in May 1775

Articles of Confederation

Submitted July 1776; ratified 1781 Framework for an American national government in which states were given the most power Permitted the federal government to make war, offer treaties, and create new states There was no federal power to levy taxes, raise troops, or regulate commerce Congressional revision of the articles created a weak national government

Roger Williams and Rhode Island

Williams, 1603-1683; Rhode Island established in 1644 Williams was a Puritan preacher who fled Massachusetts after his views on religious observance became too extreme for the colonists Williams brought land from the Native Americans and founded Providence in 1636, and it was soon populated by his many followers Rhode Island formed as a combination of Providence, Portsmouth, and other settlements that had sprung up in the area Through Roger Williams, the colony granted complete religious toleration It tended to be populated by exiles and troublemakers and was sometimes called "Rogue's Island" The colony suffered constant political turmoil

Convention of 1818

1818 Provided for boundary between the US and Canada at the 49th parallel Allowed joint occupancy of Oregon Territory by Americans and Canadians Permitted American fishermen to fish in the waters of Newfoundland and Labrador

26th Amendment

ratified 1971 ratified in response to Vietnam War Gave right to vote to citizens 18 and older by November 1971, eleven million Americans between 18 and 21 were eligible to vote

Dawes Plan

924 Debt restructuring plan for Germany after World War I American banks made loans to Germany, Germany paid reparations to Allies, and Allies paid back US government Cycle based on loans from AMerican banks Played part in development of Great Depression

New Spain

1400s and 1500s Spain's tightly controlled empire in the New World Mainly located in North and Central America, including the Caribbean and Spanish East Indies To deal with labor shortages, the Spaniards developed a system of large manors (encomiendas) using Native American slaves under conquistadors With the death of Native American slaves, Spaniards began importing African slaves to supply their labor needs

Christopher Columbus

1451-1506 Italian-born navigator who found fame when he landed in the Americas (October 12, 1492) Set sail on behalf of Spain with three ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and his flagship, the Santa María Originally, he had sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean to find a water route to Asia He was convinced that he had found the waterway that he sought and that the Americas were actually an extension of China Returned from his expedition with gold, encouraging future exploration

Amerigo Vespucci

1454-1512 Italian member of a Portuguese expedition Explored South America Discovery suggested that the expedition had found a "New World" After an account of Vespucci's 1497 expedition was published, a cartographer mistakenly thought that he had led the expedition and had landed in the New World before Christopher Columbus, the cartographer named the continent America

Treaty of Tordesillas

1493 Commitment between Spain and Portugal Created a Papal Line of Demarcation, which divided the New World: east of the line for Portugal and west of it for Spain Portugal also received the easternmost part of what is currently Brazil, when it "discovered" the land in 1500 Later, the Papal Line affected the colonization in Africa and Asia

English Puritanism

1500s and 1600s Movement by those who wished to reform the Church of England to be more in line with their ideology Though King Henry VIII had set out to separate his own Church of England from papal authority, many Roman Catholic traditions and practices remained Puritans rejected these Roman Catholic holdovers and sought to make the English Church "Pure" Puritans held Calvinist beliefs, such as predestination and the authority of Scripture over papal authority Puritanism echoes throughout American culture in the ideas of self-reliance, moral fortitude, and an emphasis on intellectualism

Dutch West India Company

1500s and 1600s The joint-stock company that ran the colonies in Fort Orange and in New Amsterdam, which later became New York Carried on a profitable fur trade with the native American Iroquois Instituted the patroon system, in which large estates were given to wealthy men who transported at least 50 families to New Netherland to tend the land (few seized opportunity)

Mercantilism

1500s-1700s Prevailing economic philosophy of the 1600s that held that colonies existed to serve the mother colonies Founded on the belief that the world's wealth was sharply limited and, therefore, one nation's gain was another nation's loss Each nation's goal was to export more than it imported in a favorable balance of trade; the difference would be made up in their possession of gold and silver, which would make the nation strong both economically and militarily Mercantilists believed economic activity should be regulated by the government

Queen Elizabeth I

1533-1603 Protestant successor to Queen Mary (England) Popular leader and the first woman to successfully hold the throne Invested in English raids on the Spanish New World; Spain responded with the Spanish Armada Established Protestantism in England and encouraged English business

Sir Walter Raleigh

1587 Selected Roanoke Island as a site for the first English settlement Returned to England to secure additional supplies, but he found the colony deserted upon his return; it is not known what became of the Roanoke settlers Raleigh abandoned his attempts to colonize Virginia after the failure at Roanoke Held back by a lack of financial resources and the war with Spain, English Colonization in America was impeded for fifteen years

The Spanish Armada

1588 Fleet assembled by King Philip II of Spain to invade England The Armada was defeated by the skill of British military leaders and by rough seas during the assault England's victory over Spanish forces was one of the great achievements of Queen Elizabeth I, as it established England as an emerging sea power Its defeat helped bring about the decline of the Spanish empire

St. Augustine, Florida

1598 French Protestants (Huguenots) went to the New World to freely practice their religion, and they formed a colony near modern-day St Augustine, Florida Spain, oversaw Florida, reacted violently to Huguenots because they were trespassers and they were viewed as heretics by the Catholic Church Spain sent a force to the settlement and massacred the fort's inhabitants The settlement at St. Augustine, Florida, is considered to be the first permanent European settlement in what would become the US

Black Slaves in the 1600s

1600s Because black slaves were only a small percentage of the population, they began at almost the same level as indentured servants Later in the century, increased importation and population of blacks in the southern colonies began Slaves, called "chattel", came to be seen as lifelong property whose status would be inherited by their children

Triangular Trade (Atlantic Trade)

1600s Created as a result of mercantilism European merchants purchased African slaves with goods manufactured in Europe or imported from Asian colonies These merchants sold slaves in the Caribbean for commodities (sugar, cotton, tobacco) Caribbean commodities were later sold in Europe and North American Trade thrived because each partner could get the resources it wanted by exchanging resources that it had available

Types of Colonies in the New World

1600s In a charter colony, colonists were essentially members of a corporation, and electors among the colonists controlled the government based on an agreed-upon charter A royal colony had a governor selected by England's king; the governor served in the leadership role and chose additional, lower-ranking officers Proprietary colonies were owned by individuals with direct responsibility to the king; each proprietor selected a governor, who served as the authority figure for the colony

Early American Literature and Art

1600s-1700s Early writings promoted the benefits of colonization to both Europeans and to the colonies themselves; authors included John Smith and William Penn Religious issues and the Great Awakening provided material for written works by John Winthrop, Edward Winslow, Roger Williams, and Jonathan Edwards, and George Whitefield The political issues of revolution influenced writing in the mid-1700s, including works by Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Paine Post-war writings such as The Federalist Papers explored the system of American values and government structure The first American novel, published in 1789, was William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy Art copied European styles but featured portraits of important Americans; famous artists included John Trumball, Charles Peale, Benjamin West, and John Copley Gilbert Stuart painted the portrait of George Washington that is now on the one-dollar bill

Starving Time

1609-1610 period of starvation endured by Jamestown colonists Colonists depended on trade with local Native Americans for their food supplies Series of conflicts between colonists and Naive Americans limited Colonists' ability to trade for supplies and to farm their own food Large number of colonists died and others tried to flee to England; boats arriving with supplies from England intercepted the colonists and forced them to return to Jamestown Additional support from England, development of new industries, and creation of new trade partnerships helped ensure the settlement's long-term survival

The Separatists and Plymouth

1620 Separatists were Puritans who believed the Church of England was beyond saving and felt that they must break away from it One group of Separatists that suffered harassment from the government fled to Holland and then to America Members of this group traveled on the Mayflower and became known as the Pilgrims, a term used for voyagers seeking to fulfill a religious mission The Mayflower set sail from Plymouth, England, in September 1620 and landed in Provincetown Harbor, settling in what became Plymouth, Massachusetts Before landing in the New World, the Pilgrims formed the Mayflower Compact, which provided for a government guided by the majority William Bradford (1590-1657) served as the Plymouth Colony's first governor

Maryland

1632 Maryland became the first proprietary colony to serve as a refuge for English Catholics George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) applied for the charter to create the Province of Maryland Calvert's son, Caecilius, helped establish a representative assembly Maryland passed its Act of Toleration in 1649, guaranteeing religious freedom to all Christians in the colony; this set an important precedent for later characterization of the United States and its Constitution

John Locke and Natural Law

1632-1704 Locke was a major English political philosopher of the Enlightenment Isaac Newton theorized Natural Law in the realm of science and Locke followed him, trying to identify Natural Law in the human realm Prior to Locke, there existed a theory of social contract in which people would accept certain restrictions on themselves for the benefit of their society, and these restrictions would be upheld by a sovereign power Locke's assertion of Natural Law changed the perspective of the social contract theory; he believed that if life, liberty, and property were not protected, governments could be overthrown justly Locke's ideas became the indirect theory of American political activity for leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, and they influenced Thomas Jefferson in writing the Declaration of Independence

English Civil War

1641-1651 Conflict was based in the struggle between King Charles I (son of King James I) and the English Parliament Charles claimed to rule by divine right; Parliament argued that its membership had rights that were separate from those granted to the king Parliament's members were mostly Puritan and had the backing of the merchant class and lesser land owners Wealthy nobles tended to support Charles I, who opposed Puritans on questions of religion Led to outright conflict between Royalist military forces and forces opposing Charles I Parliament's victory in 1651 resulted in the trial and execution of Charles I and the exile of his son Charles II The English monarchy was replaced with the Commonwealth of England (1649-1653) and then with a Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell's rule (1653-1659)

William Penn

1644-1718 Founded Pennsylvania as a refuge for his fellow Quakers Penn advertised his colony widely in Europe and offered generous terms on land Guaranteed a representative assembly and full religious freedom Settlers flocked to Pennsylvania from all over Europe

Effects of the Navigation Acts

1650-1673 Boosted the prosperity of New Englanders, who engaged in large-scale shipbuilding Hurt the residents of the Chesapeake by driving down the price of tobacco Transferred wealth from America to Britain by increasing the prices Americans had to pay for British goods and lowering the prices Americans received for the goods they produced Mercantilism also helped bring on a series of wars between England and Holland in the late 1600s

Navigation Acts

1650-1673 Dictated that certain goods shipped from a New World port were to go only to Britain or to another New World port Served as the foundation of ENgland's worldwide commercial system; came out of the economic philosophy of mercantilism Though it was meant to benefit the whole British Empire, its provisions helped some New World colonies at the expense of others Intended as a weapon in England's ongoing struggle against its rival, Holland Led to increased tension between Britain and the colonies

Slave Codes

1650s-1860s A series of laws that limited slave rights Slave owners were given authority to impose harsh physical punishment and to control their slaves in any fashion they sought, without court intervention Prohibited slaves from owning weapons, becoming educated, meeting with other African Americans without permission, and testifying against whites in court Severely limited the rights of slaves

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 Virginia's Royal governor, William Berkeley, received strict instructions to run the colony for the benefit of Britain Nathaniel Bacon was a leader of colonial frontiersman in Virginia Bacon objected to the rights granted to Virginia's wealthy inner circle and was angered by Governor Berkeley's inability to protect Virginia from attacks by the Native Americans Bacon commanded two unauthorized raids on Native American tribes, increasing his popularity; Berkeley had him arrested Soon after, Bacon gathered his forces, opposed the Royal governor, and set fire to Jamestown to defend his forces' position Berkeley ended the rebellion with the aid of British military forces After Bacon's rebellion, American colonies turned increasingly away from indentured servants and toward slave labor

Quakers

1680 Quakers believed human religious institutions were largely unnecessary They thought they could receive revelation directly from God and placed little importance on the Bible They were pacifists and declined to show customary deference to their alleged social superiors Quakers' aggressiveness in denouncing established institutions brought them trouble in both Britain and America They opposed slavery and favored decent treatment of Native Americans Elements of this culture would play a role in shaping the characterization of a US that valued independence and social equality

Dominion of New England

1686-1689 An administrative body created by King James iI that oversaw British colonies in the New England region Put in place to implement the Navigation Acts and to assist the colonies in defending themselves against hostile French and Native American forces The Dominion Governor-in-Chief, Edmund Andros, outlawed town meetings, disputed titles to certain colonial lands, and proselytized on behalf of the Church of England New England colonists had originally been in favor of some sort of voluntary association, but the Dominion was very unpopular because of these types of impositions

Half-Way Covenant

1690s Decision by Puritan colony churches to allow the grandchildren of those who did not have the personal experience of conversion to participate in select church affairs Previously, only the children of those who had experienced conversion could participate Reflected the decline of zealous piety among New Englanders

Salem Witch Trials

1692 Several young girls in Salem Village claimed to be tormented by the occult activities of certain neighbors 20 persons executed Puritan ministers finally intervened to stop the executions Different theories about the reasons that the trials occurred: political and class divisions in Salem; economic stresses from providing for growing families; the gender-biased view that women were more likely to follow evil Writer Arthur Miller produced "The Crucible (1953)", a retelling of the Salem Witch Trials and a reflective commentary on the witch-hunts of Joseph McCarthy

John Peter Zenger

1697-1746 German American newspaper published and printer His acquittal of liberal charges in New York City (1735) established a legal precedent for freedom of the press The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Warren (1953-1969) would later reinvigorate free press rights The case of New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) strengthened the protection of the press against libel cases brought by public figures

The Enlightenment

1700s Connects to the idea of Deism, in which the universe was created by God and then abandoned, no supernatural controls would be exerted and all things were explainable by reason Enlightenment philosophy dictated that human reason was adequate to solve mankind's problems and, correspondingly, much less faith was needed in the central role of God as an active force in the universe Idea moved from Europe to become the New World's seed of culture, intellectualism, and society Some important Enlightenment writers include Isaac Newton (Principia Mathematica, 1687), John Locke (Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1689), and René Descartes, whose basic tenet of philosophical theory existed in the phrase "I think, therefore, I am"

Elements of Slavery

1700s-1800s Slave suffered varying degrees of repression, although most received adequate housing and diet Slaves did commit some violent uprisings Many slaves tried to run away into bordering free states Injustice created quiet revolt as slaves sabotaged their facilities, found ways to become unproductive for their masters, and ridiculed their owners Despite their repression, slaves created their own common culture

Jonathan Edwards

1703-1758 Preacher of the Great Awakening who emphasized personal religious experience, predestination, and dependence of man upon God and divine grace One of his widely read sermons was "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" While Edwards is known for being one of the most prominent Calvinists, the Great Awakening was partially responsible for refuting the idea that salvation was only possible with predestined election, an important Calvinist belief

Benjamin Franklin

1706-1790 Was colonial writer, scientist, diplomat, printer, and philosopher Published the Pennsylvania Gazette and wrote Poor Richard's Almanac Served in the Second Continental Congress and was a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence

William Pitt

1707-1778 Britain's capable and energetic prime minister After several humiliating defeats, he led Britain to virtually destroy the French empire in North America by focusing on the French headquarters in Canada The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended hostilities

Impact of the French and Indian War on British Colonial Policy

1712-1770 Britain set out to solve the large national debt incurred in recent conflicts It created a series of acts that raised taxies on American goods, leading to rebellious activities in the colonies Acts included the Proclamation of 1763, Sugar Act (1763), Stamp ACt (1765), and Quartering ACt (1765)

The First Great Awakening

1720s-1740s A series of emotional religious revivals that occurred throughout the colonies (prevalent in New England) Preachers spread a message of personal repentance and emphasized faith as a way to avoid hell Suggested an equality between God and the Bible George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards became its most dynamic preachers While the Awakening created conflict among those who argued about religion, its ideas helped build connections between the colonies More denominations of Christianity were formed A number of colleges were founded by those who accepted the Great Awakening, including Princeton, Brown, and Rutgers

French and Indian War

1748-1763 Rivalry between France, Britain, and various Native American tribes over land in the Ohio region It was one of a series of wards fought between France and England throughout the world at the time Battles continued on European and American fronts until Britain gained control of Canada It was in these conflicts that George Washington first appeared as an able military leader

Writs of Assistance

1750s-1770s Court orders that authorized customs officials to conduct non-specific searches to stop colonial smuggling Allowed for the searching of homes, warehouses, and shops James Otis served as a prosecutor in a failed Massachusetts legal case; he argued that these searches were contrary to natural law Later, the Fourth Amendment would protect citizens against "unreasonable searches and seizures"

Albany Plan

1754 Delegates of seven colonies met in New York to discuss plans for collective defense The Pennsylvanian delegate, Benjamin Franklin, proposed a plan for an intercolonial government, but the plan was rejected by the colonial legislatures as demanding too great a surrender of power While the other colonies showed no support for Franklin's plan, it was an important precedent for the concept of uniting in the face of a common enemy

John Marshall

1755-1835 Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court (1801-1835) He was a Federalist installed by Adams His decisions defined and strengthened the powers of the Judicial branch and asserted the power of judicial review over federal legislation His court made determinations that cemented a static view of contracts His court's decisions advanced capitalism Significant cases included Marbury v. Madison, Fletcher v. Peck, Dartmouth College v. Woodward, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden

Alexander Hamilton

1757-1804 First Secretary of Treasury Proposed the federal assumption of state debts, the establishment of a national bank, and teh federal stimulation of industry through excise tax and tariffs Opponents, including Jefferson, saw his programs as aiding a small, elite group at the expense of the average citizen Hamilton died from wounds sustained in a piston duel with Aaron Burr, Jefferson s vice president

Treaty of Paris, 1763

1763 Ended Seven Years War From France, Britain took Canada and some of what would become the US east of the Mississippi River France lost all of its North American holdings Spain took the Louisiana Territory Treaty marked the end of salutary neglect, a relationship in which the British Parliament had somewhat ignored the colonies, allowing them to develop their character without interference

Proclamation of 1763

1763 Was a result of Pontiac's Rebellion, a Native American uprising against the British for their mistreatment Forbade white settlement west of the Appalachians to reduce friction between Native Americans and the settlers Stated that Native Americans owned the land on which they were residing Outraged colonists believed that the successful outcome of the French and Indian War should have allowed settlement in the Ohio Valley

Stamp Act

1765 An internal tax, the sole purpose of which was to raise revenue Required Americans to use "stamped" paper for legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards, among other goods Revenue from this tax was to be used solely for the support of the British soldiers protecting the colonies

Eli Whitney

1765-1825 Inventor and manufacturer Invented the cotton gin in 1793, revolutionizing the cotton industry and increasing the need for slaves Established first factory to assemble muskets with interchangeable, standardized parts His innovations led to an "American system" of manufacture, where those laborers with less skill could use tools and templates to make identical parts; also, the manufacture and assembly of parts could be done separately

Declaratory Act

1766 Act giving Britain the power to tax and make laws for Americans in all cases Followed repeal of the Stamp Act, which colonists had seen as a victory The Declaratory Act suggested that Britain might pass more restrictive acts in the near future

Townshend Acts

1767 Created by British Prime Minister Charles Townshend (Grenville's replacement) Formed a program of taxing items imported into the colonies, such as paper, lead, glass, and tea Replaced the direct taxes of the Stamp Act Led to boycotts by Boston merchants and served as a key contributor to the Boston Massacre

Denmark Vesey

1767-1822 A slave who won enough money in a lottery to buy his own freedom Gained wealth and influence in South Carolina Accused of using church get-togethers to plan a violent slave revolt Vesey and 34 other slaves were hanged Some historians doubt the conspiracy was real

Methods of Colonial Resistance

1770s Colonists reacted first with restrained and respectful petitions against the British, suggesting "taxation without representation is tyranny" Colonial governments organized "committees of correspondence" to share their view of British actions with neighboring colonies and with foreign governments; this was the start of political organization among the colonies Colonial merchants then boycotted British goods (non-importantation ) Colonists finally turned to violence; crowds took action against customs officials and against merchants who violated the boycotts Some colonists continued to follow British command and became English "Loyalists"

Virtual Representation

1770s English principle stating that the members of parliament represented all of Britain and the British Empire, even though members were only elected by a small number of constituents This idea was meant to be a response to the colonial claim of "no taxation without representation" meaning that parliament was itself a representation of those being taxed

Romanticism

1800s A belief in the innate goodness of man, nature, and traditional values, rooted in turn-of-the-century Europe Emphasized emotions and feelings over rationality Reaction against the excesses of the Enlightenment led to a growing push for social reform

Tea Act and Boston Tea Party

1773 The Tea Act was a concession that allowed the British East India Company to ship tea directly to America and sell it at a bargain Because the cheap tea undercut the costs of local merchants, colonists opposed these shipments; they turned back ships, left shipments to rot, and held ships in port Led to the Boston Tea Party in December of 1773, where citizens, dressed as Native Americans, destroyed tea on the British ships

George Washington's leadership in the American Revolution

1775-1781 Named Commander-in-Chief of Continental Forces in June 1775 by the Second Continental Congress Forced British to evacuate Boston in March 1776 Defeated British at Trenton, New Jersey after crossing the Delaware on December 25, 1776 Survived tough winter at Valley Forge (1777-1778): Washington strengthened his troops during the winter and gained tremendous respect among the men General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington on October 19, 1781.

Battle of Saratoga

1777 American Revolution battle fought in northern New York The British planned to end the American Revolution by splitting the colonies along the Hudson River, but they failed to mobilize properly The British ended up surrendering, allowing for the first great American victory Demonstrated that the British could more easily hold the cities, but that they would have trouble subduing the countrysides Considered a turning point, as French aid began after this battle

Anti-Federalists

1780s-1790s Those against the adoption of the Constitution; they were suspicious of political actions that would limit freedom and of a centralized government that would rule at a distance George Mason, Patrick Henry, and George clinton were Anti-Federalists Many of the Anti-Federalists would come to oppose the policies of Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists The Jeffersonian Republican Party absorbed many of the Anti-Federalists after the Constitution was adopted

John Calhoun

1782-1850 Vice President to both John Q. Adams and to Adam's political rival, Andrew Jackson, who defeated Adams in 1828 Champion of states' rights Author of essay "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest," advocating nullification of Tariff of 1828 and asserting the right of the states to nullify federal laws Later, as a senator, he engaged Senator Daniel Webster in a debate over slavery and states' rights, demonstrating the ideas that would drive the country to the Civil War

Treaty of Paris, 1783

1783 Peace settlement that ended the Revolutionary War The US was represented by Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay Britain recognized the US' independence and outlined its borders The US received all lands east of the Mississippi River, norther of Florida, and south of the Great Lakes The US agreed that Loyalists (those who had supported Britain) were not to be persecuted

Washington Irving

1783-1879 In his time, he was the best-known native writer in the US and one of the first American writers to gain fame throughout Europe His satire is considered some of the first great comic literature written by an American Stories included "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (both in 1820) His writings reflected an increasing nationalism, as the stories were based in American settings

John James Audubon

1785-1851 Romantic-era artist Member of the Hudson River School, a group of landscape painters Demonstrated the emotion of nature, especially birds and animals In 1886, a nature organization took his name

Land Ordinance of 1785; Northwest Ordinance of 1787

1785; 1787 The Land Ordinance was an act of Congress that sold western lands in order to settle that territory and to earn revenue for the federal government The Land Ordinance organized the distribution of land into townships and set aside a section of each township to be used for public education The Northwest Ordinance described how the land north of the Ohio river should be divided and helped to create 5 new states The Northwest Ordinance held that states would be admitted to the Union when the number of free inhabitants reached 160,000; slavery and involuntary servitude were not allowed in these states The Northwest Ordinance set a precedent of how states could join the Union and stood as a successful accomplishment by a federal government that had been seen before as ineffective

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

1787 Called for a bicameral legislative system in which the House of Representatitives would be based on population and the Senate would have equal representation in Congress Combined pieces of the New Jersey Plan, the Virginia Plan, and other proposals Included the Three-Fifths Compromise, which counted slaves as three-fifths of a person for purpose of apportioning representation and called for direct taxation of the states

Evolution of the Major Political Parties to pre-Civil War

1787-1854 Key Moment: Debate over the adoption of a federal constitution Parties: Federalists and Anti-Federalists, who disagreed about the power and influence of the central government Evolutionary Point: After the Constitution was adopted, the Jeffersonian Republicans absorbed the Anti-Federalists and by 1800 the Federalists had declined Key Moment: Disagreement over John Quincy Adam's defeat of Andrew Jackson Parties: Democratic-Republicans and the Whig Party, which was a combination of those who opposed President Jackson's policies and those who had supported John Q. Adams Evolutionary Point: After the death of Whig President William Henry Harrison, parties focused more on issues of sectional unrest

Federalists

1788 Americans who advocated centralized power and constitutional ratification Used The Federalist Papers to demonstrate how the Constitution was designed to prevent the abuse of power Supporters of Federalist platforms included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay, and northeastern business groups Federalists believed that the government was given all powers that were not expressly denied to it by the Constitution (they had a "loose interpretation" of the Constitution)

George Washington

1789-1797 First President Unanimously elected Served two terms His leadership led to a standard of a strong presidency with control of foreign policy and the power to veto Congress' legislation Declared the Proclamation of Neutrality in April 1793, keeping the US neutral in the European wars His Farewell Address in 1796 warned against entangling allianes, recommended isolationism, and warned of political party factions

James Fenimore Cooper

1789-1851 American novelist born in Burlington, New Jersey His writing was influenced by the American frontier and America's landscapes His works include The Last Mohicans (1826), The Water-Witch (1830), and The American Democrat (1838) His work, along with that of writers like Washington Irving, helped form the foundation for distinctive American literature

Southern Response to Slavery

1790-1860s Defense of slavery shifted from an early view of slavery as a "necessary evil" (1790) to a "positive good" (after 1840) Used scientific arguments, biblical texts, and historical examples to justify slavery As time passed, this defensive position and abolitionist sentiment increased in fervor Some Southerners, like George Fitzhugh, a Virginia lawyer, defended slavery by condemning Northern "wage salary"; he used the idea of African American inferiority to suggest that whites were protecting slaves from a world of fierce competition in which, on their own, they would not survive

The Second Great Awakening and Protestant Revivalism

1790s-1840s A wave of religious fervor spread through a series of camp meeting revivals The "Burnt Over District," an area in upstate New York, was the center of the movement Protestant revivalism rejected the Calvinist doctrine of predestination and held instead that salvation was in the individual's hands Revivalism was a reaction to rationalism, emphasizing strong nationalism and the improvement of society through social reform Revivalism included participation by women and African Americans, demonstrating the influence and growth of democracy Created diversity in American religious sects and some anti-Catholic sentiment

Jeffersonian Republicans (Democratic-Republicans)

1792-1860 Political party that absorbed the Anti-Federalists Proponents included Thomas Jefferson and James Madison Favored states' rights and power in the hands of commoners; supported by Southern agriculture and frontiersmen Believed that the federal government was denied all powers that were not expressly given to it by the Constitution ( a "strict interpretation" of the Constitution) Supported the French Revolution's ideals, but they were against the Revolution's bloody radicalism

Sam Houston

1793-1863 Leader of Texas independence Defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto and claimed independence Houston asked both President Jackson and President Van Buren to recognize Texas as a state, which they denied out of fear that a new slave state would be formed

Jay's Treaty

1794 An attempt to settle the conflict between the US and England over commerce, navigation, and violations of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 Provided for eventual evacuation by the British of their posts in the Northwest, but it allowed them to continue their fur trade Allowed for the establishment of commissions to settle US-Canadian border disputes and US-Britain losses during the Revolutionary War The generous terms to Britain upset the Americans because these were promises that had been made and not fulfilled in the Treaty of Paris of 1783

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 Western whiskey farmers refused to pay taxes on which Hamilton's revenue program was based A group of farmers terrorized the tax collectors, and Washington responded with a federalized militia George Washington and Alexander Hamilton rode out to Pennsylvania themselves to emphasize their commitment First test of federal authority Established federal government's right to enforce laws

Pinckney Treaty

1795 Signed by the US and Spain Free navigation of the Mississippi River was given to the US US gained area north of Florida that had been in dispute (Present day Mississippi and Alabama) Gave western farmers the "right of deposit" in New Orleans, enabling them to use to port for their goods and making it easier for them to get their goods to the east The US would later make the Louisiana Purchase, which would cement this right of deposit

Horace Mann

1796-1859 American educator who was the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education Suggested reforms in education Made available high-quality, no-cost, nondenominational public schooling The system has lasted to present day, and as a result, Mann has been called the father of the American public school

XYZ Affair

1798 The US wanted an end to French harassment of American shipping To settle the issue, French representatives demanded a bribe from the US just to open negotiations with French Minister Talleyrand The US refused the bribe and suspended trade with the French Led to the creation of the American Navy

Alien and Sedition Acts

1798-1799 Legislation enacted by the Federalists to reduce foreign influences and increase their power New hurdles to citizenship were established Broadened power to quiet print media critics The legislation was used to silence Jeffersonian Republican critics of the Federalists and was indicative of the poisoned relations between the two groups These acts tested the strength of the First Amendment and limited the freedom of the press The Federalists gained a reputation as being a less democratic group, quickening their demise as a political organization

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

1798-1799 Response by Jeffersonian Republicans to the Alien and Sedition Acts Included text written by Jefferson and by Madison Suggested that states should have the power within their territory to nullify federal law Stated that federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it The resolutions represented a future argument that would be used when secession and Civil War threatened the country Called into question the paradox of the Elastic Clause and the Tenth Amendment

The Napoleonic Wars

1799-1815 War between Napoleon's France and the other European powers, led by Britain Both sides tried to prevent neutral powers, especially the US from trading with their enemy American ships were seized by both sides and American sailors were "impressed," or forced, into the British navy The US was angered by this violation of the "freedom of the seas" principle, which holds that outside its territorial waters, a state may not claim sovereignty over the seas These violations would escalate and lead to the War of 1812

Nat Turner

1800-1831 Slave who led an insurrection in Southamton, Virginia, in 1831 Influential among local slaves as a preacher Believed it was his destiny to lead slaves to freedom Led approximately 60 in revolt, first killing the family of his owner and then killing 55 whites in the surrounding neighborhood The revolt was put down and Turner, some of his conspirators, and several free African Americans, were executed Led to stricter slave laws in the South and an end to the Southern organizations advocating abolition

Population Growth and Change, Early 1800s

1800s Labor shortage meant more opportunity for work Influx of immigration included German skilled labor and Irish Catholics, who faced discrimination Growing population in the West and in rural areas Urbanization outgrew public services, leading to inadequate security and clean water for city dwellers Race riots, religious riots, and street crime became part of city life

Texas, Leading to the Battle of the Alamo

1800s Mexico refused to sell Texas to the US, which had given up its claims to Texas in the Adams-Onis treaty Texas had been a state in the Republic of Mexico since 1822, following a revolution against Spain Mexico offered land grants for immigration to the area, and many Americans responded and came to Texas, increasing population and revenue in Texas Southerners moved to Mexico with interest in becoming slave masters, but the presence of slavery angered the Mexican government When the population changed, Mexico's power began to erode Stephen Austin worked to first make Texas a Mexican state and later independent of Mexico

Slave Labor Roles

1800s On large farms, white overseers directed African American drivers who supervised groups in the field as they performed gang labor On smaller farms, a slave was assigned specific tasks and the given the remainder of the day to himself House servants were spare physical labor, but they enjoyed less privacy and had direct responsibility to the master

Four Economic Classes in the South

1800s Planters: Owned large farms and groups of slaves, and exercised political and economic control with cotton exports Yeomen: The largest group, yeomen worked land independently, sometimes along with slaves, to produce their own foods, like corn Poor Whites: Lived in squalor that was often as bad as that of the slaves Slaves: Worked the land; it was noteworthy that 3/4s of whites in the South did not own slaves

Slaves in Southern Urban Areas

1800s Slaves served as factory workers or as construction laborers Some purchase their freedom with their savings or disappeared into society As sectional troubles rose, fewer slaves were able to buy freedom or work in urban areas

Irish and German Immigration

1800s The 1840s saw a dramatic increase in Irish immigration due to the potato famine in Ireland The poverty of the Irish immigrants led to settlement in eastern cities and competition for jobs The 1850s had increases in German immigration because of the failed revolution in 1848 Many Germans settled in Wisconsin because they had money and other resources, which helped to cultivate the upper-midwest portion of the US The Five Points neighborhood of New York City included Irish immigrants, African Americans, and Anglo, Italian and Jewish cultures; it encapsulated the melting-pot in the US

Women in the Early 1800s

1800s Women participated in limited political activity that was mostly religious and reform in nature, such as abolition Employment was limited mostly to schoolteaching They still lived in a "cult of domesticity," in which a woman's role in marriage was to maintain the home for her husband and to raise the children A woman's property became her husband's In future years, the women's rights movement would rise to confront this "cult of domesticity"

Judiciary Act of 1801

1801 Created new judgeships to be filled by the president John Adams filled the vacancies with party supporters ("Midnight Judges") before he left office Led to bitter resentment by incoming Jeffersonian Republican Party Act would play a role in the case of Marbury v. Madison

Thomas Jefferson

1801-1809 Third President Author of the Declaration of Independence Before becoming president, he served as the first Secretary of State First president to reside in Washington, DC Jefferson's taking of office was called the "Revolution of 1800" as it was the first time America changed presidential political leadership (Federalist to Jeffersonian Republican) His embodiment of the Jeffersonian Republican Party helped increase its strength, while weak leadership in the Federalist Party was a reason for its demise His administration was responsible for the Embargo of 1807 He presided over the Louisiana Purchase Politics characterized by support of states' rights

Dorothea Dix

1802-1887 Social reformer who worked to help the mentally ill Northeastern jails housed both criminals and the mentally ill in the same facilities Dix became determined to change this Her memorandum to the Massachusetts state legislature in 1842 led to the establishment of state hospitals for the insane

Marbury v. Madison

1803 William Marbury had been commissioned justice of the peace in DC by President John Adams His commission was part of Adams' "midnight appointments" during his last days in office Marbury's commission was not delivered, so he sued President Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison Chief Justice John Marshall held that while Marbury was entitled to the commission, the statute that allowed Marbury's remedy was unconstitutional, as it granted the Supreme Court powers beyond what the Constitution permitted This decision paved the way for judicial review, which gave courts the power to declare statutes unconstitutional

Lewis and Clark Expedition

1803-1806 Expedition through the Louisiana Purchase and the West Departed from St. Louis and explored areas including the Missouri River, the Yellowstone River, and the Rockies Sacajawea, a Shoshone guide, helped them in their journey Opened up new territories to American expansion

Ralph Waldo Emerson

1803-1882 Transcendentalist essayist and lecturer Self-Reliance (1841), one of his essays, promoted the virtue of independence Through the themes in his writing and through the independent lifestyle he lived, Emerson strongly influenced American thought and culture

William Lloyd Garrison

1805-1879 His newspaper, The Liberator, espoused his views that slaves should be immediately emancipated Many other anti-slavery advocates of the 1830s and 1840 recommended a gradualist approach Because of his inflexible position and fiery language he used in his paper, opposition to his policy developed within abolitionist groups Garrison also advocated an unpopular position in favor of equal rights for women After the Civil War, he promoted free trade, suffrage for women, and fair treatment for Native Americans

Embargo of 1807

1807-1809 American declaration to keep its own ships from leaving port for any foreign destination Jefferson hoped to avoid contact with vessels of either of the warring sides of the Napoleonic Wars The result was economic depression in the US, which angered the Federalists, who were well-represented in Northeast commerce and were hit hard by the financial downturn

Non-Intercourse Act

1809 Congress opened trade to all nations except France and Britain Trade boycott appeared to have little effect on curbing French and British aggression stemming from the Napoleonic Wars Though the Embargo Act was a protective measure, the Non-Intercourse Act re-engaged the US in trade while continuing its stance against alliances with either France or Britain The Non-Intercourse Act was repealed in 1810

James Madison

1809-1817 4th President His work before becoming president led him to be considered the "Father of the Constitution" Participated in the writing of The Federalist papers In Congress, he wrote the Virginia Plan Was a Republican president in a Federalist-controlled Congress Faced pressure from "War Hawks" like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun to get involved in the Napoleonic Wars and end the damaging embargo Led the US into the War of 1812 and concluded the war in 1814

John Brown

1809-1859 Brown and his sons killed five pro-slavery settlers in Kansas in "Pottawatamie Creek Massacre" (1856) Supported by some Northern abolitionists in order to start a countrywide revolution Led followers to seize a federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia hoping to start the rebellion (1859) Arrested and hanged Referred to as "God's Angry Man"

Fletcher v. Peck

1810 Marshall Court decision The first time state law was voided on the grounds that it violated a principle of the US Constitution The Georgia legislature had issued extensive land grants in a corrupt deal A legislature session repealed that action because of the corruption The Supreme Court decided that the original contract was valid, regardless of the corruption Reaffirmed the sanctity of contracts

Expansion of Electorate 1810-1828

1810-1828 Most states eliminated the property qualifications for voting during this period African Americans were still excluded from polls across the South and most of the North The political parties established national nomination conventions

Tecumseh

1811 Native American chief who was encouraged by British forces to fight against the pressured removal of Native Americans from Western territories William Henry Harrison destroyed the united Native American confederacy at Tippecanoe

Harriet Beecher Stowe

1811-1896 Worked with the Grimke sisters, Elizabeth Stanton, and other leaders to pursue activist goals Early activist in feminist movement and author of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1851), a novel critical of slavery Uncle Tom's Cabin was denounced in the South and praised in the North; it turned many toward active opposition to slavery and helped bolster sympathy for abolition by Europeans who had read it

War of 1812 Events

1812 Early victories at sea by the US before it was overpowered by the British The US' Admiral Perry took Lake Erie with the navy Opened the way for William Henry Harrison to invade Canada and defeat the British and Native American forces Andrew Jackson led the American charge through the Southwest The Battle of New Orleans was a decisive conflict in which Andrew Jackson defeated the British; the battle was fought after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent

Causes of the War of 1812

1812-1815 British impressment of American sailors The US suspected the British of encouraging Native American rebellion "War Hawk" Congressional leaders, such as Henry Clay and John Calhoun, pressed for intervention American frontiersman wanted more free land, as the West was held by Native Americans and the British War Hawks also wanted to annex Canada and Florida Despite the Embargo Act and Non-Intercourse act, hostilities could not be cooled Eventually, the US sided with France against Britain

Stephen Douglas

1813-1861 Senator from Illinois dubbed the "Little Giant" Was an expansionist and a supporter of the Mexican War Broke the Compromise of 1850 into smaller, more acceptable pieces of legislation and pushed it through using various allies in Congress Introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Ac in 1854 During a Senate campaign in 1858, participated in debates against Abraham Lincoln (dubbed the Lincoln-Douglas debates) Believed popular sovereignty was the appropriate way to handle the slavery question

Washington Burned

1814 During the War of 1812, a British armada sailed up the Chesapeake Bay and burned the White House Attack came in response to the American burning of Toronto The armada proceeded toward Baltimore; America's For McHenry held firm through bombardment, which inspired Francis Scott Key's "Defence of Fort McHenry" (later renamed "The Star-Spangled Banner")

Rush-Bagot Agreement

1817 The Treaty of Ghent, which ended hostilities after the War of 1812, set the groundwork for this agreement by encouraging both sides to continue to study boundary issues between the US and Canada Rush-Bagot was an agreement between Britain and the US to stop maintaining armed fleets on the Great Lakes Served as the first "disarmament" agreement and laid the foundation for future positive relations between Canada and the US

James Monroe

1817-1825 5th President Led during the "Era of Good Feelings," which was marked by the domination of his political party, the Democratic-Republicans, and the decline of the Federalist Party Established the Monroe Doctrine as a wide-ranging policy for foreign affairs National identity grew, most notably through the westward movement of the country and various public work projects The "Era" saw the beginnings of North-South tensions over slavery

Henry David Thoreau

1817-1862 Transcendental writer His Walden (1854) repudiated the repression of society and preached non-violent civil disobedience He protested unjust laws, slavery, and the Mexican War To demonstrate against these issues, Thoreau refused to pay his poll tax and was forced to spend one night in jail Thoreau's ideology was reflected in future advocates like Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Frederick Douglass

1817-1895 An escaped slave and outspoken abolitionist Escaped from his Maryland owner and published his own newspaper, the North Star Favored the use of political methods of reform In the Civil War, he helped put together regiments of African Americans from Massachusetts and urged others to join the Union army Known as the father of the American civil rights movement

Adams-Onis Treaty

1819 Helped define the US-Mexico border The border that was under Spanish control had created conflict between the two countries Spain sold its remaining Florida territory to the US and drew the boundary of Mexico to the Pacific US ceded its claims to Texas, and Spain kept California and the New Mexico region US assumed $5 million in debts owed by SPain to American merchants Later, lands kept by Spain would become battlegrounds for American expansion

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819 Marshall Court decision Determined that no state could control an agency of the federal government Maryland tried to levy a tax on a local branch of the US Bank to protect its own state banks Supreme Court determined such state action violated Congress's "implied powers" to operate a national bank Use of judicial review over state law made this a division of powers case

Dartmouth College v. Woodward

1819 Marshall Court decision Severely limited the power of state governments to control corporations, which were the emerging form of business New Hampshire legislature tried to change Dartmouth from a private to a public institution by having its charter revoked The Court ruled that the charter issued during colonial days still constituted a contract and could not be arbitrarily changed without the consent of both parties Reaffirmed the sanctity of contracts

Walt Whitman

1819-1892 Northern Romantic era poet Wrote a volume of poems, Leaves of Grass (1855) Celebrated the importance of individualism and is considered the poet of American democracy

Missouri Compromise

1820 Henry Clay's solution to deadlock over the issue of accepting proposed new state, Missouri At the time, the Senate was evenly divided between slave and free states A slave state of Missouri would tip the balance of power John Tallmadge added an antislavery amendment meant to prohibit the growth of slavery into Missouri and to free slaves already in Missouri when they had reached a certain age The Tallmadge Amendment caused the Senate to block the Missouri Compromise and sparked heated debate about the future of slavery To settle the dispute, northern Massachusetts became a free state (Maine) The legislature section prohibiting slavery in Missouri was replaced by a clause stating that all land of the Louisiana Purchase north of 30-6-30 north latitude would prohibit slavery

Utopian Communities

1820-1850 Movement that copied early European efforts at utopianism Attempt by cooperative communities to improve life in the face of increasing industrialism Groups practiced social experiments that generally saw little success due to their radicalism Included attempts at sexual equality, racial equality, and socialism Two of these communities were Brook Farm and Oneida

Transcendentalism

1820-1850 Movement to transcend the bounds of the intellect and to strive for emotional unity with God Believed that people were capable of unity with God without the help of the institutional church Saw Church as reactionary and stifling to self-expression Included writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson

Antebellum Reform

1820-1860 Explosion in the number of colleges (Oberlin College in Ohio became the first co-ed college) Expansion of state-supported elementary schools and other public schooling, in part due to the leadership of Horace Mann Dorothea Dix led in the establishment of asylums for humane treatment of the insane Prisons reformed

The Lowell System

1820s A popular way of staffing New England factories Young women were hired from the surrounding countryside, brought to town, and housed in dorms in mill towns for a short period The owners called these "factories in the garden" to spread the idea that these facilities would not replicate the dirty, corrupt mills in English towns The rotating labor supply benefited owners, as no unions could be formed against them The system depended on technology to increase production

"Corrupt Bargain" of 1824

1824 4 presidential candidates: Henry Clay (Speaker of the House), John Quincy Adams (Secretary of State), Andrew Jackson (1812 war hero), and William Crawford (Secretary of the Treasury) Jackson won the popular vote but did not win the majority of the electoral vote, and as a result, the election went to the House of Representatives In the House of Representatives vote, Henry Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams, who would go on to win the presidency Adams gave Clay the post of Secretary of State Accusations of a "corrupt bargain" were made by Jackson, but they are considered to be largely untrue

Gibbons v. Ogden

1824 Marshall Court decision Determined that only Congress may regulate interstate commerce, including navigation Ogden received a monopoly to operate a steamboat between New York and New Jersey; New York granted him the monopoly through Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston Gibbons received the same rights through Congress Supreme Court decided that the state monopoly was void Use of judicial review over state law made this a division of powers case

John Quincy Adams

1825-1829 6th President His supporters called themselves National Republicans (Jackson supporters labeled themselves Democratic-Republicans) Led an active federal government in areas like internal improvement and Native American affairs His policies proved unpopular amidst increasing sectional interest and conflicts over state's rights After his presidency, he served in the House or Representatives, where he forced debates against slavery and against the Jacksonian policy of removing certain Native American tribes

Hudson River School

1825-1875 Group of American landscape painters Part of increasing American nationalism following the War of 1812 The influence of the European Romantic movement led many American artists to paint their homeland Depicted important landscapes such as Niagara Falls, the Catskills, the Rocky Mountains, and the Hudson River Valley Artists included Thomas Doughty, Thomas Cole, George Inness, and S.F.B Morse

Spoils System

1828 Andrew Jackson's method of turning over the civil servant jobs to new government officials "Rotation in office" was supposed to democratize government and lead to reform by allowing the common people to run the government This system had been in place long before Jackson, but his name is tied to it because he endorse its usage In general, officials were replaced by those loyal to the new administration, and they were not always the most qualified for the positions Over the span of several presidential terms, the system led to corruption and inefficiency It was ended with the passage of the Pendleton Act

Richard Wright

1908-1960 African American author who wrote about racial oppression Novels included Uncle Tom's Children (1938), Native Son (1940), and Black Boy (1945) Joined the Communist Party for a brief time in the early 1930s

"Tariff of Abominations"

1828 Tariff bill with higher import duties for many goods bought by southern planters John C. Calhoun, John Q. Adam's Vice President, anonymously protested his own leadership's bill, suggesting that a federal law harmful to an individual state could be declared void within that state This suggestion of nullification would be utilized by other states and would escalate hostilities, leading to the Civil War

Andrew Jackson

1829-1837 7th President Following the War of 1812, he invaded Spanish Florida to quell Native American rebellions After the treaty for the War of 1812, had already been signed, he defeated a British force that had invaded New Orleans, safeguarding the Mississippi River Popular president due to his self-made westerner image Form of Leadership, known as Jacksonian Politics, called for a strong executive, relied on the party system, and emphasized states' rights Implemented the Spoils System approach to civil service Signed the Indian Removal Act, which provided for federal enforcement to remove Native American tribes west of the Mississippi

Webster-Hayne Debate

1830 Debate in the Senate between Daniel Webster (MA) and Robert Hayne (SC) that focused on sectionalism and nullification Came after the "Tariff of Abominations" incident At issue was the source of constitutional authority: Was the Union derived from an agreement between states or from the people who had sought a guarantee of freedom? Webster stated, "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable"

Mormonism

1830 Religion founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. Smith claimed to have received sacred writings; he organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Smith described a vision from God in which God declared specific tenets of Christianity to be abominations Because of these claims and unusual practices such as polygamy, Mormons were shunned Eventually Mormons formed community near Great Salt Lake under Brigham Young's leadership Settlement became the State of Utah

Abolitionism

1830s through Civil War Began with the idea of purchasing and transporting slaves to free African states, which had little success Anti-slavery societies founded it, and some faced violent opposition The movement split into two: 1) radical followers and 2) those who petitioned Congress Entered politics through the Liberty Party, calling for non-expansion of slavery into new western territories The Liberty Party would eventually combine with the larger Free Soil Party

Biddle's Banks

1832 Andrew Jackson objected to the Bank of the US created by Alexander Hamilton Jackson felt that the Bank had great influence in national affairs but did not respond to the will of working and rural class people Henry Clay wanted to Bank to be a political issue for the upcoming presidential election in 1832 against Andrew Jackson Nicholas Biddle, chairman of the Bank, worked with Clay to re-charter the Bank four years earlier than it was due Jackson vetoed the measure, increasing his popularity

Tariff of 1832 and the Order of Nullification

1832 The tariff favored Northern interests at the expense of Southern ones Calhoun led a state convention calling for the Order of Nullification, which declared that the tariff laws were void and that South Carolina would resist by force any attempt to collect the tariffs Jackson, though a supporter of states' rights, defended the Union above all, and asked Congress to issue a new bill to give him authority to collect tariffs by force Jackson encouraged his allies to prepare a compromise bill so that the federal government would not lose its image of control and so that South Carolina could back down from nullification Henry Clay this Compromise Tariff of 1833 and South Carolina withdrew the Order, but tensions between the federal government and state governments grew

Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens)

1835-1910 American novelist who grew up in Hannibal, Missouri Early jobs as both a printer's apprentice and a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River Novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and Huckleberry Finn (1885), and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889) Twain's writings portray the essence of life and speech during the era; his use o of a distinctly American vernacular influenced future fiction writers

Andrew Carnegie

1835-1919 After making money through investments in a sleeping car company and oil, Andrew Carnegie moved on to a position in the War Department Later, he worked in the iron business and then moved into steel after learning the Bessemer Process, which formed steel from pig iron Grew Carnegie Steel Company through acquisitions Carnegie Steel Company was involved in the Homestead Strike with the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers Wrote the article "Gospel of Wealth" for the North American Review, which promoted the belief that the wealthy were just trustees of their money and that they must use their efforts to benefit society His philanthropic ventures included Carnegie Hall and public libraries

Gag Rule

1836-1844 Forbade discussion of the slavery question in the House of Representatives Stemmed from Southern members' fear of slave emancipation Led to increased discussion by Southern conventions of ways to escape Northern economic and political hegemony

The Charles River Bridge Case

1837 Demonstrated that a contract could be broken to benefit the general welfare Jackson's chief justice, Roger Taney, held that a state could cancel grant money if the grant ceased to be in the interests of the community Served as a reversal of Dartmouth College v. Woodward

The Panic of 1837 and Specie Circular

1837 Recession caused by President Jackson's drastic movement of federal bank deposits to state and local banks Led to relaxed credit policies and inflation Jackson demanded a Specie Circular, which required that land be paid for in hard money and not paper or credit Recession lasted into the 1840s

Civil War Ships

1860s Ironclads were Civil War ships protected form cannon fire by iron plates bolted over the sloping wooden sides Confederates outfitted an old wooden warship, the Merrimack, with iron railroad rails and renamed it the Virginia, it achieved devastating results The Union's Monitor fought the Merrimack to a standstill

Martin Van Buren

1837-1841 8th President Democrat from New York who had served as Jackson's vice president after Calhoun left the position Established the independent treasury, a system maintaining government funds independently of the national banking systems; it existed in one form or another until 1921 Panic of 1837 hampered attempts to follow Jackson's policies, and he was unsuccessful in re-election

Marcus Alonzo Hanna

1837-1904 American capitalist dealing in coal, shipping, shipbuilding, banking, and newspapers Active in the Ohio Republican Party and helped elect William McKinley as governor in 1891 and 1893 As chairman of the Republican National Committee, he assisted McKinley in winning the presidential election of 1896

J.P. Morgan

1837-1913 Wall Street banker whose company financed railroads, banks, and insurance companies Bought out Carnegie for $400 million Pledged money to help shore up the US banking system after the Panic of 1907 Philanthropist

Trail of Tears

1838-1839 Worcester v. Georgia was a response to Jackson's Indian Removal Act Cherokees in Georgia claimed to be a sovereign political entity Native Americans were supported by the Supreme Court, but Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the court's decision By this point, Cherokees had largely met the government's demands to assimilate into Western-style democratic institutions Cherokees were forced to give up lands to the east of the Mississippi and travel to an area in present-day Oklahoma The migration's effects were devastating as hunger, disease, and exhaustion killed about 4,000 Cherokee

John D. Rockefeller

1839-1937 Founder of Standard Oil Company Used such business practices as horizontal integration, trusts, and rebates to grow Standard Oil Also invested in banks, railroads, and timber Focused on philanthropy toward the end of his life, including the Rockefeller Foundation and the University of Chicago

Popular Sovereignty

1840s Doctrine under which the status of slavery in the territories was to be determined by the settlers themselves Doctrine was first put forward by General Lewis Cass Promoted by Stephen A. Douglas Meant as a resolution to the looming crisis of the slavery question

Whig Party

1840s Group stemmed from the old Federalist Party, the old National Republican Party, and others who opposed Jackson's policies Cultivated commercial and industrial development Encouraged banks and corporations Had a cautious approach to westward expansion Received support largely from Northern business and manufacturing interests and from large Southern planters Included Calhoun, Clay, and Webster

Transportation in the 1840s and 1850s

1840s and 1850s Tremendous expansion in railroad lines created a national market for goods Railroads, such as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, were developed to help link the Midwest to the East Coast Steamboats and clipper ship became more popular for travel

Know-Nothings

1840s-1850s A political movement that supported Americans and American ideals over what it saw as the influence of immigrants Grew power from those dissatisfied with the perceived unresponsiveness of local leadership Influenced by German and Irish Catholic immigration during the period; Know-Nothings suspected the immigrants of anti-Amreicanism and feared the influence of the Pope in Rome The name of the movement came from its roots in secrecy; in its early days, members were supposed to answer that they did not know about the organization if asked by outsiders The movement grew in size and political representation in 1854 and 1855, but it was split by the slavery issue, and most members joined the Republican Party by the 1860 presidential election

The Underground Railroad and Harriet Tubman

1840s-1860s (Railroad); 1820-1913 (Harriet Tubman) Method used to move slaves to free territory in the US and Canada Harriet Tubman was a slave smuggler and "conductor" of the Underground Railroad A freed slave herself, Tubman led over 300 to freedom The Underground Railroad led to tension between states

Growth of the Suburbs

1840s-1950s After World War II, people began to move away from cities, leading to suburban growth causes: mass production of automobiles, growth of road system, governmental policies, inlcuding the FHA (Federal housing Administration) and better living conditions As african americans began to move to northern cities, whites began to move to teh suburbs (white flight) Suburban developments included Levittown, a planned community which offered inexpensive houses buit by Levitt and Sons

William Henry Harrison

1841 9th President Westerner who fought against Native Americans Nicknamed "Old Tippecanoe" Vice President was John Tyler Harrison died of pneumonia a month after inauguration

John Tyler

1841-1845 10th President Took office following the death of William Henry Harrison States' righter, Southerner, and strict constructionist Rejected the programs of the Whigs who had elected Harrison, which led them to turn against him Settled Webster-Ashburton Treaty between teh US and Britain Helped Texas achieve statehood in 1845

Causes of Mexican War

1844-1846 The new Mexican republic would not address grievances of US citizens, who claimed property losses and personal injuries resulting from conflicts during the Mexican revolution Mexico and the US were in a dispute over their border, with the US saying it was the Rio Grande and Mexico insisting it was the Nueces River Due to sentiment arising from the idea of Manifest Destiny, there was an increased American interest in Mexican-held Western territory The US had aided Texas in its revolt against the Mexican government and there was growing momentum toward a US annexation of Texas When the US Congress annexed Texas, Polk sent John Slidell to negotiate a settlement fo that land, for California, and for western Mexico territory, the Mexican government rejected Slidell

Radical Republicans

1860s Faction of the Republican party that believed the CIvil War was meant to stop slavery and emancipate all slaves Believed Congress should control Reconstruction and not the president Rejected the reentry of Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana into the Union, despite their qualification under the "10% Plan" They wanted the rebellious South to be dealt with in a harsher manner Ben Wade and Thad Stevens were among their members

James K. Polk

1845-1849 11th President "Dark Horse" Democratic candidate who became president Big believer in Manifest Destiny and expansionism Nicknamed "Polk the Purposeful" for his focus on a set of specific goals during his presidency Introduced a new independent treasury system Lowered the high rates of tariffs with the Walker Tariff Settled Oregon boundary dispute with the Oregon Treaty (Treaty of Washington-1846) at 49th parallel rather than 50-4-40 Acquired California Led the US into the Mexican War

Wilmot Proviso

1846 Amendment to a Mexican War appropriations bill Proposed that slavery could not exist in any territory that might be acquired from Mexico The amendment was passed in the US House of Representatives several times, but it was ultimately defeated on each occasion because the South had greater power in the Senate Represented the looming question of slavery's future, which would be decided in the Civil War

Mexican War

1846-1848 John C. Fremont (US) won attacks on land and at sea in and near California Zachary Taylor (US) defeated large forces in Mexico Mexico refused to negotiate, so President Polk ordered forces led by Winfield Scott into Mexico City Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 ended the war, giving the US (New Mexico, Arizona, California, Texas, and part of Colorado, Utah and Nevada) land originally sought by Slidell Border set at Rio Grande River Raised questions of slavery in the new territory Henry David Thoreau and a young Whig, Abraham Lincoln, opposed the war

Mexican Cession and Slavery

1848 Argument existed about slavery in the newly acquired Mexican Cession States-righters believed that the territory was the property of all states and that the federal government had no right to prohibit property ownership in territories Many anti-slavery and federal government supporters contended that Congress had the power to make laws for the territories Argument in favor of federal power was based on the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the Missouri Compromise of 1820

Gold Rush

1848-1850s Miners who rushed to California after the discovery of gold were called "Forty Niners" Over 80,000 prospectors "rushed" to San Francisco The increased population led to California joining the Union as a free state Connected to the idea of Manifest Destiny

Free soil/Free Labor

1848-1854 An anti-slavery idea that was less opposed to the institution of slavery than it was to the expansion of slavery into the US' Western territories Supporters wanted land to be available for white people to settle and to become financially independent without competition from slavery Free Soil Party created in 1848, drawing from anti-slavery Whigs and former Liberty Party members Opposed extension of slavery into new territories, supported national improvement programs, and promoted small tariffs to raise revenue Zachary Taylor defeated Free Soil candidate Martin Van Buren for president in 1848 Free Soil was mostly taken over by the Republicans in 1854

Zachary Taylor

1849-1850 12th President Famous general in Mexican War Whig President Opposed the spread of slavery Encouraged territories to organize and seek admission directly as states to avoid the issue of slavery Died suddenly in 1850 and was replaced by Millard Fillmore

African Americans in the Norther, 1850

1850 Organized churches and groups 200,00 free African Americans lived in the North and West, although their lives were restricted by prejudicial laws Immigration and new sources of labor for employers threatened the economic security of northern African Americans

Fugitive Slave Act

1850 Part of the Compromise of 1850 Reinvigorated enforcement of some guidelines already established in the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, which had been mostly ignored by Northern states Created federal commissioners who could pursue fugitive slaves in any state and paid $10 per returned slave African Americans living in the North and claimed by slave catchers were denied portions of legal due process Some Northern states passed personal-libery laws that contradicted the Act Led to small riots in the Norther and increased the rift between the North and South

The South, 1850

1850 Plantation system: Cash crops grown by slave labor Agrarian slave labor was moe profitable than using slaves in factories Capital funds were tied up in land and slaves, so little was left for investing in new growth or industry Value system put emphasis on leisure and elegance Unlike the North, the South remained agrarian and its population was less dense Due to the rise of cotton, the influence of the Gulf States in the South grew Cotton became the largest export of the US Slave importation continued through the 1850s into southwestern states, despite the federal outlaw Few immigrants went to the South

Compromise of 1850 (Omnibus Bill)

1850 Proposed by Henry Clay and handled by Stephen Douglas Douglas broke the legislation into various pieces, which helped assure its passage; this allowed northern and southern legislators to vote against just the parts they didn't like Compromise led to sectional harmony for several years California admitted as a free state New Mexico and Utah territories would be decided by popular sovereignty Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia Tough Fugitive Slave Act passed Federal payment to Texas ($10 million) for lost New Mexico territory

The North, 1850

1850 Wages were increasing and the economy was growing Railroad competition began to harm the canal business Large numbers of Irish and Germans immigrated to the uS Urbanization increased as the population grew, bringing problems such as slums, impure water, rats, and foul sewage

Millard Fillmore

1850-1853 13th President Became president after Zachary Taylor died As a congressman, he revealed his opposition to both the expansion of slavery and various abolitionist activities, driving away supporters Supported the Compromise of 1850 Failed to obtain a nomination in 1852, but was nominated by both the Whigs and the Know-Nothing movement in 1856

Franklin Pierce

1852-1856 14th President Democratic president from New Hampshire Supported Manifest Destiny despite Northern concerns that it would lead to the spread of slavery Signed the Kansas-Nebraska Act Sent Commodore Matthew Perry into Japan to open the country to diplomacy and commerce (Treaty of Kanagawa) Opened Canada to greater trade Pierce's diplomats failed in their attempts to purchase Cuba from Spain, leading to the drafting of the Ostend Manifesto

Ostend Manifesto

1854 Drafted by James Buchanan, John Mason, and Pierre Soule after Soule failed to purchase Cuba from Spain Suggested that the US should take Cuba from Spain by force if Spain refused to sell it Abolitionists saw Ostend as a plot to extend slavery Southerners supported the manifesto, had feared Cuba would be a free "black republic"

Kansas-Nebraska Act

1854 Legislation introduced by Stephen Douglas to organize the area west of Missouri and Iowa One goal was to facilitate the building of a transcontinental railroad that ran west from Chicago Called for two territories to be created (Kansas and Nebraska) and the issue of slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty Act revoked a provision of the Missouri Compromise, allowing everything above 36 degrees 30' to be free Kansas's status was impacted by fighting between pro-and anti-slavery groups who moved to the area Conflict termed "Bleeding Kansas"

Creation of Lincoln's Republican Party

1854 The Democratic Party divided along North-South lines The Whig Party was disintegrated, with its members either joining the Know-Nothings or the newly created Republican Party Republican Party's unifying principle was that slavery should be banned form all the nation's territories and not permitted to spread any further to established states

Evolution of the Major Political Parties from Civil War to Modern Day

1854-Modern Day Key Moment passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act Parties: Lincoln's Republicans concerned mainly with preventing the extension of slavery into the territories, while Deomcrats were split North-South over the issue Parties: Modern-day Republicans tend to emphasize business activity while modern-day Democrats support broad social programs

Eugene v. Debs

1855-1926 Became president of American Railray Union in 1893 Led Successful strikes against the Great Northern Railway and against the Pullman Palace Car Company Founder of the Social Democratic Party Ran for president as a Socialist candidate five times between 1900 and 1920

Frederick Winslow Taylor

1856-1915 Created the basis for the scientific management of business in his quest for efficiency Used shops and large plants as models and succeeded in spreading his ideas on efficiency to several industries Wrote books on the subject of scientific management

Lecompton Constitution

1857 Document submitted by pro-slavery leaders in territorial Kansas that put no restrictions on slavery Free-soilers boycotted the constitutional convention in Lecompton because the document would not leave Kansas a free territory Though President Buchanan supported the constitution as the basis for Kansas' statehood, Congress voted against it The Constitution was turned down and Kansas remained a territory

Causes and Impact of the Panic of 1857

1857 Failure of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Co. in New York Over-specultion in railroads and lands Decrease in flow of European capital for US investments because of Europe's own wars Surplus of wheat hurt Northern farmers Panic spread to Europe, South America, and the Far East The Panic fueled sectional tensions as Northerners blamed it on the low tariff policies of the Southern-dominated Congress

Dred Scott v. Sandford

1857 Supreme Court case involving a slave, Scott, who was taken by his master form Missouri, a slave state, to Illinois, a free state After Scott had been returned to Missouri, he sued for freedom for himself and his family, stating that by residing in a free state he had ended his slavery President Buchanan meant for the case's decision to serve as the basis for the slavery issue Pro-South Judge Taney ruled that Scott did not have the right of citizenship, which he would need to be able to bring forth a suit Ruled further that the Missouri Compromise itself was unconstitutional because Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, as slaves were property The Scott decision would apply to all African Americans, who were regarded as inferior and, therefore, without rights

James Buchanan

1857-1861 15th President Presided over the country when the Dred Scott decision was announced Backed the Lecompton Constitution to appease the South Buchanan, still acting as president after Lincoln's election, denied the legal right of states to secede but believed that the federal government could not legally prevent them Before leaving office, Buchanan appointed Northerners to federal posts and helped to prepare Fort Sumter with reinforcements

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

1858 Part of the Illinois senatorial campaign between Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln, these debates centered on the issue of slavery Douglas maintained that popular sovereignty was supported by the basic elements of democracy Douglas offered the "Freeport Doctrine", despite the Dred Scott case, slavery could be prevented if people living in a territory refused to pass laws favorable to slavery Lincoln had a moral opposition to slavery's spread and demanded constitutional protection where it existed Lincoln lost the Senate election to Douglas, but he stepped into national limelight

Election of 1860

1860 Republican s nominated Abraham Lincoln Major planks of his campaign: containment of slavery and encouragement of transcontinental rail The Democratic vote was split between DOuglas and several other candidates Lincoln won election South began to secede therafter

Transportation from 1860-1900

1860-1900 Railroads were given land grants by the government Railroad transportation provided opportunities for movement of goods and people to the West and raw materials to the East Affected population movements Made Chicago one of the most populous cities in the nation by 1900

Jane Addams

1860-1935 American social reformer Provided the services of the Hull House in Chicago (1889) to help poor immigrants settle Member of the "Social Gospel" movement, which applied lessons form the Bible to help solve problems of immigration and urbanization Won 1931 Nobel Peace Prize

Civil War Conscription

1860s Congress passed a federal conscription law in 1862 Rioting in the North took place, notably in NYC, when drafted individuals were permitted to avoid service by hiring a substitute or paying $300 The Confederacy's short supply of manpower meant an early draft, beginning in 1862 Southerners could also hire substitutes or purchase an exemption

Civil War Advantages for the North

1860s Greater population Better railroad lines and more established trade routes than the South More wealth Were able to use the moral issue of fighting slavery as motivation

Civil War Advantages for the South

1860s Only needed to resist being conquered Vast in land size Troops would fight in their familiar home territory Highly qualified officers including Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, Albert Sidney Johnston, and Stonewall Jackson Inspired to protect their familiar institutions and culture

Anaconda Plan

1861 Civil War strategy planned by Northern General Winfield Scott to crush the Southern rebellion Called for a naval blockade to shut out European supplies and exports, a campaign to take the Mississippi River to split the South, and a targeting of Southern cities in hopes that pro-Unionists would rise up in the South and overthrow the secession Both the blockade and the taking of the Mississippi was successful

Abraham Lincoln

1861-1865 16th President The Lincoln-Douglas Debates won him high national regard and, the Republican nomination for president Produced and led a Northern army to defend the Union against the secessionists Suspended habeas corpus during the Civil War, which was upheld by Congress Issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves within the confederacy Developed the "10% Plan" For Reconstruction Gave the Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863, which began "four score and seven years ago..." He was assassinated while attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington; the assassin, John Wilkes Booth, believed he was assisting the Southern cause

The Homestead Act

1862 Granted 160 acres of government land to any person who would farm it for at least five years The government helped to settle the West with this provision This "free soil" proposal became law when the Southern Democrats were not part of Congress

Lincoln's "10% Plan"

1863 Lincoln believed that seceded states should be restored to the Union quickly and easily, with "Malice toward none, with charity for all." Allowed Southerners, excluding high-ranking confederate offices and military leaders, to take an oath promising future loyalty to the Union and an end to slavery When 10% of those registered to vote in 1860 took the oath, a loyal state government could be formed Plan not accepted by Congress

Henry Ford

1863-1947 His Model-T, introduced in 1908, was the first inexpensive, mass-produced automobile Use of the moving assembly line heavily influenced American manufacturing Paid workers $5 per day, more than doubling average auto-workers wage Anti-union

William Randolph Hearst

1863-1951 Inherited the San Francisco Chronicle Built a media empire, including newspapers, magazines, radio stations, and movie studios His "yellow journalism", or writing that dealt with sensation news, helped lead the US into the Spanish-American War

Sherman's March to the Sea

1864 General William Tecumseh Sherman led Union troops through Georgia Sherman and Union commander, Ulysses S. Grant, believed in a "total war" that would break the South's psychological capacity to fight, Sherman's army sought to eliminate civilian support of Southern troops Sherman captured and burned Atlanta in September of 1864 Purpose of destroying Atlanta was to lower Southern morale and diminish supplies Sherman led troops to Savannah, then on to South and North Carolina

Northern Election of 1864

1864 Lincoln ran against General McClellan, who claimed that the war was a failure and called for a peace settlement Lincoln ran on the ticket of national unity with Andrew Johnson, a loyalist from Tennessee Sherman's taking of Atlanta helped Lincoln win the election Those sympathetic to the Southern cause were labeled "Copperheads"

Wade-Davis Bill

1864 Proposal to reunite the country by Senators Wade and Davis Required that 50% of a state's white male voters take a loyalty oath to be readmitted to the Union Demanded stronger efforts on behalf of states to emancipate slaves Lincoln "pocket-vetoed" the bill in favor of his "10% Plan"

Freedman's Bureau

1865 Congressional support agency providing food, clothing, and education for freed slaves Ex-slave states were divided into districts that were managed by assistant commissioners Despite its benefits, the Bureau failed to establish the freed slaves as landowners It organized the African Americans vote for the Republican Party, creating great animosity toward the bureau in the South

Andrew Johnson

1865-1869 17th president VP who took over presidency after Lincoln's assassination Initially followed Lincoln's policies but gradually became more conservative, giving amnesty to former Confederate officials and opposing legislation that dealt with former slaves Veto of the Civil Rights Act was overridden by Congress, which decreased his political power Johnson's opposition to the Radical Republicans and his violation of the Tenure of Office Act led to his impeachment by the House The Senate was organized as a court to hear the impeachment charges, but it came on vote short of the constitutional 2/3 required for removal

Civil War Amendments

1865-1870 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery in the US 14th Amendment (1868): African Americans became citizens and no state could deny life, liberty, or property without due process of the law 15th Amendment (1870): No state could deny the right to vote on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude

Reconstruction

1865-1877 Period following the Civil War in which the US tried to transform the organization and society of former Confederate states Determined how the South would take over its own governance 1867, Congress put the South under the army's control to oversee elections, ensure the rights of freed slaves, and restrict Confederate leaders from gaining power New Republican state governments offered a variety of reconstruction programs, but former Confederates suspicious of these efforts claimed corruption within state leadership; some turned to violent opposition Reconstruction concluded with the Compromise of 1877 and the end of federal control in the South, former Confederate states began enacting Jim Crow laws and disenfranchising many African Americans

Booker T. Washington

1865-1915 Son of a slave and a white man Taught at Hampton Institute and, in 1881, helped organize a school for African Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama The Tuskegee Institute emphasized industrial training to help African Americans gather wealth and become influential in society Claimed that it was a mistake for African Americans to push for social equality before they had become economically equal Ideas denounced by some leader in the AFrican American community Lectured throughout the US and Europe and wrote various works, including his autobiography, Up From Slavery

"Seward's Folly"

1867 Derisive title of Secretary of State William Seward's decision to purchase Alaska for $7.2 million from Russia Congress agreed to the purchase, as Russia had been pro-Norther during the Civil War Most members thought he purchase to be foolhardy since the land was in such a remote location Russia was willing to sell Alaska because Russia was overextended abroad and feared the loss of Alaska in a future war

Credit Mobilier Scandal

1867-1872 Stockholders of the Union Pacific Railroad created a dummy company, Credit Mobilier The company was supposed to complete the transcontinental railroad, but instead it stole millions of dollars from the government Blame for the scandal fell on Grant and his cabinet

W.E.B. DuBois

1868-1963 Civil rights leader and author Called for full equality of African Americans, which included social, civil, political, and economic equality Opposed Booker T. Washington's "gradual approach" to equality Through higher education, DuBois wanted to develop leaders from the most able 10 percent of African Americans (The Talented Tenth) Co-founded the Niagara movement, which became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

First Transcontinental Railroad

1869 Completed with golden Spike at Promontory Point, Utah Marketed the meeting of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific railroads During construction, the Union Pacific used Irish labor, while the Central Pacific used Chinese labor Connection of the railroads opened national markets and met growing economic needs

Ulysses S. Grant

1869-1877 18th President Fought in Mexican War, captured Vicksburg as a Union general, and accepted General Lee's surrender Appointed Secretary of War by Andrew Johnson in 1867, disagreed with Johnson's policies and won election through support of Radical Republicans Despite his personal honesty and honor, administration marred by scandals such as Credit Mobilier and the Whiskey Ring

Whiskey Ring Fraud

1870s One of the scandals of Grant's administration Liquor taxes were increased to aid in paying off the cost of the Civil war Distillers and treasury officials conspired to defraud the government by giving out cheap tax stamps, robbing the government of millions in excise tax

Gilded Age

1870s-1890s Phrase coined by Mark Twain to describe the new industrial ear America emerged as the world's leading industrial and agricultural producer Profits became increasingly centralized in the hands of fewer people

Panic of 1873

1873 Economic depression during Grant's second term Over-expensive, unregulated business during the post-Civil War years, the failure of American investment banking firms, and economic downturns in Europe all contributed to the panic Led to the retirement of greenbacks and a return to the gold standard

Compromise of 1877

1877 Came after the dispute presidential election of 1876 between Hayes and Tilden Tilden won the popular vote but neither candidate won the electoral vote, because the electoral votes in three states were in dispute The Democrats agreed to give Hayes the presidency Hayes promised to show consideration for Southern interests, end Reconstruction, aid Southern industrialization, and withdraw remaining forces from the South Settlement left the freed African Americans in the South without support form the Republican Party

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877

1877 Pay cuts caused labor strikes to spread through the country Workers of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad went on strike over a second pay cut President Hayes used federal troops to restore order after workers were killed

Rutherford B. Hayes

1877-1881 19th President Former Ohio Governor who was the Republican presidential nominee in 1876 Won election through the Compromise of 1877 During his term he removed federal troops from the South Dealt with Railroad strike in 1877

Upton Sinclair

1878-1968 Novelist and socialist Used his writings to expose issues in US society, such as the need for food inspection laws, and the oppressive effect of capitalism on education and culture The Jungle (1906), graphic novel about Chicago stockyards, led to food inspection reforms and Meat Inspection Act of 1906 Lost bid to become governor of California in 1934 Won Pulitzer Prize in 1942

Modern Navy

1880s Construction of new steel ships led the US to take the lead in the world naval rankings US Naval War College was established on October 6, 1884 Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914) was a US naval officer, President Newport War College, and author who pushed for imperialism and growth of the US Navy Repair and coaling stations helped expand the Navy's effectiveness

Half-Breeds, Stalwarts, And Mugwumps

1880s Factions of the Republican Party in 1880s Half-Breeds: Supported civil service reform and merit appointments to government Stalwarts: Opposed civil service reform and supported the protective tariff Mugwumps: Group that left Republican Party to become Democrats; this group heavily favored civil service reform and mistrusted James Blaine as the presidential nominee because it suspected his involvement in past corruption The election of 1880 united Garfield, a Half-Breed, and VP Chester Arthur, a Stalwart

Captains of Industry or Robber Barons

1880s Leaders of large, efficient corporations Often gained wealth through questionable business practices Monopolies by these large companies led to demands by small businessmen and laborers for government regulation John D. Rockefeller's tactics were exposed in Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company, published in 1904

Social Darwinism

1880s Theory that wealth was based on the survival of the fittest; associated with Charles Darwin's work Wealthy industrial leaders used the doctrines to justify vast differences in classes Supporters included Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner

Jim Crow Laws

1880s-1900s Laws separating whites and African Americans in public facilities and restricting their legal guarantees, such as the right to vote Often part of state statutes Support for these laws was provided in the Plessy v. Ferguson case, demonstrating the limits of the 14th Amendment Name of the laws are said to be derived from a character in a minstrel song

James Garfield

1881 20th President Former Ohio Congressman and Union General Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker, shot and killed Garfield Assassination spurred the passage of the Pendleton Act

Chester Arthur

1881-1885 21st President Assumed the office when President Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau Worked to outlaw polygamy in Utah and to strengthen the Navy Supported the Pendleton Act, which established open competitive exams for civil service jobs and officially ended the Spoils System that had been popular under Andrew Jackson

Chinese Exclusion Act

1882 Only legislation passed to limit immigration any one group of people Passed in response to the Chinese who settled in California after building the railroads

ELeanor Roosevelt

1884-1962 Wife of FDR Strong supporter of civil rights, women's rights and world peace resigned from Daughters of the American Revolution after they refused to allow Marian Anderson, an African American, to sing at INdependence Hall Served as delegate to the United Nations from 1945-1953

Grover Cleveland

1885-1880 and 1893-1897 22nd and 24th President First Democrat elected after the Civil War Only president elected to two non-consecutive terms Vetoed many private pension bills to Civil War veterans who submitted fraudulent claims Signed the Interstate Commerce Act Sent in federal troops to enforce an injunction against striking railroad workers in Chicago

Wabash Case

1886 Case challenging legislation enacted by the State of Illinois against railroads State was trying to appease the demands of farmers for lower railroad rates Supreme Court determined that states had no power to regulate interstate commerce Case undid an earlier victory for states established in the Munn v. Illinois case (1877) which had allowed for regulation

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

1886 Combination of national craft unions representing labor interests in wages, hours, and safety Individuals were members of their local unions, which in turn, were members of the AFL Rather than revolutionary changes, they sought a better working life; their philosophy was "pure and simple unionism" First president was Samuel Gompers

Interstate Commerce Act

1887 Established the interstate Commerce Commision in part to monitor discrimination within the railroad industry Prohibited rebates and pools and required railroads to publish their rates Also prohibited unfair discrimination against shippers and outlawed the practice of charging more for short hauls than long hauls Act opened competition, the goal was to preserve equality and spur innovation

Dawes Severalty Act

1887 Legislation encouraging the breakup of Native American tribes in hopes of assimilating them into American society Helen Hunt Jackson's A Century of Dishonor was a catalyst, as it depicted injustices to Native Americans Distributed Native Americans reservation lands among individual members of the tribe to form a system of agriculture more similar to the white man's Gave each land of a Native American family 16 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land Effect was to nearly destroy the reservation system, as the remaining tribal lands were opened up for whites

Benjamin Harrison

1889-1893 23rd President Former senator and lawyer Nominated for the presidency on the 8th ballot at the 1888 Republican Convention Defeated Grover Cleveland, despite receiving fewer popular votes Submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex Hawaii, although President Cleveland later withdrew it Signed many appropriations bills for naval improvement and internal improvements

Sherman Antitrust Act

1890 Based on Congress' power to regulate interstate commerce Declared every contract, combination, or conspiracy in restraint of interstate trade to be illegal Corporate monopolies were exposed to federal prosecution if they were found to conspire in restraining trade Supreme Court applied the act to both labor unions and corporations

Populist Party

1890 Consisted mostly of farmers Members who met in Nebraska and wrote their "Omaha Platform" Demands of platform included free and unlimited coinage of silver, graduated income tax, government ownership of the telephone, telegraph, and railroad industries Many of these ideas were later adopted by the Progressive Party

Battle of Wounded Knee

1890 Sioux natives wished to practice a dance that they believed would free their lands, rid them of whites, and lead to prosperity, but this plan frightened white settlers Federal army believed Chief Sitting Bull was organizing a rebellion, and acting on the settlers' fear and their suspicions, the army captured the chief Sudden exchange of gunfire between the army, Chief Sitting Bull and others were killed Remainder of the tribe fled to a camp near Wounded Knee Creek When army reach camp, a shot was fired, and in reaction, the army killed 200 men, women and children in last battle of the Indian Wars

Progressivism

1890-1914 Social, political, and economic reform that came as an American response to problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, and immigration Democratic reforms were made throughout states and the national government Reforms led to the 16th,17th and 19th Amendments

Homestead Strike

1892 Iron and steel workers' strike against Carnegie Steel Company in Pittsburgh to protest salary reductions Henry Clay Frick hired Pinkerton security guards to protect Carnegie's plant, but fighting resulted in deaths among both the protesters and the guards Pennsylvania State Militia brought in to take control

Cross of Gold Speech

1896 Address given by William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic presidential nominee, during the national convention of the Democratic Party Speech criticized the gold standard and supported the coinage of silver Bryan's beliefs were popular with debt-ridden farmers The last words of his speech, and the most famous, were "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold"

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 Horner Plessy refused to leave a railroad car restricted only to whites Supreme Court upheld the Louisiana state law that required "separate but equal" facilities The majority stated that the 14th Amendment protected only political equality, not social equality Justice Harlan's dissent argued that "All citizens are equal before the law" laying the foundation for Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, which would overturn "separate but equal"

William McKinley

1897-1901 25th President Former Republican congressman of Ohio Businesses rallied to support him against William Jennings Bryan Bryan toured the country, McKinley stayed home and hosted important visitors, building an honest, "presidential" image Defeated William Jennings Bryan for office in 1896 McKinley's election over Bryan influenced future political races by setting up interest groups and alliances that lasted for over a decade McKinley was re-elected in 1900, but Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, assassinated him one year into his term

Spanish-American War

1898 Cuba resented Spain's control, led to rebellion Spain responded w/ dispatch of General Valeriano Weyler, who confined civilians to brutal camps "Yellow press" in the US labeled him "Butcher Weyler" increasing American support against Spain US sent battleship Maine to Havana to protect American interests, which included sugar, and Maine was blown up America fought Spain in the Philippines and in Cuba The treaty of Paris gave Cuba its independence, US gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines while Spain received $20 million from the US for the Philippines

Teller Amendment

1898 Promised that when the US overthrew Spanish rule in Cuba, US would give Cubans their independence After the Spanish-American War, the Platt Amendment overrode the Teller Amendment, and Cuba came under the control of the US

Open Door Policy

1898 US' foreign policy for dealings with China US major commercial power in Asia after acquiring the Phillipine Islands Europe and Japan made moves to take over portions of China, threatening US interests there Under President McKinley's direction, Secretary of State John Hay sent messages to the major powers in Europe and Japan, asking them to state publicly that they would not interfere with open trade to China Hay announced agreement by all parties in July 1900 Policy served as guiding principle for US foreign affairs in China through the early 1900s

Puerto Rico and the US

1900 (Foraker) and 1917 (citizenship) 1900, Congress passed the Foraker Act, gave Puerto Rico limited popular government 1917, American citizenship granted to Puerto Rico

Muckrakers

1900-1912 American journalists, novelists, and critics who exposed corruption, especially in business and politics President Theodore Roosevelt gave muckrakers their name Famous Muckrakers: Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens, Frank Norris, and Samuel Hopkins Adams Led to increased support for the progressive movement

Platt Amendment

1901 Rider attached to Army appropriations bill Written into the constitution of Cuba by the US and made Cuba a US protectorate Permitted the US to intervene to preserve Cuba's "independence", actually allowed US to protect interests in Cuba US kept land for naval bases on Cuba, Guantanamo Bay play part in later Cuba-US conflicts

Insular Cases

1901-1904 Series of court cases held to determine if the "Constitution followed the flag" Whether people in areas controlled by US were given rights as citizens Court determined that those living in new territories were not automatically granted the rights of US citizens

Theodore Roosevelt

1901-1909 26th President Roosevelt had to deal with ill health and became an advocate for similarly disadvantaged people Part of the Rough Rider Regiment during Spanish-American conflict, war hero "trust buster", used Sherman Antitrust Act to dissolve trusts that restrained interstate and foreign trade Won the antitrust case against the Northern Securities Company "speak softly and carry a big stick" protected SS interests by ensuring the construction of the Panama Canal and the US authority in Latin America Roosevelt served as a middleman in conflicts between Russia and Japan, forged the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 Supported conservation (not preservation) of national resources

Charles Lindbergh

1902-1974 American pilot who made the first non-stop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean Flew his plane, The Spirit of St. Louis, from NY to Paris Most famous speaker for the American First Commitee (1930s), which opposed American intervention in the European war (World War II) Noted Nazi sympathizer

Rachel Carson

1907-1964 American writer and marine biologist Wrote Silent Spring (1962) a study on dangerous insecticides helped initiate environmental movement

Muller v. Oregon

1908 Oregon established that limited women to ten hours of work in factories and laundries Muller, a laundry owner, challenged the legality of the case, used extensive sociological evidence in his brief (The Brandeis Brief), which served as a model for a later social reformers The Supreme Court held that the law was constitutional

William Howard Taft

1909-1913 27th President After serving as Secretary of War under Theodore Roosevelt, elected over William Jennings Bryan Prosecuted trusts under the Sherman Antitrust Act Policy of "Dollar Diplomacy" called for acting in foreign affairs to achieve a financial result on behalf of one's country Administration created the Department of Labor and established the parcel-post system President Theodore Roosevelt's relationship with Taft deteriorated, leading to Roosevelt's opposition of Taft's re-election Became Chief Justice of Supreme Court after serving as president

The Great Migration

1910-1940 The movement of African Americans from the South to the industrial centers of the Northeast and the Midwest Causes: decreased cotton prices, lack of immigrant workers in the North, increased manufacturing result of the war, strengthening of KKK African American population in Detroit, Chicago, and New York grew Migration led to higher wages, more educational opportunities, and better standards of life for African Americans

Federal Reserve Act of 1913

1913 Created Federal Reserve Bank Response to Panic of 1907 and to concerns of business Need for stable currency supply that could grow and shrink with business demands Several measures competed for designing this central reserve, each offering control to a different group President Wilson worked diligently to create and secure passage of the Act Divided nation into separate regions with federal reserve banks in each that would serve as "banker's banks" Federal Reserve Board oversaw the system and regulated it by raising or lowering the interest rates that each federal reserve bank would charge

Watchful Waiting

1913-1914 Policy by Woodrow Wilson of rejecting alliances with leaders who took control through force until a determination of their interests could be made Wilson implemented this policy by refusing to accept the leadership of Victoriano Huerta when he took control of Mexico through violent revolution Policy ended when US sent forces to retaliate against Mexico, which had arrested American sailors in its borders

Woodrow Wilson

1913-1921 28th President President of Princeton University Legislation lowered tariffs, created graduated federal income tax, established the Federal Trade Commission to control unfair business practices Initiated progressive reform prohibited child labor and limited railroad workers to 8 hour day Led US into World War I 14 Points outlined settlement of World War I Racist, segregated federal government and praised Birth of a Nation: controversial movie negatively depicting African Americans

Rosa Parks

1913-2005 African American woman who refused to give her bus seat to a white in Alabama (1955) Parks was arrested, drawing the support of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr Dr. King organized a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama leading to desegregation in the US and strengthening support for the civil rights movement

World War I Causes and Major Players

1914 Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist Cause: Growing nationalism in Austria-Hungary and France Cause: Colonial expansion in Africa and China Cause: Military buildup Major Players for the ALlies (Triple Entente): Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Japan, and US Major Players for the Central Powers (Triple Alliance): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria

Clayton Antitrust Act

1914 Further outlined regulations against monopolies and other unfair business practices Meant as update to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 Price discrimination that was destructive to competition was declared illegal Declared interlocking board of directors of direct competitors illegal Established Federal Trade Commission to investigate and prosecute instances of unfair competition Served as the grounds for many suits against big corporations Exempted labor unions engaged in legal activites

Lusitania and Neutrality

1915 Outset of World War I, Germany began the use of submarines and announced blockade of Allied forces Lusitania was a British passenger liner attacked by German submarines Unarmed, Lusitania did carry munitions for the Allies US citizens traveling aboard killed Wilson protested, remained neutral, in line with 1914 Proclamation of Neutrality Sussex with American sunk, Germans then gave pledge to stop attacks on unarmed vessels

Labor Acts 1915-1916

1915-1916 La Follette Seamen's Act (1915): Required safety and sanitation measures for commercial ships and regulated wages, food, and hours of sailors Adamson Act of (1916): Employees of railroads who were engaged in interstate commerce given 8 hour work day and overtime pay of time and a half Keating-Owen Child Labor Act (1916): Forbade shipment of products that involved child labor in manufacture, in Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918), Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional because Congress had interfered with power of the states

Louis Brandeis

1916 Nomination Nominated by Woodrow Wilson to the Supreme Court Considered an advocate of social justice First Jewish justice Known for "Brandeis Brief" in Muller v. Oregon

Committee on Public Information

1917 Formed by President Wilson Established voluntary censorship of the press and created propaganda campaign for the country's support of World War I Portrayed Germans as barbaric and urged all citizens to spy on neighbors with foreign names Encouraged reporting of suspicious activities to the Justice Department Provided speeches to volunteers, The Four Minute Men, who gave talks on the American war effort during the changing of reels in movie theaters across the US Headed by George Creel Fostered "100% American" Jingoism

Unlimited Submarine Warfare

1917 Proclamation by Germany that it would sink all ships, without warning, that entered a large war zone off the coasts of Allied Nations Germany realized that it might draw the US into World War I Germany believed that cutting Allied supplies would allow Germany to win war before sizable response by America America broke diplomatic relations with Germany

Zimmerman Telegram

1917 Telegram from German Foreign Secretary Zimmerman to German minister in Mexico that was intercepted by the British Proposed that Mexico attack the US in the event that America entered World War I Germany would return lost territories to Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico in victory Telegram released publicly and ensure American support for war against Germany

American Protective League

1917 Volunteer organization claimed approval of Justice Department for pressuring support of war Humiliated those accused of not buying war bonds Persecuted those of German descent Encouraged banning of German culture in everything from product names to consumption, including "pretzels" and "German Measles"

Reasons for the US' Entry into WWI

1917 Zimmerman telegram showed that Germany untrustworthy Armed neutrality could not protect shipping Germany had broken Sussex Pledge, protected certain ships from German Warfare After Russia's revolution, democratic Russian government made it an acceptable ally to US American hasten end of war and ensure role in designing peace Sinking of Lusitania and other ships by German submarines angered US US backing Allies with supplies War message, Wilson said that, "the world must be made safe for a democracy"

Espionage and Sedition Acts

1917-1918 Fines and imprisonment for persons who made false statements that aided the enemy, hindered the draft, or incited military rebellion Forbade criticism of the government, flag, or uniform Led to imprisonment of major figures The Supreme Court upheld the acts, allowing the government to limit free speech when words represented clear and present danger, especially during times of war

Women and Minorities in WWI

1917-1919 Women served as clerks or in medical units 400,000 African American men drafted or enlisted African Americans were kept in segregated units and generally used in labor battalions or in support activities, though some units saw combat

Fourteen Points

1918 Specific peace plan presented by Wilson in an address to Congress Called for open peace treaties Promoted free trade, transportation along sea, arms reduction recommended general association of nations to preserve peace reactions in Europe mixed, some countries wanted to punish Germany, found the terms in 14 points too accomodating American citizens mixed in support, feared future international entanglement Treaty of Versailles went against many of 14 points Growing isolationist sentiment reflected in America's reaction to 14 points, slow US' decision to enter World War II

US Home Front During WWI

1918 Wilson controlled raw materials, production, prices, and labor relations to ensure supplies for war Appointed Herbert Hoover as head of food administration Wilson oversaw the use of fuel, railroads, and maritime shipping Resolved labor disputes through offers of employee benefits

US v. Schenck

1919 During World War I, Charles Schenck created pamphlet opposing military draft, convicted of attmepting to obstruct military under the Esponiage ACt Supreme Court determined speech may be suppressif if it creates clear and prsent danger In following years, "clear and present danger" test limited to violent actions rather than the support of these ideas

Wilson's Treaty and Henry Cabot Lodge

1919 Republican Senator Lodge led opposition against Paris Peace Treaty because of war entanglement with other members (Article X) On national speaking tour to push for League of nations, Wilson collapsed after speech Wilson returned to DC, suffers severe stroke Never fully recovered, wrote to Democrats to oppose treaty changes by Lodge By not compromising, treaty defeated and US did not join the League, joint resolution enacted peach instead

Prohibition

1919 Temperance movements began to grow in the early 1800s Carry Nation, member of Women's Christian temperance Union, used rcoks, hammers, and hatchets to destroy liquor stores and salloons 18th Amdendment to Constitution prohibited manufacture, sale, tranpsort, or import of liquor VOlstead Act defined alcoholic beverages and imposed criminal penalites for violates of 18th Amendment Prohibtion led to bootlegging"illegal production or distribution of intoxicating beverages" corruption of governemtn officials, and speakeasies (secret bars operated by bootleggers) Al Capone most famous bootlegging gangster 1933, 21 Amendment, repealed Prohibtion

Red Scare and Palmer Raids

1919 US worker strikes seemed to be harbingsers of revolution to may in country Fear of revolution fed by anti-German hysteria and success of Bolshevik Revolution Bombs sent anonymously through mail to prominent American leaders encouraged fear Attorney General Palmer target of failed mail bomb Four thousand arrested as "Communists" and illegal aliens, on 556 actually were Palmer announced threate of large Commmunist riots on May Day of 1920, none materialized Palmer discredited and Red Scare passed

Results of WWI

1919-1920s America emerged political and economic leader of the world In the US, European demand for goods led to inflation, strengthened American economy but increased prices Workers in America led several major strikes because of increased prices European states went into decline following WWI Germany devastated by conflict

Major Strikes after WWI

1919-1920s Boston police force attempted to unionize, Governor Calvin Coolidge fired them to recruit a new force Seattle had general strike in 1919 AFLL attempted to organize steel industry, strike broken after violence and use of federal troops United Mine Workers struck and gained minor wage increases

Jackie Robinson

1919-1972 Baseball player who became smsbol of civil rygihts when he broke the Major Leagues color barrier in 1947 recruited from the kansas City Monarchs, a team in the Negro Leagues, to play with the Brooklyn Dodgers

Women's Suffrage

1920 19th Amendment women's suffrage ratified by states in 1920 Feminists supported suffrage in 1860s: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Carrie Chapman Catt

Sacco and Vanzetti

1920 Two gunmen robbed a factory and killed two men in Massachusetts Sacco and Vanzetti, Italian immigrants and anarchists, tried for the murders Judge Thayer favored prosecution and pushed for execution Despite years of protesting that they had not received fair trial, men executed in 1927, reflecting anti-immigrant sentiments in the US

Rise in Standard of Living During 1920s

1920s Advances like indoor plumbing, hot water, central heating, home appliances and fresher foods emerged Many did not have money to benefit from advances credit became availabel to allow payment in installments sales grew ut of advertising through new media, such as radio

Shift in Popular Culture, 1920s

1920s Change from entertainment through home and small social groups to commercial, profit-making activities Movies attracted audiences, Hollywood beame movie center of America professional athletics grew in participation and populatriyt, espescially baseball, boxing, and football Tabloids and magazines increased in popularity, including New York Daily News and Reader's Digest

Industrial Changes in 1920s and Effects

1920s Change from steam to electric power allowed more intricate designs, replacing human laborers Scientific management strateges employed, leading to more effiecient use of workers Major resaech and developement projects reduced production costs and products Expanding industries included automobile, electriciy, chemicals, film, radio, commercial aviation, and printing led to overproductin by late 1920s

Automobile: Economic and Social Effects

1920s Stimulated steel, rubber, glass, gasoline, and highway construction industries Created nation of paved roads New need for paved roads led to employment for many helped increase freedom for young people while lessening parental control tourism grew and rural areas became less isolated

Harlem Renaissance

1920s Term used to describe the growth of AFrican American literature and arts Center of this movement was Harlem, New York, many African Americans moved during early 1900s Southern African Americans brought jazz to Harlem and influenced music scene while, writing, sculpting, and photography grew as art forms Writers from period included Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay Musicians: Duke Ellington, Bessie Smith, and Louis Armstrong Great Depression led to decline

Marcus Garvey

1920s native of Jamaica advocated African American racial pride and separatism rather than integration pushed for return to africa developed following and sold stock in a steamship line to take migrants to africa conviceted of fraud after line went bankrupt

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

1920s-1930s Chartered by Congress and Hoover to loan money to railroads and financial institutions Meant to keep basic institutions in business Accused of assisting the wealthy

Foreign Economies and the Great Depression

1920s-1930s Within months of Hoover's election, stock market crashed, leading nation into Great Depression decline in American economy meant leass money spent on loans and products from other countries foreign powers not able to pay debts back to US American exports droped and Depression spread

Teapot Dome Scandal

1921 Bribery scandal involving president harding's secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall Fall secured naval oil reserves in his jurisdiction leaded reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, to two major business owners in exchange for cash payouts businessmen acquitted, Fall imprisoned for bribery, making him first cabinet member to go to jail

Emergency Quota Act

1921 ONe of series of acts by congress that limited immigratin immigration limited by nationality to three percent of number of foreign-born persons from that nation living in US in 1910 Designation restricted on certain nationaliies and relgiious groups targeted Italians, Greeks, Poles, and Eastern European Jews

Warren G. Harding

1921-1923 29th President nominated by Republican party as dark horse candidate Repersented opposition to League of Nations, low taxes, high tariffs, immigration restriction , aid to farmers pro civil rights for all Americans promised return to normalcy pardoned Eugen V. Debs Gave US steel workers 8 hour day Died suddlenly during cross-country tour succeeded by Calvin Coolidge

Five POwer Treaty

1922 Committed the US. Britain, Japan, France, and Italy to restricting construction of new battleship class ships Pact gave Japan naval supremacy in the Pacific

Fordney-McCumber Tariff

1922 Increased tariff schedules Tariffs were raised on farm produce to equalize Americna and foreign production Gace president power to reduce or increase tariff sby fifty percet based on advice from the Tariff Commission COnnected to American feelings toward isolationism

Creationism and the Scopes Trial

1925 Fundamentalist Protestants supported Creationism as a way to prohibit the teaching of evolution in schools Hoped to protect belief in literal understanding of Bible John Scopes, young biology teacher, broke law by teaching Darwinism and served as test case for the ACLU Darwinism concept of evolution created by Charles Robert Darwin and written about in Origin of the Species Clarence Darrow defended Scopes, and William Jennings Bryan defneded State of Tennessee judge refused to allow expert witness testimony Scopes convicted and fined $100 later dropped some states passed anti-evolution laws

Calvin Coolidge

1925-1929 30th President Republican candidate who came to office first after Harding's death and then after landslide victory avoided responsibilty for most of Hrding's cabinet scndals reputation for honety believed in leading thorugh inactivity stated "The chief business of American people is business"

Malcom X

1925-1965 African american advocate and leader who moved away from Martin Luther King's non-violent methods of civil dispobeience while in prison, became black Muslim and later minister in Nation of Islam leader of Black Muslims, Elijah Muhammad, suspended malcom X when he made derogatory remarks about President Kennedy's assassination Malcom X formed new organization the Muslim Mosque after pilgrimage to Mecca, converted to Orthodox Islam and began publicly accepted idea of cooperation between Afircan AMericans and whties assassinated in NYC during speech, assailants were with Black Muslim group, never confirmed though

Robert F. Kennedy

1925-1968 Brother of JFK served as Attorney General under President Kennedy elected as senator from New York in 1964 Pushed for desegregation and election regulation presidential candidate in 1968 assassinated in California by Sirhan Sirhan in June 1968

Cesar Chavez

1927-1993 Migrant farmer who founded the National Farm Workers Association goal was to defeat persecution throughout the migrant worker system used strikes picketing and marches to help protect workers

Kellogg-Briand Pact

1928 Pact of Paris 15 nation pact agreed that all conflicts should be settled by peaceful means and that war was to be renounced US COngress demanded right of self-defense and that America shoud not ahve to act agaisnt countries that broke the treaty pact lacked eccectiveness as it failed to provide enforcement measure

Hoovervilles

1929-1930s Term used to describe makeshift shacks that housed groups of homeless people Used in open areas near cities during Depression named after Herbert Hoover to mock his presidency

Herbert Hoover

1929-1933 31st President Coolidge did not seek nomination in 1928, leaving Hoover to run agaisnt Alfred E. Smith, Governor of New York, a Catholic anti-prohibitionist become multimillionare in mining industry hoover had served as Secreatry of Commerce and head of Food Administration Conservative economic philosphy and continuatin of Prohibition won election of Hooer Used phrase "rugged individualism" called for people to succeed on their own minimal helpf form govenrment Hoover became scapegoat for Depression and was soundly defeated by FDR in 1932

Martin Luther King, Jr

1929-1968 civil rights leader and chairman of southern Christian Leadership Conference believd in non-violent civil disobedience key member of the 1963 march on washington, a response to a civil rights bill by President Kennedy being stalled in Congress At the March on washington, King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech opposed the war in Vietnam Assassinated by James Earl Ray in 1968

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

1930 Brought tariff to the highest level in its history In retaliation, foreign countries set tariffs on American goods, creating decline in exports and further deepening the economic depression Another expression of isolationism

Charles Evans Hughes

1930-1941 11th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court served as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1910-1916_ and US Secreatary of State (1921-1925) Chief Justice, often voted to uphold FDR's New Deal legislation, wrote opinion in Schechter v. US (1935) finding National Recovery Administration unconstitutional

Dust Bowl

1930s Areas of American prairie states that experienced ecological damage due to huge clouds of soil Mismanagement of grazing land and severe winds swept unprotected soil into dust storms Led to economic and health hardships

Father of Charles E. Coughlin

1930s Catholic priest who headed the National Union for Social Justice, denounced FDR's New Deal policies Weekly radio show and discussed politics and finance proposed to his many listeners an ambiguous currency program, found popularity mostly through anti-Semitic rhetoric

FDR's Good Neighbor Policy

1930s Foreign policy doctrine adopted by FDR for the US withdrew marines form Haiti, the Dominican Republic, ad other areas America stayed out of teh CUban rebolution America settled with Mexico on American properties in that country

Hitler and Germany's Actions Leading to WWII

1930s Hitler's rise to power in 1933 led to the persecution of German Jews Germany and Austria became unified Germany and Britain signed Munich pact, authorizing Germany to force the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia The Nazis systematically eliminated the civil and human rights of Jews and other "undesirables" under their control Germany signed a non-aggression pact with Russia, agreeing to divide Poland Nazis built death camps to attain "the final solution of the Jewish question" resulting in the murder of 6 millions Jews and more than 5 million others Germany invaded Poland Britain and France declared war

The Bonus Army

1932 A group of 14,000 unemployed veterans who marched on Washington Sought additional payments from Congress Hoover had the Senate kill a bill that would have provided additional payment, half of vetarans took the govnerment's offer of transportation back home remaining veterans took shelter in shacks near Acacostia River to draw attnention to their cause Hoover called in the Army and had the remainder of the veterans removed from Washington The event created the impression that Hoover did not care about the plight of the poor

Hoover-Stimson Doctrine

1932 Henry L. Stimson, secretary of state under Hoover, sent identical notes to China and Japan, Hoover-Stimson Doctrine Notes were a reaction Japan's movement into Manchuria Stated that US would not recognize any treaty or agreement that would limit China's territory, encroach on US rights in China, upset political situation in China, or hinder Open Door Policy

Banking failures

1933 Banks unable to collect on loans because of Great Deprssion Banks could not return money to depositors, leading to bank closures March 5, 1933, FDR reacted by closing all banks and instituting Emergency Banking Act, gave him power to reorganize insolvent national banks

First New Deal Programs

1933 Civilian Conservation Corp (1933): Provided work for young men through projects such as road construction and flood control National Industrial Recovery ACt (1933): created national Recovery Administration, which prepared codes for fair competition Public Works Administration (1933): Constructed roads, schools, dams, bridges, and other projects to aid the economy through increasing jobs Agricultural Adjustment ACt (1933): Encouraged farmers to decrease their production, thereby increasing their profits

Muscle Shoals and the Tennessee Valley Authority

1933 Muscle Shoals was the location of a dam and two nitrate plants built by the government during World War I President Coolidge vetoed the Senate's plan to lease the property to the private sector Facility became centere of Tennessee Valley AUthority in 1933, giving FDR chance to do his first large-scale experiment in regional planning TVA built a series of dams to provide electricity and flood control Dams gave economic and environment boosts to an area in need of rehabilitation

National Industrial Recovery Act

1933 National Industrial Recovery Act, or NIRA, passed on last day of the "Hundred Days" as the pillar of Roosevelt's assistance program Goal of NIRA was to help business self-regulate and to aid in employment NIRA created the National Recovery Administration (NRA) which oversaw the creation of fair competition codes NRA codes abolished child labor, created minimum wages, and capped hours for workers SChecter v. US (1935), Supreme COurt overturned NIRA, holding that it granted the president too much leeway and that these powers should be state powers

U-2 Spy Plane

1960 Soviets shot down US U-2 reconnaissance plane in Soviet airspace Eisenhower admitted to spying on Soviets pilot, Francis Gary Powers, survived and served 18 months in Soviet jail

FDR's Banking Acts, Gold Standard, and the SEC

1933-1934 Emergency Banking Relief Act was the first act of FDR's Hundred Days, provided funds to open some banks and it combined and liquidated others Glass-Steagall Banking Act insured deposits in commercial banks, created the FDIC, and separated commercial and investment banking to reduce risk FDR removed gold from circulation, resulting devaluation of the dollar helped raise prices and assisted US exports Securities and Exchange Commission created as a watchdog for stock exchange and securities

First New Deal

1933-1934 First phase of FDR's domestic reform program Aimed to provide recovery and relief through public works, business and agricultural regulation, and stabilizing prices Agencies such as Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Civilian COnservation Corps, and National Recovery Administration were founded Economy improved to a degree as unemployment decreased Criticized by conservatives for going to far in the use of deficit spending and for spending on relief Attacked by liberals for being in favor of business

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

1933-1945 32nd President With slogan "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" he encouraged new hope for emerging from Great Depression Age 39, contracted poliomyelitis and loss partial use of his legs Led congress through the "Hundred Days" Focused on economic and agricultural recovery and support for the unemployed and elderly attempted to enlarge Supreme Court and put in place justices that would support his legislation, but failed Mobilized the US for entry into World War II

Fireside Chats

1933-1954 FDR's method of addresssing the nation through radio Created assuracne among public in the strength of the banks he was opening led to people depositing money again

Share Our Wealth Society

1934 Group founded by Louisiana Senator Huey "Kingfish" Long Long, populist, criticized FDR for not doing more to help those on lower end of scale proposed radical taxation plan on wealthy long assassinated, society lost drive

Indian Reorganization Act

1934 Reversed the Dawes Severalty Act attempted to restore the tribal basisi of native american life Tribal life was to be normal

Bureau of Indian Affairs

1934 led by commissioner John Collier returned ownership of certain lands to tribes, established tribal governments, and provided economic relief Created a program of work projects for reservations

Ralph Nader

1934-Present Political activist and advocate for consumers book Unsafe at Any Speed (1965) shed light on poor safety standards for automobiles, leading Congress to pass auto safety measures Unsuccesffully ran as 3rd party candidate for US presidency in 1996, 2000, and 2004

Isolationism and the Neutrality Acts of 1935

1935 American became isolationist after World War I, because citizens felt harsh effects of conflict Isolationist acts include rejection of Treaty of Versaillles and teh imposition of higher tariffs Neutrality Acts; in event of war, American exports of military components stalled for 6 months, stop ships leaving the US from transporting arms to combatants

Second New Deal Programs

1935 Works Progress Administration (WPA) provided jobs and income for the unemployed WPA: many projects in construction and community development and labor-intensive to cut equipment costs Wagner Act/ National Labor Relations Act clarified rights of workers and created a board of oversight for relations between managament and labor, workers were permitted to bargain collectively Social Security Act created to protect older workers, funds came from taxes on money earned by employees and paid equally by the employer, and this money supported unemployment programs and offered states matching funds for social services

Second New Deal

1935-1941 Like the First New Deal, offered sweeping economic changes to aid in relief and recovery while first new deal emphasized central planning, second new deal pushed programs to aid particular groups, such as labor organizations US tax structure finessed through various revenue acts Some new deal acts declared unconstitutional in 1935

FDR's Court Packing Scheme

1937 bill proposed by Roosevelt allowing president to appoint a new federal judge for those who did not retire by a certain age offered by Roosevelt after he received overhwelming support from voting public served as his reaction to the Supreme Court, which declared much of New Deal unconstitutional rreaction by democrats and republicans agaisnt this show of pwoer Roosevelt lost bill and some influence over Congress Later FDR proposals, like Social Security, upheld by Supreme Court

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

1938 Association of laborers from industries including steel and auto Organized in reaction to the AFL, represented primarily craft unions Headed by John L. Lewis Originally committee within the AFL (1935) before becoming independent in (1938) United with the AFL in 1955

Fair Labor Standards Act

1938 Minimum wage law Established a rising minimum wage and reduction of the work week provided time-and-a-half for work over that period of time

FDR's Election to a Third Term

1940 Broke precedent set by Washington Agreed to accept the nomination faced by his opponent with charges of warmongering, told voters that he would not enter the war lost many supporters because of his choice to run again, won over Wendell Willkie

Economic Measures Against Japan

1940-1941 Japan used the Vichy government to expand into French Indochina Japan wanted to build bases in the area America responded by holding Japanese funds and creating embargos Led to failed negotations between US an Jpan over Japan's presence in China

American Women During WWII

1940s 216,000 women served in the armed forces in non-combat duties WAACS (Army), WAVES (Navy) and SPARS (Coast Guard) forces made up of women served as defense plant workers worked in manufacturing plants during World War II symbolized by the icon "Rosie the Riveter" a feminist image that represented the growth of women's economic power

Braceros

1942 Agreement between the US and Mexico brought thousands of Mexican agricultural workers, or braceros to the US Braceros prevalent in the South and the West Became part of American agricultural economy after World War II

Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway

1942 Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) American carriers sent planes against the Japanese troops, forcing them to turn back from an invasion of Australia Battle of Midway (June 1942) American planes destroyed Japanese carriers as they moved toward the American-owned Midway Islands, becoming a defining moment in the Pacific front

Japanese Internment Camps

1942 FDR authorized the evacuation of all Japanese from the West Coast into relocation centers Government interned around 120,000 Japanese-Americans, 2/3 of them native-born US citizens public fear of Japanese sabotage following Pearl Harbor and was in some part due to racial discrimination 1988, Congress voted to pay compensation to each surviving internee

US Domestic Measures for WWII

1942-1943 War Production Board regulated raw materials prices and wages frozen income tax extended to more people US sold Liberty BOnds government had power to take over businesses closed by strikes

Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act

1943 Congress was concerned about the loss of production due to labor strikes Act authorized federal government to seize and operate industries stopped by strikes

Korematsu v. US

1944 Korematsu was arrested and convicted after failing to comply with military order to move to a Japanese relocation center The Supreme Court upheld his conviction based on war powers; the government's need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu's rights Justice Frank Murphy, in his dissent, stated the decision was the "legislation of racism"

G.I Bill

1944 Signed by FDR and passed to give educational benefits to those who had served in the armed forces during WWII Bill was created to help members of the Armed Forces adjust to civilian life, afford a higher education, and restore lost educational opportunities The D.I. Bill also promoted volunteerism for the Armed Forces and led to a better educated population

Harry S Truman

1945-1953 33rd President Became president in 1945 after FDR died Decided to drop atomic bombs on Japan Banned racial discrimination in federal hiring and the armed forces Truman Doctrine instituted policy of "containment" against communism Re-elected Thomas Dewey in 1948

National Security Act

1947 Created the Central Intelligence Agency Created the National Secuirty Council Rorganized the military under on Department of Defense head

Truman Doctrine

1947 Proposal that the US must bolster the deeds of free people resisiting Communism $400 millin approproated for aid to Greece and Turkey to fight COmmunism's spread Supported containment as a response to the Cold War

Taft-Hartley Act

1947 Purpose was to reduce management-labor disputes and to reduce unfair labor practices Passed over Truman's veto Required 60 day notice be given by employers to terminate a contract Federal government could take legal action to delay for 80 days any strike that threatened the public's health or safety provided a cooling-off period for unions and management act slowed unionization throughout the country, especially in the South part of the anti-communist crusade

Fair Deal

1948 Proposal by Truman to extend the New Deal for the new era Increased the minimum wage to $0.75/hour Social Security was enlarged to cover more people called for low-cost housing projects and slum cleanup

Soviet Spies in the US

1948 and 1950 Alger Hiss: Former State Department official who was convicted of supplying information to the Soviets Alger Hiss: Implicated by Whittaker Chambers during testimony before the House Committee on Un-American Activites Alger Hiss- Richard Nixon gained national exposure during his investigation into Hiss Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: couple executed for giving atomic info to the Soviets Julius and Ethel ROsenberg: Some argued taht the Rosenbergs could not receive a fair trial because of political sentiment of the time

Korean War

1950-1953 Korea was taken from Japan at the end of World War II and divided at the 38th parallel, northern haf controlled by Soviet Union, Southern half occupied by the US North Korea invaded South Korea and teh UN sent in troops General MacArthur led forces and pushed the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel China, recently COmmunist, sent in troops to fight the UN in Korea Truman disagreed with both MacArthur's desire to start an all out war against China and whit his foreign policy statements, Truman removed him from command cease-fire called and armistice signed in July 1953

Beat Generation

1950s Group of artists and writers who rejected traditional artistic and social forms influences included psychedelic drugs and eastern beliefs, such as Zen Buddhism members rejected regular work and preferred communal living many members located around San Francisco writers of the generation included Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti

Rock and Roll

1950s Music genre that originated in the US Combined rhythm and blues, gospel, jazz, and country-and-western music Alan Freed, Cleveland disc jockey, coined phrase rock and roll and produced first rock and roll concert early artists included Elvis Presley, the Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, and Buddy Holly

Television

1950s-1960 invented in 1930s FDR was first president to appear on TV, gave speech in 1939 at the New York World's Fair, where tv was being officially introduced to the mass public Seminal shows durin gthe 1950s and 1960s included The Honeymooners, I love Lucy, and The Ed Sullivan Show by 1960, over 40 million homes had tvs

3 Mile Island

1979 nuclear power plant located south of Harrisburg, Pa overheated causing part of its uranium core to melt overheating caused by human, design, and mechanical errors radioactive water and gases were released led to slowdown in the construction of other reactors and changes in Nuclear Regulatory Commision Americans became more aware of environmental concerns

Civil Rights Organizations

1950s-1960s Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): founded by James Farmer in Chicago and advocated non-violence CORE: sponsored teh 1961 Freedom Rides in the South, breaking segregation on buses and eventually changing those rules Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) founded in 1961 to support sit-ins Stokeley Carmichael, leader of the SNCC and Black Panther Party, called for Black Power, urged independence and solidarity among African Americans, worked separately from other civil rights organizations

Civil Rights Movement Incidents

1950s-1960s Emmett Till, teenage African American, was killed by 2 white men after whistling at one of their wives, two men were acquitted 1960, 4 african american students in Greensboro, north carolina, sat at the Woolworth's "Whites Only" lunch counter and refused to leave until they were served, sparking sit-ins through the South Explosion at the Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama killed 4 African American girls (1963) DUring a voter registration drive in Mississippi, 2 white college students and a local African American were murdered, civil rights legislation was enacted as a result 1965, group marched from Selma, Alabama, to Birmingham, Alabam, for voting rights, the 1965 Voting Rights Act was signed soon therafter

National Association for the Advancement of COlored People (NAACP)

1950s-1960s Formed in 1910 by group of whites and African Americans, including WEB DuBois, to stop racial discrimination Supported sit-ins as a form of protest against segregation as well as other methods of non-violent protest Disapproved of the more radical groups such as SNCC and the Black Panthers Because of its mission, methods, and organization, the NAACP remains a force in social issues and political affairs

Domino Theory

1950s-1980s Guiding principle of US foreign policy during COld War era stated publicly by President Eisenhower in 1954 belief that if one area was overtaken by communism, nearby nations would follow motivation for US intervention in foreign affairs and conlficts thorughout the world

Dwight Eisenhower

1953-1961 34th President became Allied military commander during World war II and led forces in North africa, Italy, and England became republican president after Defeating Adlai Stevenson sined truce in 1952 to end Korean War Completed integration of military forces sent troops into Little Rock, Arkansas to ensure desegregation gave momentum to the desegregation movement warned the US about the "Military-industrial complex" which refers to the relationship between the government, the military, and the defense industry

The Warren Court

1953-1969 reference to Suprem Court of the US when Earl Warren was Chief Justice court expanded civil rights, civil liberties, and federal power Brown v. Board of Education (1954) found desegregation in public schools to be iligal Engel v. Vitale (1962) found it unconstitutional for public schools to have an official prayer Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) provided criminal defendants with counsel even if they couldn't afford it Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) established a general right to privacy

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

1954 Suprem Court case that challenged "separate but equal" ruling established in Plessy v. ferguson Chief Justice Earl Warren, held that separate was inherently unequal and instructed states to integrate Massive Southern resistance slowed the advance of integration federal troops were used to help 9 black students attend an all-white school in Little Rock, despite mobs and the Arkansas national Guard

Geneva Accords

1954 foreign ministers of 19 nations, including the US, decided to divide Vietnman at 17 north latitude north would be nationalist led by Ho Chi Minh, while South would be western-inluenced republic provided for free elections within 2 years to reunite teh 2 Vietnams

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

1954-1977 created to oppose spread of Communism in southeast asia after France's withdrawal from indochina original members: US, Britain, France, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines Organization was meant to justify an American presence in Vietnam, though some members did not support America in this effort dismantled in 1977

Suez Canal Crisis

1956 International waterway through the Isthmus of Suez Egypt had been receiving aid from the Soviets, leading Eisenhower to promise money to Egypt to curtail the Soviets eventally, Eisenhower, took back off adn Egypt attempted to nationalize the Canal britain, france, and Israel invaded to gain control of the Canal fearing escalation, Eisenhower forced France, Britain, and Israel to withdraw

Interstate Highway Act ( Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956)

1956 Under the Act, the interstate highway system was expanded to 41,000 miles signed by President Eisenhower Federal government was to pay 90% of the cost of the expansion $25 billion was authorized form 1957 to 1969, $114 billion eventually expended over 35 years besides allowing motorists to travel easily throughout the country, allowed for troop movement and evacuation routes

Little Rock Crisis

1957 Brown v. Board of Education (1954) called for desegregation of schools in 1957 the NAACP registered 9 African American students to attend the previously all white Little Rock Central High Arkansas Gvoernor ORval Faubus used teh ARkansas National Guard to try and block the students form entering school on Septemeber 4, 1957 President Eisenhower intervened with federal troops, and the students attended their first day on September 25, 1957

Eisenhower Doctrine

1957 Created as a partial reaction to the Suez Canal crisis Doctrine committed forces and economic aid to the Middle East to stop Communist threats Some nations including Egypt and Syria, denounced the doctrine

Civil Rights Act of 1957

1957 First civil rights act since Reconstruction stimulated by Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka and civil rights activism created a panel to ensure that voting rights of African Americans were not violated

Fidel Castro

1959 Communist-friendly leader of Cuba took power in Cuba after overthrowing Fulgencio Batista in 1959 signed agreements with Soviets for trade US broke diplomatic and trade relations with Cuba

Election of 1960

1960 Richard Nixon, Eisenhower's former VP, nominated by Republican Senator John F. kennedy nominated by Democrats Kennedy's Catholicism campaign issue because of fears that Catholic leaders would influence him 4 presidential debates televised and watched by approximately 75 million Americans Nixon's negative appearance on tv affected voters' perception of him and aided Kennedy in election

Women's Liberation Movement

1960s Spurred by increasing employment opportunites and increasing numbers of educated women movement questioned traditional definitions of women's roles became increased oppurtunites for women in work, education, and business Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination by employers on the basis of gender National Organization for Women (NOW) was founded in 1966 to create equality between the sexes

Counterculture Movement

1960s began at Berkeley with free speech movement beliefs included women's liberation, anti-materialism, and opposition to the war in Vietnam Experimented with drugs and sex young people favored counterculture called hippies Woodstock Music and Art Festival in New York (1969) marked culmination of counterculture movement

Henry Kissinger

1960s-1970s National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under Nixon Pursued relations with China played significant role in SALT negotiated talks after 6 day war between Arab countries and Israel

Rise of the New Right

1960s-1980s Barry Goldwater, a US Senator and Republican presidential nominee in 1964, sparked resurgence of teh conservative movement Ronald Reagan, California governor and uS presient, conservative policies including "Reaganomics" and stadning firm against the Soviet Union, dubbed "The Evil Empire" MOral Majority movement led by evangelical CHristians, including Jerry Falwell, focused on a conservative agenda and traditional values abortion important topic during this time, fundamentalist protestants and catholics joined forces

Alliance for Progress

1961 Alliance was a "marshall Plan" for Latin America purpose to provide economic aid to help region resist Communism results of the Alliance were dissapointing to those who supported it

John F Kennedy

1961-1963 35th President Democrat and first Catholic president Domestic program (new frontier) included tax reforms, educational aid, and emphasis on space program raised minimum wage approved Bay of Pigs invasion established Peace Crops in 1961 as an agency to send American volunteers to developing countries successfully led America through the Cuban Missile Crisis assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald

Baker v. Carr

1962 Tennessee had failed to reapportion its state legislature for 60 years despite its growth and population movement Charles Baker, Tennessee Voter, brough suit against state, arguing a violation of the equal protection clasue of the 14th Amendment Baker claimed his vote had been diluted Supreme Court held that political question would be heard, opening way for numerous voting suits

Engel v. Vitale

1962 Supreme Court held that a prayer created by New York state Board of Regents was unconstitutional Even though prayer was "non-denominational" the COurt held that state-sponsored prayer of any type went against First Amendment's establishment of religion clause

Betty Friedan

1963 Author and activist Published The Feminine Mystique in 1963, attacked the the belief that a women's sole satisfaction comes through homemaking Friedan one of the founders of the national Organization of Women (NOW) which helped advance women's rights and causes

Gideon v. Wainwright, Escobedo v. Illinois and Miranda v. Arizona

1963, 1965, and 1966 respectively Gideon: Supreme Court held that all persons charged with a felony must be provided legal counsel Escobedo: Supreme court found that the police must honor a person's request to have an attorney present during interrogation Miranda: The Supreme Court determined that an arrested person had the right to remain silent, the right to be told that whatever he said could be used against him, the right to be represented by an attorney, the right to have a lawyer even if he could not afford one, and the right to one phone call to obtain a lawyer

Lyndon Johnson

1963-1969 36th President after JFK's assassination Previously democratic senator from Texas, both whip and floor leader Promoted Kennedy's agenda through Congress, including tax cut and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Elected in 1964 Called for war against poverty and promoted social and economic welfare legislation ( his Great Society program)

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

1964 North Vietnamese supposedly fired on American ships in Gulf of Tonkin Congress passed resolution allowing President Johnson to use military action in Vietnam Johnson retaliated against Viet Cong with bombin attacks on the North follwed by ground troups

Civil Rights Act of 1964

1964 Passed by Lyndon Johnson, followed Kennedy's political agenda March on Washington in 1963 aided passage of the Act Act strengthened voting rights protection prohibited discrimination in places of public accommodations required federal government to withdraw support from any state or progam that discriminated established teh Equal Employment Commission to oversee hiring practices

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. US

1964 motel operate refused to serve African American customer Supreme Court upheld Civil Rights Act of 1964, whic outlawe discrimination in schools, places of work, voting sites, public accommodations, and public areas

Voting Rights ACt of 1965

1965 Signed into law by Lyndon Johnson Resulted after demonstrations against the measure used to prevent African Americans form voting, measaures included violence Voters ould no longer be forced to take literacy tests provided federal reigstration of African American voters in areas that had less than 50% of eligible voters registered

Black Panthers

1966 founded in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in California initially focused on protection of African American neighborhoods from police brutality, but its goals changed over the years provided a variety of social programs within the African American community, such as free lunches to children politcal objectives hindered by confrontational and violent means split in party ideology over how to achieve objectives led to its decline

American Indian Movement

1968 Supported Native American civil rights and recognition of past treaties within the US Militants associated with the organization staged an occupation of the town of Wounded Knee, south dakota, arguing that treaties had been ignored

Richard M. Nixon

1969-1974 37th President prior to presidency, Nixon served as US representative, senator, and VP Oversw "Vietnamization" called for training of South Vietnamese troops to assume responsibility for military actions began to remove US troops in phases from South Vietnam ended draft opened China for trade Reduced tension with USSR with the SALT agreements Resigned following Watergate scandal, becoming first president to do so Credited with aiding detente, easing of strained relations between US and USSR

Kent State

1970 site of a university protest against Vietnam War and the Cambodian conflict OhioNational Guard killed four students during event and wounded many others led to uprisings on college campuses, including Jackson State, where two students were killed

Furman v. Georgia

1972 Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty was unconstitutional unless fairly applied Subsequent COurt decisions alloed death penaty in certain circumstances

Salt I and II

1972 (I) and 1979 (II) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty SALT I: Agreement signed by US and teh Soviets to stop building nuclear ballistic missiles for 5 year SALT II: signed by Carter and Brezhnnev, reduced and limited nubmer of missile launchers and bombers helped to reduce tension between the US and the USSR

Saturday Night Massacre

1973 Followed Nixon's refusal to give his tapes to ARchibald Cox, govnerment's special prosecutor Nixon ordered Atoorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox from his appointment, instead Richardson quit tapes surfaced and Nixon resigned in August 1974

War Powers Act

1973 Required the PResident to report to Congress with 48 hours of committing US troops or substantially increasing troops in foreign conflicts Congressional approval necessary for military commitment of troops for more than 90 days requirement enacted by Congress over Nixon's veto

Roe v. Wade

1973 Supreme Court decision that ruled first trimester abortions were permitted all state laws prohibiting such abortions made uncsontituional decison based on woman's right to privacy led to criticism from Roman Catholics and right-to-life groups

Gerald Ford

1974-1977 38th President Became vice president after Spiro Agnew resigned as a result of an ivestigation into financial irregularities pardoned Nixon rise to power represented first use of 25th Amendment, provided for action in case of VP vacancy

Jimmy Carter

1977-1981 39th President Defeated ford for presidency wanted to make "responsible government" reduced unemployment and eased the energy crisis negotiated the Camp David Accords in which Israel returned land in the Sinai Peninsula in exchange for Egyptian recognition of Israel's rights Iran's holding of American hostages, along with inflation, led to his loss to Ronal Reagan in 1980 both during his tenure in office and since his loss to Reagan, Carter has worker for improvements in human rights, including tying foreign aid to their protection

Bakke v. Regents of the University of California

1978 Supreme Court upheld the university's use of race in it admission decisions Court also found that Bakke, a white, should have been admitted to teh university's medical school finding banned use of racial quotas

American Hostages in Iran

1979 America had supported the Shah of Iran, who lost power after a coup by the Ayatollah Khomeini Supporters of Khomeini were anti-American because of this support of the Shah Carter allowed the Shah to receive medical attention in the US, upsetting Iranians Iranian revolutionaries stormed the American embassy in Iran and took hostages Carter froze Iranian assets in the US and sent ships within striking distance accord finally signed and the revolutionaries freed the hostages on Reagan's inauguration day

Saving and Loan Scandal

1980s The lax regulation of the savings and loan industry led to poor investments and high insolvency economic environment following Black Monday worsened the savings and loan financial disaster as the federal government guaranteed deposits up to $100,000, made up a $166 billion rescue appropriation scandal representative of the effects of poor governmental regulation

Ronald Reagan

1981-1989 40th President defeated Carter after carrying a large majority increased military spending including Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars Program) which was a space based defense system Succeded in getting a temendous tax cut, aiming to increase investments and improve job market (reaganomics) after first increasing the nubmer of nuclear weapons, worked with Gorbachev toward teh reduction of nuclear weapons won re-election over Democratic nominees Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro

Mikhail Gorbachev

1985-1991 soviet poltical leader worked with Reagan to reduce nuclear weapons removed Soviet troops from Afganistan worked to liberalize repressive atmosphere of country under governmental policies of "glasnost" (openness) and "perestrokia" (restructuring) Key player in teh fall of communism in Russia

Iran-COntra Affair

1986 scandal involving CIA, National Security Council, and teh Reagan administration US sold weapons to Iranians freindly to America in order to encourage them to free hostages profits from sales of weapons funded Nicaraguan revolutionaries fighting the Sandinista government Congress had approved neither the sale nore the funding and hearing led to convictions of Oliver North, Robert McFarlane, and John Poindexter For many, hearing echoes Waterate scandal, american citizens skeptical of government

George Bush

1989-1993 41 President Prior to presidency, served as congressman, director of CIA< UN Ambassador, and VP to Ronald Reagan sent troops to overhtrow Manuel Noriega in Panama led the US to success in teh Gulf War, forcing Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait

START

1990 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty SIgned by Mikhail Gorbachev and George Bush cut nuclear weapons arsenals of both nations by 30% START landmark agreement in the easing of American-Soviet tension

Effects of the Collapse of Soviet Union

1990s Breakup of nations created new foreign policy challenges in Europe and Asia as well as a proliferation of weaponry Provided new opportunies for the US trade left former Soviet territories with challenges in political stability and corruption

Persion Gulf War

1991 Saddam Hussein, dictator and leader of Iraq, invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990 American interests in oil threatened After Iraq failed to meet deadline for peaceful withdrawal, US launched Operation Desert Storm on January 18, 1991 led by General Norman Schwarzkopf Air strikes followed by ground war multinational forces defeated Iraqi troops and liberated Kuwait Though under heavy embargos, Saddam was left in power, which would lead to a second war with Iraq in teh George W. Bush presidency

Branch Davidian Incident

1993 Apocalypic Christian group founded during 1930s David Koresh and followers lived at a compound outside Waco, Texas shootout occurred between FBI< ATF< and Branch Davidians as a warrant for illegal weapons and child abuse attempted to be served four federal agents and five Branch Davidians killed 51 day standoff occurred, ending with burning of compound and death of Koresh and followers

BIll Clinton

1993-2001 42nd President former law professor, attorney general of Arkansas, and governor of Arkansas achieved gun control measures, strong economy, acts supporting time off for family leave, and welfare reform led the US into joining the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), lifting trade barriers between teh US, Canada and Mexico Became teh 2nd president to be impeached by teh House of Representatvives after an extra-marital affair with MOnica Lewinsky

Oklahoma City Bombing

1995 Timothy McVeigh destroy Oklahoma Federal Building with a fertilizer bomb 168 people killed in the destruction caused by the explosion McVeigh said he was upset with government about the Branch Davidian fiasco and the events at Ruby Ridge McVeigh executed by lethal injection in 2001

George W. Bush

2001-2009 43rd President former Texas governor sworn into office in 2001 Won presidential race after Democratic nominee and former VP Al Gore, conceded following voting ordeal in Florida Gore had more popular votes than Bush but fewer Electoral votes passed initiaatives in attempts to improve education (No Child Left Behind Act) declaration against terrorism led to teh invasions of Afganistan and Irq son of former president, Geroge Bush re-electe in 2004

Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan

2001-present war in Afganistan began on October 7, 2001 as US and UK forces responded to the 911 attacks on teh US Objectives include ending safe haven of Al Qaeda fighters and ending Taliban's reign War in Iraq began on March 20, 2003. with an invasion by multinational forces war based on US and UK claims that Iraq had wapons of mass destruction, posetd threats to them and their allies US continues to fight in Iraq to support democracy and human rights and to end the threat of terrorism

Barack Obama

2009-Present 44th President Member of the Democratic Party First African American to be elected President signed American Recovery and Reinvestment Act in February 2009

Watts Riots

AUgust 1965 6 day riot in Watts, depressed African American section of LA Causes included drunk-driving arrest of young AFrican American and claims of police brutality 34 deaths and over $200 million worth of property damage resulted sparked other riots throughout country

Bay of Pigs

April 1961 attempted invsasion of Cuba by CIA trained Cuba refugees Goal was to overthrow Fidel Castro, Cuba's COmmunist-friendly leader invasion failed after Kennedy refused air support JFK assumed responsibility for invasion

Louisiana Purchase

April 30, 1803 Purchased for $15 million from France Jefferson was concerned about the constitutionality of purchasing land without having his authority granted by the Constitution, so he employed the president power of treaty-making to make the purchase US territory was doubled The purchase helped remove France from the western borders of the US Farmers could now send their goods (furs, grains, tobacco) down the Mississippi River and through New Orleans, facilitating transportation to Europe The expansion westward created more states with Jeffersonian Republican representation to the point that the Federalists became a marginalized party Opened land to agrarian expansion, helping fulfill one of the tenets of Jefferson's social ideology

Conclusion of the Civil War

April 9, 1865 With his forces surrounded, General Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia Lee's surrender caused the remaining Confederate soldiers to lay down their arms By the end of the conflict, country had sustained over 600,000 casualties

Hurricane Katrina

August 29, 2005 large hurricane caused major destruction and loss of life along Gulf Coast of US levee system in New Orleans Louisiana, flooded due to catastraophic failure, water covered city and nearby areas for weeks, more than 1500 people died Federal government wideley blamed for slow response, federal, state, local governments criticized fo rlack of communication issues of race, poverty and political power debated nationwide levee failures led to investigaton of teh US Army Corps of Engineers, designed and build them, and into local levee boards that managed the system

Black Codes

Began 1865 Restrictions by Southern states on former slaves Designed to replicate the conditions of slavery in the post-Civil War South Various codes prohibited meetings without a white present, while others established segregated public facilities Led to Radical Republican opposition and exclusion of Southern representation in Congress

Cold War

Began 1946 War of words caused by differences in economic and political beliefs between US and USSR No actual fighting Churchill commented taht an "Iron Curtain" had been dropped between Western Europe and the Soviet's Eastern Europe

Secession

Began in December of 1860 Response to the election of Abraham Lincoln, who sought to contain slavery South Carolina voted to secede on December 20, 1860 Over the following two months, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas seceded The remaining states-Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina- seceded after the fall of Fort Sumter These states declared themselves the Confederate States of America and elected Jefferson Davis as president, adopting a constitution that permitted slavery rights and the sovereignty of states

Vietnam War: Causes

Beginning 1954 Vietnam was divided into the Communist North, led by Ho Chi Minh, and the South, supported by the United States The Viet Cong ( Communist guerillas) attempted to overthrow Saigon, South Vietnam's capital South Vietnam asked President Kennedy for aid to fend off the Communists

James Meredith

Born 1933 James Meredith obtained federal court oder to allow him to enroll at University of Mississippi in 1962 barred from enrolling on several occasions federal marshals were called in to aid him in enrolling and attending classes

The Hundred Days

Commenced on March 9, 1933 President Roosevelt called a special session of Congress to deal with the weak American banking system Congressed passed an emergency act to deal with banking and then continued the session to handle the problems of unemployment and falling farm prices special session known ass "Hundred Days" Launched the First New Deal

Pentagon Papers

Completed in 1969, Published in 1971 Defense Department papers that discussed America's involvement in Southeast Asia discussed how the government had falsely portrayed its intentions during the Vietnam War in teh 1960s the New York Times received papers from Daneil Ellsberg, who had studied defense policies, began publishing articles about the study in June 1971 US tried to stop them by arguing national security, but Supreme Court allowed publication based on freedom of the press set a precedent for future conflicts in the press over security versus liberty

New Hampshire

Corporate colony established 1677 King Charles II established it as a Royal colony The colony remained economically dependent on Massachusetts, and Britain continued to appoint a single person to rule both colonies until 1741 Weeks before the signing of the Declaration of Independence by the Second Continental Congress, New Hampshire established a temporary constitution for itself that proclaimed its independence from Britain

Connecticut

Corporate colony established in 1662 Thomas Hooker led a large group of Puritans to settle in the Connecticut River Valley after they had slight religious disagreements with the leadership of Massachusetts The major colonies in the Connecticut River Valley agreed to unite as the Connecticut Colony In 1639, the colony formed a set of laws known as the Fundamental Orders; these laws provided for representative government by those who were permitted to vote When the corporate colony was established and recognized by England, its charter was founded on the Fundamental Orders The Fundamental Orders are an important example of the growth of political democracy

Battle of the Bulge

December 1944 German counterattack that pushed the Allies back into Belgium Last stand of Hitler's armies Eventually, the Allies returned to Germany, leading to its surrender on May 7, 1945

Pearl Harbor

December 7, 1941 Hawaii base for the American Pacific fleet and site of massive sneak attack by the Japanese Carrier-based aircraft attacked American ships, meeting little defense Japanese destroyed all US aircraft, major battleships, and naval crafts at the base, and they killed 2,323 military personnel FDR asked Congress to declare war on Japan, calling attack "a date which will live in infamy"

King Cotton in the Early 1800s

Early 1800s The new invention of the cotton gin separated the seeds from the fibers New states (such as Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas) began producing cotton Led to a boom in the cotton market, and its global effects crowned the staple as "King Cotton" The need for cotton encouraged westward expansion

Alexis de Tocqueville

Early 1830s French civil servant who traveled to and wrote about the US Wrote "Democracy in America", reflecting his interest in the American democratic process and appreciation of American civil society Assessed the American attempt to have both liberty and equality Provided an outsider's objective view of the Age of Jackson

Radio

Early 1900s First human voice was broadcast in 1906 and first musical broadcast in 1910 Woodrow WIlson was the first president to broadcast KDKA was the first radio station in the US (Pittsburgh), commencing broadcast in 1920 It helped break down regionalism and provided news and entertainment

Ashcan School (New York Realists)

Early 1900s Group of artists who painted realistic scenes Focused on subjects of everyday life, titles such as The Wrestlers and Sixth Avenue Members included George Luks, George Bellows, John Sloan, Robert Henri, Everett Shinn, and Arthur B. Davies

Emancipation Proclamation

Effective January 1, 1863 Declared all slaves to be free in areas under rebel control, exempting conquered areas of the South Criticized for not abolishing slavery everywhere Led to slaves in South leaving their plantations Increased morale in the North Designed to keep England from joining war on the side of the South Changed perception of the war from a conflict to preserve the Union to a war to end slavery

Berlin Wall

Erected in 1961 barrier erected by East German government to separate East and west Berlin east berlin under communist control, West Berlin under Western control (America, British, and French) to stop defections and travel of east berliners fell in 1989

Moon Landing

July 20, 1969 Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the Earth's moon Armstrong made famous statement "that's one small step for man.... one giant leap for mankind" Armstrong's fellow astronauts were Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins

Jamestown

Est. 1607 Named for James I (1566-1625), Queen Elizabeth's successor in England James I granted charters for charter colonies in the New World In 1607, the Virginia Company of London settled Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement Swampy location led to disease and contaminated water sources Despite location and hostile relations with Native Americans, John Smith's harsh, charismatic leadership of the colony helped keep it from collapsing 1619, African slaves arrived at Jamestown, becoming the first group of slaves to reach a British settlement

Knights of Labor

Established 1869 Militant organization seeking solutions to labor problems Allowed skilled and unskilled workers (along with women and African Americans) to join Wanted an 8 hour work day, termination of child labor, equal pay for equal work, and the elimination of private banks Under Terrence Powderly's leadership, the Knights reached membership of over 700,000 Downfall caused by emergence of the AFL, mismanagement, and financial losses from unsuccessful strikes

United Nations

Established Summer 1945 Created at the San Francisco conference Representative body of nations that wished to resolve global issues Composed of a General Assembly and a Security Council All member sit on General Assembly and form policy Security Council has 11 member, 5 permanent, and 6 additional rotate Permanent members are the US, Britain, France, Russia, and China

New York and New jersey

Established in 1664 Last Dutch governor of New York was Peter Stuyvesant After the British conquered the Dutch lands in American, English King Charles II gave the title to the lands between New England and Maryland to his brother, James, Duke of York James was adamantly opposed to representative assemblies Residents continued to call for self-government until James relented, only to break this promise when he became James II, King of England The region that would become New Jersey was ruled as a separate proprietary colony; it eventually became a royal colony

Yalta Conference

February 1945 Meeting of the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) to talk about post-World War II plans Germany to be divided into American, British, French, and Soviet zones Poland's boundaries revised and free elections established Russia would help by attacking Japan three months after Germany's collapse in exchange for the Sakhalin and Kurile islands Agreement was made to hold a conference in San Francisco to form a peacekeeping organization (United Nations)

Battle of the Alamo

February 24-March 6, 1836 During Texas' Revolution against Mexico, Fort Alamo was attacked by the Mexican Army and 187 members of the Texas garrison were killed Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, a Mexican military and political leader, was victorious "Remember the Alamo" was the garrison's battle cry in its fight for independence

Transportation Revolution

First half of the 1800s Innovations included new construction of roads, additions of canals, and the expansion of the railroads Robert Fulton built the modern-day steamboat, transforming river transportation Henry Clay promoted internal improvements to help develop transportation The transportation revolution cheapened the market for trade and encouraged population movement west of the Appalachian Mountains

Headright System

Introduced in 1618 System used by the Virginia Company to attract colonists It promised them parcels of land (roughly fifty acres to immigrate to America Also gave nearly fifty acres for each servant that a colonist brought, allowing the wealthy to obtain large tracts of land The system solidified the use of indentured servitude for the time being

Monroe Doctrine

Introduced in 1823 Developed by President James Monroe Held that the US would not allow foreign powers to establish new colonies in the western hemisphere or allow existing colonies to be influenced by outside powers America fearer international influence because of a period of worldwide revolutionary fervor after Napoleon's fall Another cause: Many Latin American countries were gaining independence from Spain, and the US thought that these colonies might be taken over by other European powers, threatening American security The doctrine had a lasting impact beyond Monroe's time in office, other presidents, from Coolidge to Kennedy, have invoked it to deal with their own foreign affairs issues

Treaty of Versailles

January 1919 Result of Paris Peace Conference Formed League of Nations to protect territorial integrity and political independence of all members Germany held responsible for war (war guilt clause) required to pay heavily for damages (reparations), limited to small defensive force New nations' boundaries drawn, including Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, and Poland German colonies made mandates of the League and under trusteeship of the Allies

Tet Offensive

January 1968 North Vietnam violated truce during Tet (New Year) attacking cities throughout South Vietnam Despite initiating the fighting, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong defeated and suffered Heavy casualties Offensive surprised the US and the American public because it showed that the communists were able to launch an organized attack

Battle of Gettysburg

July 1-3, 1863 Lee invaded Pa from Virginia, pursued by Northern General Meade Lee was defeated and retreated to Virginia Bloodiest, most decisive battle of the Civil War Farthest northern advance of the Confederacy

Potsdam Conference

July 17-AUgust 2, 1945 Attended by Truman, Stalin, Churchill, and CHurchill's replacement, Clement Attlee Agreed upon policy for the occupation of both Germany and Japan Decided German reparations Demanded that Japan surrender or be destroyed

Watergate Scandal

June 17, 1972 CRP/CREEP (Commitee for teh relection of teh president) Attempted to spy on Democrats at their headquarters in the Watergate Hotel Men with connection to CRP/CREEP were arrested and convicted nixon stated that the burglars had no connection to his adminstration James McCord, one of conviced burglars, claimed a Republican cover=up an investigation uncovered wire taps, presidential tapes, and further evidence of espionage Robert Woodward and Carl Bernstein, writers for The Washington Post, helped reveal the details behind the break-in deception at teh highest political level caused many Americans to become disenchanted with the government

Marshall Plan

June 1947 Recovery program paid by American and Allies to rebuild Europe Helped support a strong European economy and stable politics to resist Communism Defined by Secretary of State George Marshall and signed by President Truman America provided over $15 billion in aid to Europe

Berlin Airlift

June 1948 Allies designated Western Germany to be free from Communism Soviets blocked both land and water access to West Berlin in the hopes that the Allies would abandon West Berlin US lifted supplies for more than 10 months into the city, forcing the Soviets to remove teh blockade in 1949

D-Day

June 6, 1944 Dwight Eisenhower, Commander-in-Chief of Allied forces, ordered an invasion of Normandy, France Operation involved over 4,500 Vessels American troops commended by George S. Patton weakened the German troops in France

Sputnik

Launched October 4, 1957 Soviet satellite launched into space First unmanned spacecraft to escape Earth's gravity Caused concern in US because Americans realized they were not as technologically advanced as teh Soviets Led to an increased emphasis on science education in the US

Manhattan Project, Enola Gay, and Hiroshima/Nagasaki

Manhattan Project, 1942-1945, Enola Gay's Flight, August 6, 1945, Bombing of Hiroshima, August 6, 1945; Bombing of Nagasaki, August 6, 1945 Manhattan Project described operations by Army engineers to design an atomic bomb J. Robert Oppenheimer directed the group at Los Alamos, New Mexico Enola Gay was that plane that carried the atomic bomb into Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, killing 40,000 people immediately Second atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945 Decision to drop the bombs controversial, some argued Japanese essentially beaten and were willing to surrender but that the US insisted on an unconditional surrender

Boston Massacre

March 5, 1770 Occurred when the British attempted to enforce the Townshend Acts British soldiers killed five Bostonians, including Crispus Attucks, an American patriot and former slave John Adams provided the legal defense for the soldiers Though the British soldiers acted more or less in self-defense, anti-Royal leaders used the massacre to spur action in the colonies

The Second Continental Congress

May 1775 Colonial representative meeting in Philadelphia, over which John Hancock presided The group was torn between declaring independence and remaining under British power Moderates forced the adoption of the Olive Branch Petition, a letter to King George III appealing one final time for a resolution to all disputes; the king refused to receive it The Congress sent George Washington to command the army around Boston American ports were opened in defiance of the Navigation Acts The Congress wrote the Declaration of Independence

Haymarket Square Riot

May 4, 1886 Large rally in Haymarket Square in Chicago shortly after striking began at McCormick Harvesting Machine Co. Police were attempting to disperse the crowd when a bomb exploded 11 were killed and over 100 were injured 8 anarchists were put on trial and four were executed Incident was used to discredit the Knights of Labor

V-E Day and V-J Day

May 8, 1945 and August 15, 1945 V-E Day or Victory in Europe Day, day the Allies announced Germany's surrender in Europe V-J Day, or Victory in Japan Day, day the Allies announced Japan's surrender to end World War II

Teheran Conference

November 28-December 1 1943 Meeting of the Big Three: Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin Agreement that Russia would attack Germany from the east as the Allies would attack from the west First time Roosevelt had met Stalin

Black Monday

October 19, 1987 Dow Jones dropped 22.6% largest single day drop since 1914 causes included trade deficits, computerized trading, and American criticism of West Germany's economic policies crash later affected insurance industry and was a cause of the saving and loan crisis

Stock Market Crash of 1929

October 1929 Investors began to panic, creating tremendous losses in stock market On October 24, 1929 (Black Thursday) the Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped fifty percent and over thirteen million shares of stock were traded On October 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday) over 16 million shares of stock were traded Crash led to the Great Depression

Cuban Missile Crisis

October 1962 American spy plane discovered Soviet missile sites being place in CUba Presiden Kennedy blockaded Cuba and demanded Soviets remove missile bases and all long-range weapons Kennedy declared any missile attack on US reasult in retaliation agaisnt USSR Khrushchev removed missile sites, US lifted the blockade and removed its intermediate-range ballistic missiles from Turkey led to Nuclear Test Ban (1963) in which US, Britain, and USSR agreed not to perform nuclear tests in atmosphere or underwater

Manifest Destiny

Phrase coined in 1844 Belief that America was destined to expand to the Pacific, and possibly into Canada and Mexico John O'Sullivan, an American journalist, wrote an article pushing for the annexation of Texas and coined the phrase "Manifest Destiny" Came out of post-1812 War nationalism, the reform impulse of the 1830s, and the need for new resources Those Whigs who supported Manifest Destiny favored more peaceful means, while other Whigs feared American expansion because it might raise the slavery issue in new territories

After the War of 1812

Post 1814 Increased American nationalism Created high foreign demand for cotton, grain, and tobacco The country turned from its agrarian origins toward industrialization Led to a depression in 1819 due to influx of British goods; the Bank of the US responded by tightening credit to slow inflation

Carpetbaggers and Scalawags

Post-Civil War-Reconstruction Carpetbaggers: Derogatory Southern name for Northerners who came to the South to participate in Reconstruction governments Name came from the cloth bags of possessions many of them used tot ravel South Scalawags: Derogatory name for Southerners working for or supporting the federal government during Reconstruction Some of these Southerners had opposed the War from the beginning, while others helped Reconstruction for financial gain Partially in response to Reconstruction, a group of Souther whites formed the Ku Klux Klan, which targeted carpetbaggers, scalawags, African Americans, and others with aggressive and sometimes violent acts

Agriculture by 1850

Pre-1850 Agriculture technology increased harvest sizes, saved on labor, and made selling farm goods to international markets possible Demand for agricultural land grew Railroad was used to help transport goods John Deere, and American manufacturer, pioneered the steel-plow industry Cyrus McCormack invented the mechanical reaper

Industry by 1850

Pre-1850 Mostly located in the North Industry's value surpassed agriculture US technology exceeded Europe in such areas as rubber, coal power, mass production, and the telegraph Cheap immigrant labor threatened the established workers' jobs

Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

Published 1890 Written by Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914), a naval officer and historian Further encouraged those in favor of American imperialism and seaward expansion Themes in the book were used as partial justification for the US' taking of the Philippines

17th Amendment

Ratified 1913 Progressive initiative allowed for each state to elect two senators for 6 year terms by popular vote Restated first paragraph of Article 1, Section 3 of the Constitution by replacing "chosen by Legislature thereof" with "elected by the people thereof" Allowed citizens to have a more active participation in government

Hawaii

Republic founded in 1894 American sugar planters worked in Hawaii and expanded American-Hawaii sugar trade Queen Liliuokalani opposed foreigners, alienated Americans Revolution against the queen occurred in 1893 with the encouragement of American leaders Felling that the most islanders did not support this revolution, Grover Cleveland unsuccessfully attempted to restore Queen Liliuokalani Sandford Dole, son of American missionaries in Hawaii, shepherded the process of annexing Hawaii Dole became Hawaii's first governor and the US annexed it on July 7, 1898

Battle of Antietam

September 17, 1862 Civil War battle offered the North an opportunity to defeat General Lee and shorten the war Northern General George McClellan had discovered detailed plans for Lee's entire operation but ignored the opportunity because of over-cautiousness Lee's army was forced to retreat to Virginia after a bloody battle at Antietam McClellan's failure to purse Lee led Lincoln to remove him from command

Selective Service and Training Act

September 1940 US' first peacetime draft men between ages 21 and 35 signed into service, and a group of them chosen for a year of training in the military

US-British Tension and Webster-Ashburton Treaty

Treaty signed in 1842 American ship was burned by Canadian loyalists Canada and the US disputed the boundary of Maine British ships sometimes stopped American ships to suppress American slave smuggling The treaty settled the boundary of Maine and border disputes in the Great Lakes Created more cooperation between the US and Britain in curbing the slave trade

September 11, 2001

day of attacks by terrorist cells connected to the Al Qaeda networkd, led by by Osama bin Laden, a Saudi dissident Al Qaeda operatives hijacked 2 airliners and crashed them into New York's Worl Trade Center, destroying buildings and killing thousands another hijacked plane hit the Pentago in Washington, DC final hijacked plane diverted from mission, crashing in Pa result of attacks, Congress passed USA Patriot ACt, broadened govnerment authority to gather intelligence and futther defined crimes that were punishbled as terrorism attacks led to the invasion of Afganistan

Ku Klux Klan in early 1900s

early 1900s main purpose to intimidate African AMericans, experienced rise in status due to WWI opposed Catholics, Jews, and immigrants Klan hired advertising experts to expand the organization charged initiation fees and soil memorabilia KKK membership of five million before decline after 1925

Joseph McCarthy

early 1950s Republican senator from Wisconsin who claimed to have detailed info on Communists within State Department (195) Never able to prove Communists were within the Stae Dpeartement or any other government agency 1954, Army accused McCarthy of attmempting to gain preferential treatmenf for one of his consultants, and McCarthy accused teh Army of keeping from finding more Communists televised Army-McCarthy hearing held, McCarthy came off in negative light, leading to Congress condemning his conduct

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

establish 1949 original members: US, Britain, France, Italy, and Portugal Allowed for collective self-defense against the Soviet threat in the North Atlantic region Since its creation, influenced economia adn social cooperation between member nations fall of teh Soviet Union led to NATO expanding membership and moving toward peacekeeping throughout the world Headquartered in Brussels, Belgium

Lend-Lease Act

march 1941 American proposal to aid the British, who had little cash for supplies offered to give the British American supplies in exchange for payment after the war pament could be made in material goods and services put the US on the side of teh ALlies US began program of cash and carry (1939) in which British and French ships could come into US ports and buy anything that they could carry