APWH Period 4 (1400-1750)

alternative fuel in England

England was an island -> runs out of natural resources (see "expanding iron industry" and "deforestation") prices of wood and coal increased smelters used COAL as an alternative fuel -> COAL MINING INCREASED X12

shi'ites

Muslims belonging to the branch of Islam believing that God vests leadership of the community in a descendant of Muhammad's sun-in-law Ali Shi'ism is the state religion of Iran

organization of slaves

age, sex, ability only 2/3% were house servants 70% worked in fields 3 gangs women were the majority of field laborers (even in the great gang)

Hurons and Algonqiuns

allied with New France natural enemies of the Iroquois Confederacy (French firearms and armor gave them an advantage at first, but the enemy was persistent)

spain established a vast empire in the...

americas *whoop whoop*

How long did the Ottoman Empire last?

approx. 600 years (1300-1922)

cities as engines of change

as trade expanded, cities grew

New peoples/new identities

peoples of mixed descent were usually in the majority few marriages between amerindians and Europeans (less formal relationships were very common) few european fathers recognized mixed offspring

seasoning

period of adjustment to new climates, disease environments, and work routines 1/3 of slaves died of unfamiliar diseases

Blows to Portuguese Power

repeatedly plagued by local rebellion Arabs of Omen captured Masquat and Mombasa Portuguese had only Mozambique (East Africa), Goa (India), and Macao and Timor ("farther east") left

the battle of al-Qasr al-Kabir (Ksar el Kabir) in 1578

resistance to Portuguese agression climaxed in this battle victory for the Moroccan sultan Ahmad al-mansur

EXAMPLE 2 little sustained resistance = Gujarat

resisted Portuguese attempts at monopoly at first 1509 - joined Egypt's failed attempt to sweep portuguese from Arabian sea 1535 - ruler of Gujarat decided to allow Portuguese to build a fort at DIU in return for their support -> portuguese gradually expanded their control...eventually licensed/taxed all Gujarati ships

growth of world population after 1700

resulted from the spread of useful crops (maize, potatoes, and manioc) - new crops had more calories per acre - new crops from New World brought dyes, medicines, cotton, and tobacco to the Old

Louis XIV

revoked Edict of nantes

THE CHURCH as an institution in Spanish colonies

richest institution in Spanish colonies - controlled ranches, plantations, vineyards - served as the society's banker

inflation

rising prices

slaves over indentured servants

rising sugar prices helped West Indian sugar planters afford high cost of slaves slaves lived on average 7 years after their arrival; indentured servants only worked for 3-4 (SLAVES WERE A BETTER INVESTMENT)

small trading states of the region weren't as capable of challenging Portuguese domination head-on...

rivalries amoung smaller states didn't really allow for them to form a common front some cooperated with port. to maintain prosperity and security ...others engaged in evasion and resistance TWO EXAMPLES -> RANGE OF INDIAN OCEAN RESPONSES

Bourbon monarchs

ruled without calling Estates General into session avoided financial crises by more efficient tax collection and selling appts to high govt offices - claimed monarch had absolute authority to rule in God's name on earth

samorin

ruler of calicut the samorin and his Muslim officials showed minor interest in Portuguese as trding partners...da Gamma's gifts provoked laughter

coureurs de bois

runners of the woods - began families with native women - mixed children = metis -> these mixed children helped develop the fur trade

slave resistance

sabotage malingering running away rebellion -> many rebellions; control always re-established -> groups of runaways could often defend themselves for years

similarities between decline of the Safavid and ottoman Empires

safavids had trouble finding the money to pay troos yet needed to hold off the Ottomans -> Shah Abbas established a slave corps of year round soldiers (mostly Christian captives ) -> in the Ottoman Empire, these people can be compared to the Janissaries inflation caused by cheap silver spread into Iran (mainly from LA)

Swahili Coast

sawahil = coasts millet and rice lands little contact with those in the dry hinterlands

Corsairs

sea raiders brought warfare to the Mediterranean Muslim raiders were called pirates and slave-takers by Europeans Europeans leveled the same charges against Muslim mariners in the Persian Gulf and the Sulu Sea the actions of Muslims and Europeans weren't that different, however (there were European raids too)

little whites

second/three categories of free peoples; Europeans that were less-well-off than great whites; colonial officials, retail merchants, small-scale agriculturalists; most owned slaves

the lower legislative house

selected its own speaker developed procedures and rules similar to England's House of Commons much greater autonomy greater local political involvement than in LA colonies

Settlers

several hundred settlers and missionaries returned to Hispaniola with Columbus in 1493 hoping to make fortunes settlers demanded natives to look for gold, stole gold, confiscated food, sexually assulted native women -> Arawak rebelled in 1495

Navigation Acts (1651-1673)

severely limited colonial trading and colonial production that competed with English manufacturers

stock exchanges

shares in specilized financial markets Italian innovation transferred to cities of northwestern Europe in 16th century Amsterdam Exchange was the greatest stock market in the 17th/18th century (founded in 1530) -> large insurance companies emerged -> insuring long voyages against loss became standardary after 1700

many successful women found professions as...

painters, musicians, writers

Charles II (1660 - 1685)

parliametn restored the Stuart line

castas

people of mixed descent between Amerindians and Africans

English imitated Dutch by creating a central bank that could issue long-term loans at low rates to...

1. secure cash quickly for warfare and other emergencies 2. reduce the burden of debts from earlier wars

scholarly visions of Islam

- took root in the 1500s by way of pilgrims that returned from years of study in Saudia Arabia (Mecca, Medina) - Islam helped spread writing throughout SE Asia -> Arabic, Malay, Javanese

monarchs of EME...

-occupied the apex of the social order -were arbitrators o intellectual/religious conflicts of their day - exercised infuence on economies of their realms

nawab

" Other officials bearing the title nawab became similarly independent in Bengal and Oudh in the northeast, as did the Marathas in the center" - Dupleix was offered this title but liked to use Indian princes as puppets instead

Parliament v King Charles I of England

"Before it would authorize new taxes, Parliament insisted on strict guarantees that the king would never again ignore the body's traditional rights. King Charles refused and attempted to arrest of his critics in the House of Commons in 1642, plunging the kingdom into the English Civil War"

Indigenous commoners

"HEAVIEST BURDENS" -tribute payments - forced labor obligations - loss of traditional land rights

COMPARE: Africa, Asia, Amerindians, Tlaxcalans meet Europeans

"Like the peoples of Africa and Asia when confronted by Europeans, Amerindian peoples, like the Tlaxcalans of Mexico, calculated as best they could the potential benefit or threat represented by these strange visitors. Individual Amerindians also made these calculations"

"Mughal" meaning

"Mughal" is Persian for "mongol"

Alexander Pope (1688 - 1774)

"Nature and Nature's laws lay hidden in night; / God said, 'Let Newton be' and all was light."

adat

"custom" a form of Islam rooted in pre-Muslim religious and social practices - stayed prominent in rural areas bc of practices centered on the Shari'a - royal courts in port cities increasingly adapted the views of the pilgrim teacher

Amerindian elites

"struggled for survival in new political/economic environments created by military defeat and Euro settlement" -some protected positions with marriage/less formal relations with colonists -> indigenous/settler families tied together (links weakened over time) -established political alliances with members of colonial administrative classes - some gained security by becoming intermediaries between the indigenous and colonial administrators -> collected spanish taxes and organized labor of dependents for colonial enterprises

religion v science

"the sun [not the earth] stood still..." -> if old physics were wrong, would some theological synthesis be wrong too? intellectual/religious leaders encouraged political authorities to supress new ideas -heliocentric universe was deemed contary to the Bible (by protestants...Catholics waited longer to act)

plantation expenses

$100,000 to acquire medium-size Jamaican plantation 1/3 -> land, pasture, animals, cut timber/firewood 1/4 -> mill and refinery largest expense -> 200 slaves at $200/ea (wage of an English rural laborer -> $50/year)

Ferdinand Magellan

(1519) began expedition to complete Columbus's interrupted westward voyage by sailing around Americas and across the Pacific considered first person to encircle globe (sailed from Europe to East Indies as part of an expedition for Portugal)

Catholic Church undertook its own reforms...

(1545 - 1563) council met at Trent, Italy to ... 1. distinguish Catholic doctrines from Portestant "errors" 2. reaffirm supremacy of Pope 3. called for bishops to reside in dioceses 4. dioceses must maintain a theological seminary to TRAIN PRIESTS

Pope Leo X

(r. 1513 - 1521) member of wealthy Medici family (Florence)...family known for patronage of the arts more of a man of action than spiritual leader -church raised funds for ambitious projects/basilica while he was pope...INDULGENCES

Charles V and Ottomans

(see Charles V) 1529: stopped Ottomans at Vienna (but attacks continued until 1697 - over 150 years later!) - Charles wanted to forge his several territories into Europe's Strongest State -> FAILED

Queen Helena's gift

(to king of Portugal) two tiny crucifixes said to be made of wood from Christ's cross symbolized their mutual connection - christianity

Portuguese efforts to persuade king and nobles of benin tp accept Catholic faith...

*failed* kings showed some interest at first, but rulers declined to recieve missionaries after 1538 also closed male slave market for rest of 16th century reasons why benin chose to limit contats with portuguese are unknown -> african rulers CLEARLY had power to control contacts with europeans

Pythagoras

*you know the theorem* atttributed ability of simple mathematical equations to describe things from physical objects to mystical properties simplist/perfect geometric shapes: -circle (point rotated around another point) -sphere (circle rotated on its axis) believed celestial objects were perfect spheres orbiting earth in circular orbits

conditions/treatment of slaves

- 18 hour+ work day with short meal breaks - only people exempt from hard labor were infants, very sick, and very old - rewarded with better food, clothing, or time off - whipping was common (see "driver") - rebellious slaves were openly punished with floggings, confinement in irons, or mutilation -SUNDAYS: time to farm own provisioning grounds and do house chores (ex. mend tattered clothes)

Canada becomes English

- England committed a larger military to the conflict - took Quebec in 1759 - peace agreement -> France was forced to give Canada to English and Louisiana to Spain Effects -French concentrated efforts in sugar colonies in Caribbean - Amerindians find out that they were free with the French but are slaves under the English

Motives for Exploration Notes

- adventurous personalities and ambitions of Iberian rulers led them to sponsor voyages

Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474 - 1566)

- arrived in Hispanola as a settler (1502) - lived off of Amerindian forced labor; was moved by so many deaths and enterd the Dominican Order 9became the first bishop of Chiapas, in southern Mexico. - devoted most of his life to protecting Amerindian peoples from exploitation. - major achievement was the New Laws of 1542, which limited the ability of Spanish settlers to compel Amerindians to labor for them.

early english experiments

- couldn't gain a foothold in the Americas in the 1500s - established colonies in the 1600s - relied on private capital to finance settlement and hoped for valuable natural resources - see English and Irish experiences (next card)

Rebels promised...

- end the abuses of the Ming - restore peace and prosperity

French Colonial Expansion

- expanded west and south - founded Louisiana in 1699 (tiny population) -> also depended on fur trade and native alliances

Wu Sangui

- fear of other uneducated, violent men rulers - Ming General that joined forces with Manchus - Li had accidentally captured one of Wu's favorite concubines - retook Beijing in June with the Manchus

Presence of Muslims in every port all...

- followed the same legal traditions - practiced their faith in similar ways that CEMENTED THE MUSLIMS TRADING NETWORK

How Akbar was different from Suleiman the Magnificent and Sham Abbas the Great

- he strove for social harmony (not just territory and revenue) - marriage to a Rajput princess = desire for reconciliation and intermarriage between Hindu and Muslims

Abkar and the law

- in legal disputes between two Hindus, decesions wre made according to VILLAGE CUSTOM or HINDU LAW (as nterpreted by local Hindu scholars) - Shari'a law was in force for Muslims - Abkar was the legal court of LAST RESORT -> created a rare appeals process in the Islamic world

English experiences colonizing Ireland (after 1556)

- land had been confiscated in ireland, cleared of native, offered for sale to English investors - Irish "plantations" were purchased and "settlers" were recruited 150,000 scottish/english immigrants were sent to ireland in the next hundred years (6x as many colonists as New England)

commercial success of Massachusetts

- market intelligence - flexibility - streamlined organization Boston became the largest city in British North America (urban population growth shows success of this development strategy)

Natives in the Carolina fur Trade

- natives provided over 100,000 deerskins a year but at environmental and cultural costs -> more hunting = disrupted balance of animals and plants in southern forests -> fur trade profits -> villages placed less emphasis on subsistence hunting, fishing, trad. agriculture -> deepening dependencies on European products (firearms metal tools, textiles, alcohol) NA's were increasingly tied to commence/culture of Carolina colonies, but were weakened by epidemics, ethnic conflicts, and alcoholism -> had firearms, so conflicts were more deadly -> POWs were sold to colonists many were upset with the terms of trade by fur traders and by the NA slave trade -> attacked English settlements in 1700s -> colonial military forces defeated the NA's...new seizures of NA land by Euro settlers

ore details on the life of a slave

- occasional holidays (ex. Christmas); otherwise, NO REST - slaves sung in the fields - no time for schooling and masters were not willing to educate slaves

early enlightenment notes

- people believed that they could apply the scientific method to analyze economics, politics, social organization and devise the best policies - wanted open/critical examination of human society -> energized movement known as the Enlightenment -enlightenment was more of a frame of mind than a coherent movement -people were clearer about what they disliked than about what changes were necessary -most were optimistic that discoveries would improve human beliefs and institutions -> would help foster political/social revolutions after 1750

slave health

- poor nutrition/overwork lowered fertility - continuation of heavy fieldwork -> difficult to carry to term or ensure health of child - disease - accidents from dangerous mill equipment - DEATHS OUTNUMBERED BIRTHS - life-expectancy was 23 for males and 25.5 for females (in Brazil) - "cheaper to import a slave than rise one" - seasoning

Massachusetts Economy COMPARISON

- poor soils/harsh climate -> no cash crops - needed to pay for imports (tools, textiles, etc) -> initial economic foundation was fur, timber, ffish -> economic niche was found in "providing commercial and shipping services in a dynamic and far-flung commercial arena that included the southern colonies, the Caribbean islands, Africa, and Europe"

The Catholic church in Spanish America and Brazil

- primary agent for introduction and transmission of christian belief, European lang, European culture - conversion of Amerindians, ministered to the spiritual needs of European settlers. promoted intellectual life through introduction of printing press, founding of schools, universities

English, French, Spain, and Portuguese SIMILARITIES

- responded to native peoples with a mixture of diplomacy and violence - African slaves were crucial to the developments of these colonies

Tulip craze

-rare tulip bulbs were in equal to the value of 22 oxen

colonial trade networks

-"mining centers of Mexico and Peru eventually exercised global economic influence" -American silver increase European money supply -> colonial expansion and industrialization was encouraged - silver imported to spanish colony of the Philippines paid for Asian spices, silks, pottery see "rich mines," "Potosi," "sugar plantations of Brazil"

Portuguese in Africa and Asia

-1440s: raids on northwest coast of Africa and Canary Islands -> $$ slave trade -> number of slaves dramatically increased -Portuguese made contact with the west Africa gold trade -1457: Portugese had enough African gold that they issued the CRUZADO (crusader//a gold coin) ^^DEEPLY ENTWINED RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR MOTIVES

Italy

-1450: city-states of Italy had established extensive trade routes to northern Europe, Indian Ocean, Black sea -Italian merchant rinces sponsored intellectual/artistic Renaissance -trading states of Venice and Genoa maintained $$ ties in Medi -> depended on muslim alliances -Italian merchants had privledged access to lucrative from the East -expansion of Ottoman empire disrupted trade to the East...cities never took lead in Atlantic exploration -> many individs, however, played leading eploration roles

Marriage of Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon 1469

-> conquest of Granada (1492) -> creation of Spain (most powerful state in sixteenth-century Europe)

Moro wars

-According to Spaniards, Moros were greedy pirates that raided non-Muslim territories for slaves - Moros were actually political, religious, and commercial competitors. Perserverance allowed them to establish the Sulu Empire in the southern Phillipines

Jean Baptiste Colbert

-France was more heavily forested than england -JBC was France's prime minister of finance -increasing deforestation prompted him to predict that "France will perish for lack of wood"

prominent women in eme

-In the late 1600s some wealthy French women began organizing intellectual gatherings, and many were prominent letter writers -Maria Celeste Galilei carried on a detailed correspondence with her father from the confinement of the convent she had vowed never to leave

Islam stregthened resistance to P, S, and Dutch intruders

-Spaniards conqured the Phillipines and encountered Muslims on the island of Mindanano and the Sulu archipelago -> were called "Moros" -> Moro wars

Jewish people came to Europe because...

-religious persecution in Iberia (merchants fled to Europe) -may just emigrated from Eastern Europe to German states (especially after 30 years war)

Muslims in Coastal Africa

Muslim rulers governed east African ports that Portuguese began to visit in the 1400s (Muslims and Portuguese were not politically allied)

monarchs in the enlightenment

-catholic church/protestant clergymen opposed enlightenment -European monarchs selectively endorsed new ideas -> wanted to increase power -> found anticlericals to be allies against church power/wealth -> enlightenments demand for more rational/predictable policies JUSTIFIED expansion of royal authority and modern tax systems POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS, GROWING LITERACY, AND PRINTING PRESS MADE IT POSSIBLE FOR CONTROVERSIAL /EXCITING IDEAS TO THRIVE (even in face of opposition from ancient/powerful institutions like the church)

Muslims in SE Asia

-early Muslim visitors had little impact on local beliefs - strongest overseas linkage was to the port of Cambay in India (instead of to the Arab world) - Islam rooted in port cities and in some royal courts...spread inland slowly (maybe transmitted by "itinerant Sufis"

King charles I of England TAXES

-evaded checks on power rulled for 11 yrs without summoning Parliament -> didn't have parliaments consent to new taxes SO he collected loans from wealthy subjects + applied existing tax laws more broadly 1640: rebellion in Scotland -> had to summn Parliament -> approve new war tax

New France

-french waited over 50 years before they established settlements - Samuel de Champlain founded the colony of New France at Quebec in 1608 - fell to British in 1763 LOCATION - open access to Amerindian trade routes - French settlers were compelled to take sides in the ongoing warfare -> New France was allied with Hurons and Algonqiuns

Fur Trade and effects

-fueled French settlement -> furs, especially beaver, were highly valued in Europe - runners of the woods = coureurs de bois - metis helped develop the trade - amerindians participated in trades because they depended on the exchange (they would get firearms, metal tools, textiles, alcohol) goods in exchange for furs -> overhunting -> transformed the environment -> depletion of beaver and deer -> competition between natives for hunting grounds -> warfare

ranks (mansabs)

-high and low - entitle holders to revenue assignments (revenue grants were not considered hereditary in other Islamic empires) - central govt kept careful track of who got a revenue grant and when "In India, grants of land given in return for service by rulers of the Mughal Empire"

English and French colonies SIMILARITIES

-hoped to find easily extracted forms of wealth or great indigenous empires (eg. Aztecs or Inca)

other European countries adopted Dutch methods

-learned more about where goods could be acquired - more ships sent to SE Asia -once other countries adopted Dutch methods, suppressing local rulers wasn't enough for the Dutch to control the spice trade

Prince Henry of Portugal Henry the Navigator (1394 - 1460)

-led attack on Ceuta -devoted life to promoting exploration -mixed motives: exploration, converting Africans to Vhristianity, making contacts with Christian rulers in Africa, laug=ching joint crusades with those rulers against Ottomans -wanted to discover new, profitable places Indian exploration/contact became more important than African -founded a center for research at Sagres -ships established contact with Madeia (1418) and Azores (1439) - staff improved magnetic compass, astrolabe

Like the Safavids, the Mughals...

-no navy or merchant ships

Mughal Empire (1526-1857)

Muslim state exercising dominion over most of India in the sixteenth and seven- tenth centuries. Founded by Babur

confinement of women

-rich women were more closely confined but much better lives (materially) than poor men - single women could secure positions of responsibility (ex. women who headed convents in Catholic countries) - unmarried women controlled by fathers -married women controlled by husbands - many widows independently controlled substantial properties

influences that affected the enlightenment...

-scientific revolution -religious warfare and intolerance (struggle between Catholicism and protestantism) undermined moral authority of religion -efforts of church authorities pushed intellectual European thought to a SECULAR direction - brutal treatment of "witches" shocked many "thoughful" people

Oman builds an Empire

-the Omanis created a maritime empire that worked in greater cooperation with the African populations - Swahili

LiZicheng

-thrown out of his job - apprentice ironworker - 1630: soldier -> mutinied when government didn't provide them with needed supplies - led several thousand Chinese rebels -1635: he and other rebel leaders gained control of most of north central China

Factors that helped the Ottoman Empire grow from a tiny state to a large Empire

1. shrewdness of Osman and his descendants 2. control of Dardanelles strait between Europe and Asia 3. created an army that took control of Turkish cavalrymen traditional skills and new military possibilities (gun powder)

ENCOUNTERS WITH EUROPE (1450 - 1550)

1. African kingdoms reacted in various ways to the opportunities and threats created by the arrival of the Portuguese, but only Kongo embraced Christianity and accepted a large Portuguese military presence in the sixteenth century. 2. However, the Portuguese used military force to consolidate a trade empire in the Indian Ocean. 3. After the Spanish occupied the Caribbean, Cortés led an expe- dition that conquered the Aztecs, weakened by epidemic. 4. The Spanish under Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, already suffering from civil war, and then fell on each other, but surviv- ing conquistadors continued to explore the Americas

SPANISH AMERICA AND BRAZIL

1. Colonial governments were created to rule distant colonies. 2. The Catholic Church led conversion of Amerindian peoples and spread European cultures and languages. 3. Silver mining and sugar production dominated colonial Latin American economies. 4. Spanish and Portuguese colonies relied on forced labor of Amerindians and African slaves. 5. New peoples and new cultures resulted from colonial contacts among Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans

Social and Economic Life

1. Early modern European society was more fluid than it appeared, with an expanding economy and improved education promoting some mobility. 2. The urban bourgeoisie created much of Europe's wealth through trade, manufacture, finance, and technological innovation. 3. Monarchs sought alliances with the bourgeoisie, whose wealth afforded them political and social advancement as well as revenue. 4. Oppressed by economic and environmental trends, peasants and laborers generally lived in poverty, and their misery often provoked rebellion. 5. Although women remained subordinate to men, class and wealth were the main determinants of their positions in life

PLANTATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES

1. England and France relied on private investors organized as chartered companies to develop their Caribbean colonies. 2. European colonies in the Caribbean at first depended on tobacco exports but then concentrated on producing sugar, which was more profitable 3. The Dutch helped develop the sugar industry as investors, refiners, slave traders, and disseminators of technology. 4. European indentured servants provided crucial labor for Caribbean plantations in the early years, but planters switched to African slaves when the flow of indentured laborers was redirected to North America

`clothing (men and women) (similar to the Ottoman Empire)

1. men and women covered arms, legs, and hair 2. women wore lightweight trousers under long, ample dresses with scarves pulled tightly over the forehead to conceal their hair 3. poor men wore light trousers, a long shirt, a jacket, and a hat or turban 4. wealthy men wore ankle length caftans over their trousers which fit closely around the chest

classes

1. European society was dominated by few nobles families -> high offices in church, govt, military, and were exempt from taxes 2. large class of prosperous commoners -> were clergy, bureaucrats, professionals, military officers, merchants, artists, rural landowners 3. majority were poor ->laborers, journeymen, apprentices, rural laborers struggled to earn meals. often were jobless 4. poorest lived desperate lives - survived only through guile, begging, crime. women stayed subordinate to men

The Mughal Empire (1526 - 1761)

1. Founded by Babur, the Mughal Empire grew under Akbar and his successors to encompass most of India. 2. The empire prospered through trade and granted trade privileges to Europeans in exchange for naval support. 3. Akbar included both Muslims and Hindus in his government, respected Hindu customs, and strove for religious harmony. 4. A hybrid culture flourished, but Aurangzeb practiced Muslim intolerance. 5. After Aurangzeb's death, the empire declined through foreign invasion, the rise of regional powers, and European encroachment.

competition for sugar producing land *sugar drama*

1. France and England attacked older Spanish colonies 2. 1655: England took Jamaica and Havana (Havana for only 1 year) from the Spanish 3. English had imported lots of slaves and Cuba started the switch from tobacco to sugar when the occupation ended 4. French seized west half of Hispaniola in 1670s -> Saint Dominique (Haiti) became the greatest sugar producer in the Atlantic world 5. Jamaica passed Barbados as England's most valuable sugar colony technological, environmental, and social transformation of these island colonies illustrates the power of the new Atlantic system

The Maritime Worlds of Islam (1500 - 1750)

1. From its inception in the time of Muhammad, Islam flowered in places of trade, and beginning around 1500, the majority of non-European shipbuilders, captains, sailors, and traders were Muslim. 2. A number of local kingdoms in Southeast Asia took on Islam as a force to resist the aggressive Christianity of the Europeans. 3. Many Muslims in coastal Africa intermarried with locals, creat- ing a mixed population that played a key part in the develop- ment of a distinctive Swahili culture. 4. Over time the successes of European trading companies changed the balance of power in the southern seas, but local merchants never completely disappeared from the commercial scene

Portuguese and the slave trade

1. originally enslaved Amerindian POWs or took Amerindians from their villages - 1000s died from disease 2. developed an "internal slave trade" with ruthless slave raiders

Dutch West India Company

1624: established the colony of New Netherlands located its capital on Manhattan Island -poorly managed and under financed BUT controlled profitable and important Hudson River

Political Innovations

1. Greater political centralization enabled early modern monarchs to exert increased influence on economic, religious, and social life. 2. While the Holy Roman Empire fragmented along religious and political lines, Spain, France, and England achieved greater centralization and religious unity. 3. Spain enforced Catholic unity through the Inquisition and France through Bourbon policy, while in England the church became an arm of royal power. 4. In both England and France, monarchs struggled with rivals over the limits of royal authority. 5. Armies grew larger and more sophisticated while European powers strove to maintain a balance of power. 6. High military costs drove the European powers to attempt a variety of tax and financial policies, the most successful being those of England and the Netherlands

two related phenomena that resulted in Iberian expansion overseas

1. Iberian rulers had strong economic, religious, and political motives to expand influence 2. improvements in maritime and military technologies -> -Iberians could master unfamiliar and dangerous ocean enviros -seize control of existing maritime trade routes -conquer new lands

Colonial Expansion and Conflict

1. In the eighteenth century all European imperial powers attempted to impose reforms on their American colonies. 2. Colonial reforms disrupted colonial economic and political accommodations and led to rebellion and resistance

Janissary training regime trained...

1. Janissary soldiers 2. senior military commanders 3. heads of government departments

sophisticated court language of the OE

1. Osmani = "Ottoman" 2. shared roots with Turkish 3. Arabic and Persian elements made it distinct from lower class Anatolians

African slaves over Amerindians

African slaves were initially more expensive BUT... - more productive - resistant to disease - eventually more slaves than Portuguese settlers

Culture and Ideas

1. Outraged by corrupt church practices, reformers like Luther and Calvin challenged papal authority and traditional Catholic theology. 2. In response to the Protestant reformers, the Catholic Church launched a Counter Reformation. 3. Both Protestants and Catholics, seeking to enforce orthodoxy, sanctioned widespread witch-hunts. 4. The thinkers of the Scientific Revolution challenged traditional biblical and Greco-Roman conceptions of the cosmos. 5. The advances in science prompted Enlightenment thinkers to question many conventional ideas and practices

THE MARITIME REVOLUTION

1. Portugal and Spain initiated oversees explorations to expand Christianity and gain new markets. 2. Portugal, aided by Prince Henry the Navigator, created a trad- ing empire in Africa and the Indian Ocean. 3. COlumbus first revealed the Americas to Europe, and other Spanish explorers reached Asia by crossing the Pacific.

EUROPEAN EXPANSION (1400 - 1550)

1. Portugal and Spain initiated oversees explorations to expand Christianity and gain new markets. 2. Portugal, aided by Prince Henry the Navigator, created a trad- ing empire in Africa and the Indian Ocean. 3. Columbus first revealed the Americas to Europe, and other Spanish explorers reached Asia by crossing the Pacific

PLANTATION LIFE IN THE 18TH CENTURY

1. Sugar production required larger investments in land, slaves, and machinery than other forms of colonial agriculture. 2. Large-scale sugar plantations were more efficient and profit- able than smaller plantations. 3. Sugar plantations had high environmental costs due to deforestation and soil exhaustion. 4. Slaves were closely organized and forced to be productive through the use of harsh punishments. 5. Slave populations of the Caribbean experienced high mortality rates and low fertility rates. 6. Slaves sought freedom through manumission or flight or rebel- lion; some groups of runaways, maroons, forced authorities to recognize their freedom.

Columbus's ships

Santa Maria Nina (caravel) Pinta (caravel)

THE COLUMBIA EXCHANGE

1. The creation of Spanish and Portuguese empires in America accelerated global exchanges of peoples, plants, animals, diseases, and technologies. 2. Old World diseases decimated New World peoples and made them vulnerable to European expansion, and Old World animals overran the landscape and hanged New World practices. 3. Both the Old and New Worlds also profited from the introduction of new plants and animals.

role of women in the Safavid Empire

1. rarely seen in public 2. kept in private areas when the men of the family received visitors 3. active in the urban real estate market via male agents 4. allowed to retain her prophet after marriage (degree of independence from their spouses) 5. allowed to testify in court 6. veiled when outside the home

ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA

1. Without Latin America's wealth in silver, gold, and sugar, Brit- ish North American colonies developed strong regional charac- ters and strong local political traditions. 2. British colonies attracted large numbers of free immigrants, but indentured servitude and slavery were crucial to economic development. 3. The southern colonies' dependence on forced labor and plantation agriculture led to a society that was more hierarchical and less democratic that those found in the colonies of New Eng- land and the Middle Atlantic region. 4. With small population and limited resources, French colonies in North America depended on political and military alliances and commercial relations with native peoples. 5. Eventually England defeated France and gained control of North America east of the Mississippi

Ottoman Empire's ebbing military power

1. badly trained Janissaries hired substitutes 2. sultans relied on partly trained seasonal recruits and armies raised by governors on frontier provinces 3. siege on Vienna failed in 1685

economic crises

1. carpet and silk fabrics were mainstays of the Empire's foreign trade 2. most people led by subsistence farming or herding 3. no real technological advances during this period

Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empires faced similar problems...

1. complex changes in military technology 2. complex changes in the world economy 3. increasing difficulty of basing an extensive land empire on military forces paid through land grants EFFECTS: dynamic development of power centers away from the imperial capital

the Mughal's challenge in India

1. conquering and organizing a large territorial state 2. finding a formula for Hindu- Muslim coexistence (Mughals had to contend with the Hindus' long- standing resentment of the destruction of their culture by Muslims)

Portuguese and Sugar

1. developed slave-dependent sugar plantations on islands on the African coast 2. introduced this system to Brazil -> Brazil was soon the the Atlantic World's biggest sugar producer

triumph of religious diversity

1. ended charles' political ambitions 2. put off German unification for three centuries

How Mehmed the Conqueror defeated Constantinople

1. enormous cannon to bash in the city's walls 2. dragged warships to city's inner harbor to get around sea defenses 3. penetrated land walls through direct infantry assaults

two traditions/early european ideas of the natural world

1. folklore of magic, forest spirits -passed down orally -pre-christian times 2. biblical teachings of christian/jewish scriptures -heard by everybody in church -read by people in translations -chirstian teachings of MIRACLES, SAINTS, DEVILS mixed easily with folklore

Spain and Portugal's American colonies SUMMARY

1. grew rich from silver, gold, and sugar exports 2. depended on forced labor of Amerindians and African slaves 3. Catholic church provided for spiritual needs of settlers and converted Amerindians/Africans to christianity 4. new peoples - mixed offspring of the three groups - and new blended American cultures developed over time

European powers had an advantage over local seafarers because...

1. improvements on ship design 2. navigation accuracy 3. use of cannon

safavid Empire resembled the Ottoman Empire...

1. initially relied on cavalry paid through land grants 2. population spoke several different languages 3. oriented inward away from the sea

other notes

1. istanbul elite saw europeans as the enemy that would eventually dismantle the Ottoman Empire 2. practice of buying slave in the Causcaus and training them as soldiers reappeared in several Arab cities by the mid 1700s 3. the central govt weakened as the imperial economy reoriented toward Europe. Rise of local powers within the OE.

how could a french family gain tax exemption

1. live in gentility (social superiority) for three generations 2. purchasing a title from the king

themes from period of European colonization of the Americas (revealed by Red Shoes)

1. many people thrived temporarily by adapting new technologies and political purposes to their own purposes 2. political/economic demands of European empires forced Americas onto the "global stage" 3. Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans contributed to the creation of new cultures -> complexity of colonial society -> new cultures reflected... - mix of native peoples - connections to slave trade - characteristics of European society establishing the colony

Four trends evident in Latin West since about 1000

1. revival of urban life and trade 2. in Europe -> unique alliance between merchants and rulers 3. struggle with Islamic powers to control Medi...mixed the expansion of trade with religion 4. grew intellectual curiosity about the outside world

political collapse

1. trade declined because of mismanagement of the silk monopoly after Shah Abbas death 2. trouble finding money to pay army and bureaucracy 3. by 1722, the government had become so weak and had so little support from the nomads that an army of Afghans was able to capture Isfahan and end Safavid rule (Afghans were the people that eventually took over the Empire)

Iran developed largely on its own

1.reliance on Persian script, not just arabic 2. extensive contacts with India rather than other Arab nations (they would have to go through the Ottoman Empire) 3. unique artistic styles (tile mosaics, vivid turquoise color, etc) 4. belief in Shi'ism

poverty in Dutch towns

1/2 population lived in acute poverty permenant city residents that were too poor to tax were the "deserving poor" (10-20% of population) ^ calculation didn't include large group of "unworthy poor"

da Gamma's un-impressive gifts to samorin in Calicut

12 pieces of fairly ordinary stripped cloth 4 scarlet hoods 6 hats 6 wash basins seemed inferior to those who were accustomed to LUXURIES of Indian Ocean trade...da Gamma said they were gifts of an explorer not a rich merchant..."If he had come to discover men, as he said, why had he brought nothing?"

Fernao Gomes

1469; Lisbon merchant perchased the exploration pri vledge of 250 miles of African coast from the crown inreturn for trade monopoly islands of Sao Tome were uninhabitated -> major producer of sugar dependent on imported slaves (model for sugar plantations in Brazil and Caribbean) explored Gold Coast

Bartolomeu Dias

1488: first Portuguese explorer to round southern tip of africa and into Indian Ocean

colonization before 1650

1500: Spanish settlers introduced sugar-cane cultivation -> neglected colonies (attention -> colonizing American mainland) 1600: West Indies revived as a focus of colonization; this time by northern Europeans -> Northern Europeans wannted to grow mainly tobacco

Pedro Alvares Cabral

1500: ships under his command sailed too far west -> reached SA mainland discovery established portugals claim to Brazil

Spain conquers land...

1508: Borinquen was conquered (Puerto Rico...my heart's devotion...) 1510-1511: Cuba was conquered after TWO FAILED EXPEDITIONS TO MEXICO...Governer Velaquez of Cuba appointed HERNAN CORTEZ

Charles V (. 1519 - 1556)

1519: electors of the HRE chose him to be the emperor -member of the Hasburg family of Austria 1516: inherited Spanish throne of Castile and Aragon VAST RESOURCES -> wanted to lead a christian coalition to halt Ottoman empire's advances into SE Europe

misery provoked rebellions in early modern Europe

1525: peasant rebels in the Alps attacked both nobles and the clergy (all representatives of the privileged/landowning classes). Also attacked merchants (denounced for lending at interest and charging high prices) as rural conditions worsened, rebellions multiplied

Jacques Cartier

1534 - 1542 : explored Newfoundland and Gulf of St. Lawerence in three voyages navigator and promoter for France - wanted to find mineral wealth -> stones he found were quarts and fools gold - comtempory of Cortes and Pizarro

ask the Amerindians about Europe...

1580: mayor of Bordeaux asked a group of visiting Amerindian chiefs what impressed them most about European cities chiefs expressed astonishment at the disparity between the fat, well-fed people and the poor, half-starved men and women in rags Why did the poor not grab the rich by the throat or set fire to their homes?

chartered companies

1602: Netherlands gave the dutch east india company a monopoly over INDIAN OCEAN TRADE -> private investors were rewarded when DEIC captured control of Portuguese long-distance IO trade 1621: Dutch West India Company siezed sugar-producing areas in Brazil and African slaving ports from Portugal -> chartered companies were an important part of mercantilist capitalism

Virgina Company (colonization of Virginia and early colonization of North America)

1606 - London investors organized the Virginia company...took up the colonization of Virginia 1607 - 144 settlers left for Jamestown (more arrived in 1609) investors hoped for good, quick profits, but the location was swampy and unhealthy -> 80% died in the first 15 years from disease or Amerindian attacks -> no mineral wealth, passage to Asia, or docile/exploitable native population 1624 - (18 years later) company was idssolved by the Crown because of mismanagement -> colonists were no longer committed to the company and its original location -> pushed deeper into theland -> developed a sustainable fur, timber, tobacco-based economy -> tobacco profits attracted new settlers -> settlers spread out along cheapsake bay shoreline - plantations and farms were developed

Barbados (English) best demonstrates the dramatic transformation sugar brought to the Caribbean in the 1600s

1640: dos's economy depended largely on tobacco (grown by free and indentured European settlers) 1680s: sugar became the main crop; enslaved Africans outnumbered Europeans 3:1 -became the wealthiest/most populous of he English American colonies 1700: Barbados and other West Indian colonies collectively surpassed Brazil as the world's principal source of sugar

New Netherland -> New York

1664: Dutch surrendered without a fight when confronted by an English military expedition James, Duke of York (King James II of England) was the proprietor of the Colony -> NEW YORK

Royal African Company

1672: royal charter by English government to conduct merchants trade in West African/Atlantic coasts headquarters at Cape Coast Castle (Gold Coast)

uprisings in France

450 uprisings between 1590 - 1715 -many were set off by tax increases/food shortages 1670: rebellion in southern France started when a mob of townswomen attacked a tax collector -> spread to countryside -> peasant leaders cried out against "oppressors" -> were dealt with severely by authorities (leaders were maimed/executed)

plantocracy

90% of the WI population was slaves...small number of very rich men that owned most of the slaves and land MINORITY RULED BY A MAJORITY

encomienda

A grant of authority over a population of Amerindians in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Amerindians. It obliged the grant holder to Christianize the Amerindians

Indentured Servants

A migrant to British colonies in the Americas who paid for passage by agreeing to work for a set term ranging from four to seven years about 80% of all English immigrants to Virginia and Maryland received a small parcel of land, some tools, some clothes

Hasburg

A powerful Euro- pean family that provided many Holy Roman Emperors, founded the Austrian (later Austro-Hungarian) Empire, and ruled sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Spain

maroon (book definition)

A slave who ran away from his or her master. Often a member of a community of runaway slaves in the West Indies and South America

BEFORE (movements of heavenly bodies) -circular orbits -came up with 80 spheres and ingenious theories to explain "seemingly irregular" movements - earth was the center of orbits -heavenly bodies were smooth

AFTER (movements of heavenly bodies) - sun was center of orbits (heliocentric theory) -orbits were elliptical -sun spots/mountains/valleys -other planets had moons -earth was not alone in being heavy and changeable

Tupac Amaru II's rebellion

ATTRACTED: creoles, mestizos, slaves, Amerindians CAUSE: wanted to redress the grievances of NA communities that suffered from the mita and taxes WHAT HAPPENED: Spanish captured and brutally execured Tupac, his family, and allies in 1781 EFFECTS: 100,000 lives were lost, enormous amounts of property destroyed, ideas of rebellion

"Divine Faith"/Akbar and religion

Abkar was the center of his faith -incorporated Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Sikh, Christian, and Sufi ideas - strong Sufi ideas (permeated the religious rituals he instituted) - Abkar oversaw scholarly debates amoung all religious scholars to promote MORE SERIOUS CONSIDERATION OF RELIGIOUS PRINCIPALS -"Allahu Abkar" = "God is great" and "God is Akbar" Akbar's religious views did not last -> the mixed court culture (muslim and hindu) did

Aurangzab

Akbar's grandson re-instituted many restrictions on Hindus

Ducth banks

Amsterdam was Europe's financial center in the 17th century banks had a reputation for security -> entrusted by wealthy individs and govts from all over western Europe -> banks invested those funds in real estate, loaned money to factory owners/governments, provided capital for big business operations overseas

Iroquois Confederacy (pg 507)

An alliance of five northeastern Amerindian peoples (six after 1722) that made decisions on military and diplomatic issues through a council of representatives. Allied first with the Dutch and later with the English, the Confederacy dominated the area from western New England to the Great Lakes established trading relationships with Dutch merchants...everybody had access to Canada's rich fur trade

Oman

Arab state based in Musqat, the main port in the southeast region of the Arabian peninsula. Oman suc- ceeded Portugal as a power in the western Indian Ocean in the eighteenth century

development of a distinct Swahili culture*

Arabs/other Muslim settlers intermarried with local families -> mixed population --> played an important role in developing this unique culture *no significant contact developed between the emerging Muslim Swahili culture and culture of Muslims in Sudan to the north

influence of indigenous peoples on the development of colonial societies

Aztec and Inca protected traditional privileges/rights through marriage/less formal alliances with Spanish settlers -used colonial courts to defend claims to land - native military allies/laborers were crucial to development of European settlements - native beliefs/religious practices survived beneath the imposed Christianity - native languages, cuisines, medical practices, and agricultural techniques survived conquest and influenced the development of LA culture

Moctezuma II (r. 1502 - 1520) AND the story of Aztec downfall

Aztec emperor hesitated to use force and attempted diplomacy -> cortes pushed toward capital(Tenochitlan) -> used firearms, cavalry tactics, steel swords to GREAT MILITARY ADVANTAGE Moctezuma agreed to welcome Spaniards ->emperor went out in procession, dressed in best to welcome the Spanish, as Spaniards approached capital... Cortes initially pledged that he came in friendship but imprisoned the emperor -spanish looted treasury -interfered with city's religious rituals -massacred 100s during a festival MASS REBELLION against spanish AND the emperor spaniards desperately escaped...Aztecs killed 1/2 spanish force and 4000 native allies of Corts -Montezuma also died...killed by spanish or aztecs? -survivors were strengthened by spanish reinforcements and Tlaxcalans...captured Tenochitlan in 1521 -smallpox epidemic killed more natives than fighting did...was blamed on supernatural forces Cortes, Spanish leaders, native allies, and Tlaxcalansled expeditions to north/south -indigenous resistance was greatly suffocated by epidemic disease *whew that was long*

Amerindian adaptations

BEFORE EUROPEANS: NAs were members of numerous distinct cultural/linguistic groups AFTER: conquest and epidemics undermined their social/cultural complexity. Relocations eroded ethnic boundaries among natives CULTURE IS NOT AS RICH

Akbar

Babur's grandson - established central administration of the expanding state - Akbar and his three successors conquered all of India but the southern tip - granted land revenues to military officers and govt officials in return for their service "Most illustrious sultan of the Mughal Empire in India (r. 1556-1605). He expanded the empire and pursued a policy of conciliation with Hindus"

Swahili

Bantu language with Arabic loanwords spoken in coastal regions of East Africa

New Laws of 1542

Bartolomé de Las Casas limited the ability of Spanish settlers to compel Amerindians to labor for them through these laws.

AP Exam Tip

Be aware of human impact on the environment, such as the introduction of new plants and animals into a region.

AP Tip

Be prepared to compare slavery and other coercive labor systems for the exam

AP Exam Tip

Be prepared to compare the social structures of colonial possessions over time and space

rulers of Benin and Kongo...

Benin and Kongo = two largest coastal kingdoms accepted both Port. missionaries and soldiers as allies in battle to test efficacy of CHRISTIAN RELIGION and EUROPEAN WEAPONRY

Suleiman the Magnificent

Selim's son led the Ottoman Empire in its Golden Age by 1520s, OE was the most powerful and best-organized state in either Europe or the Islamic World

Prince Henry of Navarre -> Henry IV of France (religions/ambitions of Kings)

CATHOLIC became catholic in the interest of NATIONAL UNITY (most subjects were catholic) son and grandson also supported catholic church (King Louis XIII and Louis XIV)

King Phillip II of Spain (religions/ambitions of Kings)

CATHOLIC used Inquisition to enforce religious orthodoxy imposed spains horrible sales tax and enforce catholic orthodoxy -> dutch revolt son of Charles V

Henry VII of England (religion/ambitions of kings)

CHURCH OF ENGLAND -> ANGELICAN -was a strong defender of papacy -Catherine of Aragon didn't bear him a son, he wanted to divorce her, Catholic church wouldn't allow him too -> challenged papacy's authority over english church -> English archbishop of Canterbury anuled his marriage (1533) -> PARLIAMENT MADE THE MONARCH THE HEAD OF AN AUTONOMOUS CHURCH OF ENGLAND

Nadir Shah's sack of Delhi (1739)

CLIMAX OF THE DECLINE OF MUGHAL POWER Mughal Empire survived in name to 1857 but was pretty much done after this Nadir Shah = warlord that seized power in Iran after the fall of the Safavids - invaded Mughal capital and took the "peacock throne" to iran

Aden

Calicut's principal trading partner

"exotic luxuries"

Caribbean and Brazilian sugar/rum Mexican chocolate Virginia tobacco North American furs East Indian cotton textiles and spices Chinese tea

competition between Caribbean colonies and Virginia

Caribbean colonies in crisis because of tobacco competition from Virginia (both groups used indentured servants)

Great Powers of europe

Catholic France Anglican Britain Catholic Austria Lutherian Prussia Orthodox Russia maintained an effective balance of power in europe by shifting alliances for geopolictical instead of religious reasons (not religious reasons bc they all adhered to different forms of christianity) FIRST SUCCESSFUL EFFORTS AT INTERNATIONAL PEACEKEEPING

AP Exam Tip

Changes and continuities in inter-regional trading patterns are covered on the multiple choice and essay sections of the exam.

james II

Charles II's brother inherited the throne - provoked new conf lict by refusing to respect Parliament's rights and by baptizing his heir as a Roman Catholic - forced him into exile during Glorious Revolution (1688)

Peace of Asburg (1555)

Charles V had recognized the princes' right to choose whether Catholicism or Lutheranism would prevail in their particular states -> permitted them to keep the church lands they had seized

converts to Christianity

Christian missionaries gained most of their converts n regions that hadn't adapted Islam yet (ex. northern Philippines)

AP Exam Tip

Colonial trade systems are a possible comparison point on the exam

bourgeoisie parents and education for daughters

Daughters -> less likely to be formally educated women with basic education often helped their husbands as bookkeepers some inherited businesses

Mughals and Europeans

Dutch and English were shipmasters -> naval support in return for trading privledge increasing fragmentation favored theintrusion of European adventurers

banks

Dutch banks developed reputations for security - entrusted with large sums of money -> made a profit by investing funds

Dutch in the East Indies

Dutch played a major role in driving the Portuguese out of the East Indies with their well-organized Dutch East India Company - Dutch seized Malacca

Dutch involvement in SE Asia

Dutch were once middle men between SE Asian producers and European buyers -> producing crops in areas they controlled (Java)

Government had to pay for the defense of Beijing

EFFECT: government payrolls were slashed

large plantations

EFFICIENCY and PROFITABILITY WI Plantations expanded to twice their size (ex. Jamaica specialized so heavily/so much land on sugar production that a lot of its food had to be imported)

Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691)

ENGLISH demonstrated the usefulness of the experimental method and became a missionary of mechanical science Royal Society (London 1662) ->promoted knowledge of the natural world

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

ENGLISH mathematician carried Galileo's demonstration -> logical conclusion: Law of Gravity -formulated mathematical laws that governed all physical objects -roles in developing calculus/the law of gravity -most famous/influential man of his era -served as president of Royal Society from 1703 till his death

Kenyan highlands

East African lakes region migration -> relocation of peoples because of drought conditions continued from late 1500s thu the 1600s

House of Burgesses

Elected assembly in colonial Virginia, created in 1618 (Crown-appointed governer and town representatives)

on the eve of the America Revolution...

England defeated france and weakened Spain administrative,military, and tax policies imposed to help England win empire-wide victory alienated most of the NA population

proprietorships

England tried to have more royal control over colonial political life by replacing colonial charters with proprietorships

English and French v Spanish and Portuguese DIFFERENCES

English and French colonies developed almost a century after Cortes - E and F settlement was propelled by the Protestant reformation - increased trade in europe led to greater integration of world cultural regions - E and F were fighting wars; didn't imitate large, expensive colonial bureaucracies of S and P -> private companies and individual proprietors played a larger role in colonial development than in S and P initial colonies of E in Virginia had dispersed populations; S and P America were much more urbanized at that time -> S and P America had large, powerful cities and networks of secondary towns -> no cities of significant size developed in VA

social divisions

English colonies experienced renewed economic growth and attracted new waves of immigration; had more obvious social divisions 1770: colonial population was more urban, more divided by class/race, more vulnerable to economic downturns

House of Lords

English noblemen and churchmen

House of commons

English representatives from towns and counties

blending of European and Christian beliefs with those of traditional native cosmology and ritual -> unique Amerindian Christianity

European clergy wanted to transmit Catholic belief and ritual peacefully...linguistic diversity and geographical dispersal of Amerindian populations defeated this ambition. -> slow process and limited success resulted in "blended Christianity" EUROPEANS viewed this evolving mixture as the work of the devil and evidence of Amerindian inferiority BUT it was really part of a cultural blending process that resulted in a distinct, original LA culture

mercantilism (book definition)

European government policies of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries designed to promote overseas trade between a country and its colonies and accumulate precious metals by requiring colonies to trade only with their motherland country. The British system was defined by the Navigation Acts, the French system by laws known as the Exclusif

paying military costs

European rulers had to increase revenues to pay heavy military costs ALLIANCES WITH COMMERCIAL ELITES -> merchants/bankers wanted to reduce their regulations/taxes and "enhance the enforcement of contracts and the collection of debts without accepting insupportable tax burdens" -> rulers/merchants/bankers knew military power was capable of protecting overseas expasion and that this was crucial to economic growth AND cost could be overwhelming

mercantilism

European states tried to monopolize colonial profits by controlling trade ad accumulating capital in gold and silver mercantilism policies discouraged citizens from trading with foreign merchants (used force sometimes)

disintegration of the central Mughal power (and its connection to Europe)

FAVORED THE INTRUSION OF EUROPEAN ADVENTURERS

Voltaire (1649 - 1778) Qoutes

FRENCH "No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for" "It would be very peculiar that all nature, all the planets, should obey eternal laws" but a human being, "in contempt of these laws, could act as he pleased solely accord- ing to his caprice."

European rulers admired and imitated the centralized powers and absolutist claims of the...

FRENCH (english sytems would become much more popular later in history)

where was the Mughal Empire administered from?

First from Agra then from Delhi

Batavia

Fort established ca. 1619 as headquarters of Dutch East India Company operations in Indonesia; today the city of Jakarta - was beseiged by a fleet of 50 ships that belonged to the sultan of Mataram - Dutch prevailed when the sultan couldn't get help from the english

Seven Year's War (1756 - 1763)

French NA colonies were threatened by French-English wars and prosperity of neighboring English colonies - French and Indian War began n 1754 -> led to wider conflict of Seven Years War -> determined the fate of french Canada (lost to British)

How did the French treat the natives

like ALLIES and TRADING PARTNERS (did NOT try to transform ancient ways or force the transfer of native lands)

christopher columbus (1451-1506)

Genoese mariner who in the service of Spain led expedi- tions across the Atlantic, reestablishing contact between the peoples of the Americas and the Old World and opening the way to Spanish conquest and colonization. -four voyages -"new world" -refused to accept that he found new land and insisted he had reached unknown areas off of China -won sponsorship of Queen of Castile and King or Aragon -kept a log (starting 1492)

charted companies (book definition)

Groups of private investors who paid an annual fee to France and England in exchange for a monopoly over trade to the West Indies colonies.

american crops (1650s -1700s)

HIGH YIELD -> helped rural poor avoid starvation -> potatoes SUSTAINED LIFE (*angels sing*) in northeastern/central Europe and Ireland -> poor peasants in Italy subsisted on maize IRONY:all of these lands were major exporters of wheat, but most of those who planted and harvested it could not afford to eat it

edict of nantes (1598)

Henry IV granted religious freedom to Protestant supporters in 1598

Rajputs

Hindu warriors that were mansabdars under Akbar...warriors from the north "Members of a mainly Hindu warrior caste from northwest India. The Mughal emperors drew most of their Hindu officials from this caste, and Akbar married a Rajput princess"

Amsterdam

Holland's largest city Europe's major port Europe's financial center Dutch developed large commercial fleets -> dominated sea trade in Europe/overseas

warefare and diplomacy notes

Holy Roman Empire, France, England -> warfare was almost constant (EME) monarchs spent a lot of money and caused widespread devestation and death -> worst was the Thirty Years' War

rich mines of Peru, Bolivia, and Mexico

stimulated urban population growth and commercial links with distant agricultural and textile producers

Imperial Diet

Imperial assembly

bourgeoisie

In early modern Europe, the class of well-off town dwellers whose wealth came from manufacturing, finance, commerce, and allied professions -members devoted lots of time to their businesses -most money went into their businesses/new ventures -most could afford large houses - some had servants - wealthier consumers could buy exotic luxeries -sought multually beneficial alliances with European monarchs (monarchs welcomed economic growth because it increased state revenues) burghers, town dwellers

plantocracy (book definition)

In the West Indian colonies, the rich men who owned most of the slaves and most of the land, especially in the eighteenth century.

what distinguished the Mughal empire (from the Ottomans and Safavids)

India was a land of Hindus ruled by a Muslim minority

Safavid Empire

Iranian kingdom established by Ismail Safavid Shi'ite muslim derived part of its legitimacy from pre-Islamic dynasties of ancient iran

Constantinople is now known as...

Istanbul the fall of Constantinople brought an end to over 1100 years of Byzantine rule

AP Exam Tip

It is important to understand slave systems in general, but not necessarily the details of a slave system in any specific nation

Catholic Church in Canada

JESUITS tried to convert natives like in Brazil and Paraguay - mastered native languages - created boarding schools - set up model agricultural communities for converts most success: during times of disease and native warfare in 1630s - established churches in Huron and Algonquin territories

Settler Resistance in NE

James II's overthrow ended the Glorious Revolution (1688) -> not before colonists were provoked to resist and rebel 1. colonies overthrew gov'ners of New York and Massachusetts 2. removed catholic proprietor of Maryland *William and Mary restored peace* *colonists alerted to potential aggression of the British govt* *colonial politics remained confrontational*

Other northern Eurasian states with foreign threats and internal uprisings

Japan and Russia went through massive political and economic changes - all three faced new contacts/challenges from commercially and militarily power European states

why the Dutch produced so many crops in Java

Javanese teak forests... - high-quality lumber - high-quality coffee (was transplanted from Yemen) crops grew well in western hilly regions

1540: Society of Jesus aka...

Jesuits

Jesuit Missionaries and the spread of Islam

Jesuits tried to extend Christianity to Asia and Africa BUT most Europeans (EXCEPTION; PORTUGAL) didn't treat local converts/offspring of mixed marriages as full members of the community ISLAM WAS MORE WELCOMING -> Islam spread to East Africa and Southeast Asia at the same time as rapid European commercial expansion -> "Islam ecame a source of resistance to growing European domination"

African King that made agreements to set up trading fort with portuguese on Gold Coast

King Caramansa

Portuguese in West Africa (cont.)

King Caramansa gave permission for a small trading fort...said he was assured by the honorable apperance of the Portuguese instead of earlier "few, foul, vile" Portuguese visitors neither side made show of force but AFRICANS HAD UPPER HAND bc of Caramansa's warnign that he and his ppl would move away (deprive portuguese fort of food and trade) if portuguese acted aggressively

Jean Baptiste Colbert

King Louis XIV's minister of finance (1661 - 1683) chartered French East India and French West India Companies to expel Dutch/English traders from French colonies

Malindi

King cooperated with the Portuguese very rich trading port - initially favored by Portuguese (caused the decline of Kilwa and Mombasa)

Forced Labor systems (comparison)

LATIN AMERICA: colonists relied on Amerindian forced labor African Slave Trade: compelled migration of millions of forced laborers to S + P colonies ENGLAND: Planters were more likely to purchase cheaper limited contracts than African slaves during the period of high mortality rates -> life expectancy improved, more slaves were purchased bc planters thought they could earn greater profits -> VA's slave population grew rapidly

Kingdom of Kongo and Potuguese

LIKE BENIN...manikongo sent delegates to Portugal , established royal monopoly on trade with Portuguese, expressed interest in Christian teachings -> rulers were deeply interested in new faith system -> Catholicism was made kingdom's official faith sold increasing number of slaves to to aquire goods brought by Portugal and pay costs of missionaries

Mughal emperors of India (response to Portugal)

LIKE EMPERORS OF CHINA, they largely ignored Portugal's maritime intrusions saw Port. interests as maintaining control over vast land possessions

Declining Ming Government

Li Zicheng's forces moved toward Beijing and enlisted captured men 1644: Li took over Beijing without a fight - last emperor hung himself -> Ming dynasty ended

Holy Roman Empire

Loose federation of mostly Ger- man states and principali- ties, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806 EXAMPLE OF political diversity through city-states and principalities

King Manual had named himself...(when da Gamma returned to Portugal in 1499)

Lord of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India

majority of slaves were African born

MOST DEATHS OCCURRED FROM DISEASE (slaves had to be imported to replace the ones that died) -> majority of slaves were african-born -> African religious beliefs, patterns of speech, styles of dress and movement, and music were predominant

Ming Dynasty was threatened by...

Manchu armies from Manchuria

How Massachusetts was different COMPARISON

Massachusetts - arrived with families - one of the only colonies with a normal gender balance - healthiest English colony -> rapid natural increase in population - population became more "American" because population did not depend on constant flow of immigrants and slaves bc of high mortality rates (like in the south or Caribbean) - more homogenous (than southern colonies) - less hierarchical (than southern colonies)

Tupac Amaru II (book)

Member of Inca aristocracy who led a rebellion against Spanish authorities in Peru in 1780-1781. He was captured and executed with his wife and other members of his family

Ahmad al-mansur

Moroccan sultan victory at Ksar el Kabir against Portuguese restored his country's strength and independence

Akbar

Mughal Emperor (muslim) 1572 - took control of Gujarat permitted Portuguese to continue maritime monopoly in return for allowing one ship a year to carry pilgrims to Mecca without paying the Portuguese any fee

Decline of Mughal Power

Mughal power didn't survive Auranzeb's death (1707) -> land grant system was a source of weakness -> his additions to Mughal territory in southern india weren't as well-integrated -> strong regional powers challenged the empire's military supremacy

Hindus and Muslims

Mughal state inherited traditions of unified imperial rule from both the Islamic caliphate and the more recent examples of Genghis Khan and Timur...this did not guanatee religious tolerance

the majority of most non-European shipbuilders, captains, sailors, and traders were...

Muslim (most were Muslim despite the fact that the Gunpowder Empires could not even compete with Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French maritime power) - there were also Armenian, Jewish, and Hindu traders but they rarely interacted with the Muslims

Malindi

Muslim ruler of one of the ports/coastal trading sites of EASTERN AFRICA... Vasco da Gama's fleet sauled up the coast of East Africa in 1498 ...saw the POrtuguese as allies who could help expand his city's trading position and provided da Gama with a pilot to guide him to India

Plantations and Environment

NONDESTRUCTIVE: water, wind, and animal-powered mills; broilers fueled by burning crushed cane; manure as fertilizer high profits -> nature was more ruthlessly exploited DESTRUCTIVE: repeated cultivation (nutrients removed from soil); soil exhaustion (ex. many Jamaican English settlers were planters on Barbados that moved on); introduction of nonnative animals/cultivated plants

Rise of Netherlands

Netherlands were resource-poor but commercially successful provinces aquired by Spainas part of Charles V's inheritance (see King Phillip II of Spain) -Dutch Revolts in 1566 and 1572 -skillful army; raised/trained one of the most effective navies in europe -spain couldn't bear military cost and accepted a true

New England v Spanish and Portuguese America

New England: individual merchant discovered smaller, more sustainable profits in diversified, widespread trade S and P: international trade was dominated by heavily capitalized monopolies

Benin

Niger Delta near peak of power when first encountered portuguese

which empire was the longest lived of the post-Mongol Muslim empires?

Ottoman Empire

Portugese ships

PROBLEM: large crews of galleys couldnt carry enough supplies for long voyages...square-rigged northern vessels couldn't sail at an angle to the wind SOLUTION: the caravel

"good impression" of Portuguese Royal Representative

PRR and officers wanted to make a good impression on coastal africans dressed in best clothes erected/decorated reception platform celebrated a catholic mass signaled the start of negotiations with trumpets, tambourines, drums

Spanish wanted to recruit social elites

PURPOSE: military officers to improve imperial defense WHAT ELITES WOULD GET: a compensatory opportunity for higher social status and greater responsibility

yerba

Paraguayan tea

Development of Pennsylvania

Penn soon lost control of the colony's political life but the colony flourished... Philadelphia passed Boston and became the largest city in the British colonies rapid economic and demographic growth was due to... 1. healthy climate 2. excellent land 3. relatively peaceful relation with natives ("negotiation not warfare") 4. access (through Philadelphia) to good markets

Fears about the World

People feared that... -South Atlantic water were boiling hot -South Atlantic currents would suck people in and never let them out

Who dominates the Spice Trade?

Poorhouse had tried to dominate the spice trade, so the Dutch first concentrated on spice-producing islands of SE Asia

Portuguese in Indian Ocean

Port. used control of major port cities to enforce even larger trading monopoly power grew = required all spices and goods carried btwn major ports to be carried in Portuguese ships portuguese also tried to control/tax other IO trade by requiring all merchant ships entering and leaving one of their ports to carry a Portuguese passport and pay customs duties. Patrols seized vessels that attempted to avoid these monopolies, confiscated their cargoes, and either killed the captain and crew or sentenced them to forced labor.

muslim revival in Morocco

Portugal and Spain seized coastal strongholds of Morocco and provoked a militant response in North Africa

expansion/reform in Brazil

Portugal created new admin positions and gave monopolies rights to little developed regions -LIKE IN SPANISH AMERICA, the colonial govt was intrusive and imposed new taxes -> rebellions and plots

Portuguese regains its territory

Portugual was free of Spanish rule in 1640 and reconquered Brazil 1654: drove Dutch out of Brazil consequence of driving out Dutch: some planters transferred their capital and knowledge of sugar production to Dutch, English, and French islands

Portuguese in Coastal Africa

Portuguese conquered all coastal ports from Mozambique northward (except Malindi) -> the Portuguese ruler cooperated with Malindi

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese explorer (1497-1498) led first naval expedition from Europe to India (also sailed around Africa) -> opened opened important commercial sea route

Portuguese in (west) africa

Portuguese trade offered new markets for exports/access to cheaper imports very evident along GOLD COAST -> first Portuguese visit in 1471

Hidden Imam

Shi'ite doctrine says that all rulers are stand-in for the Hidden Imam - the 12h descendant of Ali who disappeared as a child in the 9th century; he is expected to return as a messiah at the end of time

Spanish and Dutch truce

Spanish recognized autonomy in the northern Netherlands in 1609 1648: Independence of the seven UNITED PROVINCES OF THE FREE NETHERLANDS became final

altered European conversion misson

REDIRECTION of catholic church's resources and energy from resistance/epidemic in native regions TO growing colonial areas -> founding of UNIVERSITIES and STIMULATION OF URBAN INTELLECTUAL LIFE

common factor in struggles between England/France and other powerful rivals

RELIGION

Protestant reformation

Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church beginning in 1519. It resulted in the "protest- ers" forming several new Christian denominations, including the Lutheran and Reformed Churches and the Church of England most protestants rejected tradition of celibate priests + supported Christian marriage for ALL adults

Romanists

Roman Catholics according to Luther, "relied on good works" for salvation

Saint Peter's Basilica

Rome Pope Leo X size and splendor intended to 1. glorify God 2. Display skill of renaissance artists/builders 3. enhance standing of papacy vast expense of construction and rich decoration caused $ scandal

THE SPANISH PATTERN: Spanish in Antilles v Spanish during Muslim Wars

SAME ACTIONS AND MOTIVES -sought to serve God by defeating nonbelievers and placing them under christin control -sought to become rich in the process -individual conquistadors extended this pattern around Carribean as gold/indigenous labor became scarce on Hispanola -> new expeditions searched for gold/Amerindian labor across Caribbean region, captured natives, relocated them to Hispaniola as slaves

Ottoman sultans controlled much of...

SE Europe and Anatolia

Pennslyvania vs South Carolina COMPARISON

SIMILAR grain-exporting colonies DIFFERENT - SC ran on large numbers of slaves; Penn. ran off of free workers on family farms -> Penn. economic expansion occurred without reproducing SC's hierarchical and repressive social order -Penn. had a large population of black slaves and freedmen -> many were servants; many opportunities in skilled trades due to growing economy as well

silver ore extraction by miners

SMELTING - crushed ore packed with charcoal was fired in a furnace - wasted forest resources and destroyed forests near the mining centers - rising fuel costs -> development of a more efficient method MERCURY AMALGAMATION - severe environmental costs as well (mercury contaminated the environment/sickened the work force)

political leadership in Europe passed from...

SPAIN -> NETHERLANDS -> ENGLAND + FRANCE

Dutch in the Sugar Business

SUGAR BUSINESS: Dutch were early participants in the Brazilian sugar business as investors, merchants, and processors

Which countries' settlement patterns did French settlement closely resemble? Why? COMPARISON

Spain and Portugal - French wanted to bring God to the natives - emphasized the extraction of natural resources (but were focused fur instead of minerals) -

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Spain and Portugal splot the new world to prevent disputes to exploit new discoveries and spread Christianity -> Pope drew imaginary line down middle of North Atlantic Ocean EAST = portugal WEST = Spain -> Cabral's Brazil gave Portugal a claim to part of SA

royal monopolies

Spain and Portugal tried to restrict overseas trade of their colonies using royal monopolies monopoly control -> EXPENSIVE and INEFFICIENT

Conquest of the Inca

Spaniards in Panama heard tales of rich civs to the south (Incas) even before they conquered the Aztecs -Inca also built a powerful empire century before -empire expanded through conquest and Inca enforced new labor demands/taxes/exiled rebellious populations 1525: HUAYNA CAPAC (inca ruler) died in Quito whee he led a successful military campaign -two sons fought for throne -ATAHUALPA (r. 1531-1533) (candidate of the northern army) defeated HUASCAR (candidate of the royal court at Cuzco) -> Inca military was decimated...empire's political leadership was weakened by violence FRANCISCO PIZARRO (ca. 1478 - 1541), 180 men, 37 horses, 2 cannons entered region 1502: Pizarro came to Americas 1520s: gambled his fortune to finance exploration of the Pacific south of equator -> Inca riches 1531: set out from Panama with a license from the king of Spain to conquer Inca 1532: arranged to meet Inca emperor -w/ boldness and brutality, his small army attacked Atahualpa and followers as hey entered an enclosed courtyard -against an army of 40000, canons were used to create confusion while swords murdered the lighter-armed Inca -imitated Cortes's strategy by capturing the emperor -Atahulpa ordered execution of imprisoned brother Huascar TO GUARD HIS AUTHORTY and ATTEMPTED TO PURCHASE HIS FREEDOM (13,400 lbs of gold and 26,000 lbs of silver)...Atahulpa was still EXECUTED -> spanish occupied capital: Cuzco spanish placed another brother on the throne, Manco Inca...he led a massie rebellion in 1536 -> defeated by spanish but he and his followers retreated to the interior and created a much reduced independent incan kingdom that lasted until 172 spaniards wanted to settle their own rivalries and initiated a massive civil war -pizarro and most other leaders were killed -conquistador extended exploration an conquest of the americas *whew again*

colonial mining

Spanish (later Portuguese) produced valuable gold SILVER MINES in Spanish colonies generated the most wealth and exercised greatest economic influence

Moros

Spanish term for the Muslims of North Africa, their old enemies

western europe continued to depend on unfree labour

TRUE the labour wasn't kept locally in Europe however...it was kept at a distance in the colonies legal freedom -> didn't really make a peasant's life safer or more secure

gentry (england)

The class of land- holding families in England below the aristocracy

capitalism (book definition)

The economic system of large financial institutions—banks, stock exchanges, investment companies—that first developed in early modern Europe. Commercial capitalism, the trading system of the early modern economy, is often distinguished from industrial capitalism , the system based on machine production

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus's voyages - dramatic population changes weakened natives' capacity for resistance and accelerated this transfer - colonies of Spain, Portugal, ngland, and France became vast arenas of cultural and social experimentation

Indulgences

The forgive- ness of the punishment due for past sins, granted by the Catholic Church authorities as a reward for a pious act. Martin Luther's protest against the sale of indulgences is often seen as touching off the Protestant Reformation forgiveness of the punishment due for past sins seen as abusive/scandalous

Versailles

The huge palace built for French king Louis XVI south of Paris. The palace symbolized both French power and the triumph of royal authority over the French nobility/clergy/towns (elaborate ceremonies/banquets kept nobles away from estates where they might plot rebellion) SYMBOL OF ROYAL ABSOLUTISM

AP EXAM TIP

The multiple choice portion of the exam requires a general understanding of European absolutism but not knowledge of individual rulers

witch hunts (early modern Europe)

The pursuit of people suspected of witch- craft, especially in northern Europe in 16/17th centuries fear of witches' power swet across northern europe (BELIEF IN SPIRITUAL CAUSES OF NATURAL EVENTS) -secular/church authorities tried 100,000+ ppl (3/4 women)for practicing wtchcraft -accusers and accussed believed that angry/jealous individs could use evil magic/power of the Devil to make ppl sick/crops die -some may have acctually tried to use witchcraft REFORMATION'S FOCUS ON DEVIL AS ENEMY OF GOD PROMOTED/JUSTIFIED EFFORTS TO IDENTIFY/PUNISH WITCHCRAFT

deforestation

The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves -England, France. Sweden, Russia (pretty much wherever iron production became a major industry)

mestizos

The term used by Spanish authorities to describe someone of mixed Amerindian and European descent growing " racial group occupied the middle class -> dominated urban artistic trade, small-scale agriculture, ranching frontier region elites (many were proud of their elite Aerindian heritage)

mulattos

The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent intermediate position in the tropics similar tomestizos

AP Exam Tip

Vocabulary words, such as encomienda and mita, are tested on the multiple choice section of the exam

Dutch West India Company (1621)

Trading company chartered by the Dutch government to conduct its merchants' trade in the Americas and Africa private Dutch trading company that captured a Spanish treasure fleet (1628) and used the wealth to finance an attack on Brazilian sugar-producing territory 1635: controlled much of Brazil's sugar region Dutch improved efficiency of the sugar industry in Brazil and profited from supplying African slaves and European goods

chartered companies

WHY how French and English governments controlled costs WHAT THEY WERE they allowed private investors organized chartered companies to develop the colonies in xchange for monopoly control and annual fees WHAT THEY DID provided passage to colonies for poor Europeans that would become indentured servants RESULT French/English populations grew rapidly

curtailing African cultural traditions

WHY: belief that slaves with strongest heritage led rebellions WHAT: required slaves to learn colonial language, discouraged use of African language, encouraged to adopt Catholicism HOW: mixed slaves that spoke different languages

Plantations in the West Indies

West Indies = first place Columbus reached in the Americas - first region in Americas where NA populations collapsed after 1650...sugar plantation, African slaves, and European capital made the West Indies a major center of Atlantic economy

Surat

a port in northwest India foreign trade boomed here doubled as an embarkation point for pilgrims on their way to Mecca

tobacco

a New World leaf long used by Amerindians for recreation and medicine King James I of England condemned tobacco smoke the habit spread anyway -> 1614: 7,000 shops around London sold tobacco

Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui (Amerindian uprisings)

a Peruvian amerindian leader that began the largest uprising in 1780 -took the name of his ancestor Tupac Amaru II - Jesuit education; close ties to local bishop and powerful colonial authorities - actively involved in colonial trade - wanted to redress the grievances of NA communities that suffered from the mita and taxes

Gullah

a dialect with dialect with African and English roots, evolved as the common idiom of the Carolina coast

Massachusetts Bay Company (MBC)

a joint-stock company that received a royal charter to finance the Massachusetts Bay Colony Puritan leaders carried the company charter from England to Massachusetts -> limited Crown efforts to control them

colonial residents saw the reforms as...

a more intrusive/expensive colonial government that overturned their informal constitution

Malintzin aka Malinche

a native woman given to Cortes shortly after his arrival in the Maya region, became his translator, key source of intelligence, and mistress As peoples and as individuals, native allies were crucial to the Spanish campaign

quakers

a persecuted religious minority

entrepot

a place where goods are stored or deposited and from which they are distributed

indigo

a plant that produces blue dye

Tacky (the story)

a slave/former-chief on the Gold Coast led a large rebellion in Jamaica in 1760 - followers broke into a fort and armed themselves - slaves from nearby plantations joined in - attacked several plantations (set on fire and killed planter families) - Tacky died in the fighting; 3 lieutenants died cruel "example" deaths

ambergris

a whale byproduct used in perfumes

Stono Rebellion of 1739

about 20 slaves (many African catholics) seized firearms and about 100 slaves joined them colonial militia defeated rebels and executed many rebellion shocked slave owners -> GREATER REPRESSION (Africans played a major role in this slave uprising (SC's biggest))

Queen Helena of Ethiopia

acted as a regent for younger sons after husband's death (1478) 1509 - she sent a letter to King of Portugal along with a gift THE LETTER proposed alliance between her army and Portugal's fleet against Turks DIED IN 1522 - before alliance could be arranged ethiopia's situation became more desperate

Virgina Government

administered by the House of Burgesses by 1660s - elected reps began to meet alone and initiated a distinguishing form of democratic representation -> expansion in colonial liberties and political rights occured alongsie dramatic increases in slave pops (irony)

spanish/portuguese justification of American conquests the catholic conversions

assumed an obligation to convert native populations to Christianity -> EXPANDED CHRISTIANITY (similar to expansion of christiantiy in europe around the time of Constantine) - small numbers of missionaries limited the quality of indoctrination even though there were huge numbers of converts - Amerindian elites were converted first (in hopes that their example would be followed)

why the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal were "gunpowder Empires" (not in book)

attention was focused on their impressive military exploits - all three made use of newly-developed firearms (especially cannons and small arms) to create their empires - all developed highly centralized administration that could mobilize the financial, manpower, natural resources necessary to purchase gunpowder arms AND supervise the deployment of those arms and training of soldiers to use their weapons

European domination changed indigenous world...

broke connections btwn people and places transformed religious life marriage practices diet material culture

loss of agricultural production in Anatolia between 1590 - 1610

bands of marauders were formed -> rebellions, emigrations, loss of agricultural production

iberian world, banks, and stock markets

banks and stock markets appeared much later in the Iberian world, slowing the rate of economic growth

AP TIP

be able to discuss creation of new religions

Isfahan

became Iran's capital in 1598 by decree of Shah Abbas I 1. very different from istanbul 2. not particularly diverse or cosmopolitan but exceedingly beautiful 3. brightly tiled domes and unobtrusive minarets line the city-scape 4. giant royal plaza was as large as five football fields 5. airy place for receiving foreign dignitaries 6. far from the sea (rarely visited by europeans) 7. trade controlled by Jews, Hindus, and Armenian Christians 8. homes crowded against each other but had private interior courtyards

Port of Izmir

became a multiethnic, multirelgious, multilinguistic entrepot - growing european commercial network

Portuguese slaves and sugar farming

before the settlement of Brazil, Portuguese developed sugar plantations (using african slave labor) on Atlantic islands -> success here allowed them to quickly transfer profitable sugar farming to Brazil -> sugar production expanded rapidly after 1540 -> dominitated Brazilian economy by 1700

Pennsylvania

began as a proprietary colony and refuge for quakers King Charles II was indebted to the father of William Penn -> Penn secured an ENORMOUS grant of territory (size of England) --> Penn was the proprietor/owner, so he had the right to establish a govt (one requirement: he had to provide for an assembly of freemen)

Reform/reorganization in British america

began before the Bourbon initiative in Spanish America...after Cromwell's Puritan Rebublic (ch16), Charles II (restored Stuart king) undertook an ambitious campaign to establish great control over the colonies

German Wars of Religion

began in 1546 -> charles V have up efforst of unification -> abdicated control of various possessions to various heurs -> retired to a monastery (1556)

Columbus and the "Indians"

believed islands he reached were part of the East Indies (1st ad 2nd voyages) reach SA on his 3rd voyage -> believed it was part of Asia others believed he had discovered new lands...

Istanbul elite and Western tastes

borrowed clothing, furniture styles, printed books,and tulips from Europe

European merchants v Islamic merchants

both relied on family and ethnic networks

religion/ambitions of Kings

both sides persecuted/executed those of differing views "wars of religion" continued in western Europe until1648 Catholic rulers of Spain/France defended Catholic tradition against Protestant challenges

insurance

bought by merchantsand trading companies to cover potential losses

serfdom

bound men and women to land owned by a local lord declined after the great plague (1350s ->) competition for work exerted a downward pressure on wages -> usefulness of serfdom was decreased to landowners large scale landowners in eastern europe found bound labour of serfs crucial for profits (nearly all African slaves had been shipped to the Americas)

Colonial grievances

bourbon political and fiscal reforms contributed to grievances -> limited creoles' access to colonial offices -> imposed new taxes/monopolies (more wealth to Spain) consumer/producer resentment led to violent confrontations with Spanish admin

maroons

communities of runaways numerous in Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Guianas

what did theological controversies do during the reformation/intro

broke religious unity of Latin Church contributed to long, violent wars -witch scare -> endurance of traditional folklore/popular beliefs -influence of classical ideas -> some bold thinkers challenged ideas of the ancient Greeks/Romans -new ideas introduced about motion of planets...challenged social and political systems...helped PROMOTE REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES technology of printing press broadened the impact of everything

"Rump Parliament"

composed of people that did NOT support Charles I -> ordered his execution -> Parliament (normal) replaced the monarchy with a REPUBLIC

French wars of religion (1562 - 1598)

calvinist opponents of Valois dynasty in France gained military advantage in these wars

Viceroyalty of Peru (1540)

capital in Lima governed Spanish south America

Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535)

capital was in Mexico city included southwest USA, mexico, Central America, and caribbean islands

Caroline Fur Trade

carolina settlement initially relied on the fur trade - E fur traders pushed further inland to compete with F in New Orleans and Mobile

official faith of kingdom of Kongo

catholicism

introduction of European livestock to the New World

cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, and pests (rats, rabbits) multiplied rapidly bc they had few natural predators

Thirty Years' War (1618 - 1648)

caued long-lasting depopulation and economic decline in much of the Holy Roman Empire

papacy

central adminis- tration of the Roman Catholic Church/central govt of Latin Christianity Pope is the head gained stature and suffered from corruption and dissent at the same time

Tlaxcalans

central mexico natives enemies of Aztecs became crucial supporters of cortez

Little Ice Age

century- long period of cool climate that began in the 1590s. Its ill effects on agriculture in northern Europe were notable (NEGATIVE) -> average temperatures fell only a few degrees -> effects were startling

Balance of powers in English model

checks/balances of englsh gained favor in early enlightenment

a "grass gang"

children under the supervision of an elderly slave were responsible for weeding and other simple work (ex. collecting grass for animals)

Afonso I (r. 1506 - ca. 1540)

christian manikongo in Kongo in 1526... wrote to "royal brother" (king of portugual) and BEGGED for him to help stop slave trade...unauthorized Kongolese were kidnapping and selling good people...appeals for help recieved no reply from Portugual (interests had shifted to indian ocean)...see <delcine of Kongo>

Sa'adi family

claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad led a resistance to Portuguese aggression

Calvinist Churches

clerical hierarchy was simplified -> elected own governing committees -> created regional/national synods to regulate doctrinal issues SIMPLICITY... dress life worship -> minimal statues -> min. musical instruments -> min. stained-glass windows -> min. incense -> min. vesments no ostentatious living

spain and Portugal settlements

colonial societies were based on customs/virtues of their homelands SOCIETY: - vertical hierarchy of estates (classes of society) -as uniformly Catholic -as an arrangement of patriarchal extended- family networks established familiar religious, social, and administrative institutions

New England

colonized by two groups of Protestants 1. Pilgrims 2. Puritans

Dutch West India Company entry into the African slave trade

combined economic and political motives seized important West African trading station of Elmina in 1638 took Portuguese Luanda on Angolan coast in 1641

War of the Spanish Succession (1701 - 1714)

combo of Britain's naval strength and land armies of Austria and Prussia blocked French expansionist efforst; prevented Bourbons from uniting thrones of France and Spain (defeat of Louis XIV's efforst to build an empire) -> this defeat illustrayed principle of balance of power in international relations

quilombos (Brazilian) palenques (Spanish)

communities of runaways common in Spanish America and Brazil largest was Palmares in Brazil

bourgeois parents and education

concerned for their children to have the education and training for success promoted the establishment of municipal schools to provide a solid education -> Latin -> Greek (for their sons) sons sent abroad to learn modern languages/to university to earn a law degree -> Legal training was useful for conducting business -> prerequisite for obtaining judicial or treasury positions

English Civil War (1642 - 1649)

conflict over royal versus parliamentary rights CAUSED by King Charles I's arrest of his parliamentary critics and ending with his execution OUTCOME checked the growth of royal absolutism and, with the Glo- rious Revolution of 1688 and the English Bill of Rights of 1689, ensured that England would be a CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

Aztecs

conquered their vast empire only the century before -subject peoples wanted to embrace spanish as allies -Spanish resented tribute payments. forced labor, and large-scale human sacrifices demanded by Aztecs -powerful native enemies (ex. Tlaxcalns) -

Ottoman Turks

conqured Egypt in 1517 and launched a major fleet in indian ocean to counter Portuguese

european militaries

constant warfare led to dramatic improvements in skill/weaponry of european armed forces -> amoung most powerful armies inthe world -> numbers of soldiers increased steadily -> large armies = more effective command structures -> new signaling techniques improved control of battlefield manuevers -> frequent drills for professional troops/militias -> troops learned to obey orders instantly + improved morale -> new, stronger forts constructed to protect major urban centers -> battles between evenly matched armies = expensive, war-lengthening stalemates -> victory increasingly depended on NAVAL SUPERIORITY

Trading Ports

cooperation in trading ports was held back by... -the thick bush country that separated areas of cultivated coastal land - ports competed in the export of ivory, ambergris, beeswax, resin, and wood

why did catholics wait longer to act?

copernicus and galileo were both catholic copernicus dedicated his book o the pope Gregory XIII (a pope) used latest astronomical findings to issue a new and more accurate calender (gregorian) in 1582 Galileo: conflict between scripture and science was only apparent bc word of God was expressed in the language of ordinary people, but GODS TRUTH was revealed more perfectly in a language that could be learned by careful observation/scientific reasoning -was complained about to the Inquisition -> prohibited fro further publishing on the subject

Royal Navy Notes

copied ship designs from Dutch in 1750s 1800s: surpassed rival French fleet in numbers England merged with scotland to become Great Britain; added Ireland -> built a North American empire (colonies)

New York

corrupt public administration and tumultuous politics (see New York City) by 1700s: diverse population that included English colonists, Dutch, German, and Swedish settlers, and lots of slaves

indentured servants over african slaves

cost half as much; people were willing to work after 1750, land in the West Indies was really expensive -> former indentured servants couldn't afford to buy land -> went to North America (where cheap land was) -> Caribbean planters switched to slaves

Ignatius of Loyola (1491 - 1556)

created "Society of Jesus" spanish nobleman JESUITS helped stem Protestant tide by teaching/preaching -gained converts through overseas missions

Vasco NuneS de Balboa

crossed the Isthmus of Panama and sighted Pacific Ocean

opening of a direct slave trade with Africa

cultural character of the black population of colonial Latin America was altered dramatically - African slaves arrived in the colonies with different languages, religious beliefs, and cultural practices (African slaves arrived in the colonies with different languages, religious beliefs, and cultural practices) - Europeans saw the differences as JUSTIFICATION for prejudice and discrimination

Anglo-Dutch Wars

debts helped persuade English monarchy to increase govt's role in managing economy

Elizabeth I

defeated Spanish Armada (1588) -> demonstrated usefullness of her father's (King Henry VIII) decesions -> BEGAN ENGLAND'S RISE TO NAVAL DOMINANCE

dramatic environmental changes in the New World

destructive impact of livestock on NW agriculture ("if cattle are allowed, the Indians will be destroyed") - sheep were environmental threats too (grazed close to the ground) (many animals had negative environmental effects, but there were many positive effects of this animal transfer as well)

New York City (mouth of Hudson River)

developed as a commercial and shipping center and guaranteed New York's success despite its political turmoil connected region's grain farmers to flourishing Caribbean and southern Europe markets

changing purpose of Batavia

developed from headquarters of the Dutch east India Company (far-flung enterprise) -> administrative capital of a conquered land

End of the Habsburg dynasty

died when Charles II of Spain died with no heir in 1700 -> 13 years of European conflict -> Philip of Bourbon (Louis XIV's grandson) took the throne 1. Spain reorganized its administration 2. reorganized tax collection 3. liberalized colonial trade policies 4. created new commercial monopolies 5. strengthed naby to protect colonial trade

Roaring Forties

discoverd by Dutch and used to reach Australia in 1606 blew throughout the year bwteen 40 and 50 degrees south latitude

DISEASE

disease (especially smallpox) weakened their ability to resist/facilitate Spanish and Portuguese occupation after 1518

demographic changes (the most tragic and dramatic change in the West Indies)

disease/abuse almost eliminated indigenous peoples after Columbus's first voyage West Indies was the colony that was re-peopled the earliest and most completely - re-peopled first by settlers - then by African slaves

John Locke (1632-1704)

disputed monarchial claims to absolute authority by divine right - rulers derived authority from consernt o the governed and were subject to law - if monarchs overstepped the law, citizens had duty to rebel - book: Second treatise of Civil Government

imperial wars with france and spain

disrupted trade in the atlantic, increased tax burdens, forced military mobilization , provoked frontier conflicts with amerindians

papal bull of condemnation

document of condemnation

Growing English Wealth

dutch faced growing ENGLISH competition -> english were developing a close association between business and govt -> english fleet doubled in 40 years and foreign trade rose x1.5 -> state revenue from customs duties tripled -> used new naval might to break Dutch dominance in overseas trade in a series of wars -> also extended the English colonial empire

International competition

dutch faced growing competition from english (english were dveloping own close association of business and government) wars (1652 - 1678) English naval might broke Dutch dominance - english fleet doubled in 40 years - foreign trade rose by 50% - state revenue from customs duties tripled - trading position continued to strengthen in the 18th cenutry

netherlands (example of bourgeois enterprise)

dutch manufacturers/tradesmen -> veriety of goods in factories and workshops textile industry -> weaving, finishing, printing of cloth (spinning was left to low-paid workers in other places) made cheaper textiles (fine woolens and linens) for mass markets

Christian Ethiopia

east african state that saw benefits of an alliance with portuguese 14/15th centuries - Ethiopia faced conflicts with Muslim states along the Red Sea

almost all European colonies in the Americas grew...

economically (economic expansion) and demographically (population growth )

smuggling

employees trading on their own

parliament

england's representative body approves all new taxes

trade at Saint George of the Mine aka Elmina

enriched both coastal africans (caramansa) and portuguese portuguese crown purchased gold = 1/10 of world's production Caramansa and people recieved large quantities of Asian, European, and other African goods in return (from Portuguese)

"good impression" of African King

enterance with equal ceremony arrived with A LOT of attendants and musicians portuguese and caramansa exchanged elaborate, good-willing speeches

NOTES...

epic sea voyages that Iberian kingdoms of Portugal and Spain sponsored are of special interest because the maritime revolution they began had huge impacts Portuguese and Spanish ended isolation of the Americas and increased volumes of global interaction

Juan Valiente

escaped from his master in Mexico and then participated in Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire. He later became one of the most prominent early settlers of Chile

South Carolina Slaves

essential... 1. in introducing irrigated rice culture along coastal lowlands 2. to developing plantations of indigo at higher elevations away from coasts 3. many were given significant responsibilities (some were sent to manage plantations!) as profits rose, a black majority in SC was created -> strong African cultural influences

the Sulu Empire

established by Moros one of the strongest states in SE Asia from 1768 - 1848

what determined consequences of new contacts?

european actions ways in which africans, asians, amerindians perceived and interacted with new visitors -> europeans were allies or enemies -> Europeans tried to insert themselves into existing commercia; and geopolitical arrangements long isolations of amerindians -> disease-vulnerable -> potential to resist and facilitate european settlement was limited

EME marriage

europeans married later -> sons put off marriage until they could provide for themselves (usually in 30s) -> women had to work (many helped parents as domestic servants) and saved for their dowries (usually in mid-twenties at earliest)

Massachusetts Government

evolved from company charter terms elected a governor and a council of magistrates (drawn from MBC Board of Directors) -> 1650: disagreements between council and and elected representatives -> LOWER LEGISLATIVE HOUSE

Joint-Stock Companies

ex. Ditch East and West India Companies -> granted monopolies for trade with East/West Indies ex. France and England chartered companies too A business, often backed by a government charter, that sold shares to individuals to raise money for its trading enterprises and to spread the risks (and profits) among many investors sold shares of the company to individs to raise large sums for overseas enterprises while spreading risks/profits among many investors

"how well Islam was understood in these Muslim kingdoms is open to question"

ex. in Acheh, a series of women ruled until Muslim scholars received word from Mecca that Islam didn't approve of female rulers -> scholarly understandings of Islam increased in importance in SE Asia after this

slave trade

expansion of sugar plantations = sharp increase in volume of African slave trade slaves originally went mostly to the Brazil and Spanish colonies -> trade doubled and over half went to English, French, and Dutch West Indies colonies

Amerigo Vespucci

explorations on behalf of spain, then portugal -> mapmakers named new continents after him "America" (instead of "columbia" after Columbus)

mineral wealth of the NW

feuled early development of European capitalism funded Euope's greatly expanded trade with Asia

colonial elites in latin america

few members of Spanish royalty came to the new world (exception: early viceroys) see "hidalgos" "powerful conquistadors/early settlers wanted to create a hereditary social and political class comparable to the European nobility" - economic position was undermined by systematic abuse of natives and epidemics - colonial officials,clergy, and richest merchants inherited social positions - powerful church, gov, commerce positions were European-dominated - colonial agriculture and mining controlled b wealthy creoles

majorities/minorities in colonial latin america

few members of royalty hidalgos Spanish merchants, artisians, miners, priests, and lawyers were well-represented small numbers of criminals, beggars, and prostitutes spanish settlers were always a minority numerically in the colonies...they were dominated (NOT class-wise) by Americindians and growing populations of Africans, creoles, and mixed peoples

Mombasa

had become the Portuguese capital in East Africa; seized by the Arabs of Oman -regained by Portugal but they permanently lost control of the city in 1729

Firearms in Indigenous Warfare (more Iroquois Confederacy)

firearms = more deadly warfare "Iroquois Confederacy responded to the increased military strength of France's Algonquin allies by forging commercial and military links with Dutch and later English settlements along the Hudson River" -> IC took over the Huron (1649) and defeated the French many times -> at the peak of their power, IC had control of most of the Great Lakes region and Ohio River Valley -> "A large French military expedition and a relentless attack focused on Iroquois villages and agriculture finally checked Iroquois power in 1701"

Arawak of Hispaniola

first Amerindians to encounter Columbus modern Haiti and Dominican Republic(greater antilles and bahamas to the north) cultivized maize, cassava (tuber), sweet potatoes, hot peppers, cotton, tabacco no large gold deposits and didnt trade gold over long distances -> BUT natives were skilled at working gold -first extended cautious welcome to spanish - learned to tell exaggerated stories about gold in other places to persuade them to move on.

Abel Tasman (1642-43)

first European to set foot on Tasmania, New Zealand, and sail around Australia began European involvement in that region

tobacco colonies

first colonies suffered from diseases, hurricanes, native Carib/Spanish attacks, supply shortages from Europe, labor shortages

South Carolina Plantations

first settled ny planters from Barbados (1670) developed a plantatin/slavery-based economy (IMITATED CARIBBEAN AND BRAZIL) - unhealthy climate but rice and indigo plantation prospered -> more free immigrants and slaves

Great whites

first/three categories of free peoples; wealthy owners of large sugar plantations; dominated the economy and society of the island; owned slaves

Fluit

flyboat new ship design introduced by the Dutch large capacity cargo ship, inexpensive to build, required only a small crew

North Carolina

followed the mixed economy of tobacco and forest products from Virginia slavery expanded slowly separated from South Carolina in 1729

English Bill of Rights (1689)

formalized new constitutional order by requiring king to call Parliament frequently to consent to changes in laws OR to raise an army in peace- time - another law reaffirmed the official status of the Church of England but extended religious toleration to dissenting Puritans

resistive peoples in Anatolia

former landholding, displaced cavalrymen

Center for Research at Sagres

founded by Prince Henry the Navigator -> to study navigation that built upoon pioneering efforts of Italian merchants and Jewish map-makes -> center collected geographical information and sponsored Atlantic explorations

Babur (1483 - 1530)

founded the Mughal Empire Muslim descendant of Timur and Ghengis Khan - defeated the last Muslim sultan of Delhi (1526)

Vasco de Gama's impression on citizens of Calicut (Malabar coast of India, 1498)

four small ships were... 1. not near as imposing of Chinese fleets that had come to Calicut 65 years before 2. no larger than dhows that filled the harbor of the trading city recieved with laughter by samorin and officials

population in French Canada

fur trade flourished but population grew slowly - Virginia was founded around the same time but had 20x more Europeans indigenous peoples had more control over lands than in Spanish, Portuguese, or English colonies because... - Canada had a small settler population - fur trade depended on Amerindians voluntary participation

Portugese capture of Ceuta

gave Portugese better intellige ce of caravan trades -> portugese couldn't get direct access to gold trade -> sailed down african coast -> attack was led by Prince Henry

Canals

governments wanted to promote trade by investing in infrastructure (like CANALS) dutch built canals to improve transport and drain lowlands for agriculture may other govts financed canals -> system of locks that rasied barges over hills

Amsterdam Exchange (1530)

greatest stock market in 17/18th century

Aristotle's Physics

greek philosopher taught that everything of earth was reducible to four elements 1. earth 2. water ^ these two were the two heavy elements that composed the surface of the earth 3. air 4. fire ^ these two were the lighter elements that composed the atmosphere and floated above ground sun, moon, planets, and stars were so light that they floated as crystaline spheres -division between heavy earth/light celestial bodies -> commonsense perception that all heavenly bodies revolved around the earth

capitalism

growth of Atlantic economy helped develop modern capitalism - expansion of credit - development of large financial institutions (banks, stock exchanges, trading companies) - system originally developed for european business dealings -> expanded overseas when investors wanted profits in colonial products (european economy was growing slowly)

profits produced in economic centers promoted..

growth of colonial cities concentrated scarce investment capital and labor resources stimulated the development of livestock raising and agriculture in neighboring rural reas COLONIAL DEPENDENCE ON MINERAL AND AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS left a lasting social/economic legacy in LA

England's army(or lack of it)

only major nation not maintaining an army rise as a SEA POWER began with King Henry VIII

slaves from West Central Africa

had exposure to elements of Iberian culture including religion, language, and technology -> facilitated African influence on emerging colonial cultures (pro) -> in regions with slave majorities, cultural/linguistic barriers divided slaves and made resistance more difficult (con)

SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE SIMILARITIES

had laws that provided manumission had colonial courts that could intervene to protect slaves from the worst physical abuse or protect married couples from forced separation

Portuguese and Ethiopia

had previously explored possible alliance bc of their mutual religion - CHRISTIANITY attempted alliance under Queen Helena 1539 - another woman ruler was holding ethiopia together...small portuguese fleet commander by Christopher de Gama came to help ethiopia Muslim forces captured and tortured Christopher de Gama to death ...Muslim attack failed bc leader was wounded in battle PORTUGUESE HELPED SAVE ETHIOPIAN KINGDOM BC OF COMMON RELIGION FROM EXTINCTION, BUT PERMANENT ALLIANCE FALTERED BC OF RELIGION (Ethiopian rulers refused to transfer their Chris- tian affiliation from the patriarch of Alexandria to the Latin patriarch of Rome (the pope))

efficiency of european agriculture

hadn't really improved since 1300 bad years -> famine good years -> only small supluses

delayed marriage and poverty

helped force many young women that had newly arrived from countryside into brothels

sugar plantations of Brazil

helped integrate the economy of the south Atlantic region exchanged sugar, tobacco, and reexported slaves for yerba, hides, livestock, and silver produced in neighboring Spanish colonies - "Portugal's increasing openness to British trade also allowed Brazil to become a conduit for an illegal trade between Spanish colonies and Europe. - "discovery of gold in Brazil at the end of the 17th century promoted further regional and international economic integration"

racial label "Indian"

helped settlers organize tribute/labor demands imposed on natives registered cultural costs of colonial rule (culture is not as rich)

large plantations v. smaller operations

high labor costs favored large plantations (other reasons not in this section)

joint-stock companies

higher returns than banks forerunner of modern corporation shares sold in stock exchanges

changes in charter of Atlantic commerce

illustrates the rise of the new Atlantic trading system 16th century: Spanish treasure fleets and their silver and gold had dominated AT 18TH century: AT dominated by sugar ships and slave ships

Christian Militancy

important motive for both Portugal and Spain, especially overseas -> conquerors also wanted MATERIAL returns

mita (and effects)

imposed on Peru's amerindian population (survived in larger numbers than those in Mexico) Under this system, one-seventh of adult male Amerindians were compelled to work for two to four months each year in mines, farms, or textile factories when population declined with new epidemics, the length between mita was shortened thousands didn't want to have to accept mita service and other tax burdens imposed on Amerindian villages, so they abandoned traditional agriculture and permenantly moved to spanish mines and farms (laborers) -> NA village life was weakened -> promoted assimiliatin of NAs into Spanish Catholic colonial society

Estates General

in FRANCE represented the traditional rights of the... clergy nobility towns (bourgeoisie) -could assert rights during French Wars of Religion (16th century) (monarchy was weak)

EXAMPLE 1 most sustained resistance = merchants of Calicut

in response, port. embargoed all trade with Aden and centered trade on Port of Cochin some calicut merchantswere good at avoiding port. naval patrols...price of resistance: shrinking of calicut's commercial importance as Cochin gradually became a major pepper-exporting port on Malabar Coast

Afro Latin American Expirence

in the fluid social environment of the conquest era, many were able to gain their freedom thousands of blacks (mostly slaves) participated in conquest/settlement of Spanish America

slave trading

increased in importance in the 1700s primarily to Arabian ports but also India Europeans played a minor role in this slave trade

the effect of the horse on native populations

increased the efficiency of hunters increased the military capacity of warriors on the plains revolutionized many NA cultures (492)

Dutch and the Struggle with Spain

independence from spain a few years earlier threatened this...Spanish Crown ruled Portugal and Brazil Dutch chartered the Dutch West India company (1621) as part of the struggle

Janissaries

infantry originally of slave origin armed with firearms...were the elite of the Ottoman army Christian POWS induced to serve as military slaves readily accepted the idea of fighting on foot and learning to use guns because horseback rising and bowman ship weren't part of their cultural backgrounds (turkish calvary men couldn't fire guns and ride at the same time as military technology evolved, the janissary corps grew steadily and the role of the Calvary diminished (GUNPOWDER)

Bourgeois and marriage

less likely to arrange marriages HOWEVER they strongly promoted marriages that would further business alliances -> almost all found spouses within their own social classes

hildalgos

lesser nobles were well represented in colonial latin america

local religion -> witch huntsbelif

institutions of religious othodoxy were weakest in villages/small towns -> religion was blended rituals/beliefs of established churches with local folk customs, pre-christian beliefs, ancient curing practices, love magic, and casting of spells -> witch-hunts that protestants and catholics unterwent was ONE MANIFESTATION of ongoing contest between FORMAL RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS v LOCAL BELIEFS v CULTURAL HERITAGE

astrolabe

instrument of Arab or Greek invention that allowed mariners o determine location at sea measured postion of sun/stars at night improved by Henry's staff

Scientific Revolution

intellectual movement in Europe, initially associated with planetary motion and other aspects of physics, that by the seventeenth cen- tury had laid the groundwork for modern science NATURAL CAUSES COULD EXPLAIN THE WORKINGS OF THE UNIVERSE

Portugese Voyages

investing resources in new exploration depended on Atlantic fishing trade and history of Anti-Muslim warfare -> Muslim gov't of Morocco showed weakness -> Portugese attacked and conqured city of Ceuta (1415)

Amerindian isolation

isolation of Amerindian peoples made responses to outside contacts different than those of African/Indian people -isolation slowed development of metallurgy and other militarily useful technologies -made large populations susceptible to new diseases

why did religious/intellectual leaders view new science with suspicion/hostility?

it posed an UNWANTED CHALLENGE to ESTABLISHED ways of thought

Galileo Galilei (1546 - 1642)

italian most brilliant copernican built telescope (30x magnification of naked eye) -> saw that... -heavenly bodies were not smooth (moon had mountains and valleys/the sun had spots) -planets had their own moons (discovered that Jupiter had moons) EARTH WAS NOT ALONE IN BEING HEAVY/CHANGEABLE

oba

king (of Benin) presided over elaborate bureaucracy from his spacious palace in the large capital city (also called Benin)

manikongo

king of Kongo

why NE elected assemblied were temporarily suspended

king thought NE colonies were enters of smuggling (appointed colonial gov'ners and grated them new fiscal/legislative power)

Ismail Safafi

kurdish, Iranian, and Greek ancestry proclaimed himself Shah of Iran at age 16 founded the Safavid Empire declared that the Empire would be devoted to Shi'ite Islam -> created a deep split between Iran and its Sunni neighbors

Amerindians' Isolation Effects

lacked immunity to diseases from Old World -> HIGH death rates (some estimates say that up to 75% of certain populations died)

imperial govt faced greater administrative burdens due to tax farming because...

landholders kept order on land to maintain incomes tax farmers were less likely to live on the land -> private landowners

late age of marriage

late twenties at earliest for males mid twenties at earliest for females enabled couples to be independent of parents held down the birthrate limited family size 1/10 of urban births were to unmarried women (mostly servants) -> mothers couldnt care for them and left them of doorsteps of churches/orhanages/convents/rch households -> many babies died

Jean Baptise Colbert

lead the development of France's national economy streamlined tax collection promoted Frenc manufacturing and shipping by imposing taxes on foreign goods improved transportation within France

indigenous survivors adapting

learned to adapt to new environment by embracing aspects of dominant cultures and enter city market economies. also learned forms of resistance (colonial courts to protect land or resist abuses of corrupt officials)

Portugese explorers..

learned to return home quickly sailing northwest allowed ships to pick up westerly winds that would blow them back to portugal KNOWLEDGE OF CIRCULAR WIND PATHS WERE VERY VALUABLE

Olive Cornwell

led the English Republic until his death (1658) was a Puritan general - expanded English presence overseas - imposed firm control over Ireland/Scotland - unwilling, like Charles I to share power with Parliament

effect of the discovery of silver on labor

led to new forms of compulsory labor -epidemics reduced amerindian populations in mining areas...miners came to rely on wage laborers

Hernan Cortez (1485 - 1587)

left Cuba in 1519 with 600 fighting men/experienced sailors, most of the islands' stock in weapons and horses -demonstrated military skills in battles with Maya -learned of rich Aztec empire in central Mexico

manumission

legal grant of freedom by an owner -> more common in Brazil, Spanish, and French colonies than in English -> English manumission more common in Caribbean than NA -> largest group of freed slaves had purchased their freedom -> manumissions = large, free, back population in the colonies legal condition of children followed that of their mother -> slave families tried to get young women freed so their children would be born free

Portuguese on China Coast

local oficials and merchants interested in in profitable new trade with the Portuguese persuaded the imperial government to allow the Portuguese to establish a trading post at Macao (1557) -> portuguese ships operating from Macao came to almost monopolize trade between china and japan

Manchus

made it clear that they were new master of China - hunted down Ming loyalists - appointed their own emperor

slave resistance

mainly occured in the form of runaways (individuals or groups)

gender imbalance

male slaves were preferred -> always a gender imbalance --> obstacle to traditional marriage and family patterns of Africa and Europe

decline of Kongo

manikongo began to lose royal monopoly over slave trade 1526 - see <Afonso I> eventually, rebellion and relocation of slave trade from Alfonso's kingdom to the south weakened the authority of the manikongo

urban wealth came from....

manufacturing finance TRADE (within European cities and overseas) -> BOURGEOISIE dominated these activities

church heirarchy repelled in the New World

many converts secretly practiced old beliefs/rituals -trial/punishment of two aztec npbles for heresy and torture of hundreds of Maya repelled church heirarchy - violent repressioned of native religious practices ended - efforts to recruit Amerindian clergy ended

joint-stock companies

many merchants pooled their capital were a flexible/efficient financial instrument for capturing new opportunities ex. English East India Company (1600) and Dutch East India Company (1602)

polictical innovations notes

many monarchs started reforms that helped political centralization and order BUT ambitions/rivalries often provoked destructive confflicts

Western Africa

many ppl along west african coast were eager for portuguese trade

seafaring countries wanted to turn trade networks into...

maritime EMPIRES

worsening material conditions for poor

material conditions worsened for the poor (1500 - 1750) because of... -> warfare -> environmental degradation -> economic contractions

other early epidemics

measles (1530s) diptheria typhus influenza pulmonary plague malaria (tropical regions 1650s) -> arrived with African slave trade and hurt both Europeans and NAs yellow fever (tropical regions 1650s) greatest morality: when 2+ diseases struck at the same time NATIVES HAD GREATLY REDUCED ABILITIES TO RESIST SETTLEMENT

Gold trade/why coastal africans wanted to trade with portuguese/why portuguese wanted to trade with coastal africans

miners had sold gold to traders -> traders took gold to trading cities along south sahara -> sold to North African traders who crossed desert -> coastal Africans wanted better terms from the Portuguese so they negotiated with the Portuguese Royal Representative (PRR sought permission to erect a trading fort)

metis

mixed children of the coureurs de bois

dowry

money and household goods that enabled a young couple to begin marriage independent of their parents size of dowry varied by social class EXPECTED by potential husbands

government institutions of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies

more uniform in character more extensive + costly than those later established by France + GB in NA institutions made the colonies more responsive to the initiatives of Spanish/Portuguese monarchs "the heavy tax burden imposed by these colonial states drained capital from the colonies, slowing investment and retarding economic growth"

more aggression in Brazil

most aggressive period of reform = the ministry of the marquis of Pombal (1750 - 1777) 1690s: discovery of gold 1720: discovery of diamonds -> these discoveries financed the reforms exports of minerals, coffee, and cotton depended even more on the slave trade

smallpox (carribbean 1518)

most deadly spread from Mexico and central America to South America

SC hierarchical society

most hierarchical society in British NA 1. PLANTERS controlled economy and political life 2. RICHEST FAMILIES maintained large households in charleston and on plantations 3. Small farmers, cattlemen, artisans, merchants, and fur traders held an intermediate social position 4. natives lost status from disease and warfare large mixed population blurred racial/cultural boundaries LIKE IN LA (pg 506)

the head boiler

most important artisan slave; oversaw the delicate process of reducing the cane sap to crystallized sugar and molasses

Most of the painters were...

most leading painters were Hindus

Spanish Empire in America (100 years after columbus)

most of Caribbean islands northern mexico to plans of Rio de la Plata region (portuguese settlement developed more slowly)

Luther's beliefs

only way to salvation is through faith in Jesus Christ Christian belief should be based on word of God in the Bible + Chirstian tradition (not pope's authority)

"sons of the soil" "outsiders"

open warfare between these two groups in 1707 sots: local-born outsiders: from Sao Paulo

grand vizier

oversaw more and more govt affairs sultan's power was reduced

Spain

most powerful European state in 16th century - wars against ottomans, northern european protestants, rebellious Dutch subjects -> default and bankruptcy four times during King Phillip II's reign - concerns for religious uniformity and traditional aristocratic privilege also hurt the economy -> few people controlled a LOT of land -> exempt from taxes (aristocratic privledge) -> high taxes discouraged manufacturing -> silver/gold imports temporarily filled treasury -> these bullion shipments led to inflation across europe (wost in spain) -> France/other European imports were cheaper than local goods -> 1700 - most goods in spain were foreign

plantation elite

most powerful in British colonies (ex. in Jamaica, sugar made up of 80% of the exports...this large concentration of sugar pushed out small cultivators [white and black] and was owned by a few, powerful people ^^^ these few, powerful people made up the plantation elite

Muslim rulrs of coastal trading sites of eastern Africa

most rulers gave da Gama a cool reception but were suspicious of intentions of these ppl with crusaders' crosses on sails suspicious were correct 7 years later...Portuguese war fleet bombarded and looted most coastal citis in the name of CHRISTIANITY and COMMERCE HOWEVER...the christians spared Malindi

female edumacation

most schools, guilds, and professions barred female students -> explanation for why women were not prominent in cultural renaissance, reformation, scientific revolution, enlightenment women in europe were more prominent than other foreign women in the creation of culture

Spanish colonial officials

most were born in Spain...fiscal mismanagement forced Crown to sell appointments -> local members of colonial elite gained offices starting in 1600s

European cities

most were culturally diverse but included families of local orgin hosted merchant colonies from: Venice, Florence, Genoa, other Italian cities, Jewish merchants

Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution

movements were both the work of a few "enlightened" individuals - those individs often faced opposition from political/religious establishments -individs became accustomed to having books burned/banned - spent long periods in exile to escape persecution

Adal

muslim state...warlord was emboldened by rise of Ottoman Turks and launched an assult on Ethiopa VICTORY in 1529 reduced Ethiopa to a precarious state - THIS MADE ETHIOPA'S CONTACTS WITH PORTUGUESE BECOME CRUCIAL

transfer of plants

natives added numerous staples to their cuisines from southern Europe, Africa, and Asia the Old World had a new abundance of useful plats (maize, potatoes, and manioc)

these people believed...

natural events had supernatural causes (ex. crops dying/natural disasters) -> sought helps of ppl with special powers

Diverse ottoman navy

navy manned by Greek, Turkish, Algerian, Tunisian soldiers the admiral was from a North African port

Portuguese and Indian Ocean Trade

never gained complete control...naval supremacy allowed them to dominate key ports/trade routes (16th century) profits from spices/luxury goods -> Portuguese could break pepper monopoly held by Venice + Genoa by selling at lower pries AND could fund more aggressive colonization of Brazil

Urdu/Hindi language

new taste for poetry and prose in language of Delhi region; also had the eloquent Persian verse favored at court -> modern descent of this language is urdu/hindi

portuguese king

no mineral wealth or or rich native empires in Brazil -> king was slow to create "expensive mechanisms of colonial government in the NW MISMANAGEMENT (again) forced the appointment of a GOVERNOR-GENERAL (1549) -> Salvador bc Brazil's capital -> 1720: first viceroyalty of Brazil was named

Why New England was different

no profitable agricultural exports -> no extreme social stratification like in southern plantation colonies few slaves/indentured servants ruled by richest and still shared racial attitudes, but had the FEWEST DIFFERENCES IN WEALTH AND STATUS population was the most uniformly British + Protestant in Americas

Brunel Sultanate

northern Borneo - a local kingdom that saw Islam as something that could counter the European's agressive christianity

Acheh Sultanate

northern Sumatra - same view of Islam as the Brunel Sultanate - at its peak, it suceeded Malacca as the center of islamic expansion (early 1600s) in SE Asia - traded pepper (source of prosperity) for cotton cloth from Gujarat in India - declined after Dutch seized Malacca from Portugal in 1641

social mobility

occurred mostly in the middle class primary engine of social change: ECONOMY secondary engine of social change: EDUCATION -> social change most readily occurred in the cities

mansabdars

officials holding land revenues 70% appointed under Akbar were Muslim soldiers foreign to India 15% were Hindus (most were Rajputs)

Malacca

on strait between Malay pennisula and Sumatra...became the focus of Portuguese attention became the main entrepot for trade from China, Japan, India, SE Asia mainland, Moluccas in 15th century 100,000 residents 84 languages from areas pretty far away (like Cairo) many non-Muslim residents supported letting Portguguese join cosmopolitan trading community -> tried to offset solidarity of Muslim traders 1511 - Portuguese seized Malacca outright with 1000 soldiers (included 300 indian recruits)

West Indian Plantation Colonies Intro

once the slavery system became old and the colonies' had modern specialization of a single product for export, WI colonies were "bittersweet fruits of a new Atlantic trading system"

United Netherlands

one of the least autocratic countries of Europe governers-general appointed by the Dutch East India company had almost unlimited powers in order to maintain their trade monopoly - could even order execution for smuggling

Canal du Midi

one of the most important canals of its time 150-miles built by French govt between 1661 - 1682 LINKED ATLANTIC AND MEDITERRANEAN

Spanish Empire in the 1700s reasons for economic expansion and population growth

period of economic expansion associated with population growth 1. Amerindians started to recover from early epidemics 2. # of Spanish immigrants rose 3. slave trade to plantation colonies expanded 4. mining production increased 5. silver production rose into the 1780s (see Gunpowder empires) 6. agricultural exports expanded (tobacco, dyes, hides, chocolate, cotton, sugar)

Enlightenment

philosophical movement in eighteenth-century Europe that fostered the belief that one could reform society by discovering rational laws that governed social behavior and were just as scientific as the laws of physics

what created the Atlantic economy

plantation system new economic institutions new partnerships between private investors/european governments new working relationships between European/African merchants new system -> example of how European capitalist relationships were reshaping the world

balance of power

policy in international relations by which, beginning in the eighteenth century, the major European states acted together to prevent any one of them from becoming too powerful

Nicolas Copernicus (1473 - 1543)

polish monk and mathematician switched the center of different orbits to the sun (heliocentric theory)\-delayed publication of his theory until end of his life to avoid controversies (especially with the church)

were the rulers of spain, france, and england more successful in promoting national political unification or religious unity?

political unification -> successful rulers reduced autonomy of church + nobility -> made church/nobility a unified structure w/ monarch at its head bringing nobles + ppl with powerful interests into a centralized political system takes longer and leads to more diverse outcomes

Prussia

pop = 2 million (1700) army = made it a major power in europe

sweden's army

pop = under 1 million army = one of the finest/best-armed military forces in 17th century

early reformation

popes had power that was funded by large donations/tax receipts -churches power/artistic renaissance displayed by -> 54 new churches and other buildings built

first encounter of Benin + Portuguese

port. visit in 1486 - oba sent embassador to Portugal to learn more about these strangers oba established royal monopoly on trade with portuguese

French national economy

power of wealthy aristocrats kept french govt from following England's lead in taxing wealthy land owners collecting taxes directly securing low-cost loans -france did not manage debt as efficiently as england either

Nizam al-Mulk

powerful vizier of the Hughal sultan (1723) gave up on central govt and established a nearly-independent state at Hyderabad

driver

privileged male slave that led slave gangs ensured that the gang completed its work

India under Abkar

probably the most prosperous empire of the 1500s - population of 100 million - triving cotton-cloth based economy - generally efficient administration - few external threats - generally peaceful conditions

profitability of Caribbean plantations depended on...

profitability of Caribbean plantations = extracting as much work as possible from slaves -> THREAT and FORCE

King Henry VIII

promoted England as a sea power -> spent heavily on ships -> promoted domestic iron industry to supply cannon

New Spanish/Portuguese Empires

promoted growth of major new trading network -> rivaled/importance surpassed Indian Ocean network TREMENDOUS EXPANSION OF EUROPE'S ROLE IN WORLD HISTORY

both varieties of Islam (scholarly and adat)...

provided believers with a strong basis of identification in the face of growing European presence

expanding english iron industry

provided work for growing numbers of miners, lumber jacks, charcoal makers high consumption of wood fuel -> deforestation

naval expeditions from the port of Sale

raided european shipping as far as Britain Britain called Sale "the Sally Rovers"

Middle Atlantic Region

rapid economic development remarkable cultural diversity

"unworthy poor"

recent migrants from impoverished rural areas, peddlers traveling from place to place, and beggars (many with horrible deformities and sores) who tried to survive on charity

Internal Spanish "affairs"

reconquesting southern ibera from Muslims amalgamation of various dynasties conversion/expulsion of religious minorities -> followed up Portugal in discoveries; spanish started overseas exploration after portugal found a route to india

Holland

refined West Indian sugar brewed beer from Baltic grain cut Virginia tobacco made imitations of Chinese ceramics -Free from the censorship from political and religious authorities (like in many other nations) -> printers published books and recent manuals in many languages about the latest advances in crafts/agriculture/technology/etc small nation lacking natural resources -> GREAT ACHIEVEMENTS because of the PRINTING PRESS and working with "foreign products"

Gold Coast

region of the Atlantic coast of West Africa occupied by modern Ghana; names for gold exports to Europe from 1470s -> headquarters of Portugal's west african trade

Muslim domination of India was a result of...

repeated military campaigns from early 1000s onward

Jamaican maroons

signed a treaty in 1738 after several attacks by the colony's militia -> treaty recognized their independence in return for stopping new runaways and suppressing slave revolts -> authorities in Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese colonies that couldn't recapture maroons signed similar treaties

Peruvian and Mexican economies were dominated by...

silver mines

large/intrusive colonial bureaucracies financed by...

silver/gold mines in Spanish America sugar plantations and gold mines (1690) in Brazil

Afghans established an independent kingdom

simultaneous Iranian and Mughal weakness allowed the Afghans to establish an independent kingdom

Potosi

single richest silver deposit in Americas discovered by the Spanish in 1545 "Located in Bolivia (Alto Peru), one of the richest silver mining centers and most populous cities in colonial Spanish America" silver from Bolivia and Peru dominated the mexican economy until Mexican silver production surpassed it became the center of a vast regional market depending on Chilean wheat, Argentine livestock, and Ecuadorian textiles

slaves were...

skilled artisians musicians servants artists cowboys soldiers majority worked in agriclture

Europeans were the only peoples that kept extensive records of the trade of...

slaves (how we know they played a minor role in certain slave trade circles)

African slave trade

slaves added a cultural stream to LA society - slaves spread from plantation regions of Brazil and the Caribbean throughout Spanish/Portuguese America (elements of agricultural practices, music, religion, cuisine, and social customs were introduced to colonial societies)

small operations v large plantations

small/large farms: only needed simple tools to grow and harvest sugar complex and expensive process needed to produce sugar once cane was cut small refineries: used crushing mills driven by animals or laborers large plantations: larger, more efficient mills relying on wind/water power -> over time, large producers had lower costs and greater profits

Brazilian Populations (european/native/african)

smaller numbers of european immigrants than in Spanish America native populations were smaller/less organized depended on african slaves as a source of labor earlier than any other colony -> africans and their descendants became the largest racial group in Brazil BY FAR --> Brazilian colonial society was more influenced by African culture than Amerindian (UNLIKE SPANISH MEXICO AND PERU)

Caravel

smaller that largest European ships/Zheng's Chinese junks small size = entered shallow waters and explore upriver -strong eough to withstand storms -could be equipped with triangular sials that could take wind on either side to increase movability -could use square atlantic sails -> greater speed with a following wind - small canon = good fighting ships ECONOMY, SPEED, AGILITY, POWER

women in early medieval europe

social and economic status was closely tied to status of husbands -women could inherit the throne in some nation (in absence of male heir) -women everywhere were ranked below men, however CLASS AND WEALTH defined position more than GENDER

what products did Benin trade with Portuguese

sold pepper, ivory tusks, stone beads, textiles, pows (resale at Elmina) Portuguese merchants provided benin with copper, brass, fine textiles glass beads, horse for king's royal procession Portuguese demand for slaves (sugar plantations) on Sao Tome (nearby island) grew...oba raised price of slaves and imposed restrictions limiting their sale

mix of commercial, military, and religious exchanges in early contacts

some African rulers appreciated advantage of European firearms over spears and arrows (sought trade here) African religions were generally not exclusive -> coastal rulers wanted to test value of Christian practices

civil and international conflicts...

sometimes FORCED monarchs to find common ground with potential enemies OR introduce political innovations to strengthen their nations

Francis I of France and German Princes

sought election as HRE (Holy Roman Emperor) supported Ottomans to weaken Charles V (his rival) German princes were swayed by Luther's appeals to German nationalism - opposed Charles's defense of Catholic doctrine in the Imperial Diet

New Laws

sought to eliminate the encomienda

Granada

southern Muslim kingdom on the Iberian pennisula that was the only kingdom on the Iberian pennisula that was not recaptured by the Christians -> see marriage of Isabel and Ferdinand

the maritime revolution in the americas spain v portugal

spain held territorial empire in americas in contrast to the trading empires of portugal in africa/asia -spain had larger population and greater resources -outcome had little to do with differences btwn kingdoms - similar motives for expansion -used ideantical ships and weapons

Iberian Background

special history and gerograohy of Iberian kingdoms -> different dirrection than Italians - Muslim invaders captured most of the pennisula in 8th century -> warfare between christians and Muslims -> 1250: Portugal, Castile, Aragon reconquered all of Iberia except Granada - Spain and Portugal never had a huge share in Medi trade -> more willing to seek new routes to Africa and Asia through the Atlantic -Spain and Portugal participated in shipbuilding and gunpowder revolutions

printed books

spread new scientific ideas among scholars across europe

europe led the world in female literacy due to...

spread of learning stress of religious reading growth of business -number of literate women was small -only women in wealthier families had chance at a good education

conflicts between arawak and settlers

steel swords, horses, and body armour led to SPANISH VICTORIES and slaughter of 1000s 1000s others were forced into labor for spanish cattle, pigs,goats introduced by settlers devoured Arawak'sfood crops -> deaths from famine and disease 1502: a governor divided surviving Arawak among his allies as laborers

imperial response (coincided with a series of wars) and their effects

strengthened administrative and economic control of their colonies - wanted to force colonies to pay more of the costs of administration and defense (coincided with a series of imperial wars fought along Atlantic trade routes and in America) -> France lost its NA colonies in 1763 -> colonial populations became more aware of separate national identities and were more aggressive in asserting local interests against the will of distant monarchs

Tycho Brache (1546 - 1601) Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630)

strengthened/improved Copernicus's model planets move in an elliptical (oval) orbit

a "great gang"

strongest slaves in their prime...did the heaviest work (ex. breaking up soil at the beginning of planting season)

private enterprise

success of Atlantic economy in the 17 and 18th centuries depended on private enterprise -> trade was more EFFICIENT and PROFITABLE private investors were attracted to colonial trade by rich profits (agriculture/mining) -> their success depended on new institutions and government protection (to reduce possibility of huge losses)

reformeration "geography"

successes/failures of Reformerrs due to local political/economical conditions 1. LUTHER WAS GERMAN -> German speakers/(linguistically related) Scandinavians 2. peasants/urban laboers defied masters by adopting a different faith

East Indiaman

successful type of merchant ship heavily armed Dutch helped the Dutch conduct over half of all ocean commercial shipments in the world (17th century) Dutch mapmaking supported distant commercial connections

Brazilian economies were dominated by...

sugar plantation

heliocentric theory

sun is the center of our solar system -> began a revolution in understanding the structure of the heavens and the central place of humans in the universe

Portugal's ability to assert control of Indian Ocean

superiority of its ships and weapons over those of regional powers 9especcially the lightly-armed merchant dhows) 1505 - 81 portuguese ships and 7000 men bombarded Swahili Coast cities, then Indian ports 1510 - Goa (west coast of India) fell Portuguese also took Gujarat, other Malabar Coast cities, Hormuz ADEN resisted 1535 - GUJARATI PORT OF DIU consolidated Portuguese dominance of the western Indian Ocean

Ottoman Turks (response to Portugal)

supported Egypt against the portuguese with a LARGE fleet nd 15,000 men (1501 - 1509) Ottomans sent another large expendition against Portuguese (1538) -> both expeditions failed bc Portuguese vessels in open ocean were faster and better-armed

calvarymen

supported by land grants and administered the most rural areas throughout Anatolia and the Balkans calvary horses, retainers, and supplies were all paid for from the taxes calvarymen collected

Inquisition

suspected protestants and critics of the king were accused of heresy - some punished by death -those acquitted learned not to challenge church/king again

profits grew when English, French, and Dutch Caribbean colonies switched from ______ to ______ and _____ to ______

switched from TOBACCO to SUGAR CANE and from INDENTURED LABORERS to AFRICAN SLAVES

colonial reforms provoked...

tax rebellions, urban riots, Amerindian uprisings

English govt increased revenue by...

taxing formerly exempt landed states of the aristocrats collecting taxes directly

COUNTER Reformation was also known as...

the CATHOLIC reformation

Merchants trading with the OE had to pay high percentages in duties and fees with the exception of Europeans. Why?

the Europeans benefitted from a long-standing trade agreement with the Ottoman Empire

Ottomans and Venetians

the Ottoman weren't successful in attacking the Venetian army and controlling the Mediterranean region

What was the southern frontier of the Ottoman Empire

the Red Sea

aristocrats wanted to marry members of the bourgeoisie's daughters because...

the bourgeosie provided large dowries

manumissions/growing free African populationss

the granting of freedom to individual slaves (most that were freed had saved money and purchased their own freedom) -> "manumission was more about the capacity of individual slaves and slave families to earn income and save than about the generosity of slave owners" -> women received the majority of manumissions (children born after she is freed are considered free) --> black population grew

"peacock throne"

the priceless jewel-encrusted symbol of Mughal grandeur

Shari'a

the religious law prohibited coffee

West Indian Planters

the richest englishmen of this time period translated wealth into political power and social prestige put plantations under managers and lived in Britain -> absentee planters were often elected into the British parliament -> formed influential voting bloc

free blacks

third/three categories of free peoples; almost as many free blacks as free whites; many owned property; surprising number owned slaves

Dupliex goes to India (1741)

took over French Pondicherry -> BEGAN A NEW PHASE OF EUROPEAN INVOLVEMENT IN INDIA -> captured Madras (English trading center) and became an Indian power broker -> took advantage of Indian princes -> was called home (1754) -> French govt was no longer interested in India -> British era in India soon began

capitulations

trade agreements

Asia and Africa consequences of Portuguese dominance in Indian Ocean

traders were at mercy of Portuguese warships individual responses of traders -> fate - some were devastated; others prospered PORTUGUESE SOUGHT TO CONTROL TRADE ROUTES NOT OCCUPY LARGE TERRITORIES -> little impact on Asian/African mainlands (compare to Portuguese/American events)

numbers of men v numbers of women

twice as many men were imported than women -> over half of the adult males did non-gang work (tended livestock, were skilled craftsmen, etc)

Henry VII of England (continued)

used authority to... - disband monasteries/convents -seize land (especially church land) gave some land to powerful allies sold other land to pay for navy

Luther and Printing Press

used printing press to spread ideas -> won the support of powerful Germans Germans responded to his nationalist portrayal of an Italian pope trying to make Rome beautiful using Germany's $ moolah $

some bourgeoisie in England and france...

used wealth to raise social status retired from businesses bought country estates -> could become members of the gentry loaned money to impoverished peasants and members of nobility increased land ownership sought aristocratic husbands for daughters

Moluccas

valuable spices were a foal of Iberian voyages...Spain or Portugal? -> found to be on Portugal's side

why Islam had favored trade and traders

very outset in Muhammad's life/preaching - a proselytizing religion (unlike Hinduism). This" encouraged the growth of coastal Muslim communities as local non-Muslims associated with Muslim commercial activities CONVERTED and INTERMARRIED with Muslims from abroad"

Islam spread in the southern Sudan in this period...what did this growth coincide with?

waning of Ethiopian power -> Portugal oppressed trade in the Red Sea

Spanish and Portuguese sought to reduce the power of the Catholic church

wanted the wealth but not the influence of the Catholic Church -> confrontations between colonial officials and church hierarchy -> Jesuits symbolized the independent power of the church so Portuguese and later Spain expelled them -> forced colonial-born Jesuits out of native lands -> closed the Jesuit schools that had educated members of colonial elite

Spanish crown and colonial governments

wanted to curb the independent power of the conquistadors and establish ROYAL AUTHORITY over defeated native populations and European settlers HOWEVER, the distance between the authorities and these territiories made this impossible -> viceroys of New Spain and Peru enjoyed broad power

Puritans

wanted to purify the church of England (abolish hierarchy of bishops and priests, free it from gov interference, and limit membership) - discriminated against in England for reformation efforts English Protestant dissenters who believed that God predestined souls to heaven or hell before birth. They founded Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629

English Puritains

wanted to purify the church of all Catholic practices/beliefs 1603: petitioned to eliminate bishops but were reminded by James I (first Stuart King)... "No bishops, no king"

Bantu language of the coast...

was broadened by the absorbtion of Arabic, Persian, and Portuguese loanwords -> SWAHILI

Port of Cochin

was once a dependancy of Calicut

Indian Ocean's trandformation

was previously an open ocean...used by merchants/pirates of all surrounding coasts portuguese crown wanted to make Indian ocean a portuguese sea/Portugal's private property

John Calvin (1509 - 1564)

well- educated Frenchman left the study of law for theology after experiencing a religious conversion became a Protestant leader published The Institutes of the Christian Religion (1535) agreed with "faith over works" but denied that faith alone = salvation Salvation -> gift God gave to those He "predestined" church structure: clerical hierarchy was simplified religious ritual were very simplified

creoles

whites born in America to European parents tensions between Spaniards and creoles were inevitable but most elite families included both

transfer of animals

wild cattle gave Amerindians large supplies of meat and hide (Navajo became sheepherders and expert weavers) - Amerindians became muleteers, cowboys, and sheepherders

Pilgrims

wnated to break free of the Chruch of england Group of English Protestant dissenters who established Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620 to seek religious freedom after having lived briefly in the Netherlands -many died the first year, but the colony survived until 1691 when Massachusetts Bay colony absorbed Plymouth

conditions for slaves

worst on Brazilian/Caribbean sugar plantations harsh discipline brutal punishments back-breaking labor

if dutch revolts were successful... AND results of war against spain

would have - discouraged business - driven away calvinists, jews, and others essential to dutch prosperity there was a long war... - instead of being ruined, Netherlands emerged as world's greatest trading nation - economic success -> decentralized govt -provinces united aorund the Prince of Orange (their soverign/commander-in-chief of armed forces) - each province was free to pursue own interests - maritime provice of Holland grew rich by favoring commerical interests

who were the most trusted guides to the natural world?

writings of Greco-Roman antiquity and the Bible renaissance recovered most anuscripts of ancient writers -many were printed/widely circulated greatest authority on physics -> ARISTOTLE

arranged marriages

young people in early modern Europe chose own spouses (arranged marriages around the rest of the world) - (eme) privledged families were more likely to arrange marriages than poor ones -> tried to further family interests

Martin Luther (1483 - 1546)

young professor of sacred scripture onjected to indulences/other excesses had forsaken money/marriage for a monastic life (prayer, self-denial, study) religious quest -> saint Paul's Epistle said salvation resulted from FAITH not "doing certain things" -Luther objected how preachers emphasized giving money more than having faith -Wrote to Pope Leo complaining and challenged preachers to a debate of theology of indulgences -> dispute was also a contest between ML and the Pope...Pope Leo saw Luther's letter as an objection to papal power ...moved to silence him 1519 - theological debate...a representative of the pope led Luthe to openly disagree with church doctrines -> condemned by papacy Luther was blocked in his effort to reform church from within -> burned papal bull of condemnation -> rejected pope's authority -> began PROTESTANT REFORMATION

"second gang"

youths, elders, and less fit slaves did somewhat lighter work