Archaeology Midterm 2

"A Wild Taste": Case Study

*A Wild Taste: Case Study* - What else can we learn from material remains of foodways besides info about diet? -> race , gender, ethnicity, cultural preferences, power - What and how were people eating in colonial Louisiana? -> empirical question - What can food show us about colonialism? -> social question - French colonial capital: New Orleans - 1732: population of 6,000 equal parts African slaves and European colonists - surrounded by Native American (Indian) groups like the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek - Her sites: Mardi Gras,French Market, French Colonial House, Mississippi River, French Quarter Identity: - Creole: anyone born in the colonies of any combination of French, African, or Indian parents - Creolization: hybridization of cultures - Maroons: Africans who escaped slavery in the Americas What were some Native American and African contributions to colonial French tastes? - Native American: maize, squash and beans (Three Sisters) -> these were acknowledged by French colonists - Africa: rice, okra and gumbo -> These were not acknowledged by French colonists Why did French colonials acknowledge Native American foods, but not African ones? - Wanted to convert/change/civilize Native American - By virtue of being treated as property instead of people, Africans were perceived to be culture-less - Their cuisine was ignored, but consumed -> like their labor Cooking as a "civilizing" process - French colonial cuisine sought to domesticate native foods into familiar recipes

What can animal remains tell us?

*ANIMAL REMAINS* - Animal remains are often well-preserved on archaeological sites - Important to establish whether animal remains are present on a site through human agency or through other causes - We can sex and age animal bones, study seasonality, and deduce whether animals were wild or domesticated, all of which helps us to understand how humans were exploiting animal environment

average age at death

*AVERAGE AGE AT DEATH* - Why can't we rely on cemetery populations to calculate average age of death - Can't assume that everyone of age, sex, status buried in cemetery (think war, infants being buried in other locations)

Advantage of processual archaeology/why questions

*Advantage of processual archaeology/why questions* Ex: Prime Movers vs Multivariate/Systemic Explanations - Minoans: Knossos, Santorini Processual archaeologists: why didn't society regenerate here after the eruption? - Single event alone (in this case, an eruption) are always about underlying processes Ex: Fires in Cali have to do w underlying process - (climate change) Ex: Systems collapse: Maya - Why collapse? -> Long term climate change

Aging skeletal remains

*Aging Skeletal Remains*(ability to ESTIMATE biological remains, not get an exact range) *TEETH* Rely heavily on tooth eruption and wear patterns - Degree of calcification - Replacement of milk teeth - Eruption of teeth: helps up to age 25 After that: look at wear of teeth - Tooth enamel(Tooth enamel forms approximately every 7 days) *BONE FUSION* - Epiphyseal fusion -Age of bone fusion - Has your inner collar bone fused to your sternum yet? (happens at age 26) - Sacrum -> fuses bw 16 and 23 - Skull thickness gets thicker over age - Not as exacting as tooth eruption age, but can get general idea *BONE MICRO-STRUCTURE* - Bone micro-structure: size and number of osteons in bone - More and smaller osteons appear in bone w age

Ancient baby bottles

*Ancient baby bottles* - Start to appear around 5000 BCE in Central Europe - Bottles shown above (in green) from Germany, ca. 3000 years ago, held goat or cow milk - Found in children's graves and did chemical analysis of interior -> found evidence of goat or cow milk (bottle feeding emerges w domestication of animals and rise of agriculture) - Shortened the weaning period - Improved infant mortality rates, rising populations

Ancient shorelines

*Ancient shorelines* *Indiana Dunes* - Study includes tectonic movements - 14,000 yrs ago, glacier that occupied Lake Michigan started to pull back: Indiana Dunes - Diachronic (long term) development of Indiana Dunes shoreline - Development of Indiana Dunes: hiatus allowed marsh to form - Toleston beach grew northward, by 2000 yrs ago the great marsh took form similar to today *Corinth, Greece* - Aerial and satellite imagery used for ancient shoreline study *Pre-Hispanic Queen Conch Shell Middens, Venezuela, Fossil Beach Papua New Guinea* - the location of shell middens can be an accurate identifier of earlier coastlines - *Papua, New Guinea* - Coral reefs can grow to sea level: their heights reflect ancient shorelines and sea levels *Seismic data on Doggerland* - bone and antler arrowheads recovered from the North Sea - DOGGERLAND: Mesolithic landscape between the English Channel and Norwegian Coast - submerged under water between 18,000 - 5000 BCE - discovered and reconstructed using seismic data

archaeobotany

*Archaeobotany*: the study of human interactions with plants in the past WHY is archaeobotany important: - Not just diet and subsistence but movement of plants through community - Ex: Famous watermelons in Turkey, but they're not indigenous to Turkey (came from Egypt- that movement) - How important is surplus to development of social complexity/permanent settlement - Food and identity: homesickness! - Class, gender, race: Who gets surplus and who doesn't *METHODS* *MACROBOTANY*: study of seed remains - What Dr. R does - Asks: What plants entered site for use? 1. *Anthracology*: the study of charred wood - Asks: What wood resources did people use? (construction, land clearing, etc) 2. *Seeds and fruits*: can usually be identified to species, but interpretation can be difficult since they can be brought in to a site from elsewhere 3. *Plant residues*: can give some idea of what species were available *MICROBOTANY* 1. *Palynology*: study of fossil pollen - most useful for study of minor fluctuations in climate over last 12,000 years - Asks: What land use practices did ppl engage in (clearance, chronology) - Link changes in grass and tree species to human activity: was there land clearance? - How: Can make a pollen diagram, use pollen spores 2. *Phytolith* : study of silica skeletons of plant cells - survive v well in most archaeological sediments and can add to picture of environment built up from other sources - common in hearths and ash layers, also found inside pottery, plaster, and on stone tools/teeth of animals - Microscopic detection of plants ppl used - Prepare soil samples for chemical wash to isolate phytoliths - phytolith residue on sickle blades - sickle gloss from reaping plants (cutting grass image) - Starch grains and phytoliths on surface and in plaque of human and animal teeth 3. *Diatoms*: single-cell algae - found in lake and shore sediments and thus useful for the analysis of past marine environments

Archaeology Before 1960

*Archaeology Before 1960* - Gordon Childe, with teddy bear given to him by students at Brno University - Mapping of archaeological cultures, Egyptian king lists - Childe's became disatisified w this way (map) - We spent last 50 years producing time table: we need to explain WHY things are changing Why are archaeologists obsessed w maps and lists? - Prior to radiocarbon dating, no scientific way to date anything - Can only date by layers and typologies -> but could be quick OR slow sequence - Cross-reference - Chronology and distribution Particularistic approach - Explaining change bw two cultures: focus on particular things (this pot has zags, this pot has zigs) People look for what's distinctive in particular place - William Bley : to particularize ** Diffusion: spread of ideas - How the traditional approach explains new ideas (like technology, new burial method) Reaction to things in generation: it's not people moving around and taking culture with them, it's about the spread of ideas Ex: Diffused from Egypt to Europe - Out of East to West - So everything came from Egypt -> Egyptian king lists - Egyptian material can be dated - Then date everything else by cross-reference to Egyptian material North America: similar mapping - 'Aquatic view of culture' derided by Binford - Lewis Binford wanted to ridicule idea of diffusion of ideas: called it the aquatic view of culture - Idea gradually spreads like a ripple - Ultimately, diffusion didn't explain change at all -> WHY did it originate here, why did people over there choose to adopt burial rite? - Just describes it - Can be very convenient - Gordon Childe: critical of his own approach (see above)

teeth ages

*Baby teeth* central incisor (6-9 months) lateral incisor (7-11 months) canine (16-20 months) first molar (10-16 months) second molar (20-26 months) *Permanent 'adult' teeth* central incisor (6-8 years) lateral incisor (7-9 years) canine (9-12 years) first premolar (10-12 years) second premolar (11-13 years) first molar (6-7 years) second molar (11-13 years) third molar (17-25 years)

CASE STUDY: Later Medieval England 1300-1500 CE

*CASE STUDY: Later Medieval England 1300-1500 CE* : Dr. J's work as case study for archaeological theory - This is period of climate change: Little Ice Age - Population decline: Black Death 1348-9 - Killed roughly half the population of medieval Europe - Rise of middling peasants/middle class - Fewer people, price of bread/crops fell bc less demand but same supply - English people never experienced widespread famine again - Much more land -> land market meant you could buy/sell land more easily - Some people did better than others: differentiation bw groups of peasants -> capitalism - End of feudalism, rise of capitalism - Inequality on the rise How do we explain these changes through architecture? - Peasant halls: smoked meat hanging, cattle - Aristocratic halls: similar shape too - Hall: visual cues - Worked to reaffirm social status - If you're a peasant approaching hall, you know the behavior/how you should behave - Upper end -> Big window: lights high table, where lord sits - You are on lower end, cold and draftier Processual archaeologists: legitimize class differences Wealden house: Classic form of hall - Two overhangs and roof over the overhang, and roof overhangs middle: what makes it a Wealden house - Room open to the roof - Smoke rises from hearth Ex: Bayleaf Also used in corporate institutions: Guildhall, Lavenham - Witchfinder General trailer !

CASE STUDY: Richard III of England

*CASE STUDY: Richard III* - Richard III was king of England from 1483 until his death in 1485. - Died in the Battle of Bosworth, defeated by Henry Tudor. - Buried in Leicester at the Grey Friars church. - In 2012, archaeologists were enlisted by the Richard III Society to excavate the Grey Friars compound and search for his grave. - Male in late 20s to early 30s (he died at 32, consistent), body dated to 1436-1530 CE (consistent w death in 1485) - No coffin - No shroud - Hastily dug grave - Hands possibly bound at the wrist - Skeletal evidence of trauma: Ax to back of skull, Sword used to blow back of head as well, and injuries to face caused by dagger - Can't say for sure which was the killer blow, but we do know that they died a violent death (lots of things that cause death that don't show up in the bone, like stabbing in the heart, rip guts out, etc.) - In historical document: evidence of scolosis (he was called the Hunchback) -> developed in adolesence - Henry kept Richard's face intact so that no one could come w army and say "I'm Richard, I'm taking over" *Isotopic analysis of diet* (carbon and nitrogen in tooth enamel and bone collagen) - Samples taken from his teeth which formed during childhood, from femur: adulthood, and rib: last few years of life - Moved out of Eastern England by age of 7 to Western England and then moved back to England at start of adulthood - Protein rich diet w 25% seafood (rich) - Increase in consumption of wine -> kingship changed his lifestyle a lot - Gut analysis(See if food residues, pollen grains, or remains of gut parasites (usually egg casings)): Richard had intenstinal roundworms -> food prepared w dirty hands or feces used to fertilize crops - Handwashing happened at this time period, but they didn't do it in food preparation here - His food had been cooked thoroughly and this wasn't the cause of his parasite *mDNA Match to Living Relatives* - Richard had no living direct descendants - Mitochondrial DNA passed down by mother can be traced among descendants in female line (simple pattern of inheritance) - mDNA in lots of copies in our cells - Two known female lines have been tested and verified: Wendy Duldig and Michael Isben( descendents of Richard's sister - Y chromosome: simple pattern of inheritance too (just men to men) Baptisms, marriages, and burials - ^ documentary proof that X was son or daughter of Y Facial Reconstruction - All surviving portraits of Richard painted after his death, so they wanted to confirm his appearance - Paintings were tampered with: propaganda - Pegs: contour map - Somewhat feminine face - CT scans of skull

CASE STUDY: Witchcraft

*CASE STUDY: Witchcraft* Have to think about individual agency (postprocessual) - We're talking about the fear of witches (not actual witchcraft) Ex: - Heck post, Spout House, Bilsdale - Apotropaic mark, The Cottage, Husseys Lane, Froyle Concealed garments, mummified animals(cats) - Witch bottles - Pins in them - React back against the witch - Witches usually women

ceramic analysis

*Ceramic Analysis* - *pottery*: ceramic vessels and their remains - *sherds*: fragments of ceramic vessels (NOT SHARDS- shards is glass) - *ceramics*: materials made of fired clay (e.g. vessels, bricks, tiles, tablets, figurines) - Fired pottery first appears in Japan around 14000 BCE (this is Jomon pottery) - Below: Jomon pot from Japan ca. 9000 BCE. - Wheelmade pottery first appears around 3400 BCE in Mesopotamia(southern Iraq) CERAMICS (from 5000 BCE up) are some of most prolific artifacts archaeologists find and rely on - Cheap to make in the past - Short use life (break and toss) BUT - Preserve really well !!!

characterization

*Characterization* - Characterization allows archaeologists to discover the source of material from which an artifact was made - Successful characterization depends on all sources of a material being sufficiently different so as to be distinguishable through scientific analysis - Main methods for sourcing materials by characterization: microscopic thin-section analysis, trace-element analysis, and isotopic analysis

Cognition linked to everyday experience?

*Cognition linked to everyday experience?* Ex: Hadrian's Wall - Rudchester: series of temples - Temple of Mithras - What are these temples doing on the wall? - R&B: expression of religious power - Other alternative explanation: vulnerability of Roman soldiers posted on the wall, deal w challenging environment that ordinary people are facing - Weather changes a lot Ex: Catal Hyouk - People buried under floor, religious symbols everywhere Ex: Marija Gimubtas, Mother Goddess, early agriculture

conchoidal flakes

*Conchoidal flakes*: one of ways you can be sure humans were present Pressure from striking the core leaves concentric waves on the interior of the flake, along with a smooth "bulb of force/percussion" near the striking platform

distribution

*DISTRIBUTION* - Main different exchange mechanisms: 1. direct access 2. down-the-line 3. freelance 4. emissary trading

diachronic

*Diachronic*: studying societies across time - change over time - Analogy to video or flip book - Relate to past and present

Early Human Symbolizing Faculties

*Early Human Symbolizing Faculties* - Development of language and self-consciousness - Evidence of design in tool manufacture - Evidence of procurement of materials and planning - Deliberate burial of human remains - Representations and "art" (cave art)

Early Humans: Culture, Symbolism

*Early Humans: Culture, Symbolism* - Distinction of humans from animals: capacity for symbolic thought - Concrete historical problem: when and why did this emerge? *Early Hominds* - Australopithecenes: 4 mill BP - Home Habilis, 2.3 mill BP, Oldowan - Homo Erectus, 1.8 to 1.3 mill BP: spread out of Africa - H Neanderthalensis

evidence for bipedalism

*Evidence for Bipedalism* - When did humans start to walk upright? - Bipedal specializations are found in Australopithecus fossils from 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago - Dexterous hands and feet, enhanced reliance on vision at expense of smell, bowl-shaped pelvis - Interesting morphological change: bones(green in pic) right below head moves toward center Ex: "Lucy" vs modern human - Laetoli, Tanzania - Australopithecus afarensis skeletal remains - Skeleton 60% complete AND - In addition, layer of volcanic ash with 3 sets of bipedal hominin footprints was found in Laetoli - Animals, birds, insets and hominins, al escaping a volcanic eruption - Volcanic ash dates to 3.75-3.6 mya - Raised arch, rounded heel, pronounced ball of foot, forward pointing big toe: bipedalism evidence at same time as Lucy captured in the ash!

facial recognition

*Facial Recognition*: facial reconstruction - CT and 3D scanning to digitally recreate face - Using biometrics to manually recreate face - This is only if you have a ton of $$$ and maybe researching extremely important figure

Geoarchaeology

*GEOARCHAEOLOGY* Uses methods and concepts of earth sciences to examine processes of earth formation, and soil and sediment patterns Uses: - Reconstruct environment of local area - Flooding - Regional context *GLACIERS* *moraine deposits* - contain foreign rocks carried in by the ice from - fossil ice wedges: soil features caused when the ground freezes and contracts, opening up fissures in the permafrost that fill with wedges of ice - proof of past cooling of climate and of the depth of permafrost *GLACIAL VARVES* - annual layers of sediment deposited in lakes around the edges of glaciers - thick layers: warm years with increased ice melt - thin layers: cold years with decreased ice melt *RIVERS* *meander* - moving water in a river erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the river has less energy and deposits silt - layering and make-up of alluvial deposits reflect river discharge and course dynamics

geomorphology

*GEOMORPHOLOGY*: study of the form and development of the landscape - analysis of the composition and texture of sediments (gravel to clay) - particle size (pebbles to silt) - degree of consolidation (loose to cemented) method -> create "thin sections" of the soil to observe its microscopic components *Soils and Sediments* soil micromorphology - use of microscopic techniques to study the nature and organization of the components of soils(sediment source, soil formation process, human modification) - *sediment*: rock deposits lacking biological organisms - *soil*: layers of earth's surface above sediment that contain biological organisms *Soil tests* - testing plasticity of soil - Munsell Soil Color Chart - eating it - grain size charts and sieves

Greek eye cups

*Greek eye cups* - 6th - 4th c. BCE, Greece - shallow bowls, symposium wine-drinking vessel - take it with both hands to drink (looks like you're wearing a mask) - at bottom of bowl, there's some humorous joke - humorous exterior and interior decoration

wheelmade vs handmade pottery

*HANDMADE POTTERY* - Asymmetrical body - Handmade Anatolian pot, ca. 5000 BCE - Lack of uniform thickness of the vessel walls - Possible presence of fingerprints from pinching and shaping the vessel WHEELMADE POTTERY - Symmetrical body - Uniform thickness of the vessel walls - Parallel horizontal striations from shaping and trimming the vessel while spinning on the wheel - if you're lucky enough to have bottom: against grain striations from string on base

Hereditary Bone Defects

*Hereditary Bone Defects* - Can look at diseases - Need soft tissues to identify most diseases (human feces, tissues: worms, ticks, lice) - Viruses can persist today so you have to protect Can look at grooves in teeth: - Enamel hypoplasia: thinning of the enamel that results in pitting or grooving in the teeth Osteoporosis: vertebral body changes, distinct impression in vertebrae Leprosy: infectious disease that causes severe, disfiguring skin sores and nerve damage in arms, legs, and skin areas around the body Harris lines: growth arrest in bones that indicate malnutrition Arthritis too Can also determine lead poisoning

How did postprocessual archaeologists think about change?

*How did postprocessual archaeologists think about change?* *Agency, practice theory* - Bourdieu: practice theory - Giddens: structuration - Feminism: personal is political Recursive relationship between agency and structure; performance; agents manipulate rules - How people behave and do things and produce archaeological record - There are social rules out there that govern how we behave, but we react against those social rules either to replicate them or transform them - In process, they create archaeological record Ex: everyone in room dressed themselves, each small scale decision that perpetuates social norms/reproduce social network

variety of human remains

*Inhumation*: burial of human remains (synonym for burial) *Cremation*: burning of human remains - Cremations are often partial: leave behind bone fragments - Soil of cremation is distinctive: dark, greasy soils - Cremation bone: distinct bluish-white cremated bone, brittle (animal bone decaying/laying out are yellow and porous) *primary burial*: first deposition of human remains - Bones can be articulated(in right anatomical spot) or disarticulated - Not talking about position of body (can be fetal, flexed) - Not talking about context (can be underwater, underground surface) - Primary just talking about whether first deposition of body or not Ex: Chinchorro mummy from Atacama desert of northern Chile, ca. 5000 BCE - Atacama: took out organs, filled those w organic material, then left naturally mummies exposed - Preceded Egyptian mummies by 2,000 yrs Ex: jar burial from Azerbajan, date unspecified *Secondary burial*: redeposition of human remains Ex: Nawamis tob, Sinai Desert, Egypt - Structures built to house the secondary remains of pastoral nomads - Person dies, you can't bring them home now so they are left to decay and you come back and move them all to a burial -> SECONDARY SECONDARY BURIAL EXAMPLE: *Ossuary*: a container or room into which bones are placed - Roman period among Jewish communities: bury dead in caves (primary burials) and move them into ossuary boxes a year later Ex: "James Ossuary" from Israel had Jesus inscriptio - BUT wasn't Jesus remains, inscription was fake - Tarnal house: Christian medieval practice Ex: Rothwell Charnel Chapel in England

Isotopic analysis of diet

*Isotopic analysis of diet* The ratios of 15Nitrogen and 13Carbon can be derived from tooth enamel and bone collagen to determine plant, marine, and animal dietary patterns. - Tooth enamel: outside of teeth - Bone collagen resides in the fibers that make up the outside layer of hard, compact bone

ex of sex vs gender

*La Tene Culture, France* - ca.450-50BCE - centered in France, Switzerland, and southern Germans - associated with the ancient Celts - Rich, elite tombs - Hilltop fortresses Ex: Vix, France ca. 480 BCE - One of most amazing princely graves found - "Princely grave" from 500-480 BCE - La Tene culture - Artifacts from grave: High status elite tombs from Western Europe Interpreting gender - Body was determined to be female - Were reluctant to say it was a woman buried with high status objects - Interpretation that they chose: transgender man - Archaeologist Bettina Arnold: MAD that bias had such effect on interpretation Researched and found that: - Men and women shared many objects of adornment - Bracelets and wagons found in both - What primarily distinguishes genders is quantity and placement of objects - Men: bracelets arm - Women: bracelets wrist - Women: only anklets - Women's costume depending on age - Earrings: common but not compulsory component of elite burials (men only have 1 earring when they have it) - Weapons not exclusively grave goods for men, dagger and spear points common, also axe -> weapons serve as status symbols, not just of occupation (weapons are not just objects for men) Conclusion: - Women were able to occupy positions of high status in Iron Age Europe - Need to accommodate a less androcentric(men-focused) view of the past

language and material symbols

*Language and material symbols* - Are material things (STUFF) similar to language? *Language* - DOG: sign is arbitrary(No necessary relationship bw letters/word and the actual dog) - Except for onomatopoeia words - Slide of the signifier: Language is multifaceted 'It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife' *Material goods and language*: - Sometimes material things DO work like language Ex: Northwestern and purple associated (ARBITRARILY) - Sometimes they don't Durham: purple is color bc of Caesar Augustus Caesar, Civ 5 -> color purple in Rome - Most material things DON'T work like language -> Volkswagen - In car, VW means solid and reliable - Beastie boys wearing VW on neck: doesn't mean that - Means something else: crowbarred it off of a car Problems of meaning Ex: Sutton Hoo burial, c. 625 ACE - 2 diff interpretations: Pagan or Christian?? Ex: Swastika - South Asia: peace, blessing, joy - Deliberately appropriated by Hitler and Nazi party: Ex: Mohenjo Daro, Indus Valley civilization, Pakistan 2600 BCE: weight stones - Tells us a lot about early metric systems Ex: Stonehenge - Place of dead - Maybe also a place of rebirth? - Symbols of rebirth (melted down, recreated) HARD to get at/understand symbols Ex: Moche sex pots - Are they about fun, procreation, fertility? - Problem: We've lost context of material

lithic artifacts

*Lithic artifacts*: culturally modified stone tools - often associated with (and found on) prehistoric sites - but they persist into historic periods too Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages -> Stone Age actually continues on (stone tool) - difficult to distinguish lithic material from stone broken naturally

What can plant foods tell us about diet?

*Macrobotanical Remains* - give us a good idea of what plants were present at a site - problems of quantification and interpretation *Plant Residues on Artifacts* - chemical traces of plants can be found on some artifacts(often pots and tools) and these can be tested and compared against a reference collection in order to identify a species *Domestication of Wild Plant Species* - various techniques can help to answer if remains from archaeological sites are from wild or domesticated species

Marxism

*Marxism* - Materialist view: we are what we do and make (less emphasis on thoughts) - Conflict model - Inequality, class conflict Dialectic: forces and relations of production - Certain forces in society that can and must come into contradiction - Peasant and landlord, master and slave - These clashes result in social transformation - Out of clash rises new mode of production - Diff kind of evolutionary scheme Modes of production: 'Primitive' Ancient (based on master and slave) Feudal (landlord and peasant): - Mode of production - Division bw landlord and peasant - Basic contradiction - Class antagonism(what's point of aristocracy) ends in ... clash (revolutions, revolts... French Revolution, English Civil World) -> capitalism (according to Fukuyama) Capitalist(worker and capitalist) [Asiatic] One of big problems with Marxism: assumes ceaseless drive forward in terms of social change - Sometimes humans are quite stubborn -> Asiatic mode of production - Based around rice agriculture - Highly stable societies - Showed no trajectory towards social transformation

Materialism vs Idealism

*Materialism vs Idealism* - Trends against materialism: Anti-materialist bias is deeply rooted in many cultural traditions -> important basis for thinking about cognitive archaeology *IDEALISM* 1. *Judaeo-Christian tradition*: prioritizes language and words over the material world "In the beginning was the word" - Bias against material goods 2. *Islam*: aversion to images - Iganoglasm: Destruction of images has happened over and over again in human history - Belief that focus on images diverts from focus on the gods - Images have to be destroyed in order to focus attention on the divine 3. *Platonic philosophy* - Philosophy of Plato - Focus on ideal types: physical world is always imperfect manifestation of those ideal type - Turn away from material world to focus on ideal types MATERIALISM: 1. *Darwinism* Profoundly materialist philosophy - Charles Darwin, 1809‐ 1882 - Origin of Species, 1859 - Descent of Man, 1871 (The Formation of Vegetable Mold Through the Action of Worms with Observations on Their Habits, 1881) 2. *Marxism* Inversion of Hegel (Hegel -> human history was about thought, growing capacity of human consciousness to understand world) - Marx took parts of Hegel's method and turned it on its head - A Marxist joke Hegel: to be is to do (what comes first is our being in the world) Marx: to do is to be (what makes us human is our acting upon the world and our material record) Frank Sinatra: dobedobedobedo

Moche sex pots

*Moche sex pots* - Moche culture of Northern coast of Peru - Ca. 150 - 800 CE - Found in elite contexts, especially graves - Emphasize sexual acts, sex organs, and the movement of fluids between bodies

Postprocessual Archaeology, 1980-2010

*Postprocessual Archaeology, 1980-2010* - Skepticism about Science - Importance of cultural meaning - Everyday practice and the individual - Cultural and political context of archaeology - A diversity of archaeologies [linked to more diverse cultural/intellectual environment] *Postprocessual archaeologists*: - Ian Hodder - Ruth Tringham (Catal Hoyuk) - Mike Parker Pearson (Stonehenge) - Mark Leone (Annapolis) [inspired by James Deetz...]

Properties of Symbols

*Properties of Symbols* - Place and memory - Measuring things - Symbols of power - Religious belief - Can be combo of all of these

R&B view of cognitive archaeology

*R&B*: Processual view of cognition - linked to social evolution - Religion tends to legitimate the state

sexing skeletal remains

*SEXING SKELETAL REMAINS* - Based on sexual dimorphism: differences of size and shape bw the sexes MALE - Male bones generally bigger, longer, more robust - Narrower pelvis - Larger skull - Sloping forehead - More massive jaws and teeth FEMALE - Female bones generally slighter and more gracile - Wider pelvis - Shorter rib cage and sternum Children - Much harder to sex bc haven't completely gone through sexual dimorphism Pelvic remains are best to sex, but these are not often found

sea and ice cores

*Sea and Ice Cores* - sea levels(O isotopes) and temp(diff forams, O isotopes) *Deep sea core*: provides layers of forams that provide proxy (indirect) data on sea levels and temperatures Changes in diff species over time - Diff forams seek out warmer waters, colder waters -> TEMP INFO Changes in one species over time SEA LEVELS - Fluctuation in oxygen isotopes : O18 increases when glaciers grow and decreases when they melt - Colder: absorb more O16 - Can correlate change in O isotopes to human periods - Gives info about historical periods that we can sync w glacial development TEMPERATURE - during colder periods, forams absorb more O18 - during warmer period, forams absorb more O16

Stature- height and weight

*Stature: Height and Weight* - Estimated from individual long bones - Footprints and handprints can also be used - Dry weight of bones: 20 to 30% of your weight - Evidence of kindness in earliest human relationships - Hobbit: one of most recently discovered human species - Unique in human record depending on time period (short to tall)

Early evidence of ability to think abstractly (symbolically)

*Stone tools* - To make a stone tool, you need to be able to think abstractly (follow some steps) *Cave Art* - Cave art is clear indication of capacity for abstract thought Ex: Le Moustier cave Shanidar I, Iraq: evidence of compassion??? - Interpretation: Careful study of bones revealed plethora of serious but healed fractures... someone so devastatingly injured couldn't possibly have survived wo care and sustenance... a one-armed, partially blind, crippled man could have made no pretence of hunting or gathering food. That he survived for years after trauma was testament to Neandertal compassion and humanity - Profoundly problematic interpretation-> reveals assumption of today Someone has disability -> no other social use Ex: Creb, Jean Auel, Clan of Cave Bear (movie)

Strategies of Explanation

*Strategies of Explanation* *Migrationist and Diffusionist*: explanations rely on rather simple ideas of the supposed migrations of peoples, or the often ill-defined spread of ideas *Processual*: attempts to provide more general explanations (using, for instance, evolutionary theory), sometimes using law-like formulations, and (more successfully) framing hypotheses and testing deductions from these against the data *Postprocessual/Interpretive*: emphasizes the specific context, drawing sometimes on strucutarlist or neo-Marxist ideas, stressing often the role ("agency") of the individual, and avoiding the generalizations of the processual approach

surface treatments

*Surface Treatments* Ceramic surfaces that are vitrified or glazed (i.e. have a glassy appearance) are fired at temperatures exceeding 900°C, probably in an enclosed kiln. *slip*: mixture of clay and water applied to surface before firing *paint*: pigment applied to the surface *glaze*: like a slip, but with more glass after firing (silica) added for more gloss, can get wider spectrum of color from glazes than slips

What is symbolism?

*Symbolism* What is it? -> Abstract thought - Has to be shared - Abstract - No necessary relationship - Capacity to symbolize associated w language, prob emerged w capacity for language

trade & exchange

*Trade and Exchange* *trade* - exchange of material goods and commodities (economic meaning) *exchange* - all interpersonal contacts (much broader meaning) - includes exchange of goods, as well as ideas and information - we can fixate on commodities themselves but can also think about RELATIONSHIP of exchange *internal exchange* - goods and ideas traded within a society *external exchange* - goods and ideas traded between societies

tree rings & climate

*Tree Rings* Wonderful annual record of precipitation fluctuations - year by year archive: extremely valuable more moisture: wider the annual ring annual and decade-decade variations show up FAR more clearly in tree-rings than ice cores

value

*VALUE* *prestige (intrinsic) value* - culturally determined value - applied to prestige goods, often rarely "used" ex: feathers, jade, gold - nothing that says these things have to be valuable unless we say so (ex: gold is a soft metal, can't really use it, but properties(bright, shiny, yellow) make it intrinsically valuable) "priceless" *commodity value (Karl Marx)* - labor value: cost of labor - use value: based on consumers' needs or desires - exchange value: money price these circulate under mundane trade bc you can put a price on it

Working with Symbols

*Working with Symbols* - Human species is distinguished from other life forms by its use of symbols - Symbols are used by humans for a variety of purposes, some of which can be recognized in the archaeological record: 1. The marking of place and definition of territory 2. Construction of systems of measurement 3. Design, mapping, and the planning of future actions 4. Shaping and reflecting social realities, including identity and power relationships 5. Communicating with supernatural powers in the Other World

Writing Systems

*Writing Systems* - Historical origins of writing - Tied up w origins of state -> need to control flow of goods from certain places - Writing seems to have important administrative function from the start Ex: Mayan glyphs

zooarchaeology

*ZOOARCHAEOLOGY*: study of animal remains - information on human-animal relationships - information on past environments *butchery analysis* - Butchery analysis: look at individual pieces of bone - Not just where butchery occurred, but what kinds of butchery *Meat consumption analysis* - What cuts of meat were preferred by the community? -Diachronic time *Sexing* - analysis of animal bones for signs of sexual dimorphism (male or female) *Aging*: - suture closers in the skull - bone fusion (growth of a bone) - tooth wear and eruption (esp for mammals) *Domestication* *in general, animals get smaller, and plants get larger w domestication ! * - Seeds passed out in class: they're a lot smaller - Second half of 20th century exceptions: Once we tamed them, fattened animals back up - Modern time domestication -> move towards larger animal

aDNA analysis

*aDNA(ancient DNA)analysis* - Neanderthal genome project: Neanderthal DNA is 99.7% identical to present-day human DNA - Suggests that Neanderthals (originating) reencountered anatomically modern humans - Modern humans migrated out of Middle East and carried Neanderthal DNA with them - NO Neanderthal DNA in humans in African populations, they are in Europeans - Friends w benefits: relationship bw Neanderthals and modern humans - Interbreeding was taking place much later than divergence Advances in aDNA - Petrous bone in skull, protects inner ear, is a great source of aDNA - Hard, dense bone in skull - Preserves aDNA even in warmer climates (expanded reach, used to only be able to examine DNA in cold climates) Ancient DNA boom - Very new frontier for archaeological science

anthropogenesis

*anthropogenesis*: human impact on the environment ex: Northwestern University 1960s lakefill project

archaeometallurgy

*archaeometallurgy* - the study of ancient metal artifacts and their manufacture ex of archaeometallurgy hoard: Nahal Mishar Metal Hoard, Israel, ca. 3500 BCE - over 400 bronze objects made with the lost-wax technique - objects are well ahead of their time

artifacts made from synthetic materials

*artifacts made from synthetic materials* *pyrotechnology*: many of developments in pottery are linked to pyrotechnology (ability to control fire and attain and maintain ever higher temperatures) *pottery*: pottery is very hard-wearing and potsherds are a common find on archaeological sites. can learn through simple observation how pottery was made (either by hand or on a wheel) and through experiment and ethnographic studies how it was fired *metals*: can identify what metal or combo of metals artifact is made from w simple lab techniques. can examine microscopic structure of metal to give clues as to how it was manufactured

artifacts made from unaltered materials

*artifacts made from unaltered materials* *stone*: archaeological record dominated by stone artifacts. combination of archaeological investigation, modern experimentation, and ethnographic observation can tell us about how stone artifacts made and used *wood*: wood doesn't survive well, apart from dry or waterlogged conditions, but was almost certainly as important a resource as stone *plant and animal fibers*: containers, fabrics, and cords made from plant and animal fibers would also have been common objects in past, but, again, rarely survive in archaeological record *other materials*: bone, antler, shell, and leather often found (have to be careful to establish whether objects is actually humanly made, or whether it's been created by natural processes)

assessing human physical attributes from human remains

*assessing human physical attributes from human remains* *sex*: intact bodies can be sexed from the genitalia; skeletons and bone remains, much more common, are sexed from size and form differences bw male and female bones. children are difficult to sex *age*: main methods of establishing the age of a skeleton are by examinations of the growth patterns of bones and teeth and of bone microstructure *appearance*: can make facial reconstructions *relationships*: examinations of skull shape, hair type, teeth, and blood group can help to establish whether two individuals were related

characterization = _______________

*characterization = sourcing*: analyzing the constituent materials of artifacts to determine the origin of the resources used to make it 1. *Ceramic petrography* - destructive method (wouldn't want to do it on a whole vessel) - Make thin sections of a vessel/sherd - Look at microscopic analysis of the clay and temper (inclusions) in ceramic vessels to determine their point of origin, and then those can be sourced - maybe shell can be sourced to certain area of Egypt 2. *Trace Element Analysis* - Chemical analysis to identify the trace elements in rocks. For example, obsidian (volcanic glass) - Debate about where obsidian is coming from in Bronze Age, we believe to be coming out of Anatolia - widespread trade of obsidian tho bc found in many places around here - Ex: Obsidian prismatic blade (i.e. microlith) 3. *Isotopic Analysis* - Chemical analysis to identify lead isotope signatures in metal artifacts - From Lidia in Greece - Interested in figuring out technology of coin striking (emblem for each city, each polis/city-state had their own mint and we know this from isotopic analysis)

cognitive archaeology

*cognitive archaeology*: study of past ways of thought from material remains - attempts to use more rigorous and explicit methods of processual approach - applies these to symbolic and ideological issues, many of which were first addressed by postprocessual or interpretive approaches (e.g. questions of identity, gender, and religious belief in the past) - shows willingness to address the symbolizing and reasoning abilities of hominins before the emergence of Homo Sapiens, sometimes within an evolutionary framework - accepts the postprocessual emphasis on the active role of the material culture - recognizes that cognitive developments are also social developments

distribution of goods

*direct access* - user goes directly to source of the commodity *down-the-line* - repeated exchanges of reciprocal nature (so eventually you get object you want), exponential pattern *freelance (middleman)* - independent traders move goods between producers and consumers *emissary* - the trader is a representative of a central organization in home country

firing the vessels

*firing the vessels* -> how are ceramics made? *opening firing* - looking for evidence of reduction: restricted access to oxygen - Core of the sherd(case) is dark gray or black. *kiln firing* - oxidation: well fired, access to oxygen - Core of the sherd(case) is relatively uniform color

flakes and blades

*flakes and blakes*: detached pieces (intended for use) *debitage or debris or discard*: discarded flakes that are not used BOTH are important: both are evidence of stone tool use

What can human remains tell us about their diet?

*individual meals* - can find direct evidence of what humans in past ate from examination of preserved stomach contents and fecal material *teeth* - evidence of wear on human teeth, tell us about relative importance of meat and plants in past diets *isotopic evidence* - can be used as evidence for long-term human diet, but needs to be combined with other evidence for a finer picture

interaction spheres

*interaction spheres*: a regional or inter-regional exchange system - how do goods move amongst communities *CASE STUDY* - 2nd Millennium BCE CHINESE BRONZES, exquisite - A lot of these bronzes emanating from center of power and disseminated to peripheral regions to mimic central style (DIFFUSION- theorization about how objects are found in multiple places, central quality and central core and of advancement and superiority, and outside regions take knowledge/this good and emulate it) Study works against diffusion: - More than 200 Shang-period bronze artifacts sampled for their chemical composition and microstructure - Identified seven different metal compositions that included copper, tin, bronze, and lead (some of compositions were unique) -> first hole put in theory - These compositional analyses demonstrated that these objects were produced in the so-called "peripheral" region of Hanzhong *Interpretation* - Hanzhong had a very active indigenous metal production industry - At the same time, there is evidence of widespread imports in the metal artifact assemblage. - The exchange of bronzes in Shang Period Hanzhong region appears to be part of a complex interaction sphere. - These exchange sphere encouraged local designs and hybridity, not just the diffusionist consumption of bronze objects produced in the Central Plain of China. - Regional exchange study made possible by chemical composition analysis

mDNA analysis

*mDNA analysis* - Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA): genetic material passed on only by females - Altered over generations only by mutations

spheres of exchange

*spheres of exchange*: separate exchange systems for prestige items and commodities Ex: Family heirloom - (old vase doesn't mean home has been there for that long), it has diff value and was therefore removed from commodification sphere and retained as something of a diff value compared to other objects in home you consume on more regular basis *ceremonial exchange* - not necessarily for economic purpose - reciprocal: gifting to foster alliances (kula trade network, cowrie shells) - competitive: gifting to display wealth conspicuously (First Nation potlatch) -> conspicuous consumption

synchronic

*synchronic*: studying societies at one time - one moment in time - Isolate one particular moment

temper

*temper*: fillers that alter the characteristics of the vessel's fabric - v important to add temper to get desired result of vessel (can withstand temperatures to cook) within case of sherd is temper ex: - limestone temper - sand temper - shell-tempered pottery - grog-tempered sherd (crushed up old ceramics crushed into new ceramic)

Idea of Process

- Kent Flannery important article: '[system behind the] Indian behind the artifact' - Look at process behind the noise Ex: *Proximal and ultimate causality* - Series of underlying reasons why rate of deaths on road goes up or goes down (beyond his one particular explanation of his almost getting hit), but there is a larger, more general, underlying process (snow = ppl getting hit) Ex: Archaeology: individual has stoneware but overall moving towards pearlware - Generalizing, evolutionary - The long term ('longue duree', Braudel) - Also associated w historians - Systems theory 'Why' questions - By modeling using systems theory, we could answer the 'why questions'

Case of Norse Greenland

- Norse ppl from Ireland settled southern tip of Greenland - Early 14th century, western settlement abandoned, late 15th century Eastern settlement is abandoned - 1300-1850CE: Little Ice Age - Did cooler temps cause the collapse of these societies??? Jared Diamond: Collapse, problematic climate change statements Says: - Norse were inflexible, unwilling to utilize marine resources in favor of their cultural preference for farming and livestocking - Norse of Greenland died suddenly and violently - Compares it to today (illegal immigration) - Diamond known for cherry-picking evidence, exaggerating it Here's what evidence says(*Evidence of environmental flexibility*): - Norse built adjustable canals around home farms and connected the to water reservoirs at higher elevations - Norse replaced metal w easier to obtain, local bone and horn, ax horns made from reindeer antler, axe blades made from whale bone, etc. - Fish remains have always been present at sites, just in small quantities - Isotopic analyses on Norse human bones: Norse of Greenland ate fish, marine diet actually increased over time - There is Nordic tradition of emulsifying fish scraps and feeding to livestock, which could explain lack of marine bones at Nordic sites in Greenland *Evidence of gradual abandonment* - Buildings are abandoned, not destroyed - No sign of fire, no bodies left in ruins - Few artifacts left behind, suggest Norse packed up whatever they could carry when they left. Didn't leave in a hurry - Artifacts appear to be deliberately left *A More Judicious Account of What Happened* - Through farming and pastoral practices, the Norse instigated significant soil erosion - Through no fault of their own, they confronted rising sea levels that threatened shoreline settlement - At a a certain point, despite instituting innovative environmental and cultural strategies, they chose to leave Greenland for elsewhere - Not as exciting as Jared Diamond, but a lot more responsible

Puzzle jugs

- Popular in Northern Europe from Medieval period to 1800s - Inscription challenges/goad the drinker to drink without spilling (if you try to drink from lip, it spills on you), it's a joke jug - But the neck is perforated - The solution is to suck from the spout, which runs a tube through the handle of the jug (NOT tip it)

New Archaeology, 1960's-1970's

- Science (computers, statistics) - Generalizing explanations: 'why' questions - Process - Evolution: band, segmentary, chiefdom, state society - Optimism: beyond dates to society and culture - [linked to 1960s confidence in Science] - [as it matured, became known as 'processual archaeology'] *New Archaeologists*: - Lewis Binford - James Deetz - David Clarke - Colin Renfrew - James Brown - Tim Earle - Liz Brumfiel

Key Issues Now

- Science and other forms of knowledge: objective vs subjective (both, only one?) - Identity politics: Indigenous, feminist, archaeologies of race, gender, disability, sexuality - Everyday practice - Sustainability, inequality - Digital technologies - The post-human: cyborgs, agency of artifacts (Distinction bw humans and non-humans is starting to be blurred) - Climate change, environment and the Anthropocene

sex vs gender

- Sex is a biological determination of male, female, or intersex based on anatomy. - Gender is a matter of individual subjectivity and cultural construction. Examples include man, woman, and transgender; masculine, feminine, and gender non- conforming. - Bioarchaeologists determine the biological sex of human remains.

techniques

1. lithic artifacts 2. ceramics 3. archaeometallurgy

Explanation in archaeology: archaeological theory

Archaeologists want to know... Why did things change??? - Theory is intensely unpopular topic - Classical archaeology: (unfair) reputation of ignoring all the debate about theory, stays same throughout time - Going to look at language of more recent archaeologists and how they've thought about the world and explained change

CASE STUDY: Chaco Canyon

Chaco Canyon, New Mexico: ancestral Pueblo/anasazi, kivas Hopi origin myth - Video - Central to Hopi belief: relationship bw sky and earth Ritual monument: kiva - Kiva: subterranean structure, unites sky and earth - Another clip - Levels and complexity of meaning hard just based off of prehistorical archaeology if no one to explain it Origins of kiva: go to ACE 350 onwards - Pit dwellings, excavated into the ground - Within pits were series of posts and poles - Subterranean domestic structures Over time, structures remained domestic but got more elaborate Kiva -> domestic space became organized into ritual space - Common pattern that happened to: churches and classical temples Also earth structure -> stone structure Chaco became a central place at this historical period Largest kiva in existence: Chietro Ketl, Great Kiva - Has 4 posts that represent 4 cardinal coordinates - Also has stone built rectangular depressions -> drums - Think about what people who aren't there can see or experience (women/children outside not knowing what's going on but hearing sounds, smelling, etc.) Nambe Pueblo: modern Hopi kiva - Knowledge that's sacred to modern Hop

levels of inference

Christopher Hawkes, Levels of Inference - production techniques - subsistence economies - social/political institutions - religious institutions Renfrew and B: they were New Archaeologists - We can talk about cognitive archaeology (Optimism of new archaeology)

handedness

Ex: Gargas Cave, France - 90% of modern humans are right handed - Upper Paleolithic Period 136 of the 158 stencils are of left hands (86%) ca. 25,000 BCE

bioarchaeology

In Europe, bioarchaeology encompasses the study of plant, animal, and human remains. In the US, bioarchaeology references the specific study of human remains - age - sex - stature - ancestry - health - cause of death - race,ethnicity - genetic relationships - evolutionary development

Earliest technologies of trade we have

MESOPOTAMIA ca. 5000 - 3500 BCE) *Clay Bullae* - Non-Writing Recording Systems - clay bullae with tokens inside to represent certain kinds of commodities - impression outside so you know ball hadn't been tampered with - a kind of round envelope containing objects that communicate information about the shipment pre-literate accounting system - even AFTER language/literacy, these were still used *Seal Technologies*: think of these almost as personal credit cards, part of ability to conduct trade with others - Stamp seals: put stamp around lock with personal symbol, and if it's been broken then it's tampered with - Cylinder seals: enclose letters, jars, jugs *Standardized Weights*: Indus Valley Civilization (ca 2600-1900 BCE)

Ulu Burun Shipwreck

So what was going on... - Expansive interregional sphere of exchange - This ship has origin (starts in Canin), moving all the way around the Mediterranean - International, cosmopolitan (EVERYONE's involved, not just bw two monarchies) - International trade happening very early on !!! (1400 BCE) -> can get all that info from one shipwreck! *Ulu Burun Shipwreck* (CASE STUDY FROM TEXTBOOK), 1400 BCE - Shipwreck located off southern coast of Turkey (ancient Anatolia) - One of most famous shipwrecks ever recovered (George Bass) - Extremely sophisticated excavation - Every single object found in ship lay in ground COPPER INGOTS - Found hundreds of clay vessels and anchors and copper ingots (sourced to Cyrpus) TEREBINTH RESIN - Terebinth tree is common throughout the Eastern Mediterranean - Common to Eastern mediterranean, associated w prized Egyptian incense, found in Egyptian burials TIN INGOTS - Necessary metal to make bronze - From Anatolia - 9:1 ratio of copper ingots to tin ingots (exact ratio to make bronze!!!) COBALT GLASS INGOTS - Found in Mycenaean and Egyptian objects - From Canaan IVORY - Elephant and hippopotamus - From Syria and north Africa CANAANITE OBJECTS - from Israel - amphorae (storage jars) - gold and silver jewelry, giant amulets - bronze weapons w Canaanite glaze EGYPTIAN OBJECTS - Scarabs, one with Queen Nefertiti's name - Electrum ring - Steatite plaque MESOPOTAMIAN OBJECTS - Assyrian-style cylinder seals (Northern Iraq) CYPRIOT OBJECTS (from Cyprus) - Ceramic oil lamps - Milk bowls - Base ring II bowls MYCENAEAN OBJECTS (from Greece) - Myceanean ceramics - Bronze swords - seals WOODEN "BOOK" - Hinged wooden plates - Wax tablets for writing

experimental archaeology

The study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction under controlled conditions. *flint knapping* - present-day recreation of stone tools using historical lithic technologies

proxy data

comes from natural recorders of climate variability, such as seafloor sediments, glacial ice, fossil pollen, and tree-growth rings, as well as from historical documents - indirect measures/evidence of climate change

bifaces

getting into lithics that have been more modified than just simple flake attached to cord: *bifaces*: two sides meet form a single edge that circumscribes the entire artifact - often chopping or cutting tools - most famous biface in archaeology: Acheulian hand-axe(tool so versatile that it's used for a million years), Paleolithic biface *hafting*: attaching a tool to a handle or shaft - hafted bifaces could be arrow or spear points, lance tips, cutting or slicing tools

Moldmade pottery

molds -> think mass production! Ex: Uruk Bevel-Rimmed Bowls, ca. 3500 - 2900 BCE early Mesopotamian priests -> monarchy - show up in early city-states - standardized, undecorated vessels - result of specialized mass production - made from a mold - designed to distribute and store standardized rations (barley), barley handed out to populace in city states - evidence of the temple's redistributive responsibilities and powers to give surplus to citizens (temple -> palace) - premontary, this is how you create wealth and redistribute it

environmental archaeology

the reconstruction of human use of plants, animals, and landscapes, and how past societies interacted with the environment - sea and ice cores - ancient shorelines submerged landscapes - geoarchaeology: study of earth formation processes - geomorphology: emphasis on the study of soils and sediments - archaeobotany: study of ancient plant remains - zooarchaeology: study of ancient animal remains

cores and striking platforms

understand how stone fractures so you can identify lithic artifacts *Cores and Striking Platforms* *core*: a lithic artifact used as a blank objective(raw material) from which a supply of flakes is taken (flakes become the tool) *striking platform* - single, large, flat surface of a core from which flakes are struck off