Argument Final

Metacognitive Skill

"cognition about cognition"/"thinking about thinking", and higher-order thinking skills; knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or problem-solving; includes monitoring one's own comprehension of text, self-assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment, evaluating progress toward the completion of a task (ex: knowing what study skills work best for which exams and applying them properly)

Ethos

Argument in which one appeals to the audience using character/principal/credibility

Pathos

Argument in which one appeals to the audience using emotion/sympathy

Logos

Argument in which one appeals to the audience using logical reasoning

Carneades

Greek philosopher who took over the "Third Academy" (of plato) and traveled to Rome in 155 BC to first give a lecture praising their system of justice and come back the next day to give a lecture criticizing it in order to demonstrate theatrical coup/dissoi logoi to them; believed in Pithanon - the idea that there is no objectible truth, and one can judge the accuracy of something through its plausablilty (De Oratore)

Motivated Reasoning

Individuals with strong beliefs seek out and process information preferentially, they are apt to ignore or reject disconfirming evidence

Socrates

Plato's teacher. Like Carneades, did not write anything down - just hung out in Athens questioning everyone relentlessly ("Socratic method" of teaching); Key contributor to development of "dialectic" - the form of "philosophical recollection" championed by Plato (and an alternative to Protagoras' "antilogic" and Cicero's "controversia.")

eyewitness principle

The greater a witness's personal observation of a matter to which he testifies, the higher his credibility; More details and knowledge make memories more credible (test of primary authorities)

reluctance

The greater the damage of his own testimony to a witness, the more credible it is; Sane people will not say things against their own interests unless such a testimony is true beyond a doubt (documentary tests)

objectivity

The greater the objectivity of an author, the more credible his testimony; Ones convictions can distort their perceptions and lead to subjectivity rather than objectivity, which is unbias (characteristic of the writer)

authenticity

The greater the presumption of authenticity, the higher the credibility of a document (Major cue for nonauthenticity is exaggeration or claims to have observed something that others did not) (documentary tests)

expertise

The greater the relevant expertise of an author, the higher his credibility; The more one knows on certain topics, the more credible they are to talk about them (characteristic of the writer)

internal consistency

The higher the internal consistency of an author, the more credible his testimony; Credibility depends on relevance and opinion of the source of information (documentary tests)

degree of tension

The lower the tension associated with an event, the higher the credibility of reports about it - when things are calm the credibility of reporting rises; The higher the tension, the stronger the tendency of agents in the field to report the information they think others are looking for - truth is incompatible with crisis (situational test)

accessibility

The more accessible the situation being reported on, both to the reporters and to the consumers of reports, the more credible the reports; Ex: american intelligence about britain is better than about non-english speaking countries of western europe due to the language barrier (situational test)

accuracy record

The more accurate the description and prediction record of a source, the higher the credibility of his testimony in general (characteristic of the writer)

carefulness of generalization

The more careful the generalizations of a witness, the higher the credibility of his testimony; less bias is better and oversimplification/overgeneralization usually due to bias (documentary tests)

contemporaneity

The more contemporaneous the report of a witness, the more credible his testimony; The more recent a recollection, the more believable it is and The older a recollection, the greater chance details are missing (test of primary authorities)

selection of primary sources

The more discerning a writers selection of primary sources, the more credible his testimony; Chosen sources are a test of level of scholarship (tests of secondary authorities)

freedom to report

The more freedom a witness has to report things as he sees them, the greater his credibility; Ex: in a workplace, agents sense that the boss will not tolerate dissent, so report only what is consistent with his policy (situational test)

Rhetorical Force

The positive or negative associations of a word; affects how persuasive an argument is

Controversia

a fictitious forensic speech style used in Ancient Rome to argue for or against an imaginary defendant in a persuasive manner; exercise in rhetoric

Protagoras

a greek philosopher who created the idea of anti logic, a sophist style of argument characterized by multivocality, oppositionality, and dynamism (De Oratore)

Syllogism

a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true; opposite of inductive reasoning (ex: all humans are mortal, John is a human; thus, John is mortal)

Chiasmus

a rhetorical or literary figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order, in the same or a modified form

Tautology Fallacy

argument claims to have proved something simply by defining it as true = conclusion not changing from the premise of the argument

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Fallacy

bad cause and effect conclusions; "Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X" (ex: when we made the newsletter, donations went up, so it caused the increase)

Hasty Generalization Fallacy

conclusion that is reached is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence; applying an idea to similar, related, things when it shouldnt apply

Strategy Evaluation Matrix

ensures a critical analysis is embedded in a work, uses quantitative and qualitative criteria; guide for framing an argument as low risk and having high ability to execute; arguments with low execution ability and low risk cause delay and arguments with high ability to execute but high risk cause investigation; avoid arguments that are high risk and hard to execute

Two-logoi Fragment

for every matter, there are two sides opposed to one another, usually one is seen as stronger than the other (De Oratore)

Argument2

framing argument as a method of interaction; people exchange arguments/opinions as they interact

Argument1

framing argument as a thing/noun; an act that presents a claim and sufficient support to warrant assent with it

Straw Person Fallacy

ignoring an argument and bringing up a new one that is easier to argue; (framing something as less reputable)

Aidos

key factor of oppositionality; term for those who argue choosing to work with one another, or welcoming a challenge to their position; respect for "communicative partners" (Mendelson)

Marie Hochmuth Nichols

member of the Pitt women's debate team as of 1928 who later became a prominent 20th century public address scholar and rhetorical critic; went on to coach at Pitt and become president of the Speech Association of America and the Women's Debating Association

Argument Assemblage

network of advocates and/or various things or organizations that are related to or in support of one idea; essentially use appearance of credibility to promote an argument, without it really having to be argued; depart from dialectical rhetoric approach -don't follow rules of reason

Many Questions Fallacy

presuming one answer for multiple questions that are combined into one; skipping the first question and asking the second

Code Grooming

rhetorical strategy of using words that fit ones audience specifically; targeting a certain group, while those who it does not apply to are oblivious; way to gain followers without alienating others

Conciliatio

showing you are willing to end a disagreement with someone through actions and behavior; moving past a "fight"

Slippery Slope Fallacy

small first steps leading to a series of chain events culminating (usually negative); making bad conclusions to support an argument (ex: if I let one kids skip dinner, I have to let them all skip

Deductive Reasoning

starting from a general idea and moving in to a specific one/specific premise (broad to specific)

Inductive Reasoning

starting from a narrow specific idea/premise and moving out to a general one (specific to broad)

Argument Field

subdivisions of rhetorical argument according to its subject matter or context.

Human-measure Fragment

the idea of Protagoras that says that the overall view and conclusion on a matter is dependent on the person/people receiving/viewing it; measuring things in terms of arguments relatively; "Man is the measure of all things" (De Oratore)

accuracy of citation

the more accurate the citations of a writer, the more credible his testimony (tests of secondary authorities)

Burden of Proof

the obligation to prove one's assertion

IBM Project Debater

the ongoing work towards the creation of AI that is capable of participating in active debate to the same skill level as humans; same group that created IBM's Watson supercomputer; argument machine

Phronesis

the strategy of developing an argument/proof through character/ethos; practical wisdom/practical reasoning (Heinrichs)