Art History 2 book notes 2

59

"Baroque" may have come from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning an irregularly shaped pearl. Use of the term can be traced to the late 18th century, when critics disparaged the Baroque period's artistic production, in large part because of perceived deficiencies in comparison to the art of the Italian Renaissance. Over time, this negative connotation faded, but the term stuck. "Baroque" remains useful to describe the distinctive new style that emerged during the early 1600s—a style of complexity and drama seen especially in Italian art of this period. (Kleiner, 20160101)

42 Leonardo da Vinci's Madonna of the Rocks (fig. 17-2) and Mona Lisa (fig. 17-5)

A brief list just of the works in Art through the Ages that Francis once owned will suffice to indicate the quality of his collection: Leonardo da Vinci's Madonna of the Rocks (fig. 17-2) and Mona Lisa (fig. 17-5); Bronzino's Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time (fig. 17-45); Michelangelo's Bound Slave (fig. 17-15); and cellini's saltcellar (fig. 17-52) and Genius of Fontainebleau (fig. 17-52A). In addi- tion, Francis's collection boasted works by perugino, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Titian, giulio Romano, and Rosso Fiorentino, as well as tapes- tries and ancient statues. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 573)

23 [fig. 18-1].)

A faint image of a skull appears on the polygonal block at the left in Dürer's Melencolia I [fig. 18-1].) (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 566)

21 Altdorfer

Altdorfer was one of the first to draw and paint landscapes as subjects in their own right, and Battle of Issus reveals his interest in recording natural locales. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 565)

13 Archbish

Archbish- ops, bishops, and abbots began to accumulate numerous offices, thereby increasing their revenues but making it more difficult for them to fulfill all of their responsibilities. By 1517, dissatisfaction with the Roman Church had grown so widespread that Luther felt free to openly challenge papal authority by posting on October 31 in Wittenberg his Ninety-five Theses, in which he enumerated his objections to Catholic practices, especially the sale of indulgences (Kleiner, 20160101)

3

Around 1512, he began work on the Isenheim Altarpiece (fig. 18-2), a complex and fascinating polyptych reflecting Catholic beliefs and incorporating several ref- erences to Catholic doctrines, such as the lamb (symbol of the son of God), whose wound spurts blood into a chalice in the Crucifixion (fig. 18-2, top) on the exterior of the altarpiece (Kleiner, 20160101)

14 (fig. 18-8) and painting (fig. 18-9)

Baldung chose to pursue printmaking (fig. 18-8) and painting (fig. 18-9) as a profession rather than the law or letters. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 562)

26 Bosch's

Bosch's most famous painting, the Garden of Earthly Delights (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 566)

89 fig 19-18 fig 19-18A fig. 19-18B

Calling of Saint Matthew (fig. 19-18) is one of them. The painting is characteristic of Caravaggio's mature style and displays all the qualities for which he became famous—and for which he received scathing criticism (see "Giovanni Pietro Bellori," page 593). In Calling of Saint Matthew and his other religious paintings—for example Conversion of Saint Paul (fig. 19-18A) and Entombment (fig. 19-18B)—Cara- vaggio injected naturalism into the representation of sacred subjects, reduc- ing them to human dramas played out in the harsh and dingy settings of his time (Kleiner, 20160101)

91 Caravaggio's combination of natural- ism

Caravaggio's combination of natural- ism and drama appealed both to patrons and to artists, and he had many followers. Among them was the most celebrated woman artist of the era, Artemisia Gentileschi (ca. 1593-1653), whose father, Orazio (1563-1639), her teacher, was himself strongly influenced by Caravaggio. (Kleiner, 20160101)

64 1675-1700 (Kleiner, 20160101)

Gaulli and Pozzo paint illusionis- tic ceiling frescoes in Il Gesù and Sant'Ignazio in Rome ■ Guarini brings the Baroque architec- tural style of Rome to Turin (Kleiner, 20160101)

87 fig 19-17

One of Caravaggio's earliest major works is Musicians (fig. 19-17), which portrays four figures, including three musicians. (Kleiner, 20160101)

48

Only the three entrances, with the dominant central portal framed by superimposed orders and topped by a pediment in the Italian fashion, break the long sweep of the structure's severely plain walls. (Kleiner, 20160101)

67 (fig 7-49) (fig 8-9)

Pantheon (fig. 7-49). Further, the spatial organization of the longitudinal basilican plan of the original fourth-century church (fig. 8-9) reinforced the symbolic distinc- tion between clergy and laity and also was much better suited for religious proces- sions. (Kleiner, 20160101)

61 1600-1625 (Kleiner, 20160101)

Paul V commissions Maderno to complete Saint Peter's ■ Carracci introduces quadro riportato fresco painting in the Palazzo Farnese ■ Caravaggio pioneers tenebrism in Baroque painting ■ Bernini creates David and Apollo and Daphne for Cardinal Scipione Borghese (Kleiner, 20160101)

46 (Seminary of Saint Gregory; fig. 18-24)

Plateresque derives from the Spanish word platero ("silversmith"), and delicately executed ornamentation resembling metalwork is the defining characteristic of the Plateresque style. The Colegio de San Gregorio (Seminary of Saint Gregory; fig. 18-24) in the Castilian city of Valladolid handsomely exem- plifies the Plateresque manner, which Spanish expansion into the Western Hemisphere also brought to New Spain (fig. 18-24A). (Kleiner, 20160101)

65

Pope Paul V (r. 1605-1621), who com- missioned Maderno in 1606 to complete Saint Peter's in Rome. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 583)

34

She holds brushes, a palette, and a maulstick (a stick used to steady the hand while painting) in her left hand, and delicately applies pigment to the panel with her right hand. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 569)

60 (fig. 19-2)

The facade (fig. 19-2) that Carlo Maderno (1556-1629) designed at the turn of the century for the Roman church of Santa Susanna stands as one of the earliest manifestations of the Baroque artistic spirit. (Kleiner, 20160101)

96 fig. 17 - 43

The frontal view not only provides the fullest view of the artist's features, but it is also the easiest to paint because the artist needs only to look in a mirror in order to record his or her features (fig. 17-43). (Kleiner, 20160101)

79 fig 19-10 fig 19-11

The interior (fig. 19-10) of San Carlo alle Quat- tro Fontane is as remarkable as its exterior. The radical design is in part Borromini's ingenious response to an awkward site, but it is also a provocative variation on the theme of the centrally planned church. In plan (fig. 19-11, left), San Carlo is a hybrid of a Greek cross (a cross with four arms of equal length) and an oval, with a long axis between entrance and apse. The side walls move in an undulating flow that reverses the facade's motion. Vigorously projecting columns define the space into which they protrude just as much as they accent the walls to which they are attached. (Kleiner, 20160101)

74 fig 19-8

The marble sculpture (fig. 19-8) that serves as the chapel's focus depicts Saint Teresa of Avila (1515-1582), a nun of the Carmelite order and one of the great mystical saints of the Spanish Counter- Reformation, who only recently had been canonized by the Catholic Church. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 586)

76

The passionate drama of Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa cor- related with the ideas disseminated earlier by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), who founded the Jesuit order in 1534 (see page 551) and whom the Catholic Church canonized as Saint Ignatius in 1622. In his book Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius argued that the re-creation of spiritual experiences in artworks would do much to increase devotion and piety. Thus theatricality and sensory impact were useful vehicles for achieving Counter-Reformation goals (see "The Council of Trent," page 522). Bernini was a devout Catholic, which undoubtedly contributed to his understanding of those goals. (Kleiner, 20160101)

84

The term for this type of simulation of easel painting for ceiling design is quadro riportato ("transferred framed panel"). By adapting the northern European and Venetian tradition of easel painting to the Florentine and Roman fresco tradition, Carracci reoriented the direction of painting in central Italy. (Kleiner, 20160101)

22 This form is an anamorphic

This form is an anamorphic image, a dis- torted image recognizable only when viewed with a special device, such as a cylindrical mirror, or by looking at the painting at an (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 565)

45 palace and fortress (fig. 15-16)

This incorporation of Italian architectural ideas characterizes the redesigned Louvre in Paris, originally a medieval palace and fortress (fig. 15-16). Since Charles V's renovation of the Louvre in the mid-14th century, the castle had fallen into a state of disrepair. (Kleiner, 20160101)

15 Three Ages of Woman and Death (fig. 18-9)

Three Ages of Woman and Death (fig. 18-9), a subject he returned to repeatedly during his career (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 563)

47

Under Philip II, the Plateresque style gave way to an Italian-derived classicism that also characterized 16th-century French architecture (fig. 18-23). (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 576)

69 (fig. 19-3) (fig. 19-4)

When viewed at close range (fig. 19-3), the dome barely emerges above the fa- cade's soaring frontal plane. Seen from farther back, standing in the great piazza (fig. 19-4) erected later by Bernini (see "Completing Saint Peter's," above), Maderno's dome appears to have no drum. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 584)

49 El Greso (fig 17-48)

While still young, El Greco went to Venice, where he worked in Titian's studio, although Tintoretto's paintings (fig. 17-48) seem to have made a stronger impression on him. A brief trip to Rome explains the influences of Roman and Florentine Mannerism on his work. By 1577, he had left for Spain to spend the rest of his life in Toledo. (Kleiner, 20160101)

53 Germany

Widespread dissatisfaction with the church in Rome led to the protestant Reformation, splitting christen- dom in half. protestants, led by Martin Luther, objected to the sale of indulgences and rejected most of the sacraments of the catholic church. They also condemned ostentatious church decoration as a form of idolatry that distracted the faithful from communication with god. ■ As a result, protestant churches were relatively bare, but art, especially prints, still played a role in protestantism. Lucas cranach the Elder, for example, effectively used visual imagery to contrast catholic and protestant views of salvation in his woodcut Law and Gospel. ■ The greatest german printmaker of the 16th century was Albrecht Dürer, who was also a painter. His works range from biblical to botanical subjects and reflect his studies of classical statuary and of the Vitruvian theory of human proportions. Dürer's engravings rival painting in tonal quality. ■ other german artists, such as Matthias grünewald and Hans Baldung grien, explored disease, death, witchcraft, and eroticism in their art. Hans Holbein was a renowned portraitist who became court painter in England. (Kleiner, 20160101)

41

giorgio Vasari, the great chronicler of Renaissance artists' lives (see "giorgio Vasari's Lives," page 516), took note in his biography of Andrea del Sarto (fig. 17-8A) of the king's ravenous appetite for Italian art and of how the artistic patrimony of Vasari's beloved Florence was being exported to France: (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 573)

88

lived in the cardinal's palace. Contemporaneous accounts describe Caravaggio at that time as a frequenter of tav- erns who always carried a sword, an illegal act for which he was arrested at least twice. (The police dropped the charges each time upon learning of his relationship to Del Monte.) (Kleiner, 20160101)

66 (fig 19-3

n light of Counter-Reforma- tion concerns, the Baroque popes wanted to conclude the already century-long rebuilding project and reap the prestige embodied in the mammoth new church. In many ways, Maderno's facade (fig. 19-3) is a gigantic expansion of the elements of Santa Susan- na's first level. (Kleiner, 20160101)

68 (fig. 8-10) (fig 19-4)

old Saint Peter's had a large forecourt, or atrium (fig. 8-10, no. 6), in front of the church proper, and in the mid-17th century, Gianlorenzo Bernini, who had long before established his reputation as a supremely gifted architect and sculptor (see page 581), received the prestigious commission to construct a monumental colonnade-framed piazza (fig. 19-4) in front of Maderno's facade. Bernini's design had to incorporate two preexisting structures on the site—an obelisk that the ancient Romans had brought from Egypt (which Pope Sixtus V had moved to its present location in 1585 as part of his vision of Christian triumph in Rome) and a fountain that Maderno constructed in front of the church. Bernini's solution was to co-opt these features to define the long axis of a vast oval embraced by two colonnades joined to Maderno's facade. Four (Kleiner, 20160101) rows of huge Tuscan columns make up the two colonnades, which ter- minate in classical temple fronts. The colonnades extend a dramatic gesture of embrace to all who enter the piazza, symbolizing the wel- come that the Roman Catholic Church gave its members during the Counter-Reformation. Bernini himself referred to his colonnades as the welcoming arms of Saint Peter's. (Kleiner, 20160101)

7

pieter Bruegel the Elder, the greatest Netherlandish artist of the mid-16th century, produces masterful landscapes that nonetheless focus on human activities ■ greek-born El greco settles in Toledo and creates paintings that are a uniquely personal mix of Byzantine and Italian Mannerist elements. His hybrid style captured the fervor of Spanish catholicism (Kleiner, 20160101)

4

the Isenheim Altarpiece takes the form of a carved wood shrine by Nikolaus Hagenauer (active 1493-1538) featuring large painted and gilded statues of Saints Anthony Abbot, Augus- tine, and Jerome in the main zone, and smaller statues of Christ and the 12 apostles in the predella (fig. 18-2, bottom). (Kleiner, 20160101)

2Equally

well educated was Thomas More, who served King Henry VIII (Kleiner, 20160101)

82 In Flight into Egypt (fig. 19-15)

A native of Bologna, Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) received much of his training at an art academy founded there by several members of his family, among them his cousin Ludovico Carracci (1555-1619) and brother Agostino Car- racci (1557-1602). The Bolognese academy was the first significant institution of its kind in the history of Western art. The Carracci established it on the premises that art can be taught—the basis of any academic philosophy of art—and that art instruction must include the classical and Renaissance traditions in addition to the study of anatomy and life drawing. In Flight into Egypt (fig. 19-15), based on the biblical narrative from Matt. 2:13-14, Annibale Carracci created the "ideal" or "clas- sical" landscape, in which nature appears ordered by divine law and human reason. (Kleiner, 20160101)

72 fig 19-6 fig. 16-11 fig. 16-12 fig 17-13

A sculpture that predates both the Four Rivers Fountain and the baldacchino in Saint Peter's is Bernini's David (fig. 19-6). The Baroque master surely knew the Renaissance statues of the biblical hero fashioned by Donatello (fig. 16-11), Verrocchio (fig. 16-12), and Michelangelo (fig. 17-13). Bernini's David differs funda- mentally from those earlier masterpieces, however. Michelangelo portrayed David before his encounter with his larger-than-life adversary, and Donatello and Verrocchio depicted David after his triumph over Goliath. (Kleiner, 20160101)

17 Dürer's Eve in Fall of Man (fig. 18-4)

Albrecht Dürer—in whose workshop Baldung trained—had portrayed Death and Famine (fig. I-9) in his woodcuts, and the emaciated figure of Death in Baldung's painting owes a debt to his master's work, as does the beautiful nude young woman Death approaches from behind. She is a variation on Dürer's Eve in Fall of Man (fig. 18-4), an engraving Dürer produced while Baldung was his apprentice. Baldung's oil paint- ing is a commentary on vanitas (Latin, "vanity," especially with regard to the transience of life), another popular subject. (Kleiner, 20160101)

77 fig 19-2 fig 19-3

Although Carlo Maderno incorporated sculptural elements in his designs for the facades of Santa Susanna (fig. 19-2) and Saint Peter's (fig. 19-3), those church fronts still develop along relatively lateral planes, the traditional approach to facade design. In contrast, Fran- cesco Borromini rethought the very nature of a church facade. In his design for San Carlo alle quattro Fontane (fig. 19-9) in Rome, he set the building's front in undulating motion, creating a dynamic counter- point of concave and convex elements on two levels (Kleiner, 20160101)

90Michelangelo's Creation of Adam (fig. 17-18)

Although Christ's extended arm is reminiscent of the Lord's in Michelangelo's Creation of Adam (fig. 17-18), the position of his hand and wrist is similar to Adam's. (Kleiner, 20160101)

43 Château de Chambord (fig. 18-22)

Among Francis's architectural com- missions is the grandiose Château de Chambord (fig. 18-22). As a building type, the château developed from medieval castles, but, reflecting more peaceful times, Renaissance châteaux served as country houses for royalty, who usually built them near forests for use as hunting lodges. (Kleiner, 20160101)

36 Henry VIII (fig. 18-11A)

Another Netherlandish woman painter was Levina Teerlinc (ca. 1515-1576) of Bruges. She established such a high reputation that Henry VIII (fig. 18-11A) invited her to En- gland and appointed her royal paintrix in 1546, three years after the death of Hans Holbein the Younger. (Kleiner, 20160101)

73 fig 19-7

Another work displaying the motion and emotion that are hallmarks of Italian Baroque art is Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa in the Cornaro chapel (fig. 19-7) of the Roman church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (Saint Mary of Vic- tory, so named because of the Virgin's aid in a 1620 Catholic victory near Prague during the Thirty Years' War). The work exemplifies the Baroque master's refusal to limit his statues to firmly defined spatial settings. For this commission, Bernini marshaled the full capabilities of architecture, sculpture, and painting to charge the entire chapel with palpable tension. In the Cornaro chapel, Bernini drew on the considerable knowledge of the theater that he derived from writing plays and producing stage designs (Kleiner, 20160101)

51 (fig. 17-34) (fig 17-48) (fig. 23-19)

Art historians have compared View of Toledo to Giorgione da Castelfranco's Tempest (fig. 17-34) and the dramatic lighting to works by Tintoretto (fig. 17-48), and indeed, El Greco's Venetian training is evident. Still, the closest parallels lie not in the past but in the future—in paintings such as Vincent van Gogh's Starry Night (fig. 23-19) and in 20th-century Expressionism and Surrealism (see pages 765 and 801). (Kleiner, 20160101)

93 fig 19 - 20

Artemisia Gentileschi (fig. 19-20) was the most renowned—although by no means the only—woman painter in 17th-century Europe (see "Women in the Renaissance Art World," page 536). Among the others who had highly successful careers was perhaps most notably Gentileschi's younger contemporary Elisabetta Sirani (1638-1665) of Bologna. Famed for the speed with which she completed paintings, Sirani produced some 200 canvases and prints during her short-lived career and took over the direction of her father's workshop when he became ill (Kleiner, 20160101) Gentileschi was the first woman ever admit- ted to membership in Florence's Accademia del disegno (Academy of design). (Kleiner, 20160101)

56 Spain

At the end of the 16th century, Spain was the dominant power in Europe, with an empire greater in extent than any ever known, including vast territories in the New World. The Spanish plateresque style of architecture, which spread to New Spain, takes its name from platero ("silversmith") and features delicate ornamentation resembling metalwork. ■ under philip II, the plateresque style gave way to an Italian-derived classicism, seen at its best in El Esco- rial, a royal mausoleum, monastery, and palace complex near Madrid. ■ The leading painter of 16th-century Spain was the greek-born El greco, who combined Byzantine style, Italian Mannerism, and the religious fervor of catholic Spain in such works as Burial of Count Orgaz. (Kleiner, 20160101)

63 1650-1675 (Kleiner, 20160101)

Bernini designs the colonnaded oval piazza in front of Saint Peter's ■ Murillo creates the canonical image of the Immaculate Virgin ■ Velázquez paints Las Meninas ■ Catholic churches in new Spain emu- late but do not copy European models (Kleiner, 20160101)

57 Bernini

Bernini was also in disgrace at the time because of his failed attempt to erect bell towers for the new facade (fig. 19-3) of Saint Peter's. (Kleiner, 20160101)

80

Borromini carried the unification of inte- rior space even further in Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza (fig. 19-12), the chapel dedicated to Saint Ives, the patron saint of jurists, at the east end of the courtyard of the "Sapienza," the 17th-century seat of the University of Rome (sapienza means "wisdom" or "learning"). (Kleiner, 20160101)

62 1625-1650 (Kleiner, 20160101)

Borromini designs San Carlo alle quattro Fontane and the Chapel of Sant'Ivo in Rome ■ Gentileschi, the leading woman artist of the 17th century, achieves interna- tional renown ■ Ribera and Zurburán paint scenes of martyrdom in Catholic Spain ■ Philip IV of Spain appoints Velázquez court painter (Kleiner, 20160101)

38 Bruegel's Netherlandish Proverbs (fig. 18-19),

Bruegel's Netherlandish Proverbs (fig. 18-19), painted several years after the artist returned to Antwerp from Italy, depicts a Neth- erlandish village populated by a wide range of people, encompassing nobility, peasants, and clerics. (Kleiner, 20160101)

32

But, like Mas- sys, Aertsen embedded strategically placed religious images in his painting. In the background (fig. 18-15, center left), Joseph leads a donkey carrying Mary and the Christ Child. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 568)

81 The centralized plan (fig. 19-13)

Buttresses above the pilas- ters curve upward to brace a tall, ornate lantern topped by a spiral that, screwlike, seems to fasten the structure to the sky. (Kleiner, 20160101) The centralized plan (fig. 19-13) of the interior of the Sant'Ivo chapel is that of a hexagonal star with rounded points and apses on all sides. Indentations and projections along the angled, curving walls create a highly complex plan, with all the elements fully reflected in the interior elevation. From floor to lantern, the wall panels rise in a continuously tapering sweep halted only momentarily by a single horizontal cornice (fig. 19-14). Thus the dome is not a separate unit placed on a supporting block, as in Renaissance buildings. It is an organic part that evolves out of and shares the qualities of the sup- porting walls, and it cannot be separated from them. (Kleiner, 20160101) Guarini, an accomplished math- ematician as well as architect, designed even more complex domes (fig. 19-14A). (Kleiner, 20160101)

85 fig 17-17 fig 19-21 fig 19-24

Carracci derived these motifs from the Sistine Chapel ceiling (fig. 17-17), but he did not copy Michelangelo's figures. Notably, the chiaroscuro of the Farnese gallery frescoes differs for the pictures and the figures surrounding them. Carracci modeled the figures inside the panels in an even light. In contrast, light from beneath illuminates the outside figures, as if they were tangible three-dimensional beings or statues lit by torches in the gallery below. This interest in illusion, already manifest in the Renaissance, continued in the grand ceiling compo- sitions (figs. 19-21 to 19-24) of the mature Baroque. In the crown of the vault, the long panel, Triumph of Bacchus, is an ingenious mixture of Raphael's drawing style and lighting and Titian's more sensuous and animated figures. (Kleiner, 20160101)

83 Carracci's most notable works are his frescoes (fig. 19-16)

Carracci's most notable works are his frescoes (fig. 19-16) in the Palazzo Farnese in Rome. Cardi- nal Odoardo Farnese (1573-1626)—a wealthy descendant of Pope Paul III, who built the palace (figs. 17-26 and 17-27) in the 16th century—commissioned Anni- bale to decorate the ceiling of the palace's gallery to celebrate the wedding of the cardinal's brother. Appropriately, the title of the fresco's iconographic program is Loves of the Gods—interpretations of the varieties of earthly and divine love, based on Ovid's Metamorphoses. (Kleiner, 20160101)

35

Caterina was typi- cal in having been taught by her father, Jan Sanders van Hemessen (ca. 1500-1556), a well-known painter in Antwerp who had trav- eled in Italy in the 1520s. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 570)

94 fig 19 - 20

During the brief period that Orazio Gentileschi was the official painter of the English king Charles I (r. 1625-1649), Artemisia painted perhaps her most unusual work, an allegory of Painting (La Pittura; fig. 19-20). Most art historians believe that the painting, which was in the collection of the king at the time of his execution in 1649, is a self-portrait. (Kleiner, 20160101)

25

During the second half of the 16th century, Philip II of Spain (r. 1556-1598) controlled the Netherlands. (Kleiner, 20160101)

12

Dürer also was the first northern European artist to leave a record of his life and career through his correspondence, a detailed diary, and a series of self-portraits. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 559)

11 Dürer

Dürer as the first artist north of the Alps to understand fully the basic aims of the Renaissance in Italy. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 558)

10

Dürer was the most famous northern European artist of his generation and one of the greatest printmakers of any era. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 558)

50 (fig 18-26)

El Greco's singular vision is evident in View of Toledo (fig. 18-26), the only pure landscape he ever painted. As does so much of El Greco's work, this painting breaks sharply with tradi- tion. The Greek-born artist depicted the Spanish city from a nearby hilltop and drew attention to the great spire of Toledo's cathedral by leading the viewer's eye along the diagonal line of the bridge crossing the Tajo River and continuing with the city's walls. El Greco knew Toledo intimately, and every building is recognizable, although he rearranged some of their positions. For example, he moved the Alca- zar palace to the right of the cathedral. (Kleiner, 20160101)

70 (fig. 19-4A) (fig. 17-25)

For Pope Alexander VII (r. 1665-1667) he tackled the difficult problem of designing a stairway in the papal palace, the Scala Regia (fig. 19-4A). Within the great basilica itself, he erected a gigantic bronze baldacchino (fig. 19-5) directly beneath Giacomo della Porta's dome (fig. 17-25). (Kleiner, 20160101)

40 lodge at chambord (fig. 18-22).

Francis expended especially large sums on building projects, including a royal hunting lodge at chambord (fig. 18-22). After his decision in 1528 to relocate to paris from the Loire valley, he undertook the remodeling of the Louvre, then a medieval fortress (fig. 15-16), and constructed new palaces in the Bois du Boulogne forest outside paris, at Saint-germain-en-Laye, and most significantly at Fontainebleau. (Kleiner, 20160101)

95

Gentileschi's personified image of Painting as a woman closely follows the prescription for representing La Pittura set forth by Cesare Ripa (d. 1622) in his widely circulated handbook called Ico- nologia, published in 1593. (Kleiner, 20160101)

31 Butcher's Stall (fig. 18-15) by Pieter Aertsen (ca. 1507-1575) of Amsterdam

Gossaert's Neptune and Amphitrite is excep- tional in treating a Greco-Roman subject. More typical, and another example of the Netherlandish tendency to inject reminders about spiritual well-being into paintings of everyday life, is Butcher's Stall (fig. 18-15) by Pieter Aertsen (ca. 1507-1575) of Amsterdam, who became a master in Antwerp's Guild of Saint Luke in 1535 and a citizen of his adopted city in 1542. (Kleiner, 20160101)

9

Grünewald also brilliantly used color to enhance the effect of the painted scenes of the altarpiece. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 558)

97 fig 19 - 21 fig 7- 42

Guido Reni (1575-1642), known to his many admirers as "the divine Guido," trained in the Bolognese art academy founded by the Carracci family. The influence of Annibale Carracci and Raphael is evident in Aurora (fig. 19-21), a ceiling fresco in the Casino Rospigliosi in Rome. Aurora (Dawn) leads Apollo's chariot, while the Hours dance about it. Guido conceived Aurora as a quadro riportato, following the for- mat of the paintings in Annibale's Loves of the Gods (fig. 19-16), and provided the quadro with a complex and convincing illusionis- tic frame. The fresco exhibits a fluid motion, soft modeling, and sure composition, although without Raphael's sculpturesque strength. It is an intelligent interpretation of the Renaissance master's style. Consistent with the precepts of the Bolognese academy, the painter also looked to antiquity for models. The ultimate sources for the Aurora composition were Roman reliefs (fig. 7-42) and coins depicting emperors in triumphal chariots accompanied by flying Victories and other personifications. (Kleiner, 20160101)

39 Hunters in the Snow (fig. 18-20) and Fall of Icarus (fig. 18-20A)

Hunters in the Snow (fig. 18-20) and Fall of Icarus (fig. 18-20A) are very different in character and illustrate the dynamic variety of Bruegel's work. Hunters is one of a series of six paintings he produced in Brussels illustrating sea- sonal changes, with each painting representing not a season but a pair of months. (Kleiner, 20160101)

20 paint Battle of Issus (fig. 18-10)

In 1529, for example, the duke of Bavaria, Wilhelm IV (r. 1508-1550), commissioned Albrecht Altdorfer (ca. 1480-1538) of Regensburg to paint Battle of Issus (fig. 18-10) (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 564)

75

In Bernini's hands, the entire Cornaro chapel became a theater for the production of this mystical drama. The niche in which it takes place appears as a shallow proscenium (the part of the stage in front of the curtain) crowned with a broken Baroque pediment and ornamented with polychrome marble. On either side of the chapel, sculpted portraits of members of the family of Cardinal Federico Cornaro (1579-1673) watch the heavenly drama unfold (Kleiner, 20160101)

92 In Judith Slaying Holofernes (fig. 19-19)

In Judith Slaying Holofernes (fig. 19-19), Gentileschi adopted the tenebrism and what might be called the "dark" subject matter Caravaggio favored. (Kleiner, 20160101)

28 In Money-Changer and His Wife (fig. 18-13)

In Money-Changer and His Wife (fig. 18-13), Massys presented a professional man transacting business. He holds scales, checking the weight of coins on the table. The artist's detailed rendering of the figures, setting, and objects suggests a fidelity to observable fact, and provides insight into developing commercial practices. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 567)

16 Witches' Sabbath (fig. 18-8)

In Witches' Sabbath (fig. 18-8), Baldung depicted a night scene in a forest featuring a coven of nude witches, although 16th-century witches performed their rites clothed. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 563)

37 Saint Jerome (fig. 18-18),

In addition to portrait and genre painting, landscape painting flourished in the 16th-century Netherlands. Particularly well known for his landscapes was Joachim Patinir (ca. 1480-1524), who became a master in Antwerp's painters' guild in 1515. In fact, the word Landschaft (landscape) first emerged in German literature as a characterization of an artistic category when Dürer described Patinir as a "good landscape painter." In Landscape with Saint Jerome (fig. 18-18), Patinir subordinated the saint, who removes a thorn from a lion's paw in the foreground, to the exotic and detailed landscape populated by other figures and animals. (Kleiner, 20160101)

5

In catholic countries, commissions for religious works, such as the Isenheim Altarpiece, continue, but, consistent with Reformation values, protestant patrons prefer secular themes, such as portraiture, classical mythology, and the macabre, including death and witchcraft Albrecht Dürer achieves international fame (and wealth) as a master printmaker (Kleiner, 20160101)

29 (fig. 18-4) inspired the composition

In fact, Gossaert derived much of his classicism from Albrecht Dürer, whose Fall of Man (fig. 18-4) inspired the composition and poses in Gossaert's Neptune and Amphitrite (fig. 18-14). (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 568)

78 fig 19-9

In fact, San Carlo has not one but two facades, underscoring the functional interrelation of the building and its environment. The second facade (fig. 19-9, left), a narrow bay crowned with its own small tower, turns away from the main facade (fig. 19-9, right) and, following the curve of the street, faces an intersection. (Kleiner, 20160101)

8

Isenheim Altarpiece have noted that the two moveable halves of the altarpiece's predella (fig. 18-2, top), if slid apart, make it appear as if Christ's legs have been amputated. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 558)

71 (fig. 19-5)

Its columns also serve as a frame for the elaborate sculpture repre- senting the throne of Saint Peter (the Cathedra Petri) at the far end of the nave (fig. 19-5, rear). (Kleiner, 20160101)

55 France

King Francis I fought against Holy Roman Emperor charles V and declared protestantism illegal in France. An admirer of Italian art, he invited several prominent Mannerists to work at his court and decorate his palace at Fontainebleau. His art collection formed the core of the Musée du Louvre. ■ French architecture of the 16th century mixes Italian and Northern Renaissance elements, as in pierre Lescot's design of the renovated Louvre palace and Francis's château at chambord, which combines clas- sical motifs derived from Italian palazzi with a gothic roof silhouette. (Kleiner, 20160101)

27 (fig. 15-7)

Marriage was a familiar theme in Netherlandish painting. Fifteenth-century examples include Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife (fig. 15-7) and A Goldsmith in His Shop (fig. 15-10). (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 567)

86 Michelangelo Merisi, known as Caravaggio (1573- 1610)

Michelangelo Merisi, known as Caravaggio (1573- 1610) after his northern Italian birthplace, developed a distinctive personal style that had tremendous influence throughout Europe. His outspoken disdain for the classical masters (probably more rhe- torical than real) drew bitter criticism from many painters, one of whom denounced him as the "anti-Christ of painting." (Kleiner, 20160101)

52 el Greco (fig. 18 - 27)

More typical of El Greco's work is Burial of Count Orgaz (fig. 18-27), painted in 1586 for the church of Santo Tomé in Toledo. (Kleiner, 20160101)

6

Netherlandish painters inject moralizing religious messages into seemingly secular genre paintings ■ Hans Holbein, caterina van Hemessen, and Levina Teerlinc achieve renown as portrait painters ■ In France under Henry II (r. 1547-1559), architectural designs are a mix of Italian and Northern Renaissance elements (Kleiner, 20160101)

70 (fig. 7-79)

Since the time of Constantine (fig. 7-79, right; com- pare fig. 9-2), the orb and the cross had served as symbols of the Church's triumph. The baldacchino also fea- tures numerous bees, symbols of Urban VIII's family, the Barberini. Bernini's design thus effectively gives visual form to the triumph of Christianity and to the papal claim to supremacy in formu- lating Church doctrine. The construction of the baldac- chino was itself a remarkable feat. Each of the bronze columns consists of five sections cast from wood models using the lost-wax process (see "Hollow-Cast- ing," page 127). (Kleiner, 20160101)

44

The Italian Renaissance palazzo served as the model for this matching of horizontal and vertical features, but above the third level, the structure's lines break chaotically into a jumble of high dormers (projecting gable-capped windows), chim- neys, and turrets that are the heritage of French Gothic residential architecture—for example, the Louvre palace (fig. 15-16) in Paris. (Kleiner, 20160101)

54 The Netherlands

The Netherlands was one of the most commercially advanced and prosperous countries in 16th-century Europe. Much of Netherlandish art of this period provides a picture of contemporary life and values. Quentin Massys's Money-Changer and His Wife, for example, is a commentary on a couple's obsession with wealth. pieter Aertsen's Butcher's Stall seems to be a straightforward genre scene, but includes the holy family offering alms to a beggar in the background, providing a stark contrast between gluttony and religious piety. ■ Landscapes were the specialty of Joachim patinir. pieter Bruegel's repertoire also included landscape painting. His Hunters in the Snow is one of a series of paintings depicting seasonal changes and the activi- ties associated with them, as in traditional Books of Hours. ■ Women artists of the period include caterina van Hemessen, who painted the earliest northern European self-portrait of a woman, and Levina Teerlinc, who produced portraits for the English court. (Kleiner, 20160101)

30 the cella of a classical temple (fig. 5-46)

The architectural frame, which resembles the cella of a classical temple (fig. 5-46), is an unusual mix of Doric and Ionic elements and bucrania (ox skull decorations), a common motif in ancient architectural ornamentation. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 568)

58 piazza (81 - 96)

The piazza was once the site of the stadium of Domitian (r. 81-96), a long and narrow theater-like structure for foot- races and other athletic contests, which explains the piazza's unusual shape and the church's name (agone means "foot race" in Italian). (Kleiner, 20160101)

19 The printmaker

The printmaker carves and inks one block (the key block) in the usual way in order to produce a tradi- tional black-and-white print (see "Printed Books," page 457). (Kleiner, 20160101)

18 (fig. 18-8)

Witches' Sabbath (fig. 18-8) is a chiaroscuro woodcut, a recent innovation usually attributed to the Flemish woodcutter Jost de Negker (ca. 1485-ca. 1544). The technique requires the use of two blocks of wood instead of one. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 564)

33 illustrated here (fig. 18-16)

With the accumulation of wealth in the Netherlands, private portraits increased in popularity. The example illustrated here (fig. 18-16), by Caterina van Hemessen (1528-1587), is the first known northern European self-portrait by a woman. (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 569)

24

With the demise of the duchy of Burgundy in 1477 and the division of that territory between France and the Holy Roman Empire (map 18-1), the Netherlands at the beginning of the 16th century con- sisted of 17 provinces (corresponding to modern Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg). (Kleiner, 20160101, p. 566)

1Erasmus

dem- onstrated his interest in both Italian humanism and religion with his "philosophy of Christ," emphasizing education and scriptural knowledge. Both an ordained priest and an avid scholar, Erasmus wrote (in Latin) his most famous essay, In Praise of Folly, in 1509, which he published two years later. (Kleiner, 20160101)