Art History 2 Exam 2

Tenebrism

dramatic use of intense darkness and light to heighten the impact of a painting

Genre painting

a style of painting depicting scenes from ordinary life, especially domestic situations. Genre painting is associated particularly with 17th-century Dutch and Flemish artists.

Rocaille

an 18th-century artistic or architectural style of decoration characterized by elaborate ornamentation with pebbles and shells, typical of grottos and fountains

Carvaggesque/Caravaggisti

followers of Caravaggio

Memento Mori

reminder of death

Impasto

the process or technique of laying on paint or pigment thickly so that it stands out from a surface.

Figura Serpentinata

a snakelike twisting of the body, typical of Mannerist art

Rubens

-Rubens is one of first international painters - went on to work at many different royal courts throughout Europe, highly influential Antwerp, south Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) 1577 - Born in Siegen (W. Germany) and raised in Cologne; his father, Jan Rubens, an upper-class lawyer and intellectual with Calvinist sympathies, had fled from religious persecution in Antwerp nine years earlier. 1587 (age 10) - The family returns to Antwerp and to the Catholic faith; Rubens receives artistic training successively from three local artists. The last and most important was Otto van Veen (Octavius Vaenius). 1600-08 (age 23-31) - Rubens in Italy (Mantua, Venice, Rome, and Genoa). 1609 (age 32) - Back in Antwerp, Rubens marries 18-year-old Isabella Brant and is appointed court painter to Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella, joint rulers of the Spanish Netherlands, who send him on various ambassadorial missions over the ensuing years to Madrid, Paris, London, and elsewhere. 1630 (age 53) - His first wife having died four years earlier, Rubens remarries 16-year-old Helena Fourment. 1640 (age 63) - Death of Rubens. Rubens's Baroque style and Michelangelo's Renaissance style have often been viewed as comparable in fundamental respects. This was the case even in the 17th century, prompting Rubens to write as follows: "I myself have long seen the similarity of my work and that of Michelangelo. Our feelings are not the same, and our techniques are different. But we think in the same large terms - I, because of the inspiration he provided me. When I thought of his courage, I forced myself to be as courageous. If we are to be judged in the same breath in the future, as people now living so judge us, it is because I, like Michelangelo, am consumed with a love of life, a consuming passion for human experience on every level, from the lowest to the highest." -Grand statement about himself -Courage of the artist, love of life/human experience - all walks of life

Mannerism

Artistic movement against the Renaissance ideals of symetry, balance, and simplicity; went against the perfection the High Renaissance created in art. Used elongated proportions, twisted poese and compression of space.

Absolutism

French king Louis XIV (the "Sun King") embodied the idea of Absolutism: "L'État, c'est moi" ("I am the State") Divine Right Monarchy: king appointed as worldly leader by God's will Centralization of power at the king's court in Versailles, outside Paris Nobility reduced to status of servants to the king (eliminate opposition) France leading political power in Europe, French language, culture adopted by other European courts French Academy of Painting and Sculpture founded in 1648 Long rule of Louis XIV (ruled 1661-1715) Absolutism provided for the political and social conditions that made the French Revolution of 1789 possible -He was tyrannical - took no instruction from anyone else - extremely powerful -Solar iconography - associated self with ancient God Appollo -Political revolutions were in direct response to this

Protestant Reformation

Protestant Reformation • Martin Luther • "95 Theses" (1517) • Catholic Counter-Reformation • Council of Trent (1545-63) Martin Luther was a German monk and Professor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. Luther sparked the Protestant Reformation in 1517 by posting his "95 Theses" on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany - these theses were a list of statements that expressed Luther's concerns about certain Church practices - largely the sale of indulgences, but they were based on Luther's deeper concerns with Church doctrine. -Art is direct result of protestant reformation -Lucas Cranach the Elder is prominent artist of reformation -Print of martin Luther - key factor of success of reformation, way of spreading ideas of reformation -Was a dominical monk - he was catholic, his goal to begin with was not trying to break from Catholic church - trying to reform Church from within varying groups end up breaking away -Trying to change church from within originally -Print culture = huge catalyst for spread of ideas - also with bible, translated into vernacular The sale of indulgences was a practice where the church acknowledged a donation or other charitable work with a piece of paper (an indulgence), that certified that your soul would enter heaven more quickly by reducing your time in purgatory- a kind of way-station where you finished atoning for your sins before being allowed to enter heaven. Pope Leo X had granted indulgences to raise money for the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. These indulgences were being sold by Johann Tetzel not far from Wittenberg, where Luther was Professor of Theology. Luther was gravely concerned about the way in which getting into heaven was connected with a financial transaction. -See in Scravini family's Arena Chapel -Popes pouring massive amounts of money into Rome, when Sistine Chapel was commissioned, rennovations in Vatican, St. Peter's Basilica - to fund, church is promoting sale of indulgences was considered "good works" Faith alone Martin Luther was very devout and had experienced a spiritual crisis. He concluded that no matter how "good" he tried to be, no matter how he tried to stay away from sin, he still found himself having sinful thoughts. He was fearful that no matter how many good works he did, he could never do enough to earn his place in heaven (remember that, according to the Catholic Church, doing good works, for example commissioning works of art for the Church, helped one gain entrance to heaven). This was a profound recognition of the inescapable sinfulness of the human condition Luther found a way out of this problem when he read St. Paul, who wrote "The just shall live by faith" (Romans 1:17). Luther understood this to mean that those who go to heaven (the just) will get there by faith alone - not by doing good works. In other words, God's grace is something freely given to human beings, not something we can earn. For the Catholic Church on the other hand, human beings, through good works, had some agency in their salvation. -Faith vs. good works -Deeds during life don't do anything, you will still be sinful Scripture alone Luther (and other reformers) turned to the Bible as the only reliable source of instruction (as opposed to the teachings of the Church). The invention of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century (by Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany) together with the translation of the Bible into the vernacular (the common languages of French, Italian, German, English, etc.) meant that it was possible for those that could read to learn directly from Bible without having to rely on a priest or other church officials. Before this time, the Bible was available in Latin, the ancient language of Rome spoken chiefly by the clergy. Before the printing press, books were handmade and extremely expensive. The invention of the printing press and the translation of the bible into the vernacular meant that for the first time in history, the Bible was available to those outside of the Church. And now, a direct relationship to God, unmediated by the institution of the Catholic Church, was possible. -Other reliable source of instruction - text of the bible rather than the Pope or Doctrines -Ideas of Luther's were hastened by technologies -Gutenberg bible - first printing press bible, still in Latin In turn, this led to a new type of Christian art which celebrated the Protestant religious agenda, and diverged radically from the High Renaissance art of Italy, which remained Roman Catholic. The form and content of Protestant art - in particular, painting - reflected the plainer, more unvarnished and more personal Christianity of the Reformation movement. Thus large scale works of Biblical art were no longer commissioned by Protestant church bodies. And while Protestant art collectors continued to commission religious paintings privately from artists, notably Rembrandt (1606-69), overall there was a huge reduction in the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries. This fall in ecclesiastical patronage forced many Old Masters to diversify into secular types of art, such as history painting, portraiture, genre painting and still lifes. But although overt religious art was banned or frowned upon by the Reformation - witness the iconclastic "beeldenstorm" of 1556 - a demand grew up for small-scale works containing a Christian message, or moral lesson. In Holland, during the Dutch Baroque era, artists met this demand by producing a type of still life painting, known as "Vanitas", as well as genre scenes which promoted piety and a devout lifestyle. -Felt that religious art was idolatry many churches were whitewashed, iconoclasm -Many different protestant reform groups - once Luther breaks off from church, many other denominations split off too -Anglican = church of England, Episcopal church -Orthodox = eastern Orthodox

Age of Enlightenment

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY • The "Enlightenment" or Age of Reason, of rational thought and questioning of old beliefs • The Industrial Revolution • Political Revolutions: American Revolution, 1776 French Revolution, 1789 -Moving into period of class that deals with development of modernism -Intellectual changes -Movement toward cities and away from agricultural societies

Rococo

• The word Rococo probably derives from the French word rocaille (pronounced "ro-kye"), a type of ornament employing rock, pebbles, and shells in garden decoration. • It was a "made-up" word, invented toward the end of the 18th century. Meant to sound rather silly, it was originally used as an insulting term for the art of the ancien régime—the recently overthrown French monarchy. -Movement away from classical grand manner of Poussin -Wasn't made up till end but referred to work made previously under French King -Noblemen moved to Versailles and lived under complete control of king - after his death, Louis 15th didn't have much control over aristocracy, not as much power exacted by king - movement toward aristocracy - elite families, moved out of Versailles because didn't want to serve king, back to Paris, Versailles largely abandoned - much control, after complete formality in Versailles, wanted to design own homes and live own lives without control of monarch, design new homes with new art and architecture intrigue, leisure, romance luxury and excess, owned over 90% of wealth in France -Paris becomes reinvigorated -Paintings much smaller and more intimate in scale bc not displayed in massive palace of versailles - development of new subjects - want to live lives of pleasure, romance, enjoy outdoors, free of structure and rules which were so regulated in Versailles - new taste of freedom

Baroque

-17th century = beginning of baroque period; less valued than high renaissance (term given in latter 18th/19th centuries) -Baroque = "imperfect pearl" (not perfectly spherical) The dominant style of European art from c. 1600 to c. 1720. • The word probably derives from the Portuguese barroco, used to describe irregularly shaped pearls. • Originally used as a pejorative (negative) term to characterize what was perceived to be the extravagant, unclassical, even grotesque nature of 17th-century architecture. • Nowadays employed as a neutral term to designate the 17th-century style in general, but in popular usage can still mean ornate, ornamental, extravagant, overdone, etc. -Art that develops in response to Reformation - counter-Reformation -"Baroque" = gaudy, over-the-top b/c some baroque art becomes very ornamental By the end of the 16th century there was a widespread belief in Italy that art had grown old, that it was dying (or already dead). There was also a nostalgic sense that what we now call the High Renaissance—the age of Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael—was a Golden Age, and that the second half of the 16th century was "an age of senility," or an "age of decrepitude," characterized by a style that was "weak," "sluggish," "indolent," and "washed-out." - This is referring to a lot of mannerist paintings - people moving beyond high renaissance, for elite, intellectual hidden symbolism so there are distorted bodies etc.

Netherlands

-Much of this land is below sea level - historical issue with controlling flooding The first half of the 17th century in the Southern (or Spanish) Netherlands was a period of warfare, foreign rule, religious turmoil, and economic decline. Although it did produce one great artist − Rubens − there's a saying that when it comes to 17th-century Flemish art, "there is just Rubens . . . and rubbish"! Northern: Netherlands, Holland, Dutch, Independent republic, protestant (calvinist), society dominated by middle class Southern: Belgium, Flanders, Flemish, Ruled by Kingdom of Spain, Catholic, Society dominated by upper class (aristocracy) -Hopsborg crown in spain controlling area of southern netherlands -Southern art is still largely religious in context

Hals

-Texture, made aware of act of painting - not smoothing everything out to make it photographic - provides us with evidence of his individuality, creativity, of the hand of the artist - way he paints is almost sculptural - textured, rough - used not only the actual brush, but the blunt end of the brush/stick to articulate various details -Eye is toggling between convincing illusion of a person and the fact that the person is the artist who is drawing us to the very process of artistic creation -Impasto = thick, textured laying on of paint - artistic process, hand of artist at play -Also very successful -Born in southern netherlands in Antwerp, fled to Haarlem as young child after recaptured by spanish troops -Known for painting individuals

Council of Trent

-council of Trent (north of Italy) - laid out ideas of how to keep people faithful to Catholic church - Protestants were iconoclasts so Catholic reformers assert that art has important place - should be simplistic, legible, not for elite audiences, should be realistic interpretation of biblical stories, emotional stimulus to piety - feel could identify with figures Called by Pope Paul III to reform the church and secure reconciliation with the Protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists did not attend. • Clarity, simplicity, intelligibility. • Realistic interpretation of subject matter, which must be absolutely true to the Bible. • Emotional stimulus to piety. -3 key points they came up with -1. vs. symbolic, distorted, only for elite -2. direct response to idea of scripture alone -3. make people feel sense of empathy and connection with saints, holy figures etc. -How Catholic church is reinforcing that objects are still important for the faith - vs. idea of idolatry - these are tools that people use in order to access narratives, stories, direct devotion to biblical figures how to keep images used successfully and keep people faithful to church due to emotional connection

Vermeer

1632 - Born in Delft, where he probably spent his entire life. The charming, medium-sized town of Delft is located in the province of Holland, between The Hague and Rotterdam. -Was not well-known in his time because he worked in Delft - didn't travel to larger cities with more artistic activity -Painted extraordinarily slowly - only have 36 paintings vs. 100s of paintings -Worked almost primarily for one patron -Paintings are good examples of culture of Dutch Republic as protestant nation - artists innovating and finding new subjects - secular painting 1632 - Born in Delft, where he probably spent his entire life. 1653 (age 21) - Registered as a master in the Delft guild of St. Luke. 1653 (age 20 1/2) - Married Catharina Bolnes, a Catholic, who gave birth to 15 children over the next 22 years, 10 of whom outlived their father. 1660 (age 28) - By this date (if not earlier), the family had moved into the home of Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, estranged wife of a certain Reynier Bolnes. Maria's house was located at the so-called papenhoek (popes' or papists' corner) in Delft, a center of local Catholic life. Evidence suggests that Vermeer painted mostly on commission; that most of his commissions came from the same local collector, Peter van Ruijven; that he charged fairly high prices for his canvases; and that he worked very slowly, producing only two to three fairly small pictures per year. 1672 (age 43) - Death of Vermeer. The executor of his estate was Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), the famous Delft naturalist and microscopist. (Note that his name should be pronounced Loo-in-hook or Lay-vin-hook.) -Papist=negative connotation - implies you worship pope -Living in Catholic bubble

Rembrandt

Born in Leiden (Leyden), an important industrial town, seat of the most famous university in the Dutch Republic, and its second largest city after Amsterdam. -Northern Netherlands -Much more prosperous, largely protestant, many universities, key differences: strong base of manufacturing - robust trade, strong middle-class (vs. Southern = staunchly Catholic, economic issues) -Dutch Republic: very wealthy, a lot of fight between southern and northern boarders treatise of muenster gave southern provinces independence from Spain, imported a lot of raw goods, trade, known for ship building, great manufacturers of cheese, beer, bricks, linen, wool - not a lot of natural resources, imported it - outstanding map-makers and navigators b/c of trade aquatic imagery Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (1606-69) 1606 - Born in Leiden, son of a prosperous miller who owned a mill by the Rhine River (Rijn in Dutch); the eighth of at least nine children. 1613-20 (age 7-14) - Enrolled in the Leiden Latin school. 1620 (age 14) - Enrolled briefly in the University of Leiden. 1621-22 (age 15-16) - Studying with Jacob van Swanenburgh, a minor Leiden painter of architectural scenes and Hell scenes in the style of Bosch. 1623-24 (age 17-18) - Studying in Amsterdam with Pieter Lastman and possibly with Jan or Jacob Pynas (artists now usually known as "Pre-Rembrandtists"). 1625-31 (age 19-25) - Active in Leiden as an independent master.

Counter-Reformation

Catholics convene during meeting = Council of Trent Takes place in North - meeting of members of the church that were coming together to strategize about what they can do to keep people faithful the reaction of the Roman Catholic Church to the Reformation reaffirming the veneration of saints and the authority of the Pope (to which Protestants objected) -Iberian peninsula -Counter-reformation = extremely strong -begins to present itself as most orthodox and catholic place -Judaism, Catholicism, and Islam coexisted there in medieval period - periods of peace and warfare - particularly the south of Spain was very Muslim, groups from North Africa (Morroco is very close) - Moors had conquered various areas of Spain and founded great empires, eg Cordoba Catholic areas like Castilla y Leon and Aragon began to coalesce, unite under singular crown - Hopsborg crown, eg. Isabella and Ferdinand - uniting to exile and get rid of Jews and Muslims - in 1492 defeat last Muslim stronghold - Reconquista begins, so exile Jews or Muslims who continue practicing, or make them leave - Spanish Inquisition, punishing people for having divergent beliefs - still practiced in secret - because it was multicultural it became important for them to prove they were very catholic