ARTH 2056 Final Exam

Agia Triada Artistic Style

-Extravagance: Stylistic: horror vacui typical of Minoan style Ideological/religious: brimming with detail and life: abundance -Hybridity: plants that don't exist (papyrus/lily, papyrus/reed: note Egyptian origin) Stylistic: invention of new compositions/'range' to attract patronage (but this implies free will) Ideological/religious: artistic inventions celebrating the exotic; hybridity/complexity of divinity in nature? (cf. Egyptian concept of multiple attributes): ability of deity to transform nature -Unnatural nature, not actual landscapes, departure from realism Blooming seasons of flowers don't match a specific season, mismatch Different terrains: riparian, rocky, marshy; use exotic animals further 'other' the landscapes Celebrates natural world, timeless 'eternal spring' as compression of nature. The quality of these frescoes suggests a direct link with the palaces (in this case Phaestos)

Ayia Triada Harvester Vase, Crete

-Found with the chieftain cup, serpentine, room 4. -Two pieces survive (broken): neck and shoulder. Oval shape, lower part now lost (reconstruction). May have been more conical than the restored form. -Procession of 27 people carrying forked implements (winnowing forks, but also blades/digging hoes, lead by a man with long robe and crooked long staff. -Midway in procession behind him a man signs shaking a rattle (possibly apotropaic: cf. in Egypt kept away Seth), accompanied by 3 more people singing (probably men) with long cloaks. Others closed lips: deliberate silence, solemnity. -One figure towards the end shouts at another one who stoops behind him. But he's not yelling at him, rather he seems to motivate the people around them. -Overall scene resemble the komos (a drunken singing, sometimes wedding-related procession of Classical antiquity led by a 'koryphaios', a lead figure). These are field laborers, not drunken people, but the notion of the singing procession reminds us of the komos. In any case, probably corvee (obligatory, but not serf) labor mobilized for economic activity by the center in part through religious festivals, which is probably what we're looking at here: a snipet from one such agricultural festival sponsored by the elite. More details showing the man leading the procession at the front, the man sounding the ceremonial rattle, and the people singing The detail of a man turning backwards to either shout at or further motivate/encourage the people behind him. A very animated procession! How did these centers interface with main centers, were they independent or not? -Small palaces and villas alike are storehouses, manufacturing and admin centers, commerce hubs, places of gatherings and cult: different forms of same political structure perhaps -Centers of small polities organized similarly to larger centers, likely to have been loosely cooperating with centers. HOW DID THEY PULL THIS OFF?

Ayia Triada Villa, Crete

1. Ayia Triada near Phaestos was excavated in 1900-1908 by a group of Italian archaeologists, L. Pernier and F. Halbherr. 2. -North of the main complex lies the town, and north-east of the town is a burial site. 2 kilns about 60 m to E 3. -The houses to the west of the 'market' (the stoa like building in the upper right) date from two distinct periods. The lower ones are contemporary with the palace and date from the Neopalatial period (1600-1400 BCE), whereas the others are contemporary with the market and date to the Mycenaean phase (1400-1100 BCE). 4. -Two separate villas, A, B and another one C, Bastione with stoa slightly later but also NeoP 5. -A is more important: a. Servants quarters to S, with own kitchen (39) b. Larger kitchen and pantry to N (45: large mortars, 15) c. Storage rooms to N (16), pithoi etc, 19 copper ingots from Cyprus; note remains of drain system d. Admin areas: 26, 27 to S, between 54, 55 to N: 300 cretulae/nodules in gypsum chest, and upper floor of space 11 in main residence 6. NW main residence of A a. Inner room with cubicle 4, 4a: bench, and dais: banquet like later Greeks? b. Lightwell, 49 c. Two halls, 3, 12, separated by polythyra; dining pots and animal bones here suggest food consumption d. More private areas: 13: closets, frescoes, 14: raised dais and goddess fresco, 52: libation room? 7. Stuff from upstairs: loomweights, precious goods, incl. Harvester vase and Chieftain cup (room 4), Boxer Rhyton (11) 8. The elite architecture at Ayia Triada shows features like orthostats, grand staircases, built drains, ashlar masonry, paved open air areas, and of courses features like pier and door partitions, Minoan halls, light wells etc. But no lustral basin as far we know.

Knossos 'flying god' seal, Crete

A male deity, perhaps a consort to Potnia, can be inferred from depictions of a flying male figure holding a staff (sealing below R), descending from heavens. Note the building and the axe standard inside. It also looks like there is a Minoan version of the Mesopotamian 'Sacred Marriage (see bonus slides at end)' between Inanna, a fertility goddess, and Tammuz, a divine hero who dies and is regenerated annually. The Sacred Marriage in Mesopotamia coincided with the New Year (September), marking the beginning of the rain season and therefore the regeneration of earth, ultimately leading to Spring and a new agricultural cycle. Cf Osiris+Isis in Egypt, Adonis+Aphrodite in later Greece. In Crete, the Megistos Kouros, a local version of Zeus, was a youthful fertility god who died and was resurrected annually. Perhaps the Khania figure is an early version of this god, consort of Potnia. Possibly then the Khania Master impression is to be interpreted as a depiction of this male god (notice the staff he's also holding).

Isopata ring, Crete

A number of different activities were employed to invoke and feed/placate deities. As depicted above. The Knossos ring shows Potnia seated L on a shrine, touching horns of consecration, watching two naked humans (man and woman) pull on trees in an attempt to summon her. The scene is taking place in mountainous outcrop, perhaps a mountain, by the sea. A different episode could be suggested by the woman below in the boat: notice the shrine representation on the boat. Is she Potnia again, travelling back to the place where she came from? The Archanes rings shows a man hugging a rock; a shooting star and a descending bird are proxies of the goddess, who makes herself apparent to the man. The Isopata ring shows ceremonial dancing of women: a tiny figure descends from the sky (the deity approaching from far away). Btw, the women seem to have 'lost their heads'. Perhaps a suggestion of ecstasy, losing one's identity, feeling disoriented in the process of summoning the divine.

Thebes Sphinx pyxis

Although the Mycenaean palatial workshops did not invest in large scale monumental art (other than frescoes and the occasional relief like the Lion Gate one), they produced great sculptural and relief art of small size. Of all different media used (stone, ornamental stones, glass/faience, metals, ivory), ivory was the material of choice for finely detailed works. It is a soft organic material deriving either from the tusk of hippopotamus (imported from Egypt), or elephant tusk (imported through Egypt, though Egypt itself imported it mostly from Nubia): thus it has inherent import value, which was further enhanced through artistic competence. Only palatial workshops had access to this kind of precious material, and therefore the palace had a monopoly on their production, and controlled the consumption/dissemination of finished products. As a result, ivories are always found in elite consumption contexts (tombs, palatial complexes), though occasionally small, not as elaborate objects (simple hair pins) trickled down to lower echelons of Mycenaean society. The above artifact is an ivory pyxis, i.e. a small cylindrical box hollowed inside, formed directly from an elephant tusk, and would have had a lid which is now missing. The shell ornament between the sphinxes is a perforated handle: the hole would have accommodated a string to securely attach the lid. The pyxis is decorated in low relief with two antithetical sphinxes. This is an arrangement similar to a 'heraldic composition', the difference being that the entity of importance at the center (e.g. column, deity) is missing here. The sphinxes are carved in a well-organized, tight composition with their bodies tightly fitted in the decorative space. They have distinctly Greek-looking profiles and optimistic, enigmatic smiles. While they are similar, they are not identical to each other: notice different facial features, buttocks, back height etc. They are represented as individuals with their own personalities, not as schematic figures. They are wearing a polos cap with a crest that's 'flying in the wind'. This detail connects the Mycenaean ivory style with similar stylistic phenomena elsewhere within the same time-frame, e.g. Amarna style in Egypt, where a focus on movement and 'the moment frozen in time' is emphasized. international style

House of Frescoes (plan and frescoes), Mycenae Cult Center, Mainland

At the lower L of the platform, by a small rounded platform creating a small niche, a smaller female figure is depicted in front of yet another column. She holds two sheaves of grain (?) in her hands and an animal behind her: possibly a griffin, but not certain due to preservation (only fragments survive). She's wearing a chiton over her bodice and a crested cap (polos) which indicates her religious nature (cf. sphinx caps elsewhere, though this one is somewhat different). She could be the si-to-po-ti-ni-ja (mentioned in the Linear B documents), the Potnia of the wheat (cf. a predominantly agricultural fertility deity like Demeter?) Horns of consecration are depicted in front of this figure: together with the elaborate column behind her they suggest an architectural elite and cultic context for the scene. House of Frescoes Not directly connected with temple, not fully excavated. Anteroom with broad door/double porch with large conglomerate threshold leading to main room; large oval hearth at center, 4 columns around. Terracotta bathtub on N wall, pots around (for ceremonial ablutions/purifications?). Bench along S side: no objects on, but in it pots, lead pieces and stone vessels, stone mace head (round stone weapon attached to a stick), ivory sword pommel, ivory couchant lion-presumably a chair/throne arm attachment (with fitting cut underneath), and an ivory head (see next slides) Additional ivory objects were found in the Room of the Ivories to the E side, a slightly later addition to the building, together with an in situ figurine on a dais ('shrine') . Presumably the original entrance to the room with the fresco was there.

Ayia Triada sarcophagus*, Crete

Ayia Triada sarcophagus (LM IIIA) Grave context. One of few instances of stand-alone, vernacular painting (note same hand created fresco from a dump between villa and tomb; very fragmentary: lyre player and situla-bearer). The sarcophagus is limestone covered with stucco, painted in polychromy like a fresco. Experimentation with poses, perspectives in manner not shown by frescoes. Focus on action; background and architecture mere props: formal, human-oriented style akin to Mycenaean style despite Minoan themes. Depiction of the dead/funerary cult unprecedented in Crete. Richly framed figural zones stress the structural features of the sarcophagus ('posts' as legs, cf. wooden chest, Egypt). Two long friezes, episodes connected with funerary cult. One long side shows spirit of deceased standing in front of tomb accepting a boat and calves (alive) as offerings by men; separate scene moving in opposite direction, where focus is shrine (double-axe stands and birds) with krater/situla inbetween (note perspective/foreshortening) where women are pouring libations accompanied by a musical performance (male lyre player). Other long side shows procession of 5 females, walking to a sacrificed bull placed a table, head frontal, blood dripping into rhyton embedded in ground (cf. Anemospilia sacrifice); two live goats under table and behind at second level (first attestation of this) male flute player; procession continues towards a shrine with consecration horns and altar, suspended objects at the background creating a sense of interior space (similar convention in Greek art). Short sides show couples of female figures riding chariots, but animals are griffins and demons/goats, not horses (divine/cultic context). These figures are probably protectors of the deceased. Compare the images of Isis and Nephthys placed on the short sides of Egyptian coffins at this time. In general, the figures above, the idea of the coffin, the depiction of the deceased receiving offerings and the very use of funerary iconography, are of Egyptian origin, yet this artifact is entirely Creto-Mycenaean in style, depicting elements of cultic activities from the Minoan world (axes, priestesses, bull-sacrifice, horns of consecration, altars, shrines, music) as well as elements from Mycenaean elite iconography (chariots), the abstract style, and hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean scenes (processions with offerings). The owner of the coffin, therefore, associated himself both with the Minoan prestige (as the Mycenaean successor) and the more distant prestige of Egypt.

Knossos snake goddesses, Crete (both);

Faience snake goddesses from Knossos Typical features of these religious figurines are the upraised of stretched arms wielding the crawling snakes, the thin-waisted bodice which left the breasts bare, and the characteristic, flounced skirt with the apron. The deity, a version of Potnia or Mistress of Nature/Animals, is depicted here in elaborate court dress, exposing her breasts. She holds two snakes which symbolize chthonic (earth-related) elements of nature. In the version to the L, a small cat sits on her head (cat may not belong to figurine, was added later). In the R version, a snake is coiled around her tall polos (hat). In this version the snakes extend up her arms and form part of her bodice outline: she is the snakes and the snakes are her. Notice the fearsome expression and gaze of the deity: she seems severe and stern, and inspires awe on those who behold her (cf. Akrotiri Potnia). In the R statuette, she has oversized ears: is she attentive to people's prayers? Faience is a form of fine glass; the technology for making faience was imported from Egypt.

Xeste 3 frescoes (adyton and upper floor), note lustral basin, Akrotiri, Thera (image not precise)

Free (VDL): Xeste 3 (all); strong emotions, drama, freer movement and poses, perspectives; capture of the instantaneous. Minoanizing (earliest): West House (Frieze, Fishermen, Ikria; Priestess: an apprentice of the 'Miniaturist'? Televantou). Love for detail, balance of violent and serene scenes, shorthand technique, skillful adaptation of Minoan themes/conventions. Density, bold colors (esp. dark ones) Steady lines, but somewhat abstract anticipating Mycenaean frescoes, repetition, fewer colours, severity Mixed buon fresco->al secco Substructure of thin limeplaster (on clay wall surface), sometimes burnished (polished by rubbing), sometimes with color wash. Mineral pigments (yellow: ochre; red: haematite, or ferrous soils (red ochre); black: carbon/soot. Blue: azurite as well as royal blue from Egypt- various shades achieved by juxtaposing colored planes, through mixing and through dilution with lime water). Some possibly mixed with fugitive organic glue (egg white probably). No green (unlike Crete)! Restricted range necessitated conventions: blue also as gray and deep green; yellow also as light green; white for women skin, red for male skin. Incisions for detail occasionally (hair locks)

Knossos Taureador panels*, Crete

Knossos Taureador panels (LM II-IIIA1) Found in debris, at the Court of Stone Spout, east wing of palace. At least 3 episodes/panels. The better surviving one shows bull charging left, acrobat in profile grabbing horns, another one on bull's back in the act, and third one to the right ready to assist. Background is Mycenaean-style, i.e. abstract, yellow or blue. Note the skin color-gender convention. The white figures are likely to be women. They are busty, but no nipples are shown; they wearing a man's codpiece. They can be construed as athletic women, who for the sake of this sport, shed their female identity.

Mycenae Lion gate, Mainland

Lion Gate: conglomerate all around, 4 polished monoliths, slightly convex upper part of lintel, once accommodated double wooden door. 'Relieving triangle' above filled with a massive carved limestone slab. The Lions depicted are stepping on twin anvil-style altars that serve as the foundations of a tapered column, symbolizing the palace; the point made here is that the power of the ruler (the wanax) is connected with the divine world. The Lions flank the column in a heraldic composition suggesting they are protecting the palace. They serve a similar function as the lions in the Khattusha gate, i.e. ward off evil and enemies. The triangular slab can also be regarded as a coat of arms- iconographic shorthand for the power of a particular dynastic family. Note that the postern gate is a smaller version of main one, no relief.

Overview of miniature frieze, Akrotiri West House,Thera; Hilly Town II

Miniature Frieze above middle zone: all 4 walls originally, sequence starting and ending in SW corner. W wall, S corner. W wall, S corner: Town I (also Akrotiri?) above Fisherman in few fragments. N wall: Town II-assembly on Hill (peak sanctuary?), peaceful country life, and Shipwreck on coast; fragments of Town III to east (by a delta -the river depicted on E wall). E wall is somewhat of an intermezzo, like in Homer, long and somewhat disruptive excursus, perhaps narrating the exotic life in riparian Town III. S end of E wall shows Town IV by the delta (few fragments; perhaps same city as III). S wall: flotilla return from Town IV accompanied by local boat/official to Town V (Akrotiri), where locals gather to celebrate the return. Alternatively interpreted as sacred regatta; annual nautical festival, wedding procession. Town 2: An assembly of hieratic looking men (dressed as priests) on a hilltop. Possibly a peak sanctuary? Or other Minoan town prominent in Aegean cults? Not clear how this scene relates to the shipwreck scene below. The people drowing are an enemy. You can see a built façade belonging to Town 3 to the right of the drowing men, and also the mouth of the river pouring into the sea. Above the river mouth and the city, warriors dressed in hides, holding spears and wearing boar tusk helmets (identifying them as Mycenaeans) advance on the land of this city. Some people watch on their houses in some alarm; other people in the villages carry water jugs on their heads and in the country (above the warriors) herd their livestock, seemingly unaware or undisturbed by the warriors.

Monkey fresco, House of Frescoes, Knossos, Crete

Monkey fresco (House of frescoes): frieze of at least 3 panels, decorated the E (and N+S) walls of the main room (D4, E) at upper floor level (collapsed due to Akrotiri-related earthquake?). Similar to cartographic landscape from Akrotiri West House, but exotic animals (monkeys) together with local ones (doves). The monkeys are foraging the eggs from the nests of the rock doves. Garden of Cretan flora. Madonna, pancratium lilies/sea daffodils, wild rose, iris, crocus, papyrus, ivy, myrtle, reeds, vetch growing on veined rocks separated by blue streams and pebbled banks; cascading waterfalls in fragments. Wide variety of colors: incl. mauve, pink, olive green, orange, coral red; all against vermillion/white background. Same hand as for frescoes in other Knossos private residences (South and SE Houses: fragments) The plan of the House of the Frescoes and the finds made within it suggest that the building served an important ceremonial or ritual function. This formal function must have dominated, though there could have been some residential use: living quarters may have been required for officiating individuals and acolytes. The two large rectangular rooms, incl. the painted room D-4, could have accommodated such needs while functioning additionally as storage areas for liturgical paraphernalia used for ceremonies.

Ayia Triada Chieftain cup, Crete

Serpentine footed chalice or cup, originally may have been gold-plated. Same workshop possibly as Boxer and Harvester vases. 11.5 cm/ 4in h. Side 1: Two male figures facing each other. The R one stands before architecture indicated by an ashlar pillar behind him. He wears necklaces, bracelets, a loincloth with a dagger in the belt, and boots. He's holding a spear and appears to be guarding the building or confronting the other figure. He's slightly taller and evidently older (long locks) than the L figure. The latter is shorter, has a partially shaven head suggesting his youth, and is also wearing a loincloth and boots. He has a neck collar, ritual sprinkler in one hand (the wavy top of which projects over his head like a ponytail), and a long sword in the other. His usage of the weapon is not in any way threatening, but he seems to accept the authority of the older figure. Side 2: 3 men carrying animal skins (ox hides). The back side may relate to the aftermath of bull sacrifices (the skin taken to be turned into a shield or garment?) Probably a rite of passage depicted. Cf. Ekdysia civic festival in Crete in Classical times (during which a boy was given a warrior costume upon his transition into manhood). This was followed by the andreion (a banquet event for initiates).

Kakovatos signet ring, Messenia

So the goddess(es) is associated with different animals broadly construed, different plants, as well as with architectural elements. Hardly anything else distinguishes from humans though: no special headgear. Sometimes she holds a staff, or has jewelry in the shape of ducks and insects. These different attributes could suggest we're dealing with slightly different nature goddesses, e.g. worshipped in various localities in Crete. It is likely that such regional variation existed in cultic practice, and it would have been in the interest of the main centers to play to the cultic strengths of individual territories and communities to gain their support. Still, we have no evidence of central theological overhaul of beliefs and practices in the NeoP period, to create a single standard image of the nature goddess. The Kakovatos gold signet ring combines several of the elements/attributes attested in a more coherent vision of who the deity is. It is no accident this is a Minoanizing or Minoan seal from the LMIB-LMII period (i.e. late in NeoP and possibly Third Palace period), from the mainland. It could represent a more uniform approach to cultic practice by the Mycenaean overlords of Crete: Massive sacred tree dividing composition in different registers and episodes Dancing, chatting to R; offerings to the deity, depicted far L, but interacted with through her proxy, the griffin perched on an altar. Above, another proxy of hers, the lion, is resting on a shrine-like platform (compare to the Akrotiri platform, with the anvil altars below). Two people are reaching out to hug the platform in an attempt to invoke the deity, in a manner similar to hugging rocks or pulling trees. So trees and rocks can be seen to be symbolically equivalent to the sacred precinct of the deity through this image.

Atreus 'Treasury', Mycenae, Mainland

The Atreus 'Treasury' is the most monumental beehive tomb in the Mycenaean world, along with its twin at Orchomenos in the region of Boeotia (the two monuments were probably built by the same architect: they are very similar in construction and design, inc. the side chamber with decorated ceiling). The Atreus 'Treasury' was called that because Pausanias (a Roman-era traveler of ancient sites) thought it was a place to store treasure. In reality it was found virtually empty as it had been looted in antiquity. Unlike other beehive tombs, this one is built using ashlar (hewn) masonry throughout. The tomb has a perfect corbelled vault surviving today, the interior of which was once studded with bronze rosettes, a mound on top, and a wide, very long dromos (36 m/118 ft long) which led to the monumental entrance of the grave. The entrance has a massive lintel weighing 100 tons, a threshold with pivots (which suggests the presence of proper swiveling doors, unlike other beehive tombs), and a relieving triangle above. The façade was once decorated with elaborately carved rosso antico appliques' flanked by two stone pillars, and two carved green porphyry columns on either side of the entrance., many fragments of which were taken by Elgin and are still in the British Museum. The side chamber may have been used as an ossuary. It would have had a carved ceiling like the beehive tomb at Orchomenos. It is located near the citadel of Mycenae, to the SW, along the road that once led to the Lion Gate. At certain points in time (e.g. funeral events) it must have been visible and a landmark of Mycenae. Note the entrance, with its stone ornaments, resembles Minoan shrine entries depicted in seals etc. Like with the Lion Gate, the Mycenae rulers are taking religious imagery but associating it with royal and personal power.

Nilotic fresco Akrotiri (bottom)

The E side is an excursus on the exotic nature of Town 3. Like in Homer, the artist extols the beauty of this place in one big visual parenthesis, then returns to the topic of the journey. There is a river, with palm trees, flowers and colorful pebbles, ducks chased by wild cats. This Nilotic scene borrows from Egyptian images (e.g. hunting in the marshes etc) but is entirely Aegean in its formulation. Note the close similarity with niello weapon depictions of similar Nilotic scenes. In the Aegean, 'the Nilotic scene' becomes visual shorthand for exotic and distant places. The people who possess or have access to such imagery (owners of weapons etc) profess to have experienced these places, which demonstrates their social status, so the image becomes a 'prestige artifact' in itself. The griffin also places a mythical value to this landscape. Note the 'flying gallop' pose, which closely parallels lions from another Shaft Grave dagger

Knossos throne room, Crete; frescoes, overall arrangement, spaces

The Knossos throne room -Anteroom, main room, back room/adyton, storage area to the S of complex -Two thrones, one gypsum in main room A, one wood, reconstructed in anteroom B -Lustral basin with light-well above C -Benches on either side of throne A: audience facing lustral basin -Next to tripartite court shrine -Frescoes: griffins, distinctly leonine (wingless): flanking entrance to adyton and inner throne. Note how the frescoes and the throne combined created an artistic/3d/architectural effect that would have drawn special attention to the person seated there; also the people who sat at the throne and the benches viewed the entrance of the lustral basin. -Complex facing E: dawn light at winter solstice aligns with W wall, beam of light to inner sanctuary through the southernmost door and also illuminates stone throne; midsummer sunrise, casts light on lustral basin entrance: 'summer spotlight'. Such details suggest cultic usage, perhaps linked to special events during the calendrical year.

Minet el Beida Potnia

The Megiddo (Israel) applique' is another example of the international ivory style, and is actually close enough to the Aegean style to be considered a Mycenaean export to the this area (evidence of other cultural connections include corbelled funerary architecture (above), though the Israel examples are not directly comparable to Mycenaean beehive tombs). The Minet el Beida relief was carved on a pyxis lid. It depicts Potnia holding wheat stalks (cf. Cult Center of Mycenae) and seated on an anvil altar which is placed on a rocky outcrop (cf. Xeste 3). The goats stepping on the altar and the rock and approaching her are affiliated with the deity in her capacity as Mistress of Animals (cf. griffin at Xeste 3, lions in Mother of Mountain ring etc) and of course are perfectly at home in a rocky, ritual sanctuary (cf. Zakros rhyton). While the idea of Potnia, with her goats, mountainous setting, wheat stalks, Minoan-style cultic objects like the altar, elaborate hairdo, bare-breasted torso and elite garments are consistent with Aegean iconography, the proportions are more squat, and the arrangement in the small space of the pyxis a little crowded. Potnia is also chubbier on the arms and less busty than her Minoan-Mycenaean equivalents; she is also more frontal, which could indicate local manufacture.

Palaikastro kouros*, Crete

The PK kouros is an ivory statuette found in pieces in front of a shrine at the town of Palaikastro (building 5). The object, together with the town, was destroyed at the end of the NeoP period, like most Cretan sites, probably by Mycenaean invaders. Originally it would have stood inside the shrine, on a pedestal, and probably depicts this youthful Megistos Kouros. Notice the static position of arms and legs, reminding us of the bronze figurines of adorants, but also of Egyptian statuary art. 50cm/19 inches tall. Made of hippo ivory, rock crystal eyes, steatite hair, gold trimmings 'chryselephantine'. Originally wooden base inlaid with Egyptian blue. The statuette originally had golden details: sandals, loincloth etc. His hair was separately formed in stone, in the shape of a mohawk. The curls are nicely executed, while the sides of the scalp are shown as shaven, a convention used in Egypt and the Aegean to indicate the youthful nature of boys/young men. Notice the amazingly detailed execution of feet, hands, with musculature, tendons, veins in high detail. The rest of the body is not as naturalistic though and follows the Minoan/Egyptian canon.

Campstool and Parisienne fresco, Knossos

The Parisienne is one of the figures depicted in the Campstool Fresco (see previous slide). Although the background is a neutral, abstract blue without the dense flora etc of previous Minoan art and therefore in line with the Mycenaean fresco art as we recognize from the mainland in the LH III period, her face reminds us a little of the Snake Goddess (staring eyes, relatively small nose). She is depicted in strict profile, with her lush, curly coiffure unadorned; no jewelry either. Her cherry-red lips suggesting the presence of makeup reminded Evans of sophisticated Parisian women of his time, hence the name. She's also wearing an ornate woven robe of the priestly kind, which also carries a sacral knot at the back. In general, the sacral knot is a piece of fabric shown tied in a loop and is usually depicted as a free-standing symbol not a part of a garment (see the faience examples to the right, which would have been mounted somewhere; and the knot attached to the shield in the sealing beneath in the tree pulling scene). Not the connection with shields and double axes, and the way the combined symbol looks like an Egyptian ankh sign (life). These knots may have represented divine authority, and by extension, prestige.

Mycenae palace, megaron, fortifications, Mainland (image not precise)

The area along the S side of the fortification of the citadel of Mycenae is referred to as the 'Cult Complex'. Several buildings appear to have been involved in the cult and related activities (e.g. crafts, storage of materials and cultic paraphernalia). The most important spaces are the House of Idols, the House of Frescoes and the Tsountas House (see ensuing slides). Note the vicinity of this area to the renovated GCA, and the monumental ramp leading to the palace. However, the Cult Complex itself is not very prominent architecturally, and not monumental (like a Near Eastern temple would be, for instance). It is architecturally subsidiary to the palace itself, and its importance derives from the finds and its function. This image shows the House of Frescoes, L and the House of Idols, R (see also the two small blue spaces in the inset to L). The larger blue spaces depicted to the S is Tsountas House. Note that the space between may be dedicated to workshop activity In addition to cult taking place in the palatial cult complexes such as the one attested at Mycenae, in regional sanctuaries (like Po-ti-ni-ja's wo-ko/oikos) and in ordinary houses, certain rituals appear to have taken place at the megaron itself. The whole arrangement of the megaron, with its axial design, encourages procession from the outer to the inner spaces, and it is designed to be an exclusive space accessible with some difficulty. The configuration of the main room, or domos, of the megaron, also suggests cultic activity and that the king was, putting his political/admin duties aside, also the CRO of the Mycenaean state (Chief Religious Officer!): e.g. libation grooves by the throne pedestal, the huge decorated hearths and portable offering tripod tables have been found in connection with the domos. Some scholars have suggested that the columns surrounding the hearth might be metaphors for sacred trees or vegetal life (cf. Egyptian understanding of columns) and/or they could have been regarded as a means to symbolically connect heaven and earth (see Wright reading), with the king acting as the intermediary between these worlds.

Pylos palace frescoes (whole megaron setup), Mainland

The famous Lyre player is depicted on the same wall of the megaron domos as the couchant animals. The male musician, dressed in a long robe, is seated on a rocky outcrop, which is depicted schematically (cf. variegated rocks at Akrotiri). He plays a 5-stringed lyre which has finials shaped in the head of a duck/bird. A supersized bird with a peculiar crest on its head flies ahead of him. The simple red field in the background places emphasis on the figures, making them stand out against it, is typical of the Mycenaean fresco style; the undulating line in the upper part represents a rocky terrain. Other fragments from this composition include a sacrificed bull on a platform, vegetation, and robed figures seated in pairs on either side of tables, probably then toasting kylikes during a ceremonial banquet (like at the Campstool fresco from Knossos). The bull and the music remind us of the Ayia Triada sarcophagus composition (see Lamentation lecture) and suggest a ritual event. The drinking/feasting are compatible with this idea (cf. Priestess connected with toasting in the Campstool fresco). Interpretations of the bird include: metaphor for the music or the words of the bard reaching his audience's ears; the bard attracts wildlife with his music (e.g. Orpheus; though the bird is flying away!); or more simply it could signal the presence of divinity as in other ritualistic scenes in the Aegean. The palace of Pylos was decorated with frescoes, which date to the LH IIIA-B period. The megaron walls and the floor were painted with various themes and motifs, both pictorial and geometric/decorative. The wall behind the throne placement (E wall of megaron domos) depicts at least one griffin and one lion(ess?), 'couchant' (i.e. sitting by the throne; a similar arrangement was found in the secondary megaron of Pylos to the W of the main megaron, but there the animals formed a frieze, 10+lions, 4+griffins). Only the L pair survives, but it's likely there was another pair on the other side for reasons of symmetry (heraldic composition centered on throne). This arrangement is similar to the Knossos throne room frescoes, which is why scholars have hypothesized a chronological and stylistic connection between those two frescoes (i.e. that the Knossian one is the prototype). This is likely also because of the peculiar griffins shown in both cases, i.e. wingless. Note the grand 1950s reconstruction of Pylos at lower L depicts these creatures rather differently (incl. wings!). Also note that the lyre player (see next slide) is thematically a part of the same fresco, albeit it is connected loosely to the latter (i.e. the festive occasion depicted to the right of the throne beyond the couchant animals, like the latter, presupposes the presence of the seated king)

Flotilla Fresco from Akrotiri (top)

The flotilla of Theran captains and their crews are finally on their way back home. They are been sent off from Town IV, apparently peacefully, to Town V which is likely Akrotiri itself. There, people eagerly await on rooftops and windows. Note the different decorations and insignia of the flotilla half way in the return journey. This nautical procession looks so festive that scholars think this may be a ritual regatta of some sort. But it is also possible that the festive look of the boats adds to the grand moment of the return and the glorification of the whole journey.

Tanagra larnax (leaping, chariot, procession, prothesis etc.), Crete

Themes WOMEN Processions: arms raised to head (pulling hair?), bloody faces; swaying (dancing?) Prothesis: viewing; placement, taking care of body: see next slide, side of larnax MEN Processions: robed/priestly (in one case, warriors) Unusual on Mainland: Cretan tradition, but differences from Cretan ones Size: >1m l: contracted, ossuaries Materials: plastered terracotta Not ubiquitous: 250 graves->only 50 larnakes, not all decorated: possibly status or cultural affiliation symbol Not in Thebes: i.e. not a palatial feat, rather, regional Style: parallel trends suggesting different workshops/hands 1.Fresco-inspired: more elegant execution, but lack power; elite dress processional women etc.; derivative, inferior to frescoes; focus on elite activities (no prothesis). 2.Linear, cruder style: more expressive and powerful (prothesis etc). ' In general, not palatial artists: folk art, note date in LH IIIB Other activities associated with funerals are bull-leaping events (albeit not accurately depicted; wishful thinking? Alluding to the distant prestige of Minoan world?), hunting scenes (e.g. goat/human confrontation above), chariot races, human duels. Panel arrangements showing observers in windows (see above) indicate these were performative, public events that drew the attention of the whole settlement. The theme of the windows derives from Neopalatial iconography (e.g. Siege rhyton, West House town siege etc), but it is adapted indirectly through Mycenaean fresco art (siege themes in fragments). Other activities depicted are toasting using kylikes (upper R), processions of statuettes (priest holding a statuette with up-raised arms similar to the one depicted lower R) Such activities are consistent with the smashed kylikes found in tomb entrances, and figurines placed in tombs, and the processional access to chamber tombs (dromos etc). One of the most touching scenes depicted on these larnakes is the theme of the prothesis: i.e placement of the deceased in the coffin. The above images show women mourners placing children in coffins, shown in one case as transparent to help the viewer decipher the scene and express the emotionally charged moment of letting a loved one go. The legs of the coffins could suggest that the body was kept for viewing for a few days in the settlement, as is customary in many societies today (incl. contemporary Greek society). The most fascinating insight into the beliefs of folk people regarding death are provide by the larnax upper L: A boat is shown traveling away from a crowd of figures with raised arms (probably mourners bidding fairwell to the soul of the 'departed'). While clearly schematic in draftsmanship, the larnax conveys in haunting expressiveness the drama of the departure; symbols and figures in the upper L of the larnax scene and the figures emerging from a seeming hole in the lower R are equally intriguing. In another larnax, there is a winged figure with flap-like features on the waist level and a cap on the head. Is this a sphinx depicted frontally or a winged soul? While the idea of a winged creature has been associated with death since SG era (e.g. butterfly pattern on symbolic scales from SGs), this is probably a sphinx in my view. Sphinxes occur in other larnakes as well: either in abstract floral fields (a prehistoric Elysian field?), or in encounters with humans. In the scene lower R a sphinx and a male figure are touching a column that both divides and brings them together in the same composition. Does the column symbolize the transition from life to death? Is it an abstract version of the sacred tree, and by extension, Potnia? Either way, the sphinx appears to be treated as a benevolent guide and protector in these compositions, probably a proxy for a deity. Notably, one of the chariots in the Ayia Triada sarcophagus scenes is pulled by griffins; and the lids of the Tanagra larnakes are decorated with bird-like finials on all four corners, which could have a similar protective role.

Knossos bull rhyton*, Crete

This Minoan bull rhyton of serpentine was found in the Little Palace at Knossos (26 cm/10 in tall). Its horns, which were not found, were probably of gilded wood, the inlaid eyes are of rock crystal with painted irises, the eyelashes of jasper and the muzzle of tridacna shell. The locks of the animal's mane are shown in relief and the hair represented with incisions. The lapidary artist rendered the strength, beauty and majestic calm of the animal, its anatomy and expressiveness, in a most naturalistic manner, as seen by the attention to anatomic detail. The rhyton is only partly preserved, its left side being the original. Such rhyta have been found in other sites other than Knossos, but 11 of 23 known ones are found at Knossos. The image to the R depicts a silver bull rhyton from GCA at Mycenae (an import from Crete). The popup image shows a similar rhyton from Zakros. None is intact: presumably they were broken deliberately (in simulated 'sacrifice') These objects function as prestige artifacts, with the precious materials and elaborate work required for their manufacture. They may have been symbolic surrogates of an actual bull head. The liquid pouring from the rhyton's mouth would evoke the blood pouring out of the sacrificed animal when it was killed.

Vapheio cups, Mainland (both);

Two cups from the Vapheio tholos tomb on the early Mycenaean mainland. Both were found in association with the same elite burial. Gold sheet hammered and worked with repousse'. The handles are separately shaped pieces attached with rivets. The base is a sheet of metal soldered to the walls. (with the 2 cows in the middle) One of the cups depicted above depicts a more or less peaceful scene in which a young man is tying one bull's back legs. Behind him, 3 more bulls are depicted strolling playfully and curiously and in a lush landscape. The trees and the naturalistic landscape in the background suggest the event is not taking place in connection with a built environment. Perhaps the unsuspecting bulls are being summoned up from their pastures for a ceremonial event. The other cup (with the net? in the middle) from the tomb depicts a scene in which a rather different scene is depicted. To the L, a charging bull is goring a man who's upside down, legs in the air. Another man is falling to the ground next to him. At the center, another bull is trying to escape from a net that is tied between two trees. A third bull is running to the R, his hind legs violently kicking. The landscape with bushy trees and palm trees and low terrain suggest an open landscape again, rather than a built environment. This doesn't seem to be a bull-leaping scene gone wrong, as a net is involved. Is it perhaps a scene in which the entrapment of bulls has gone wrong? These two cups are notable examples of Minoan art, for the naturalism, exuberant movement, poses, drama and action they represent, the combination of profile, ¾ and frontal views, and the wonderful juxtaposition of background and foreground scenes using delicate relief and deep stage perspective. The 'violent' cup has been considered to be a Mycenaean vessel by some scholars, but it is also in the spirit of Minoan artistic tradition. They are hammered into shape from a single disc of gold and which is therefore without a joint, and an inner cup, similarly made, whose upper edge is bent over the outer cup so as to hold the two together. The horizontal parts of the handles are attached by rivets, while the intervening vertical cylinders are soldered

Grandstand fresco, Crete

What is special about fresco art in general? -Images on wall: communicate messages to a larger number of people than other art. More programmatic and purposefully communicative compared to pottery -Work synergistically with built space/cannot be understood properly without context: not portable paintings! -Encompasses several walls or several rooms (programs). -Sometimes context includes 3D elements: thrones/people (Throne room Knossos), cultic benches -Relatively permanent, intended to be at least. Buon fresco lasts! -Technically very sophisticated, difficult to execute and imitate (materials, scale, paints) The Minoan frescoes are usually buon fresco, i.e. mineral paints (ochre, yellow and red, copper-based minerals for green and blue, soot for black) mixed in limewater and chemically bonded with the wet lime plaster surface of the prepared wall. Al secco work is done on dried-up plaster, and requires the use of a medium, such as gum arabic (a plant glue) to enable the bonding of pigments on the limeplaster. The latter doesn't survive too well, not too durable. The idea of wall paintings, esp. of pictorial and large-scale compositions is essentially Egyptian in nature, however, it is not adopted blindly. Minoan Crete becomes a major hub for wall painting art in the LBA, influencing stylistically other places in the Aegean and beyond (incl. the Levant and Egypt). Egyptian influence? Wall paintings not new to Crete in MM III-LM I (antecedents in EM) Contacts with Egypt started before this time - not the result of sudden technological or stylistic influence. Ingredients there, but no 'spark'. Any influences in terms of outward appearances, not symbolic content. No specific people/individuals Similar body conventions as in Egypt (profile views), but Minoan paintings more free/less rigid, more ¾ views and combination of views. Same skin conventions used (dark skin for men, lighter for women) Dominance of female figures (males in subordinate or supporting roles). Women: numerous, showing more clearly the impact of religious life/court dress. Clothes elaborate not white linen as in Egypt; Children/younger people shown with shaven or partially shaven heads Sometimes hierarchical scale used (more important figures larger). Architecture and landscape, where a combination of birds' eye, frontal and profile views are combined to create a conceptual representation of space (courtesy of Egypt), cf. Zakros rhyton. More intuition less calculation in adapting nature: not always 'correct' anatomically, but more lively. Height of naturalism (at least by Egyptian comparison), but tempered by convention and did not evoke illusionary feel. Contacts with Egypt suggested by monumental scale, processions, skin conventions, flatness, stucco relief among other features (cf. Xeste 4)

Sacred Grove fresco, Crete

What is special about fresco art in general? -Images on wall: communicate messages to a larger number of people than other art. More programmatic and purposefully communicative compared to pottery -Work synergistically with built space/cannot be understood properly without context: not portable paintings! -Encompasses several walls or several rooms (programs). -Sometimes context includes 3D elements: thrones/people (Throne room Knossos), cultic benches -Relatively permanent, intended to be at least. Buon fresco lasts! -Technically very sophisticated, difficult to execute and imitate (materials, scale, paints) The Minoan frescoes are usually buon fresco, i.e. mineral paints (ochre, yellow and red, copper-based minerals for green and blue, soot for black) mixed in limewater and chemically bonded with the wet lime plaster surface of the prepared wall. Al secco work is done on dried-up plaster, and requires the use of a medium, such as gum arabic (a plant glue) to enable the bonding of pigments on the limeplaster. The latter doesn't survive too well, not too durable. The idea of wall paintings, esp. of pictorial and large-scale compositions is essentially Egyptian in nature, however, it is not adopted blindly. Minoan Crete becomes a major hub for wall painting art in the LBA, influencing stylistically other places in the Aegean and beyond (incl. the Levant and Egypt). Egyptian influence? Wall paintings not new to Crete in MM III-LM I (antecedents in EM) Contacts with Egypt started before this time - not the result of sudden technological or stylistic influence. Ingredients there, but no 'spark'. Any influences in terms of outward appearances, not symbolic content. No specific people/individuals Similar body conventions as in Egypt (profile views), but Minoan paintings more free/less rigid, more ¾ views and combination of views. Same skin conventions used (dark skin for men, lighter for women) Dominance of female figures (males in subordinate or supporting roles). Women: numerous, showing more clearly the impact of religious life/court dress. Clothes elaborate not white linen as in Egypt; Children/younger people shown with shaven or partially shaven heads Sometimes hierarchical scale used (more important figures larger). Architecture and landscape, where a combination of birds' eye, frontal and profile views are combined to create a conceptual representation of space (courtesy of Egypt), cf. Zakros rhyton. More intuition less calculation in adapting nature: not always 'correct' anatomically, but more lively. Height of naturalism (at least by Egyptian comparison), but tempered by convention and did not evoke illusionary feel. Contacts with Egypt suggested by monumental scale, processions, skin conventions, flatness, stucco relief among other features (cf. Xeste 4)